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THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPEDIA 


VOL.  XV. 
SHOMER-TROLLOPE 


JV1  ;J  it  \  it  j. 

M  VKJf.,       If   OF 


THE 

// 


AMERICAN  CYCLOPEDIA: 


OF 


GENERAL    KNOWLEDGE. 


EDITED  BY 

GEORGE  BIPLEY  AND  CHARLES  A,  DANA. 


VOLUME  XV. 
S.  HOMER-TROLLOP  E. 

L  I  B  R  A  U  Y 

i;  N  i  v  K  n  s  r  i:  v  o  F 

CALiFOiiNlA. 

NEW    YORK: 
D.    APPLETOISr    AND    COMPANY, 

549   AND  551   BROADWAY. 
LONDON:   16  LITTLE  BEITAIN. 

1876. 


£73 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1862,  by  D.  APPLETOX  AXD  COMPANY,  in  the 
Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 

ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  the 
Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Among  the  Contributors  to  the  Fifteenth  Volume  of  the  Revised  Edition  are 

the  following  : 


Prof.  CLEVELAND  ABBE,  Washington,  D.  C. 

SNOW. 
STORMS. 
TRADE  WINDS. 

Bvt.  Brig.  Gen.  HENRY  L.  ABBOT,  U.  S.  A., 
Willet's  Point,  K  Y. 

TOEPEDO. 

Hon.  GEOEGE  BANCROFT,  Washington,  I).  C. 
SOUTHAMPTON,  HENRY  WRIOTHESLEY,  EAKL  OF. 

WILLARD  BARTLETT. 

SlNDE. 

TANGANYIKA. 
THIBET. 

Prof.  C.  W.  BENNETT,  D.  D.,  Syracuse  Univer 
sity. 

SOULE,  JOSHUA. 
STRONG,  JAMES. 
SYRACUSE  (University). 

JULIUS  BING. 

SICILIES, 

STAEL-HOLSTEIN,  Baroness  de, 

TASSO,  TORQUATO, 

TIIIERS,  Louis  ADOLPIIE, 

and  other  articles  in  biography,  geography,  and 

history. 

Hon.  JAMES  BLACK,  Lancaster,  Pa. 

TOTAL  ABSTINENCE. 

FRANCIS  0.  BOWMAN. 

SIVOHI,  ERNESTO  CAMILLO. 
STRADIVARI,  ANTONIO. 

TlTJENS,  TlIERESE. 

EDWARD  L.  BURLINGAME,  Ph.  D. 

STUART,  ARABELLA. 

Rev.  CHARLES  P.  Busn,  D.  D. 

SMITH,  ELI. 
SYRIA  (in  part). 

C.  H.  CARTER,  Waterbury,  Conn. 

TOWN  (in  part). 

ROBERT  CARTER. 

STEVENS,  THADDEUS. 
STORY,  JOSEPH. 
SU.MNER,  CHARLES. 
TAYLOR,  ZACHARY. 

Jonx  D.  CHAMPLIN,  Jr. 

SHOMER,  JEBEL, 
SIBERIA, 

SLANG, 
SPAIN, 
SWEDEN, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  geography. 

Prof.  E.  II.  CLARKE,  M.  D.,  Harvard  Univer 
sity. 

SQUILL, 
STRYCHNIA, 

and  other  articles  in  materia  medica. 

Hon.   T.   M.  COOLEY,   LL.  D.,  University  of 
Michigan,  Ann  Arbor. 

SLAVERY  (in  part\ 
TANEY,  EOGER  BROOKE, 
TAXES, 

and  other  legal  articles. 

Prof.  E.  CURTIS,  M.  D.,  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  New  York. 
SPECTACLES. 

Rev.  S.  S.  CUTTING,  D.  D. 

SLATER,  SAMUEL. 


Prof.  J.  C.  DALTON,  M.  D.,  College  of  Physi 
cians  and  Surgeons,  New  York. 

SMELL, 
STOMACH, 
TASTE, 
THORAX, 

and  other  medical  and  physiological  articles. 

Rev.  B.  B.  DRAKE. 

TlIEOPHYLACT.  SlMOCATTA. 

THEOPHYLACT,  ARCHBISHOP. 

Prof.  M.  J.  DRENNAN. 

SIEMENS,  ERNST  WERNER. 
SIEMENS,  KARL  WILUELM. 
SOUTH  SEA  SCHEME. 

EATON  S.  DRONE. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA, 
STRAUSS,  FAMILY  OF, 
TENNESSEE, 
TRADE  MARK, 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

Prof.  THOMAS  M.   DROWN,  M.  D.,  Lafayette 
College,  Easton,  Pa. 

STEEL. 

ROBERT  T.  EDES,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

Articles  in  materia  medica. 

W.  M.  FERRISS. 

TARGUMS, 
TRIGONOMETRY, 

and  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

Prof.  WILLARD  FISKE,  Cornell  University,  Itha 
ca,  K  Y. 

SWEDEN,  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  OF  (in  part). 
JOSEPH  FITZGERALD. 

SILK. 

STOCKING. 
.      STRAW. 

Lieut.  Com.  HENRY  H.  GORRINGE,  U.  S.  N., 
Washington,  D.  C. 

TARRAGONA. 
TENERIFFE. 
TRISTAN  DA  CUNIIA. 

Prof.  W.  E.  GRIFFIS,  late  of  the  Imperial  Col 
lege,  Tokio,  Japan. 
TOKIO. 
TOMOMI  IWAKUEA. 

Prof.  JAMES  MORGAN  HART. 

TELL,  WILLIAM. 

J.  W.  IlAWES. 

SPRINGFIELD,  Mass.,  Ohio,  111.,  and  Mo., 

TEXAS, 

TRENTON.  K  J., 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

Lons  HEILPRIN. 

STATES  GENERAL. 
THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR, 

M.  HEILPRIN. 

SLAA'ONIA. 

TAURUS. 

THRACE. 

Prof.  JOSEPH  HENRY,  LL.  D. 

SMITIISON,  JAMES. 
SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 

G.  A.  HEWLETT,  Shreveport,  La. 

SlIREVEPORT. 

Prof.  J.   E.   HILGARD,   U.   S.   Coast  SurveyT 
Washington,  D.  C. 

TIDES. 


VI 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  FIFTEENTH  VOLUME 


THOMAS  HITCHCOCK. 

SWEDBERG,  JESPER. 
SWEDENBORG,  EMANUEL. 

CHARLES  L.  HOGEBOOM,  M.  D. 

SODIUM. 
SULPHUR. 
SULPHURIC  ACID. 

Prof.  THOMAS  HENRY  HUXLEY,  LL.  D.,  Royal 
School  of  Alines,  London. 

SPECIES. 

Lieut.  HENRY  JACKSON,  U.  S.  A.,  Office  of  Chief 
Signal  Officer,  Washington,  D.  0. 
SIGNAL  SEEVICE. 

ROSSITER  JOHNSON. 

TENNYSON,  ALFRED, 

THACKERAY,  WILLIAM  MAKEPEACE, 

and  other  articles  in  literary  biography. 

Prof.  0.  A.  JOY,  Ph.  D.,  Columbia  College, 

New  York. 
SILICON, 

and  other  chemical  articles. 

JOSEPH  C.  G.  KENNEDY,  LL.  D.,  Washington, 
D.  C.     • 

SHUBRICK,  WILLIAM  CRAWFORD. 
Prof.    S.   KNEELAND,   M.   D.,   Mass.   Inst.   of 
Technology,  Boston. 

SILKWORM, 
STAG, 
SWALLOW, 
TORTOISE, 

and  other  articles  in  zoology. 

Prof.  S.  P.  LANGLEY,  Allegheny  Observatory, 
Allegheny,  Pa. 

SUN  (in  part). 

CHARLES  LINDSEY,  Toronto,  Canada. 

TORONTO. 

Prof.  JOSEPH  LOVERING,  Harvard  University. 

TELEGRAPH  (in  part). 

Capt.  S.  B.  LrcE,  U.  S.  N.,  U.  S.  Navy  Yard, 
Boston. 

SIGNALS,  NAVAL. 

Prof.  ALFRED  M.  MAYER,  Stevens  Inst.  of  Tech 
nology,  Iloboken,  1ST.  J. 

SOUND. 

SPECTRUM. 

STEREOSCOPE. 

Rev.  ANDREW  B;  MORSE,  Danbury,  Conn. 

SIAM  (in  part). 

Rev.  FRANKLIN  NOBLE. 

SPURGEON,  CHARLES  HADDON, 
SUNDAY  SCHOOLS, 
THANKSGIVING  DAY, 
TRACT  AND  PUBLICATION  SOCIETIES, 

and  articles  in  biography  and  geography. 

Rev.  BERNARD  O'REILLY,  D.  D. 

SISTERHOODS,  Roman  Catholic, 

SYLLABUS, 

TRAPPISTS, 

•     and  other  articles  in  ecclesiastical  history. 

Prof.  S.  F.  PECKHAM,  University  of  Minnesota, 
Minneapolis,  Minn. 

TALLOW. 
TAR  (in  part). 

EDWARD  T.    PETERS,    Bureau    of    Statistics* 
Washington,  D.  C. 
TRADES  UNION. 

RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR,  A,  M.,  London. 

SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS, 

STAR, 

SUN  <'in  partX 

TELESCOPE  (in  part), 

TRANSIT  (in  part), 

TRANSIT  CIRCLE  (in  part), 

and  other  astronomical  articles. 


Prof.  ROSSITER  W.  RAYMOND,  Ph.  D.,  Editor 
of  the  "Engineering  and  Mining  Journal." 

SILVER. 
TIN. 

PHILIP  RIPLEY. 

STOCK  EXCHANGE. 
SWIMMING. 
TICHBORNE  TRIAL. 

RICHARD  E.  ROBERTS,  "Y  Drych  "  Office,  Uti- 
ca,  N.  Y. 

STANLEY,  HENRY  M. 

THOMAS  T.  SABINE,  M.  D. 

STONE. 

SURGERY  (in  part). 

EPES  SARGENT,  Boston,  Mass. 

SPIRITUALISM. 

Prof.  A.  J.  SCHEM. 

SISTERHOODS,  Protestant, 
SWITZERLAND  (in  part), 
THEOLOGY  (in  part), 

and  various  articles  in  geography  and  history. 

J.  G.  SHEA,  LL.  D. 

SHOSHONES, 

Sioux, 

TECUMSEH, 

and  other  articles  on  American  Indians. 

Prof.   J.   A.  SPENCER,  D.  D.,  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York. 

TEMPLE,  FREDERICK. 
THOMSON,  WILLIAM. 
TREGELLES,  SAMUEL  PRIDEAUX. 
TRENCH,  EICHARD  CHENEVIX. 

E.  C.  STEDMAN. 

STODDARD,  EICHAED  HENRY. 
TAYLOR,  BAYARD. 

Prof.  FRANK  II.  STORER,  College  of  Agricul 
tural  Chemistry,  Harvard  University. 

SYMBOLS,  CHEMICAL  (in  part). 

HOMER  D.  L.  SWEET,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

SYRACUSE,  N.  Y. 

BAYARD  TAYLOR. 

STEDMAN,  EDMUND  CLARENCE. 

Prof.  GEORGE  THURBER. 
SORGHUM, 
STRAWBERRY. 
SUNDEW, 
TEA, 
TOBACCO, 
TOBREY,  JOHN, 

and  other  botanical  articles. 

Prof.  ROBERT  H.  THURSTON,  Stevens  Inst.  of 
Technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 

•STEAM. 
STEAM  BOILER. 
STEAM  CARRIAGE. 
STEAM  ENGINE. 
STEAM  NAVIGATION. 
STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

Prof.  G.  A.  F.  VAN  RHYN,  Ph.  D. 

SIAM,  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  OF, 

THEBES, 

TlSCIIENDORF,  LOBEGOTT, 

and,  other  archaeological,  oriental,  and  philological 

articles. 

C.  S.  WEYMAN. 

SIDNEY,  ALGERNON. 
SIDNEY.  Sir  PHILIP. 
SPAIN,  WINES  OF. 

Prof.  JUNIUS  B.  WHEELER,  U.  S.  M.  A.,  West 
Point. 

SIEGE. 

Prof.  W.  D.  WHITNEY,  LL.  D.,  Yale  College, 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

SYROC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

Prof.  E.  L.  YOUMANS. 

SPENCER,  HERBERT. 


THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA 


SHOMER 


SHOWIER,  Jebel,  an  inland  division  of  Ara 
bia,  between  lat.  25°  40'  and  32°  K,  and 
Ion.  37°  20'  and  47°  20'  E.,  bounded  K  by  the 
Syrian  desert,  N.  E.  by  Irak  Arabi,  S.  E.  and 
S.  by  the  Wahabee  sultanate,  and  "W.  by  Turk 
ish  Arabia,  It  is  divided  into  the  provinces 
of  Jebel  Shomer,  Jowf,  Kheybar,  Upper  Ka- 
sim,  and  Teyma,  with  a  total  population  esti 
mated  by  Palgrave  in  1862  at  440,000,  inclu 
ding  166,000  nomadic  Bedouins.  Jebel  Sho 
mer  in  its  general  aspect  is  a  Hat  table  land, 
a  large  part  of  which  is  desert,  with  occa 
sional  oases.  These  are  merely  depressions 
in  the  desert  surface,  and  take  sometimes  the 
form  of  a  long  valley  covered  with  a  thin  soil, 
under  which. water  may  generally  be  found  at 
the  depth  of  a  few  feet.  Fruits,  bushes,  herbs, 
and  coarse  grass  grow  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  supply  food  for  the  Bedouins  and  their 
camels  and  flocks.  The  entire  1ST.  portion  is 
covered  by  a  rocky  desert.  On  the  E.  border, 
about  lat.  31°,  is  a  long  valley,  called  "Wady 
Sirhan  or  Serhan  (valley  of  the  wolf),  which 
extends  from  near  Bozrah  in  Syria  in  a  S.  E. 
direction  to  about  lat.  29°  20'  in  Arabia,  where 
its  base  rests  on  AVady  Jowf,  a  deep  valley 
lying  E.  and  "W.,  and  which  may  be  consid 
ered  the  porch  or  vestibule  of  central  Arabia. 
(See  JOWF.)  The  Wady  Sirhan  is  the  com 
mon  route  for  caravans  to  and  from  Syria,  S. 
and  E.  of  Jowf  lies  a  Avide  expanse  of  sandy 
desert.  The  caravan  route  to  the  province  of 
Jebel  Shomer  lies  across  this  waste  in  a  S.  E. 
direction  through  what  is  called  the  i^efud  or 
Sand  pass,  consisting  of  parallel  ridges  of  loose 
reddish  sand  200  to  300  ft.  high,  where  no 
water  can  be  obtained  for  nearly  100  m.  The 
route  runs  beside  a  small  range  of  hills  called 
Jebel  Jobbah,  a  cluster  of  black  granite  rocks 
streaked  with  red,  about  700  ft.  high.  Be 
yond  them,  on  the  south,  is  a  barren  plain, 
partly  white  and  incrusted  with  salt,  partly 
green  and  studded  with  palm  groves,  among 


which  is  the  small  village  of  Jobbah.  From 
the  heights  overlooking  Jobbah  are  visible  in 
the  southeast  the  main  range  of  Jebel  Shomer, 
and  in  the  southwest  the  palm  groves  of  Tey 
ma,  famed  in  Arab  history,  and  supposed  by 
some  to  be  identical  with  the  Teman  of  Scrip 
ture.  Beyond  Jobbah  the  undulations  are  not 
so  deep,  and  the  sand  has  occasional  shrubs 
and  tufts  of  grass.  The  plain  gradually  rises 
as  it  approaches  the  mountain  ranges,  which, 
stretching  !N".  E.  and  S.  "W.,  cross  two  thirds 
of  upper  Arabia.  These  ranges,  Jebel  Adja  on 
the  north,  the  mountains  of  Upper  Kasirn  on 
the  south,  and  Jebel  Solma  between,  lie  near 
ly  parallel,  and  are  separated  by  broad  plains 
covered  with  grass  and  shrubbery.  Within 
their  limits  is  the  chief  centre  of  population 
of  Shomer.  Hayel,  the  capital,  lies  in  an  ex 
tensive  plain  between  Adja  and  Solma,  girt  on 
every  side  by  a  high  mountain  rampart.  The 
only  approach  from  the  north  is  by  a  narrow 
winding  defile  through  Jebel  Adja,  which  50 
men  could  defend  against  thousands,  The 
range  of  Jebel  Adja,  or  Jebel  Shomer  as  it  is 
now  more  generally  called,  is  a  ragged  granit 
ic  mass,  piled  tip  in  fantastic  disorder,  attain 
ing  at  times  an  elevation  of  1,400  ft.  above 
the  plain,  but  Solma  does  not  rise  more  than 
700  or  800  ft.  Good  crops  of  grain,  fruits, 
and  vegetables  are  raised  by  a  laborious  sys 
tem  of  artificial  irrigation.  The  date  is  the 
principal  fruit.  There  is  a  considerable  trade 
by  caravans  between  Hayel  and  Medina  oil 
the  southwest,  and  Biyad,  the  capital  of  Ned- 
jed,  on  the  southeast.  Many  horses  and  asses 
are  exported.  Upper  Kasim,  the  southern 
most  province  of  Shomer,  is  an  elevated  pla 
teau,  forming  part  of  a  long  upland  belt  that 
crosses  diagonally  the  northern  half  of  the 
peninsula,,  one  extremity  reaching  nearly  to 
Zobeyr,  near  the  head  of  the  Persian  gulf, 
and  the  other  to  the  neighborhood  of  Medina. 
Its  surface  is  covered  with  shrubs  and  brush- 


6 


SHOOTING  STARS 


SHOSHONES 


wood,  and  in  spring  and  summer  with  grass. 
This  great  plateau  is  intersected  at  intervals 
by  long '  broad  valleys,  which  contain  villages 
built  around  wells,  surrounded  by  palm  groves, 
gardens,  and  fields,  and  varying  in  population 
from  500  to  3,000.  Dates  are  exported  in 
large  quantities  to  Yemen  and  Hedjaz,  and 
cotton  is  raised  to  a  small  extent. — The  sul 
tanate  of  Jebel  Shomer  originated  in  the  pres 
ent  century.  In  1818  Abdallah,  an  ambitious 
chief  of  the  family  Rashid,  was  driven  out  of 
Hayel  by  his  rival  Beyt  Ali,  who  assumed  the 
sovereignty.  Abdallah  took  refuge  at  the 
court  of  the  Wahabee  -monarch,  who  was  then 
reconstructing  his  father's  dominions,  and  for 
his  services  to  him  was  made  absolute  gover 
nor  of  Shomer,  with  right  of  succession,  and 
supplied  with  the"  means  to  establish  his  rule. 
Beyt  Ali  and  his  family  were  cut  off,  and 
Abdallah  made  himself  master  of  the  whole 
mountain  district.  He  died  about  1845,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Telal,  who  extended 
his  dominions,  subdued  the  Bedouins,  invited 
trade  from  abroad,  and  established  law  and 
order.  Under  his  rule  the  country  has  made 
rapid  advances  in  civilization  and  prosperity, 
and  has  become  virtually  independent. 

SHOOTING  STARS.     See  METEOR. 

SHORE,  Jane,  an  English  woman,  the  wife 
of  Matthew  or  William  Shore,  a  goldsmith  in 
London,  and  mistress  of  King  Edward  IV. 
She  was  beautiful  and  amiable,  and  Sir  Thomas 
More  says  that  the  king's  favor  "  she  never 
abused  to  any  man's  hurt,  but  to  many  a  man's 
comfort  and  relief."  After  the  death  of  the 
king  she  became  attached  to  Lord  Hastings ; 
and  when  Richard  III.  had  resolved  on  the 
destruction  of  that  nobleman,  he  accused  Jane 
Shore  of  witchcraft  and  of  having  withered 
his  arm  by  sorcery.  The  king,  though  he  sent 
her  to  prison  and  confiscated  her  goods,  did 
not  attempt  to  maintain  his  charge  of  witch 
craft  ;  but  the  bishop  of  London  caused  her  to 
do  public  penance  for  impiety  and  adultery. 
After  the  death  of  Hastings,  Thomas  Lynom, 
the  king's  solicitor,  desired  to  marry  her,  but 
was  prevented  by  the  king.  She  lived  till  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  tradition  represents  • 
her  as  dying  of  hunger  in  a  ditch.  A  celebra 
ted  tragedy  by  Rowe  is  founded  on  her  story. 

SHOSHONE,  the  N".  county  of  Idaho,  bound 
ed  S.  by  .the  Clearwater  river,  and  intersected 
in  the  north  by  Clarke's  fork  of  the  Columbia 
and  the  Kootenay  river;  area,  about  12,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  722,  of  whom  4G8  were 
Chinese.  It  is  watered  by  tributaries  of  the 
Clearwater  river  and  by  the  Spokane  river,* 
and  contains  Coeur  d'Alene  and  Pend  d'Oreille 
lakes.  The  surface  is  mountainous.  There  is 
fertile  land  around  the  lakes  and  along  the 
streams.  Timber  is  abundant,  and  there  are  ex 
tensive  placer  gold  mines.  Capital,  Pierce  City. 

SHOSHOi\ES,  or  Snakes,  a  family  of  North 
American  Indians,  embracing  the  Shoshones 
proper,  the  TJtes,  Comanches,  Moquis,  Cheme- 
hueves,  Cahuillo,  and  the  Kechi,  Kizh,  and  Ne- 


tela  of  California.  The  Shoshones  proper  are 
a  large  and  widespread  people.  According  to 
their  tradition,  they  came  from  the  south,  and 
when  met  by  Lewis  and  Clarke  in  1805  they 
had  been  driven  beyond  the  Rocky  mountains. 
The  various  Shoshone  bands  have  gone  by 
numerous  names.  The  most  important  were 
the  Koolsatikara  or  Buffalo  Eaters,  who  have 
long  defended  their  homes  on  Wind  river,  and 
the  Tookarika  or  Mountain  Sheep  Eaters,  a 
fierce  tribe  in  the  Salmon  river  country  and 
upper  Snake  river  valley.  The  western  Snakes 
near  Fort  Boise  were  separated  from  the  oth 
ers  by  the  kindred  Bannacks.  The  Shoshocos 
(footmen),  called  also  White  Knives,  from  the 
fine  white  flint  knives  they  formerly  used, 
were  digger  tribes  on  Humboldt  river  and 
Goose  creek,  and  included  apparently  most  of 
those  in  the  basin  of  Great  Salt  lake.  These 
bands  were  generally  mild  and  inoffensive, 
lurking  in  the  mountains  and  barren  parts, 
and  having  little  intercourse  with  the  whites. 
About  1849  they  were  in  open  war,  and  the 
peace  made  with  some  of  the  bands  at  Salt 
Lake,  in  September  1855,  did  not  end  it.  In 
1862  California  volunteers,  under  Col.  Connor, 
nearly  exterminated  the  Hokandikah  or  Salt 
Lake  Diggers  in  a  battle  on  Bear  river.  Wau- 
shakee's  and  other  bands  of  the  Koolsatikara 
Shoshones  made  peace  at  Fort  Bridger,  July 
2,  1863;  Pokatello's  and  other  bands  of  the 
Tookarika  at  Box  Elder,  July  30;  the  Sho- 
shoco  or  Tosowitch  at  Ruby  valley,  Oct.  1 ; 
and  the  Shoshones  and  Bannacks  at  Soda 
Springs,  Oct.  14.  In  1864  the  Yahooskin 
Snakes  made  peace,  and  with  the  Klamaths 
and  Modocs  ceded  their  lands ;  and  on  Aug. 
12,  1865,  the  Wohlpapes  also  submitted.  The 
government  did  not  promptly  carry  out  these 
treaties,  and  many  of  the  bands  renewed  hos 
tilities.  In  1867,  in  the  campaign  of  Gen. 
Stcele,  a  number  of  Indians  were  killed,  and 
immense,  stores  of  provisions  laid  up  by  the 
Shoshones  were  destroyed.  Gen.  Augur  at 
last  allowed  them  to  come  in  and  make 
peace  at  Fort  Bridger.  The  government  then 
attempted  to  collect  the  whole  nation  and  re 
strict  the  Shoshone  bands  to  certain  reserva 
tions.  The  Yahooskin  and  Wohlpape  Snakes 
had  prospered  on  the  Klamath  reservation,  al 
though  their  crops  frequently  failed.  The  Fort 
Hall  reservation  in  Idaho  was  begun  in  1867 
for  the  Bannacks,  and  several  bands  of  Sho 
shones,  about  1,200  in  all.  The  Shoshone  res 
ervation  in  Wyoming,  set  apart  under  treaty  of 
July  3,  1868,  for  Waushakee's  and  other  bands 
of  eastern  Shoshones  and  Bannacks,  is  exposed 
to  attacks  from  the  Sioux,  and  only  about  800 
have  united  there.  There  are  also  the  north 
western  Shoshones  in  Nevada  and  Utah,  esti 
mated  at  from  2,000  to  3,000,  and  a  band  of 
400  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  Idaho. — Vocabularies 
have  been  obtained  from  various  bands  of  the 
Shoshones,  but  no  critical  study  of  their  lan 
guage  has  appeared.  The  Episcopalians  have 
a  mission  on  the  reservation  in  Wyoming. 


SHOT 


SHREW 


SHOT.     See  LEAD,  vol.  x.,  p.  262. 

SHOVELLER.     See  DUCK,,  vol.  vi.,  p.  289. 

SHREVEPORT,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Cad- 
do  parish,  Louisiana,-  in  the  1ST.  W.  corner  of 
the  state,  on  the  "W.  bank  of  Red  river,  at  the 
head  of  low-water  navigation,  330  m.  above  its 
mouth  according  to  Humphreys  and  Abbot, 
or  500  m.  by  local  authorities;  pop.  in  1870, 
4,607,  of  whom  2,168  were  colored.  It  has 
since  been  enlarged,  and  the  population  in 
1875  was  locally  estimated  at  12,000.  It  con 
tains  many  handsome  residences  and  substan 
tial  business  structures,  is  lighted  with  gas,  and 
has  a  good  fire  department  and  several  miles 
of  street  railroad.  The  principal  public  build 
ings  are  the  new  market,  costing  $50,000 ; 
the  Presbyterian  church,  costing  $35,000 ;  and 
the  synagogue,  a  fine  specimen  of  architecture. 
The  surrounding  country  is  very  productive, 
and  the  climate  is  mild  and  generally  healthful. 
Shreveport  is  the  E.  terminus  of  the  Texas  and 
Pacific  railroad,  which  affords  an  all-rail  route 
to  St.  Louis  ma  Marshall,  Tex.  Steamers  run 
regularly  to  New  Orleans  and  intermediate 
points  on  the  Red  and  Mississippi  rivers.  The 
trade  is  extensive  and  increasing,  the  value  of 
shipments  amounting  to  about  $7,500,000  a 
year,  and  the  sales  of  merchandise  to  about 
$7,000,000.  The  shipments  of  cotton  average 
100,000  bales  annually,  including  about  20,000 
bales  from  the  upper  Red  river  reshipped  at 
this  point.  The  transactions  in  hides,  wool, 
and  tallow  are  also  considerable.  The  prin 
cipal  manufactories  are  two  of  carriages,  one 
each  of  cotton  gins,  cotton-seed  oil,  sash  and 
blinds,  and  spokes  and  hubs,  three  founderies 
and  machine  shops,  a  planing  mill,  two  saw 
mills,  and  three  breweries.  There  are  three 
private  banks,  two  public  schools  (one  for 
white  and  one  for  colored  children),  nine  pri 
vate  and  denominational  schools  and  acade- 
mies,,  two  daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  and 
eleven  churches  (Baptist,  Episcopal,  Jewish, 
Methodist,  Presbyterian,  and  Roman  Catholic), 
of  which  five  are  for  colored  people.  Shreve 
port  was  incorporated  in  1839. 

SHREW,  or  Shrew  Mouse,-  the  common  name  of 
the  insectivorous  mammals  of  the  family  so- 
ricidm,  characterized  by  a  general  rat-like  or 
mouse-like  appearance,  elongated  and  pointed 
muzzle,  and  soft  fur.  The  distinct  auricle  of 
the  ears,  and  the  normal  size  of  the  anterior 
feet,  not  usually  employed  in  digging,  dis 
tinguish  them  from  the  moles.  The  skull  is 
long  and  narrow,  compressed  at  the  orbits, 
malar  bone  and  zygomatic  arch  wanting ;  the 
ribs  are  12  to  14  pairs,  6  to  8  vertebras  without 
ribs,  3  to  5  sacral,  14  to  28  caudal;  tibia  and 
fibula  united,  clavicles  thin,  and  pubic  arch 
closed ;  stomach  simple ;  caecum  in  some  ab 
sent,  in  others  very  large ;  on  the  sides  of  the 
body,  nearest  the  anterior  limbs,  and  in  some 
at  the  base  of  the  tail,  is  a  series  of  glands 
which  secrete  a  strong  musky  fluid.  The  teeth 
vary  from  28  to  32 ;  there  are  two  very  large 
incisors  in  each  jaw,  nearly  horizontal  in  the 


lower  and  much  curved  in  the  upper ;  canines 
absent ;  premolars  f zf  to  J-if-,  molars  fczf ;  the 
posterior  molars  are  many-pointed,  and  the 
anterior  ones  conical ;  the  precise  homologies 
of  the  cheek  teeth  have  been  the  subject  of 
much  controversy.  The  snout  ends  in  a  naked 
muffle  with  the  nostrils  pierced  on  the  sides; 
eyes  very  small,  ears  distinct,  and  feet  nearly 
plantigrade  and  usually  naked  beneath  ;  mam 
mas  six  to  ten ;  feet  five-toed,  each  with  a  claw. 
Their  food  consists  of  insects,  worms,  and  mol- 
lusks,  though  they  sometimes  destroy  small 
vertebrates  and  devour  each  other;  they  are 
nocturnal,  more  or  less  aquatic,  do  not  hiber 
nate,  and  the  young  are  born  blind  and  naked ; 
most  of  the  species  live  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  a  few  in  burrows.  They  are 
spread  over  the  northern  hemisphere,  some 
times  going  very  far  north,  and  the  smaller 
species  enduring  severe  cold.  The  subfamily 
soricincB  is  the  only  one  represented  in  North 
America ;  other  subfamilies  are  found  in  south 
and  central  Africa,  Asia,  the  East  Indies,  and 
Europe;  none  as  yet  have  been  detected  in 
South  America. — Of  the  American  genera, 
neosorex  (Baird)  has  rather  short  ears,  partly 
furred  on  both  surfaces ;  teeth  32  ;  tail  longer 
than  body  and  head,  and  hairs  of  equal  length 
except  a  tuft  at  the  tip  ;  feet  very  large,  with 
a  fringe  of  ciliated  hairs ;  muzzle  very  slender. 
In  the  genus  sorex  (Linn.),  which  contains  a 
great  part  of  the  species  of  the  new  and  old 
worlds,  the  ears  are  large  and  valvular,  the 
tail  about  as  long  as  the  body,  and  the  feet 
moderate  and  not  fringed;  it  is  divided  into 
two  sections,  one  with  32  and  the  other  with  30 
teeth,  most  of  the  American  species  belonging 
in  the  former.  .  Prof.  Baird  describes  12  species 
in  vol.  viii.  of  the  Pacific  railroad  reports,  va 
rying  in  length  from  3  to  4^  in.,  of  which  the 
tail  is  about  one  half,  ranging  from  blackish 
and  brownish  to  grayish  above  and  lighter  to 
whitish  below,  the  8.  personatus  (Geoffr.)  is 
the  least  of  the  American  shrews,  and  among 


Mole  Shrew  (Blarina  talpoides). 

the  smallest  of  the  quadrupeds  of  this  country, 
being  not  quite  3  in.  long;  it  belongs  in  the 
S.  Atlantic  states.  Most  of  the  species  belong 
on  the  Pacific  coast  or  in  the  N.  W.  territories. 


SHREW  MOLE 


SHRIMP 


In  the  genus  "blarina,  (Gray)  the  body  is  stout ; 
the  tail  shorter  than  the  head,  with  short  bristly 
hairs  and  small  brush  at  tip ;  the  hands  large 
in  proportion  to  the  feet,  and  the  soles  usually 
hairy  at  the  heels;  skull  short  and  broad;  ears 
very  short,  with  the  external  surface  densely, 
furred.  This  genus,  peculiar  to  America,  is 
also  divided  into  sections,  one  with  32,  the 
other  with  30  teeth.  The  mole  shrew  (B.  tal- 
poides,  Gray),  the  largest  of  the  American 
shrews,  4^  in.  long,  is  found  from  l^ova  Scotia 
to  Lake  Superior,  and  south  to  Georgia ;  it  is 


Common  European  Shrew  (Sorex  araneus). 

dark  ashy  gray  above  and  paler  below,  with 
whitish  feet.  Several  other  species  are  de 
scribed  by  Baird,  of  which  two  are  in  Mexico 
and  Texas.  In  the  old  world,  among  the  spe 
cies  of  sorex,  subdivided  into  several  by  Wag- 
ler,  and  called  musaraignes  by  the  French, 
is  the  common  European  shrew  (S.  araneus, 
Linn.),  4£  to  5  in.  long,  of  which  the  tail  is 
1-J-  in. ;  the  color  is  reddish  mouse  above  and 
grayish  below ;  it  is  found  in  dry  places  very 
generally  over  Europe. — The  shrews  appear 
during  the  miocene  age  in  small  numbers,  and 
continue  through  the  diluvial  epoch  to  the 
present  time,  without  material  change. 

SHREW  MOLE.     See  MOLE. 

SHREWSBURY,  the  shire  town  of  Shropshire, 
England,  on  the  river  Severn,  140  m.  N.  W. 
of  London ;  pop.  in  1871,  23,406.  The  remains 
of  the  ancient  castle  are  still  standing,  and 
also  a  portion  of  the  ancient  walls  of  the  city. 
The  Severn  is  crossed  by  two  bridges ;  there 
is  a  canal,  and  railways  connect  it  with  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom.  Shrewsbury  is  the  seat 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  and  in  1872  had 
32  places  of  worship.  The  principal  manu 
factures  consist  of  thread,  linen  yarn,  and  can 
vas;  and  there  are  extensive  iron  works  at 
Ooleham,  a  suburb.  The  salmon  fishery  of  the 
Severn  is  valuable.  There  is  a  considerable 
trade  in  Welsh  flannels. — Shrewsbury  was  im 
portant  in  the  5th  century,  and  is  prominent 
in  English  history  as  a  royal  residence  for 
short  periods.  Its  original  name  of  Pengwern 


was  changed  by  the  Saxons  to  Scrobbesbyrig 
(Scrubsborough),  of  which  Shrewsbury  is  a 
corruption.  Parliaments  were  held  here  in 
1283  and  1398 ;  and  a  battle  was  fought  here 
in  1403  between  the  royalist  troops  and  the 
insurgents  under  Douglas  and  Hotspur,  in 
which  the  latter  wras  killed.  (See  PEECY.) 

SHRIKE.     See  BUTCHER  BIRD. 

SHRIMP,  a  common  decapod  or  ten-footed 
and  long-tailed  crustacean,  of  the  genus  cran- 
gon  (Fabr.) ;  with  the  prawn  (palamori)  it  is 
called  crevette  by  the  French.  The  integu 
ment  is  corneous,  the  carapace  considerably 
flattened,  the  abdomen  very  large,  and  the  tail 
powerful ;  the  rostrum  very  short ;  eyes  large 
and  free  ;  antennae  inserted  about  on  the  same 
transverse  line,  the  internal  pair  the  shortest 
and  ending  in  two  many-jointed  filaments,  the 
outer  larger,  and  longer ;  mandibles  slender  and 
without  palpi ;  jaw  feet  moderate,  with  a  ter 
minal  flattened  joint  and  a  short  palpus  on  the 
inside ;  sternum  very  wide  behind ;  first  pair 
of  feet  strong,  ending  in  a  flattened  hand  hav 
ing  a  movable  hook  opposed  to  an  immovable 
tooth  ;  second  and  third  pairs  of  legs  very  slen 
der,  and  the  fourth  and  fifth  much  stronger ; 
branchiaa  seven  on  each  side,  consisting  of  hor 
izontal  lamellas ;  false  swimming  feet  on  under 
side  of  abdomen  large,  and  caudal  plates  wide. 
The  common  shrimp  (G.  vulgaris,  Fabr.)  is 
1^  to  2^  in.  long,  greenish  gray  spotted  with 
brown  ;  the  carapace  is  smooth,  except  a  spine 
behind  the  rostrum,  one  on  the  sternum,  and 
seven  on  each  side  of  the  thorax ;  abdomen 
without  ridges  or  spines,  and  middle  caudal 
plate  pointed  and  not  grooved  below.  It  is 
common  on  the  coasts  of  Europe,  and  in  Eng 
land  and  France  it  is  much  used  as  food.  The 
shrimpers  catch  these  animals  in  large  nets 
with  a  semicircular  mouth,  which  they  push 
before  them  along  the  bottom  during  ebb  tide ; 
this  fishery  gives  employment  to  many  hundred 
people  in  Great  Britain.  Shrimps  are  used  in 
the  United  States  chiefly  as  bait.  They  spawn 
throughout  most  of  the  year,  carrying  the  eggs 


Common  Shrimp  (Crangon  vulgaris). 


attached  to  the  swimming  appendages,  and 
cast  their  skins  from  March  to  June.  They 
feed  on  such  animals  as  they  can  seize  with 
their  claws,  and  on  what  may  be  killed  by  the 


SHROPSHIRE 


SHUMLA 


9 


waves  or  other  causes,  and  are  themselves  de 
voured  by  fishes,  aquatic  birds,  echini,  and  star 
fishes.  Other  species  are  found  in  the  Medi 
terranean.  Though  the  American  shrimp  re 
ceived  from  Say  a  different-  name  from  that 
of  Europe,  there  seem  to  be  no  well  marked 
specific  differences'. — The  long-beaked,  almost 
transparent  crustacean,  commonly  called  shrimp 
in  New  England,  and  used  sometimes  for  bait, 
has  been  described  by  Mr.  Stimpson  as  palce- 
monopsis  vulgaris. 

SHROPSHIRE,  or  Salop,  a  W.  county  of  Eng 
land,  bordering  on  the  counties  of  Chester, 
Stafford,  Worcester,  Hereford,  Radnor,  Mont 
gomery,  and  Denbigh ;  area,  1,291  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  248,064.  The  surface  is  greatly 
diversified.  Toward  the  frontiers  of  Wales 
it  becomes  wild  and  mountainous,  while  the 
other  parts  are  comparatively  level.  The  Sev 
ern  flows  S.  E.  between  the  elevated  and  the 
level  portions,  and  has  a  course  within  the 
county  of  nearly  70  m.,  all  navigable.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Tern  and  the  Teme. 
There  are  several  small  lakes,  of  which  Elles- 
mere,  covering  116  acres,  is  the  largest.  There 
is  communication  by  canals  with  all  the  im 
portant  rivers  of  England.  The  soil  varies 
much,  and  there  are  considerable  tracts  of 
moorland,  but  much  of  it  is  easily  worked  and 
yields  good  crops.  Large  numbers  of  cattle 
are  reared.  Lead  mines  are  worked  to  a  con 
siderable  extent.  Iron,  coal,  and  limestone  are 
found,  and  the  manufacture  of  iron  is  exten 
sively  carried  on.  There  are  manufactures  of 
machinery,  glass,  stone-china  ware,  earthen 
ware,  and  coarse  linen  and  woollen  goods. 
The  principal  towns  are  Shrewsbury,  the  cap 
ital,  Bridgenorth,  Wenlock,  and  Ludlow. 

SHROVE  TIDE  (A.  S.  scrifan,  to  absolve  in 
confession),  the  days  immediately  preceding 
Ash  Wednesday.  These  days  were  so  desig 
nated  because  on  them,  and  especially  on  the 
last  of  them,  people  were  wont  to  confess 
their  sins  as  a  preparation  for  Lent.  Shrove 
tide  or  confession  tide  comprised  a  whole 
week  in  some  countries.  In  most  Roman 
Catholic  countries  it  began  on  the  Sunday  be 
fore  Lent.  While  the  ancient  penitential  can 
ons  were  in  vigor,  all  adults  were  enjoined  to 
present  themselves  to  the  bishops  and  priests, 
in  order  that  private  penitents  might  be  shriv 
en  in  private  and  assigned  a  day  for  receiving 
communion,  and  that  public  penitents  might 
be  instructed  as  to  what  they  should  do  to  be 
reconciled  at  Easter.  This  practice  continued 
substantially  long  after  public  penance  had 
fallen  into  disuse.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
homilies  of  jElfric  (died  about  1005)  as  being 
in  force  in  England  in  his  time.  Shrove  tide 
soon  became  a  season  of  feasting  and  merri 
ment,  especially  Shrove  Tuesday,  the  eve  of 
the  long  Lenten  fast.  This  day  is  still  called 
mardi  gras  (fat  Tuesday)  by  the  French,  and 
Shrove  tide  is  known  to  them  as  les  jours 
gras.  Shrove  Tuesday  is  also  popularly  called 
Pancake  Tuesday  in  English-speaking  coun 


tries,  from  the  common  practice  of  eating  pan 
cakes  on  that  day,  the  use  of  eggs  having  been 
formerly  forbidden  during  Lent. 

SHUBRICK.  I.  John  Templar,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  South  Carolina,  Sept.  12, 
1778,  lost  at  sea  in  1815.  He  entered  the 
service  as  a  midshipman  in  1806,  and  was  at 
tached  to  the  Chesapeake  in  her  affair  with  the 
Leopard  in  1807.  In  May,  1812,  he  was  made 
a  lieutenant,  and  served  in  the  Constitution 
in  her  action  with  the  Guerriere  in  August, 
1812,  and  in  the  Hornet's  with  the  Peacock 
in  February,  1813.  For  his  services  in  these 
engagements  he  received  medals  from  con 
gress.  He  was  second  lieutenant  of  the  Presi 
dent  when  she  was  captured  by  a  British  squad 
ron  in  January,  1815.  In  that  year  he  was 
first  lieutenant  of  the  Guerriere,  and  was  pres 
ent  in  all  the  operations  against  Algiers.  On 
the  conclusion  of  peace,  he  was  despatched 
with  the  treaty  to  the  United  States  in  the 
Epervier  sloop  of  war,  which  was  never  heard 
from  after  she  left  the  Mediterranean.  II. 
William  Branford,  an  American  naval  officer, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  South  Caro 
lina,  Oct.  31,  1790,  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
May  27, 1874.  He  was  appointed  midshipman 
in  June,  1806,  and  in  May,  1807,  joined  the 
sloop  of  war  Wasp.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  of  1812  he  was  an  acting  lieutenant  on 
board  the  Hornet,  and  was  soon  transferred  to 
the  frigate  Constellation,  which  rendered  im 
portant  services  in  defence  of  Norfolk  and  the 
navy  yard  at  Gosport.  In  1813  he  was  trans 
ferred  to  the  Constitution,  in  which  he  made 
two  cruises,  and  aided  in  the  capture  of  three 
ships  of  war,  including  the  Cyane  and  Levant 
(1815).  When  the  Levant  surrendered  he  was 
ordered  to  her  command.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  May,  1815,  second  in  com 
mand  of  the  Constitution,  and  was  awarded  a 
sword  by  his  native  state  and  a  medal  by  con 
gress.  In  December,  1815,  he  was.  made  se 
nior  lieutenant  of  the  Washington,  74  guns,  un 
der  Creighton,  the  first  ship  of  the  line  which 
made  a  full  cruise  under  the  United  States 
flag,  returning  in  1818.  J3e  became  command 
er  in  1820  and  captain  in  1831,  and  on  Feb. 
3,  1844,  was  appointed  chief  of  the  naval  bu 
reau  of  provisions  and  clothing.  On  July  9, 
1846,  he  was  appointed  to  command  the  Pa 
cific  squadron ;  on  July  8,  1853,  the  eastern 
coast  squadron;  and  on  Sept.  8,  1858,  the  Bra 
zil  squadron  and  Paraguay  expedition,  from 
which  he  returned  May  11,  1859.  On  July 
16,  1862,  he  was  commissioned  rear  admiral. 

SHOILA,  a  walled  and  strongly  fortified  city 
of  European  Turkey,  in  Bulgaria,  48  m.  W.  of 
Yarna  and  185  m.  N.  W.  of  Constantinople ; 
pop.  about  20,000,  exclusive  of  the  garrison. 
It  lies  on  the  N.  slope  of  the  Balkan,  about 
midway  between  its  crest  and  the  lower  Dan 
ube,  in  a  gorge,  enclosed  on  three  sides  by 
mountains.  The  inhabitants  of  the  higher  por 
tion  of  the  town  are  principally  Turks  ;  of  the 
lower,  Jews,  Armenians,  and  Greeks.  There 


10 


SHURTLEFF  COLLEGE 


SIAM 


is  trade  in  grain,  wine,  silk  goods,  copper  ware, 
morocco,  soap,  and  candles. — This  town,  ori 
ginally  called  Shumen  or  Shumna,  was  burned 
in  811  by  the  emperor  Nicephorus,  and  in 
1807  it  was  besieged  by  Alexis  Comnenns. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1387,  and  embel 
lished  and  fortified  in  1689  and  the  90  years 
that  followed,  mainly  by  the  grand  vizier  Has 
san,  whose  tomb  is  the  most  remarkable  mon 
ument  of  the  city.  In  all  the  wars  between 
Turkey  and  Eussia,  it  has  formed  the  point  of 
concentration  of  the  Turkish  army.  The  Rus 
sians  attempted  unsuccessfully  to  take  it  in 
1774,  in  1810,  and  in  1828. 

SHCRTLEFF  COLLEGE,  an  institution  of  learn 
ing  under  the  control  of  the  Baptists,  at  Up 
per  Alton,  Madison  co.,  Illinois,  1£  m.  E.  of 
the  city  of  Alton.  It  was  established  in  1832 
under  the  title  of  Alton  seminary,  and  char 
tered  in  1835  as  Alton  college.  In  1836  its 
name  was  changed  in  honor  of  Benjamin 
Shurtleff,  M.  D.,  of  Boston,  who  had  given  it 
$10,000.  It  was  designed  especially  for  the 
education  of  young  men  for  the  ministry,  but 
a  distinct  theological  department  was  not  or 
ganized  till  1863.  The  institution  now  consists 
of  an  academic  and  preparatory  department, 
Kendall  institute  for  young  ladies,  the  college, 
and  the  theological  department.  Both  sexes 
are  admitted  to  the  academic  and  preparatory 
department  and  to  the  college.  The  latter  has 
a  classical  and  a  scientific  course,  on  the  com 
pletion  of  which  the  degrees  of  bachelor  of 
arts  and  bachelor  of  philosophy  respectively 
are  conferred.  Kendall  institute,  established 
in  1873,  has  a  fine  building  and  grounds,  and 
is  chiefly  used  as  a  home  for  young  ladies  at 
tending  the  other  departments.  Tuition  is 
free  in  the  theological  department,  and  several 
scholarships  have  been  founded  to  provide  for 
the  tuition  of  needy  students  in  \hv  other 
departments.  Additional  aid  is  afforded  to 
needy  candidates  for  the  ministry  by  the  "Illi 
nois  Baptist  Education  Society."  The  libraries 
of  the  institution  contain  7,300  volumes.  The 
number  of  instructors  in  1874- '5  was  14;  of 
students,  204  (154  maj.es  and  50  females),  viz. : 
theological  department,  5;  college,  53;  aca 
demic  and  preparatory  department,  146.  The 
number  of  graduates  is  159  ;  of  all  those  who 
have  received  instruction  in  the  institution, 
3,825.  The  property  of  the  institution  amounts 
to  about  $180,000,  the  debt  to  $30,000. 

SIAM,  the  chief  kingdom  of  the  peninsula 
styled  Indo-Ohina,  or  Further  India.  Siyam, 
from  the  dark  color  of  the  inhabitants  or  of 
the  soil,  is  the  ancient,  and  Muang  T'hai,  the 
kingdom  of  the  free,  the  modern  native  ap 
pellation  for  ih-G  country ;  T'hai,  the  free,  for 
the  people.  With  its  Laos,  Cambodian,  and 
Malay  peninsular  dependencies,  it  lies  between 
lat.  4°  and  22°  K,  and  between  Ion.  97°  and 
106°  E. ;  greatest  length  1,350  m.,  breadth  450 
m.;  area  estimated  at  about  300,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop,  about  5,750,000.  The  capital  is  Bang 
kok.  Siam  proper  lies  mainly  between  lat. 


13°  and  18°  and  Ion.  98°  and  102°,  being  bound 
ed  by  its  dependencies,  the  gulf  of  Siam,  and 
the  British  territory  of  Tenasserim.  Two 
mountain  ranges,  extending  mainly  S.  E.  from 
the  Himalaya,  form  general  natural  divisions 
from  China  on  the  north,  and  partly  from 
Anam  on  the  east  and  Bunnah  and  the  Brit 
ish  possessions  on  the  west.  A  third  range, 
less  continuous  and  direct,  passes  through  the 
central  regions ;  in  this  is  situated  the  P'hra 
Bat,  or  mountain  of  "the  sacred  foot"  (foot 
print)  of  Buddha,  a  Mecca  for  Buddhists.  The 
gulf  of  Siam,  between  Siam  proper  and  the 
Malay  peninsula,  forms  a  long  coast  line,  and 
has  numerous  islands,  much  precipitous  shore, 
and  several  ports,  of  which  Bangkok  is  the 
chief.  It  is  never  visited  by  typhoons  or 
heavy  gales. — The  country  is  watered  by  sev 
eral  rivers,  bearing  the  generic  name  Menam, 
"mother  of  waters,"  and  taking  the  specific 
name  or  names  from  cities  or  provinces.  The 
Menam  Kong,  Mekong,  or  river  of  Cambodia, 
1,800  m.  long,  traverses  in  its  middle  course 
the  iST.  E.  or  Laos  dependencies  of  Siam. 
(See  MEKONG.)  The  Menam  Chow  P'ya,  Me 
nam  Bangkok,  or  simply  the  Menam,  rises  in 
the  north  and  flows  S.  through  the  centre  of 
Siam  proper  into  the  gulf  of  Siam.  Its  length 
is  about  600  m. ;  its  principal  tributary  is  the 
Meping  from  the  west.  Bangkok,  Ayuthia, 
Angtong,  and  other  towns  are  situated  on  the 
Menam.  The  Salwen  flows  on  the  border  of 
British  Burmah.  These  rivers,  with  the  very 
numerous  intersecting  canals,  for  rowing,  not 
tracking,  are  the  great  highways  of  traffic. 
The  plains,  irrigated  and  enriched  by  their 
annual  overflow,  are  extensive  and  fertile  ;  the 
valley  of  the  Menam  equals  in  richness  that 
of  the  Nile,  and  in  extent  half  of  the  state  of 
New  York. — The  seasons  are  two,  the  wet  or 
hot  and  the  dry  or  cool.  The  former,  opening 
near  the  middle  of  March,  is  not  a  succession 
of  wholly  rainy  days,  but  resembles  a  New 
York  April  and  August  combined.  The  an 
nual  rainfall  is  about  60  inches.  April,  the 
hottest  month,  has  at  Bangkok  a  maximum 
of  97°  F.  and  a  mean  of  84°.  In  October  the 
S.  "W.  monsoon  gives  place  to  the  N.  E.,  which 
ushers  in  the  dry  and  cool  season ;  this  is  very 
fine,  with  only  a  few  light  showers  throughout. 
January  is  the  coolest  month;  but  the  mer 
cury  rarely  falls  below  65°.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  S2|-0,  and  the  mean  range  13°. 
Vegetation  is  luxurious,  fruitful,  and  beautiful 
beyond  description,  and  the  soil  yields  a  rich 
return  to  rude  and  careless  cultivation.  Rice, 
sugar,  pepper,  cotton,  and  hemp  are  the  staple 
products.  In  the  abundance,  variety,  and  ex 
cellence  of  fruits,  vegetables,  and  spices,  Siam 
is  unsurpassed.  Many  fruits,  as  the  durian, 
mangosteen,  and  custard  apple,  are  cultivated 
in  large  gardens  or  orchards,  trenched,  and 
watered  by  the  daily  tide.  In  the  forests  are 
found  gutta  percha,  lac,  dammar,  gamboge, 
catechu,  gum  benjamin,  and  the  odoriferous 
agila  or  eagle  wood ;  innumerable  medicinal 


SIAM 


11 


plants,  herbs,  and  roots ;  sap  an,  fustic,  indi 
go,  and  other  dyes  ;  the  lofty  silk-cotton  tree, 
with  its  soft  silky  floss  for  mattresses,  but  too 
brittle  for  the  loom ;  the  bamboo,  the  rattan, 
and  the  atap,  together  forming  the  material  of 
three  fourths  of  the  houses;  the  teak,  with 
other  ship  and  house  timbers ;  iron,  red,  and 
white  woods,  rose  woods,  and  ebony ;  the 
banian,  and  the  sacred  fig  tree.  The  animal 
kingdom  is  no  less  varied  and  interesting.  Most 
celebrated  is  the  white  elephant,  a  dark-cream 
albino,  prized  and  honored  as  very  rare,  and 
when  captured  belonging  to  the  king.  The 
national  standard  is  a  white  elephant  on  a  crim 
son  ground,  and  the  royal  seal,  medals,  and 
money  bear  the  same  device.  Albino  deer, 
monkeys,  and  even  tortoises  are  sometimes 
found,  and  the  natives  believe  white  animals 
to  be  the  abode  of  transmigrating  souls.  The 
elephants  of  Siam  attain  a  size  and  strength 
unsurpassed  in  other  countries,  and  are  much 
prized  throughout  India.  Among  other  ani 
mals  are  the  rhinoceros,  tiger,  leopard,  bear, 
pangolin,  otter,  musk  civet,  wild  hogs,  ourang 
outangs  and  other  apes,  monkeys,  and  deer ; 
dogs  and  cats,  wild  and  domestic,  are  innu 
merable.  The  forests  abound  in  peacocks, 
pheasants,  pigeons,  and  other  birds ;  aquatic 
birds  of  all  kinds  are  numerous  ;  the  sea  swal 
low  which  produces  the  edible  nest  is  common. 
Among  the  reptiles  are  the  crocodile,  turtle, 
python,  cobra  de  capello,  numerous  other 
snakes,  and  several  varieties  of  lizards.  Fish 
are  plentiful,  but  of  poor  quality.  The  most 
noteworthy  insect  is  the  coccus  ficus,  which 
produces  the  lac  of  commerce  by  punctures  in 
resinous  trees.  Gold,  copper,  iron,  tin,  and 
lead  all  abound,  in  great  purity ;  but  by  rea 
son  of  the  rudeness  of  working,  the  jealousy 
toward  foreigners,  and  the  fevers  and  hard 
ships  of  the  jungle,  their  vast  wealth  is  com 
paratively  undeveloped.  Antimony,  zinc,  sul 
phur,  and  arsenic  also  exist,  and  silver  in  com 
bination.  Salt  is  largely  manufactured  by  so 
lar  evaporation,  and  saltpetre  less  so.  Mining, 
previously  under  the  strict  surveillance  of  gov 
ernment,  and  carried  on  chiefly  by  Chinese, 
has  recently  excited  some  interest  among  Eu 
ropeans.  Rubies,  spinel,  corundum,  sapphire, 
amethyst,  garnet,  topaz,  and  other  precious 
stones  are  found. — According  to  the  French 
consul  Gamier  at  Bangkok  (1874),  the  popula 
tion  of  Siam  proper  and  its  Laos  dependencies 
is  composed  of  1,800,000  Siamese,  1,500,000 
Chinese,  1,000,000  Laos,  200,000  Malays,  50,000 
Cambodians,  50,000  Peguans,  and  50,000  Ka 
rens  and  others.  The  Siamese  are  of  .Mongo 
lian  origin  and  Laos  or  Shyan  descent.  They 
are  olive-colored  and  of  medium  height.  The 
head  is  large,  face  broad,  forehead  low,  cheek 
bones  prominent,  jaw  bones  in  retreat  very 
divergent;  mouth  capacious,  lips  thick,  nose 
heavy,  and  eyes  black  and  without  the  Chinese 
turn  of  the  lid.  The  teeth  are  stained  black,  and 
sometimes  serrated.  The  hair  is  all  plucked 
from  the  face  in  youth,  and  the  most  of  the 


head  is  shaved  bi-monthly.  A  black  bristling 
tuft  4  or  5  in.  broad  and  2  in.  high  is  left  on 
the  top ;  that  of  the  women,  whose  hair  is  only 
closely  cut,  is  often  encircled  by  a  thread  of 
bare  skin  whence  two  or  three  hairs'  breadths 
have  been  uprooted.  The  dress  consists  of  a 
cotton  waist  cloth  (to  which  women  add  a  silk 
shoulder  scarf),  a  jacket  for  the  cold,  and  a 
straw  hat  for  the  sun.  Children  under  seven 
or  eight  years  old  are  clad  only  in  jewels,  fig 
leaves,  flowers,  and  turmeric.  Priests,  with 
head  entirely  shaven  and  uncovered,  wear  sev 
eral  yellow  robes  of  cotton  and  silk.  Kings 
and  nobles  on  state  occasions  wear  silk  and 
gold  brocades  and  high  conical  hats.  The  Si 
amese  are  indolent,  greedy,  and  untruthful, 
intemperate,  servile,  and  superstitious.  At 
the  same  time  they  are  peaceable  and  polite, 
decorous  in  public,  and  affectionate  to  kin 
dred  and  kind  to  the  poor  and  imbecile.  The 
dwellings  are  of  one  story,  partly  to  prevent 
the  indignity  of  another's  walking  over  the 
head.  They  consist  of  huts,  built  on  piles, 
of  bamboo,  roofed  and  sided  with  atap  leaf ; 
boats,  serving  also  as  peddling  stalls  or  vehi 
cles;  floating  houses,  of  panelled  teak,  rising 
and  falling  with  the  tide  on  bamboo  rafts ; 
and  palaces,  of  white  stuccoed  brick,  adorned 
with  gilding,  carving,  painting,  foreign  furni 
ture,  pictures,  gold,  silver,  china,  and  glass. 
These  palaces  are  not  of  Chinese,  but  rather 
of  Indian  architecture,  and  they  often  occupy 
several  acres,  with  the  dwellings  of  the  wives, 
the  quarters  of  the  servants,  and  the  grounds, 
which  are  paved,  shaded,  adorned  with  flow 
ers,  and  enclosed  by  high  walls.  Marriage 
takes  place  as  early  as  18  for  males  and  14  for 
females,  without  the  aid  of  magistrates  or 
priests,  though  the  latter  may  be  present  to 
make  prayers,  and  especially  to  feast  and  to 
receive  presents.  The  number  of  wives,  ordi 
narily  one,  in  the  palaces  reaches  scores  and 
hundreds ;  but  the  first  is  the  wife  proper,  to 
whom  the  rest  are  subject.  Social  distinctions 
are  very  numerous,  and  in  th.e  law  are  repre 
sented  numerically,  from  100,000  for  the  sec 
ond  king  down  to  5  for  the  lowest  slave.  Be 
fore  "the  lord  of  life"  on  the  throne,  far  above 
numerical  representation,  all  crawl  and  crouch, 
or,  with  head  bowed  to  the  ground,  lie  "  dust 
at  the  sacred  feet."  Prince  is  approached  by 
noble,  noble  by  lord,  lord  by  master,  &c.,  each 
with  body  bent,  eyes  prone,  and  hands  folded 
and  raised  to  the  forehead  or  above  the  head, 
giving  and  receiving  homage.  An  annual  ser 
vice  of  three  months  is  paid  to  the  king  by 
all,  save  the  Chinese  triennially  taxed.  One 
third  of  the  common  people,  it  is  largely  es 
timated,  are  slaves  by  birth,  by  gambling  or 
other  debts,  by  redemption  from  the  penalty 
of  crime,  by  capture,  &c.  Men  sell  their  chil 
dren,  their  wives,  or  themselves ;  convicts  in 
scores  clank  their  chains  about  the  streets ; 
villages  of  thousands  are  made  up  of  foreign 
captives.  Yet  Siamese  life  is  in  the  main  com 
fortable,  and  is  moreover  gladdened  by  many 


12 


SI  AM 


sports,  amusements,  and  holidays.  On  all 
great  occasions  the  coffers  of  kings  and  nobles 
are  opened  widely  for  merrymaking  for  the 
people,  and  merit-making  for  themselves.  The 
only  honorable  disposal  of  the  dead  is  by  burn 
ing.  The  badges  of  mourning  are  white  robes, 
and  an  entire  shaving  of  the  head.  A  limit 
ed  and  superficial  education  is  afforded  gra 
tuitously  at  the  temples,  to  the  males,  80  or  90 
per  cent,  of  whom  read.  The  drama  is  much 
cultivated,  and  dramatic  companies  are  at 
tached  to  the  palaces  and  gaming  houses.  The 
music  is  unwritten,  simple,  plaintive,  and  pleas 
ing.  Bands  of  10  or  12  instruments,  most  re 
sembling  Javanese,  are  a  part  of  every  wealthy 
establishment.  Gaudy  and  incongruous  paint 
ings,  of  rude  perspective,  chiefly  adorn  the  tem 
ples.  The  medical  art  is  in  a  barbarous  state. 
Nowhere  else  does  Buddhism  hold  so  pure  and 
absolute  a  sway  as  in  Siam.  It  is  of  the  Cey- 
lonese  rather  than  Chinese  type.  The  wats  or 
temples,  resembling  not  the  Chinese,  but  dis 
tantly  the  Egyptian  architecture,,  are  among 
the  most  beautiful  and  splendid  in  the  East. 
They  are  in  vast,  choicely  situated,  paved  parks, 
with  white  walls  gleaming  through  the  leaves, 
serrate  roofs  and  spacious  domes  and  lofty  pra- 
chadi  spires,  all  painted  and  gilded  and  glazed, 
vocal  with  air-rung  bells,  and  resplendent  in 
the  sunlight.  One  is  estimated  to  have  cost, 
with  all  its  paraphernalia,  over  $800,000.  (See 
BANGKOK.)  Missions  have  been  carried  on  by 
the  Roman  Catholics,  under  the  greatest  vicis 
situdes,  since  the  middle  of  the  IGth  century. 
The  missionaries  are  French,  and  their  con 
verts  were  reckoned  in  1872  at  10,000  in  16 
congregations.  At  the  head  of  the  mission 
is  a  vicar  apostolic.  Protestant  missions  date 
from  the  visits  of  Gtitzlaff,  Tomlin,  and  Abeel 
in  1828-'31,  and  properly  from  the  settlement 
of  Jones  in  1833.  Representatives  of  the 
American  Baptist  missionary  union,  of  the 
Presbyterian  board  of  foreign  missions,  and 
of  the  American  missionary  association  have 
established  several  Protestant  congregations, 
schools,  and  religious  papers.  The  number  of 
the  Baptist  congregations  in  1874  was  154, 
and  of  Presbyterian  38. — In  commerce  Bang 
kok  once  ranked  second  only  to  Calcutta  and 
Canton  in  the  far  East ;  but  monopolies,  exor 
bitant  duties,  and  numberless  restrictions  had 
well  nigh  stifled  production  and  banished  trade 
till  in  1855-'6  new  treaties  were  negotiated  for 
Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  France, 
by  Sir  John  Bowring,  Townsend  Harris,  and 
Count  do  Montigny.  The  purchase  of  land 
is  now  allowed  ;  the  monopolies  and  tonnage 
duties  are  abolished ;  imports  pay  3  per  cent, 
in  money  or  kind,  and  exports  one  duty  only, 
according  to  tariff.  In  1873  the  number  of 
Siamese  vessels  entering  the  port  was  157,  ton 
nage  55,049  ;  British  84,  tonnage  32,406  ;  Ger 
man  15,  tonnage  4,731 ;  French  14,  tannage 
5,198;  American  1,  tonnage  388.  The  total 
arrivals  in  1873  were  386,  tonnage  102,454; 
clearances  265,  tonnage  97,212.  The  principal 


exports  are  rice,  sugar,  pepper,  sesamum,  sapan 
wood,  hides,  and  cardamoms.  Their  total  value 
in  1873  was  about  $4,600,000;  that  of  the 
imports,  $4,000,000.  The  most  important  trade 
is  that  with  China,  carried  on  in  junks  built  and 
navigated  by  Chinese.  The  junks  leave  the  Me- 
nam  generally  in  June,  returning  in  December. 
The  tical,  a  silver  coin  bearing  the  device  of 
an  elephant  and  weighing  236  grains  troy, 
with  bars  of  silver  cut  into  pieces,  stamped, 
and  bent  into  an  irregular  oval,  in  value  71, 
15,  and  60  cents,  with  cowries,  form  the  cur 
rency.  Dollars  are  also  current,  though  usually 
exchanged  for  silver  tical s  at  the  rate  of  three 
dollars  for  five  ticals.  The  rate  of  interest  is 
about  30  per  cent.  The  inland  trade  is  con 
ducted  chiefly  by  boats.  Foreign  steamers  ply 
between  Bangkok  and  Singapore.  The  Uni 
ted  States  and  European  treaty  powers  are 
represented  by  resident  consuls  at  Bangkok. 
— The  government  of  Siam  is  theoretically  a 
duarchy,  practically  a  monarchy.  While  there 
is  a  second  or  vice  king,  the  first  or  senior 
king  is  actual  sovereign.  The  crown  is  hered 
itary,  but  without  primogeniture,  being  be 
queathed,  with  the  sanction  of  princes  and 
nobles,  to  any  son  of  the  queen;  but  intrigue 
and  violence  have  often  diverted  the  succes 
sion  from  the  high  royal  line.  A  royal  de 
cree  of  May  8, 1874,  announced  that  in  future 
the  king  would  give  important  laws  only  after 
consulting  the  council  of  state  and  the  minis 
try.  The  council  of  state  comprises  the  first 
king  as  president,  the  ministers,  who  have  no 
vote,  from  10  to  20  councillors,  who  have  to 
draft  new  laws  and  from  their  own  number 
elect  a  vice  president,  and  six  princes  of  the 
royal  house.  Any  two  members  of  the  council 
may  submit  a  new  law  to  the  king.  The  min 
istry  (sendbodi)  consists  of  an  honorary  presi 
dent,  three  ministers  of  the  interior  (of  the 
west,  the  north,  and  the  east),  and  the  ministers 
of  agriculture,  justice,  the  royal  house,  and 
finance.  The  minister  of  finance  may  be  dis 
missed  at  any  time ;  the  dismissal  of  any  other 
minister  requires  a  sentence  of  the  court.  The 
country  is  divided  into  41  provinces,  each  of 
which  is  governed  by  a  phraya  or  council  of 
the  first  class.  There  are  also  several  territo 
ries  which  have  their  own  princes,  tributary  to 
the  king.  The  king  is  by  title  "  sacred  lord  of 
heads,"  "possessor  of  all,"  and  property  and 
life  are  at  his  will,  to  be  taken  at  government 
al  necessity  or  caprice ;  but  many  considera 
tions  conspire  to  render  a  violent  and  arbi 
trary  exercise  of  this  absolute  power  compar 
atively  .unfrequent.  The  queen  consort,  the 
wife  supreme  among  hundreds,  must  be  of 
native  and  royal  blood,  and  she  is  rigidly  kept 
from  all  possible  intercourse  with  an  inferior 
of  the  other  sex.  She  never  becomes  regent, 
or  takes  any  part  in  political  affairs,  but  is 
treated  with  the  highest  deference.  She  has 
a  separate  court,  in  which  appear  the  prin 
cesses,  who,  not  allowed  to  marry  beneath 
them,  rarely  marry  at  all.  She  has  her  fe- 


SIAM 


SIAM  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE)     13 


male  guards  in  uniform  and  arms.  The  num 
ber  of  females  within  the  palace  is,  on  royal 
authority,  5,000,  and  of  males  about  the  same. 
The  second  king  has  also  a  separate  palace, 
seraglio,  officers,  retainers,  and  soldiers,  only 
second  to  those  of  the  first.  Though  never 
appearing  at  the  audiences  of  the  nobles  with 
the  senior  king,  his  opinion  and  sanction  are 
sought  on  important  state  policy,  and  his 
name  is  associated  in  treaties,  llis  position 
seems  to  be  that  of  counsellor,  not  of  co-ruler 
or  successor.  The  larger  portion  of  the  public 
revenue  is  embezzled  by  the  numerous  officers, 
who  receive  only  a  nominal  salary.  The- rev 
enue  of  the  king  is  estimated  at  about  $4,000- 
000.  There  is  a  very  ancient  written  code  of 
laws,  the  acts  and  decisions  of  the  kings,  and 
an  unwritten  code,  scarcely  less  authoritative, 
of  traditional  usages ;  both  are  often  absurd, 
unjust,  and  cruel,  and  both  liable  to  be  disre 
garded  at  the  royal  will.  More  than  25  classes 
are  excluded  from  testifying,  many  for  the 
most  trivial  reasons.  The  penalties  are  vari 
ous,  from  bambooing  to  beheading.  Capital 
crimes  are  now  very  few.  Treason,  very  com 
prehensive,  is  punished  by  beating  the  con 
vict,  enclosed  in  a  large  sack,  nearly  to  death, 
and  then  casting  him  loaded  into  .the  river. 
The  military  force  is  small,  and  is  disciplined 
by  European  officers.  In  time  of  war  all  male 
inhabitants  are  liable  to  service.  The  fleet 
consists  of  seven  men-of-war  carrying  40  guns. 
— The  history  of  Siam  dates  back  some  cen 
turies  before  Christ,  but  only  the  annals  sub 
sequent  to  the  founding  of  Ayuthia,  the  for 
mer  capital,  A.  D.  1350,  can  be  deemed  au 
thentic.  In  the  16th  century  the  dominion 
extended  to  Singapore,  and  the  first  western 
connection  was  made  with  the  Portuguese  and 
Spanish.  In  1604  the  Dutch  established  rela 
tions  ;  in  1662  an  English  ship  arrived;  and 
the  latter  part  of  the  century  is  remarkable 
for  the  grand  embassies  from  and  to  Louis 
XIV.  of  France,  and  the  later  bloody  and  al 
most  utter  overthrow  of  French  influence.  In 
1782  the  present  dynasty  ascended  the  throne, 
and  transferred  the  seat  of  government  from 
Ayuthia  (sacked  by  the  Burmese)  to  Bang 
kok.  In  1822  and  1825  treaties  were  made 
with  Great  Britain,  or  rather  with  the  East 
India  company,  through  Mr.  Crawfurd  and 
Capt.  Burney.  In  1833  a  treaty  was  made  with 
the  United  States  through  Edmund  Roberts. 
The  first  embassy  from  the  country  for  nearly 
two  centuries  was  sent  to  England  in  1857; 
and  another  was  sent  to  France  in  1861.  In 
1868,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  the  reigning 
king  ascended  the  throne,  with  the  title  Phra- 
bat  Somdetya  Chula  Lankarana,  and  during  his 
minority  a  regent  carried  on  the  government ; 
he  became  of  age  Nov.  16,  1873.  The  name 
of  the  present  second  king  (1875)'  is  Kroma 
Phraratcha.  The  recent  kings  of  Siam  have 
been  among  the  most  remarkable  characters 
of  the  East  by  their  attainments  in  languages 
and  general  information,  adoption  of  foreign 


ideas  and  improvements,  wise  and  humane 
government,  and  liberal  and  enlightened  inter 
course  with  foreigners  and  foreign  powers.  In 
January,  1875,  a  conflict  arose  between  the  first 
and  second  kings,  the  latter  for  a  time  taking 
refuge  with  the  British  consul ;  but  a  reconcil 
iation  was  soon  effected. — The  best  books  on 
Siam  are  Crawfurd's  "Embassy  to  Siam  and 
Cochin-China"  (London,  1828);  Pallegoix's 
Description  du  royaume  Thai  ou  Siam  (Paris, 
1854) ;  Bowring's  "  Kingdom  and  People  of 
Siam"  (London,  1857);  Bastian's  Reisen  in 
Siam  (Berlin,  1867);  Mrs.  Leonowens's  "Eng 
lish  Governess  at  the  Siamese  Court "  (Boston, 
1870);  McDonald's  "Siam,  its  Government, 
Manners,  Customs,"  &c.  (Philadelphia,  1871) ; 
"  Siam,  or  the  Land  of  the  White  Elephant," 
compiled  by  the  Rev.  George  B.  Bacon  (New 
York,  1873)  ;  and  "  The  Land  of  the  White 
Elephant,"  by  Frank  Vincent,  jr.  (New  York, 
1874). 

SUM,  Language  and  Literature  of.  Siamese  is 
spoken  from  Burmah  and  British  Burmah  on 
the  west  to  Anam  and  Cambodia  on  the  east, 
and  from  the  Malay  state  of  Keddah  on  the 
south  to  the  confines  of  China  on  the  north. 
The  dialectical  variations  are  numerous,  and 
the  language-is  spoken  well  only  in  Bangkok 
and  by  persons  educated  there.  (See  INDO- 
CHINESE  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES.)  The  Siam 
ese  alphabet,  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the 
ancient  Cambodian  letters  still  used  in  Siamese 
sacred  books,  and  ultimately  from  the  original 
Pali  alphabet,  consists  of  44  consonants  and  20 
vowels,  including  diphthongs  and  semi-vowels. 
The  gradation  of  the  vowel  sounds  is  very 
delicate,  and  some  of  the  consonants  are  but 
slightly  changed  forms  of  the  same  letter,  indi 
cating  the  tone  in  which  they  are  to  be  uttered 
in  certain  syllables.  The  English  g,  j,  v,  x, 
and  z  are  wanting.  The  th  sound,  though  fre 
quent  in  Burmese,  is  entirely  unknown  in  Si 
amese,  the  th  used  in  transcriptions  of  the  lat 
ter  representing  an  aspirated  t,  or  a  combined 
utterance  of  the  two  sounds  t  and  h.  Accord 
ing  to  the  tone  in  which  it  is  uttered,  a  word 
has  several  distinct  meanings,  by  means  of 
which  the  otherwise  very  meagre  vocabulary- 
is  considerably  increased.  Thus  Jikai,  likai, 
hlcai,  pronounced  in  the  same  tone,  would 
mean  who?  who?  who? ;  but  enunciating  each 
with  a  different  tone,  it  may  be  made  to  mean 
"Who  sells  eggs  ?  "  This  same  word  JiTcai  may 
further  be  made  to  signify  a  fever,  to  open, 
rough,  fortress,  or  camp,  by  other  intonations. 
Besides  the  parts  of  speech  distinguished  in 
English  grammar,  there  is  in  Siamese  a  peculiar 
class  of  numeral  or  classifying  nouns.  Such  a 
word  is  lam,  which  is  used  in  conjunction  with 
objects  having  the  quality  of  length,  as  ships 
and  palm  trees ;  others  of  this  class  are  an,  toa, 
luTc,  ton,  and  met,  all  of  which  must  be  used 
when  speaking  .of  one  or  another  class  of  ob 
jects.  Three  genders,  masculine,  feminine,  and 
common,  are  distinguished  by  the  grammarians, 
but  in  common  speech  and  in  poetry  gender  is 


SIAMESE  TWINS 


SIBERIA 


commonly  disregarded,  except  in  distinctions 
of  sex,  which  is  indicated  by  the  addition  of 
special  words.  The  plural  is  expressed  by  add 
ing  some  word  like  hlai,  many,  or  mak,  much. 
There  are  no  inflections,  and  case  is  indicated 
by  the  use  of  a  preposition,  or  by  the  position 
of  the  word  in  the  sentence.  There  is  a  great 
variety  of  pronouns,  or  pronominal  expressions, 
and  the  proper  use  of  one  or  another  depends 
on  the  relative  rank  of  those  writing  or  speak 
ing.  Moods  and  tenses  are  indicated  by  pre 
fixes  and  suffixes,  or  by  auxiliary  verbs ;  thus 
Tika  boh,  I  say ;  lilca  dai  ##&,  I  have  said ;  lika 
cJia  lo~k,  I  shall  say,  &c.  The  Siamese  are  very 
fond  of  using  words  in  pairs,  for  euphony, 
distinctness,  or  figurativeness. — Siamese. liter 
ature  is  not  of  a  very  high  order.  The  works 
on  history  and  medicine  contain  little  else  but 
fables  and  quackery.  The  law  books  are  very 
elaborate,  but  wanting  in  legal  acumen  and  pre 
cision.  The  religious  and  philosophical  pro 
ductions  are  based  upon  the  Pali  scriptures  and 
Chinese  learning,  and  exhibit  nothing  of  an 
original  growth.  The  books  of  Siamese  prov 
erbs,  however,  have  been  praised  as  contain 
ing  much  social  wisdom  sharply  put.  The  best 
productions  of  Siamese  literature  are  works 
of  fiction,  poems,  and  dramas,  though  a  large 
portion  of  them  are  borrowed  from  or  imita 
tions  and  adaptations  of  Hindoo  works. — See 
Pallogoix,  Grammatioa  Linguae,  Thai  (Bang 
kok,  1850),  and  Dictionarium  Linguce  Thai 
(Paris,  1854) ;  Bastian,  Reisen  in  Siam  (Ber 
lin,  1867),  which  contains  learned  disquisitions 
on  the  language  and  literature  of  the  coun 
try;  Alabaster,  "Wheel  of  the  Law"  (London, 
1871) ;  and  the  "  Siam  Repository,"  a  journal 
published  at  Bangkok  in  English. 

SIAMESE  TWINS.     See  MONSTER. 

SIBERIA,  a  part  of  the  Russian  dominions 
occupying  the  whole  of  northern  Asia,  bound 
ed  N.  by  the  Arctic  ocean,  E.  and  S.  E.  by 
Behring  strait,  Behring  sea  or  the  sea  of  Kam- 
tchatka,  and  the  seas  of  Okhotsk  and  Japan 
(inlets  of  the  North  Pacific),  S.  by  China  and 
the  Russian  provinces  of  central  Asia,  and 
W.  by  European  Russia,  from  which  it  is  sep 
arated  by  the  Ural  mountains.  As  officially 
bounded,  it  extends  from  lat.  41°  30'  to  77°  50' 
N.,  and  from  Ion.  59°  30'  to  190°  E. ;  length 
about  3,600  m.,  breadth  2,000  m. ;  area,  4,826,- 
329  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,428,867.  It  is  di 
vided  for  administrative  purposes  into  the  four 
governments  of  Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  Yeniseisk, 
and  Irkutsk,  and  the  four  provinces  of  Trans- 
baikal,  Yakutsk,  Amoor,  and  the  Littoral  or 
Primorsk.  In  a  geographical  sense,  however, 
the  four  northern  provinces  of  Russian  Cen 
tral  Asia,  Semipolatinsk,  Akmolinsk,  Turgai, 
and  Uralsk,  and  portions  of  the  governments 
of  Perm  and  Orenburg,  also  belong  to  Siberia, 
and  will  be  included  in  parts  of  this  descrip 
tion.  Tobolsk  comprises  the  western  end  of 
Siberia,  as  officially  constituted,  and  extends 
from  the  Arctic  ocean  to  the  Central  Asian 
province  of  Akmolinsk.  Tomsk  lies  E.  of  it 


on  the  borders  of  the  Central  Asian  province 
of  Semirietchensk.  Yeniseisk  includes  the 
Arctic  coast  from  the  gulf  of  Obi  to  the  river 
Anabara,  and  extends  S.  to  the  borders  of 
Mongolia.  Irkutsk  lies  between  Yeniseisk  and 
Lake  Baikal,  and  the  Transbaikal  province  east 
of  Lake  Baikal.  Yakutsk  comprises  the  Arctic 
coast  from  the  Anabara  river  to  Cape  Shelag- 
ski,  extending  S.  to  the  Amoor  province,  which 
includes  the  country  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Amoor  from  the  Stanovoi  mountains  to  the 
N.  E.  extremity  of  Mantchooria;  The  Littoral 
province  covers  the  entire  E.  coast  from  Cape 
Shelagski  in  the  Arctic  ocean  to  the  sea  of  Ja 
pan,  including  the  Tchuktchi  peninsula,  Kam- 
tchatka,  -the  district  of  Okhotsk,  the  lower 
course  of  the  Amoor,  and  the  island  of  Sagha- 
lien. — The  coasts  of  Siberia,  both  along  the 
Arctic  ocean  and  the  seas  on  the  east  and 
south,  are  indented  by  many  bays  and  inlets. 
On  the  N.  coast  the  first  large  inlet,  beginning 
at  the  W.  extremity,  is  Kara  bay,  an  offshoot 
of  the  Kara  sea  lying  between  Siberia  and 
Nova  Zembla.  Next  is  the  gulf  of  Obi,  an 
inlet  of  the  same  sea,  which  forms  between  it 
and  Kara  bay  the  Yelmert  or  Samoyed  pen 
insula.  It  receives  the  Obi  or  Ob  at  its  S.  W. 
extremity.  A  branch  on  its  E.  side  is  called 
the  Taz  gulf.  The  gulf  of  Yenisei,  the  outlet 
of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  forms  with 
Khatanga  gulf,  the  outlet  of  the  Khatanga  riv 
er,  the  Taimyr  peninsula.  On  the  W.  side  of 
Taimyr  bay  is  Cape  Taimyr  or  Northwest  cape, 
and  on  its  E.  side,  at  the  extremity  of  a  long 
peninsula,  is  Tcheliuskin  or  Northeast  cape, 
the  northernmost  point  of  Asia,  in  lat.  77°  50' 
N.  Between  Khatanga  gulf  and  Behring  strait 
are  many  smaller  bays,  most  of  which  are  the 
outlets  of  some  of  the  numerous  rivers  which 
empty  into  the  Arctic  ocean.  The  principal 
islands  off  the  N.  coast  are  the  Liakhoff  or 
New  Siberia  group,  extending  205  m.  opposite 
the  shore  between  the  mouths  of  the  Yana 
and  the  Indigirka;  the  largest,  Kotelnoi,  is 
100  m.  long  by  60  m.  broad ;  the  next  in  size 
is  called  Fadeyeff,  and  the  next  New  Siberia. 
Between  the  main  group  and  the  coast  are 
smaller  islands  called  Liakhoff  and  Maloi.  The 
surface  of  the  islands  is  covered  with  alter 
nate  layers  of  sand  and  ice,  and  in  their  hills 
are  immense  alluvial  deposits  filled  with  wood 
and  the  fossil  bones  of  animals.  Great  quan 
tities  of  fossil  ivory  have  been  obtained  from 
them  and  the  neighboring  coasts  of  the  main 
land.  N.  of  the  coast,  about  the  180th  meri 
dian,  and  separated  from  it  by  Long  strait, 
is  Wrangel's,  Plover,  or  Kellett  land,  of  un 
known  extent.  Along  the  whole  Arctic  coast 
of  Siberia  the  sea  is  frozen  for  more  than  half 
the  year ;  and  in  the  warmer  seasons  the  ice 
floats  in  such  masses  as  to  render  navigation 
always  dangerous  and  often  impossible.  A 
large  part  of  the  coast  is  unexplored,  and 
all  efforts  to  double  Cape  Tcheliuskin  have 
been  unsuccessful  ;  but  Lieut.  Tcheliuskin, 
from  whom  it  is  named,  reached  its  north- 


SIBERIA 


15 


ernmost  point  in  1742  in  a  sledge.  The  east 
ernmost  point  of  Siberia  is  Cape  East  at  the 
end  of  the  Tchuktchi  peninsula,  which  juts 
into  Behring  strait,  opposite  Cape  Prince  of 
Wales  in  Alaska,  the  westernmost  point  of  the 
American  continent.  On  the  S.  side  of  this 
peninsula  is  the  bay  of  Anadyr,  an  inlet  of 
Behring  sea.  The  coast  follows  thence  a  gen 
eral  southwesterly  direction  to  the  end  of  the 
peninsula  of  Kamtchatka,  W.  of  which  lies 
the  Okhotsk  sea,  separated  from  the  Pacific 
by  the  chain  of  the  Kurile  islands  stretching 
from  Kamtchatka  to  Yezo.  Of  the  islands 
of  Behring  sea,  only  Behring  and  Copper  isl 
ands  and  those  lying  close  to  the  coast  belong 
to  Russia. — The  surface  of  Siberia  is  in  its 
general  form  a  vast  diluvial  plain,  slightly 
undulating,  and  sloping  gradually  from  the 
Altai  mountains  on  the  south  to  the  Arctic 
ocean.  In  the  W.  part  are  the  steppes  of 
Ishim  and  Baraba,  broad  tracts  of  lowland 
in  which  grassy  prairies  alternate  with  reed 
marshes,  fresh  lakes  with  salt,  and  tracts  of 
rich  arable  land  with  extensive  forests.  Parts 
of  this  region  present  in  summer  fine  park 
scenery,  in  which  beautiful  wooded  hills  rise 
from  grassy  plains  covered  with  flowers.  Here 
the  birches  often  attain  a  diameter  of  4  ft.  and 
a  height  of  150  ft.,  and  the  pines  much  great 
er  dimensions.  S.  and  E.  of  the  steppes  the 
spurs  of  the  Altai  mountains  jut  into  the  plain 
like  the  headlands  of  a  seacoast.  Many  of  the 
great  rivers  rise  here,  the  upper  part  of  their 
courses  being  through  dense  forests.  In  east 
ern  Siberia  the  plain  is  more  broken  by  hills, 
and  has  but  little  land  fit  for  agriculture.  In 
the  S.  part  of  Irkutsk  and  in  Yakutsk  the  hills 
and  mountains  are  covered  for  most  of  the 
year  with  good  pasture,  and  in  favorable  places 
all  the  grains  of  temperate  climates  are  grown. 
The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  covered  with 
open  forests,  in  which  there  is  tolerable  pastur 
age  at  certain  seasons.  Between  the  Kolyma 
river  and  Behring  sea  the  country  is  traversed 
by  several  mountain  ranges  having  a  general 
elevation  of  2,000  to  3,000  ft.  above  the  sea. 
The  entire  N.  coast  of  Siberia  is  a  dreary  region 
of  salt  steppes  and  frozen  swamps,  called  the 
tundra,  where  the  soil  is  perpetually  frozen  to 
the  depth  of  hundreds  of  feet.  The  surface  is 
never  thawed  before  the  end  of  June,  and  is 
again  ice-bound  by  the  middle  of  September, 
and  deep  snow  covers  the  ground  nine  or  ten 
months  in  the  year.  The  banks  of  the  rivers 
are  lined  with  vast  numbers  of  uprooted  trees 
brought  down  by  floods,  which  eventually  find 
their  way  into  the  Arctic  ocean,  to  be  drifted 
away  by  the  current  flowing  from  E.  to  "VV. 
along  the  Siberian  coast. — The  principal  moun 
tain  range  of  Siberia  is  that  which  forms  in  the 
west  its  S.  boundary  with  China,  and  which  is 
called  by  various  names  in  different  parts.  Its 
E.  extremity  is  at  East  cape  in  Behring  strait, 
whence  it  extends  in  a  general  S.  W.  direction, 
forming  the  boundary  between  the  Littoral,  the 
Amoor,  and  Yakutsk  provinces,  until  it  reaches 

VOL.   XV.— 2 


the  Chinese  frontier,  when  its  course  is  first  S., 
then  W.,  and  then  1ST.  W.  to  the  boundary  be 
tween  Irkutsk  and  Yeniseisk,  from  which  it 
again  runs  S.  "W.  to  the  borders  of  Turkistan. 
In  the  east  and  along  the  shores  of  the  sea 
of  Okhotsk  this  range  is  called  the  Stanovoi 
mountains,  W.  of  the  Amoor  province  the  Ya- 
blonnoi,  further  W.  the  Daurian  and  Sayanian 
mountains,  and  finally  the  Altai  mountains  in 
the  narrower  sense.  The  general  height  of 
the  chain  (the  Altai  in  its  widest  sense)  is 
about  3,000  ft.,  but  the  highest  summits  of  the 
Altai  proper  reach  an  elevation  of  upward  of 
10,000  ft.,  and  the  Yablonnoi  mountains  are 
little  more  than  an  undulating  plateau.  There 
are  many  spurs  from  the  main  range,  as  well 
as  several  smaller  ranges  in  the  interior.  (See 
ALTAI,  AMOOR  COUNTRY,  and  KAMTCHATKA.) 
— With  the  exception  of  the  Amoor  and  a  few 
streams  of  less  importance,  the  rivers  of  Sibe 
ria  all  flow  into  the  Arctic  ocean.  The  Obi 
ranks  among  the  largest  rivers  in  the  world, 
and  many  of  its  tributaries  are  of  great  size ; 
the  most  important  of  these  are  the  Irtish, 
Ishim,  Tobol,  and  Tom.  The  Yenisei  is  by 
some  authorities  said  to  drain  a  greater  ex 
tent  of  surface  and  to  have  a  longer  course 
than  the  Obi ;  its  chief  affluents  are  the  Lower 
Tunguska,  Stony  Tunguska,  and  Upper  Tun- 
guska  or  Angara.  The  Lena  is  nearly  as  large, 
and  the  principal  streams  which  join  it  are 
the  Viliui,  Yitim,  Olekma,  and  Aldan.  The 
other  rivers  of  most  importance  which  flow 
into  the  Arctic  ocean  are  the  Nadym,  Pur, 
Taz,  Piasina,  Khatanga,  Anabara,  Olem,  Ole- 
nek,  Yana,  Indigirka,  Alaze}ra,  Kolyma,  and 
Tchaun.  The  chief  rivers  flowing  into  the 
seas  which  bound  Siberia  S.  E.  are  the  Amoor 
or  Saghalien,  which  forms  part  of  the  south 
ern  boundary  and  receives  several  considerable 
tributaries  from  the  north  ;  the  Anadyr,  flow 
ing  into  the  gulf  of  the  same  name  ;  and  the 
Okhota,  which  has  its  mouth  on  the  W.  shore 
of  the  sea  of  Okhotsk.  Few  of  these  rivers 
present  any  obstacles  to  navigation  except  ice. 
Frozen  inundations  are  frequent.  As  the 
rivers  flow  from  warm  to  cold  latitudes,  their 
lower  and  middle  courses  freeze  while  their 
head  waters  are  still  open.  Xear  their  mouths 
they  freeze  to  the  bottom,  while  above  for 
hundreds  of  miles  only  the  surface  is  frozen. 
The  waters  accumulating  under  the  ice  finally 
burst  from  confinement  and  flood  the  valleys 
with  many  thicknesses  of  ice.  At  the  close  of 
winter  these  accumulations  are  sometimes  20 
ft.  in  depth.  There  are  many  lakes,  but  they 
are  all  small,  with  the  exception  of  Baikal, 
between  the  Transbaikal  province  and  the 
government  of  Irkutsk.  (See  BAIKAL.) — The 
geology  of  Siberia  is  but  little  known,  except 
ing  in  a  few  parts.  Granite  and  crystalline 
schists  are  found  in  the  Ural  mountains,  and 
also  in  the  Altai  and  its  E.  continuations,  be 
tween  Ion.  85°  and  120°  and  as  far  N.  as  lat.  57°, 
and  again  in  the  E.  extremity  of  the  country 
between  Ion.  165°  and  Behring  strait.  Volcanic 


16 


SIBERIA 


rocks  occur  chiefly  in  the  south,  and  are  found 
along  with  the  granite  and  crystalline  schists  ; 
and  there  are  a  few  active  volcanoes.  Other 
rocks,  belonging  to  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and 
carboniferous  systems,  are  found  in  the  south 
and  extending  toward  the  interior  of  the  coun 
try.  The  tertiary  formation  is  the  most  ex 
tensively  developed,  and  is  found  throughout 
the  whole  of  Siberia.  The  shores  of  the  Arctic 
ocean  are  covered  for  a  considerable  distance 
inland,  and  for  a  great  part  of  their  extent,  by 
a  deep  alluvial  deposit  which  contains  immense 
numbers  of  fossil  remains  of  extinct  species 
of  elephants  and  other  animals,  from  which 
large  quantities  of  ivory  are  procured.  (See 
MAMMOTH.)  Mining  operations  in  Siberia  are 
confined  to  three  parts  of  the  country.  The 
westernmost  district  is  on  the  E.  face  of  the 
Ural  mountains,  and  occupies  a  tract  about  40 
in.  broad,  extending  between  lat.  56°  and  60°  ; 
gold,  silver,  platinum,  copper  and  iron  ores,  and 
precious  stones,  are  all  found  in  this  territory. 
This  region  is,  however,  not  officially  included 
in  Siberia.  (See  YEKATERINBURG.)  The  second 
district  lies  on  the  1ST.  side  of  the  Altai  moun 
tains,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  head  streams 
of  the  river  Irtish ;  silver  and  copper  are  found 
here,  and  gold  and  lead  in  smaller  quantities. 
The  third  district  lies  in  the  Yablonnoi  moun 
tains,  E.  of  Ion.  120° ;  in  this  gold,  silver,  lead, 
zinc,  antimony,  iron,  and  arsenic  are  all  found, 
and  there  are  emerald  and  topaz  mines  of  great 
value.  Diamonds  are  occasionally  found  on 
the  E.  slopes  of  the  Ural  mountains.  Por 
phyry,  jasper,  and  malachite,  for  ornamental 
uses,  and  mica,  used  as  a  substitute  for  window 
glass,  are  common.  Salt  is  found  in  great 
abundance  on  the  steppes,  and  on  the  surface 
of  some  of  the  lakes,  where  the  summer  heat 
rapidly  evaporates  the  water  and  leaves  mass 
es  of  crystallized  salt,  sometimes  8  or  9  in. 
thick,  and  so  solid  that  beasts  of  burden  pass 
over  in  safety. — The  climate  of  Siberia  is  much 
colder  than  in  corresponding  latitudes  in  Eu 
rope.  At  Ustyansk,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Yana,  in  lat.  70°  55',  the  mean  annual  tem 
perature  is  4'39°  F.,  while  at  North  cape  in 
Europe,  a  few  minutes  further  north,  it  is 
32°.  At  Irkutsk,  in  lat.  52°  17',  1,240  ft. 
above  the  sea,  the  mean  temperature  is  31°; 
in  winter  quicksilver  freezes,  and  remains  so 
for  about  two  months.  In  1864  Pumpelly 
saw  the  thermometer  indicate  TO0  below  zero 
at  a  station  near  Irkutsk.  The  severity  of  the 
climate  increases  toward  the  east.  At  Nizhni 
Kolymsk,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kolyma,  in  lat. 
68°  31',  Ion.  160°  56',  and  nearly  on  a  level 
with  the  sea,  the  river  freezes  over  in  the  be 
ginning  of  September,  and  is  not  again  free 
from  ice  till  the  beginning  of  June.  The  sea 
begins  to  freeze  in  October,  but  the  cold  at 
this  time  is  somewhat  diminished  by  vapors 
which  rise  from  it  before  the  ice  forms.  In 
January  the  thermometer  falls  to  60°  below 
zero,  and  respiration  becomes  difficult.  The 
cold  is  almost  as  great  in  February,  but  in 


March  it  begins  to  decrease  perceptibly;  the 
wind  blows  from  E.  S.  E.,  and  the  tempera 
ture  rises  to  29°.  In  June  it  is  sometimes  72° 
at  noon ;  and  in  July  the  heat  is  very  great, 
and  the  atmosphere  is  filled  with  swarms  of 
gnats,  which  compel  the  reindeer  to  migrate 
from  the  forests  to  the  open  country  on  the 
shores  of  the  sea.  In  August  frosts  begin  at 
night  and  the  temperature  rapidly  decreases. — 
Forests  cover  a  large  part  of  southern  and  cen 
tral  Siberia,  but  the  tundra  on  the  N.  coast  is 
bare  of  trees.  The  birch,  larch,  fir,  pine,  wil 
low,  poplar,  elm,  and  Tartar  maple  are  the 
principal  trees.  The  silver  poplar  is  found  as 
far  north  as  lat.  60° ;  the  silver  fir  ceases  at 
about  60°  50' ;  the  polar  limit  of  birch  is  about 
63°,  although  dwarf  specimens  are  sometimes 
seen  further  north  ;  the  pine  is  found  on  arid 
slopes  and  heights  in  lat.  64°,  and  the  red  fir 
(pinus  abies)  disappears  about  the  same  paral 
lel.  Larch  trees  with  twisted  trunks  and  many 
branches  are  found  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
tundra.  On  the  most  desolate  steppes  and  moun 
tain  sides,  from  the  Okhotsk  sea  to  the  Arctic 
ocean,  grows  the  trailing  cedar,  called  kedre- 
vnik  by  the  Russians.  It  has  needles  and  cones 
like  the  common  white  pine ;  it  never  stands 
erect,  but  covers  the  ground  under  the  snow 
with  a  network  of  gnarled,  twisted,  and  inter 
locking  trunks.  It  furnishes  almost  the  only 
firewood  of  the  wandering  natives,  and  without 
it  N.  E.  Siberia  would  be  nearly  uninhabitable. 
With  the  opening  of  summer  the  melting  snows 
are  rapidly  followed  by  foliage  and  flowers,  and 
the  whole  region  is  converted  for  a  short  time 
into  a  blooming  garden.  The  flora  of  Irkutsk 
is  richer  than  that  of  Berlin,  exhibiting  the 
plants  of  warmer  countries  beside  those  of  the 
arctic  regions.  Turtchaninoff  discovered  1,000 
phanerogamous  plants  in  its  neighborhood, 
many  of  them  of  unknown  species. — Along 
the  banks  of  the  rivers,  particularly  in  S.  W. 
Siberia,  is  much  land  well  suited  for  agricultu 
ral  purposes.  Wheat,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat, 
oats,  and  hemp  are  grown,  and  some  inferior 
tobacco.  Grain  is  cultivated  as  far  north  as 
lat.  61°,  and  turnips  and  other  vegetables  of 
temperate  climates  thrive  in  favorable  places. 
Reindeer  and  wild  sheep  are  found  on  the 
mountains  which  separate  Siberia  from  Mon 
golia,  and  the  former  roam  in  vast  herds 
throughout  the  N.  part  of  the  country.  The 
Bengal  tiger  and  a  species  of  panther  (fells  irMs) 
also  inhabit  these  mountains,  and  are  sometimes 
seen  much  further  north.  The  Caspian  ante 
lope  is  found  in  the  southwest,  and  the  black 
and  arctic  or  stone  fox  in  the  north.  Sables,  er 
mines,  marmots,  martens,  and  squirrels  abound 
in  the  south.  The  white  bear,  the  lynx,  the 
wolf,  the  wild  hog,  and  the  glutton  are  com 
mon  everywhere.  The  dog  of  the  country, 
which  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  wolf, 
is  used  to  drag  sledges.  The  animals  belong 
ing  to  central  Asia  are  nearly  all  found  in  the 
S.  part  of  Siberia.  Camels  are  kept  by  the 
Calmucks  and  some  other  tribes,  but  do  not 


SIBERIA 


17 


live  N.  of  lat.  55°.  The  domestic  sheep  are  of 
two  species,  the  Russian  and  the  broad-tailed 
Kirghiz;  the  latter  are  chiefly  kept  by  the  no 
madic  tribes,  single  herdsmen  of  whom  some 
times  possess  flocks  of  10,000  head.  The  horned 
cattle  of  Russia  degenerate  in  size  in  Siberia. 
The  horses  are  good,  and  generally  white,  but 
sometimes  they  are  singularly  marked.  Fish 
are  very  numerous.  Ducks,  geese,  swans,  wood 
cocks,  partridges,  and  other  fowl  abound  in 
the  S.  part  of  the  country. — The  population 
of  Siberia  is  composed  of  various  tribes  and 
races.  More  than  half  are  Russians  or  their 
descendants,  some  of  whom  came  to  the  coun 
try  as  volunteer  immigrants,  but  the  greater 
part  were  sent  as  exiles.  These  exiles  consist 
of  three  classes,  criminals  and  political  and  re 
ligious  gffenders.  The  worst  class  are  con 
demned  to  the  mines,  and  those  whose  offences 
have  not  been  so  great  are  employed  at  less 
laborious  work,  while  the  rest  are  formed  into 
settlements  under  the  supervision  of  the  police, 
and  receive  grants  of  land  for  cultivation. 
None  except  the  worst  criminals  are  sent  to 
Siberia  without  their  families.  In  1874,  from 
May  to  October,  16,889  persons  were  banished 
to  Siberia.  Of  these  1,700  were  sentenced  to 
hard  labor,  and  1,624  were  drunkards  and  va 
grants.  They  were  accompanied  voluntarily 
by  1,080  women  and  children  over  15  years  of 
age,  and  1,269  younger  children.  Among  the 
native  tribes  are  the  Samoyeds  in  the  1ST.  "VV., 
and  the  Ostiaks,  who  occupy  the  country  S.  of 
them  as  far  E.  as  the  river  Yenisei ;  these  peo 
ple  live  by  fishing  and  hunting,  and  but  few  of 
them  have  been  converted  to  Christianity.  In 
the  S.  "W.,  besides  some  hordes  of  Bashkirs, 
are  the  Kirghiz,  occupying  the  steppes  of  the 
Ishim  and  Irtish,  commonly  called  from  them 
the  Kirghiz  steppes ;  they  are  still  in  a  barba 
rous  state.  Among  the  inhabitants  of  the  W. 
parts  of  the  Altai  mountains  the  most  numer 
ous  are  the  Calmucks,  who  have,  become  par 
tially  civilized  and  have  laid  aside  many  of 
their  national  peculiarities ;  they  manufacture 
iron  and  gunpowder,  and  cultivate  some  grain 
and  tobacco,  but  their  chief  subsistence  is 
drawn  from  their  flocks  and  herds.  Their  re 
ligion  is  made  up  of  various  superstitions.  On 
the  slopes  of  the  E.  part  of  the  Altai  chain  are 
several  tribes  known  as  Beruisses,  Beltirs, 
Sagai,  and  Katchins.  The  Buriats  are  of  Mon 
gol  origin,  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
people  of  1ST.  China,  and  are  the  most  numer 
ous  native  tribe  in  Siberia;  they  are  found 
chiefly  about  Lake  Baikal  and  E.  to  the  river 
Onon,  a  tributary  of  the  Amoor.  Most  of  the 
nations  of  N.  E.  Siberia  may  be  referred  to 
one  or  the  other  of  three  classes,  the  Yakuts, 
the  Tunguses,  and  the  Tchuktchis  and  Koriaks. 
The  Yakuts,  settled  chiefly  along  the  Lena, 
from  its  source  to  its  mouth,  are  of  Tartar 
origin,  speaking  a  language  said  to  resemble 
closely  the  Turkish.  They  are  all  more  or 
less  civilized  by  Russian  contact,  many  having 
adopted  the  Greek  faith,  and  are  the  most 


thrifty  and  industrious  of  the  nations  of  N. 
Asia.  The  Tunguses,  and  the  allied  tribes,  the 
Lamuts,  the  Monzhurs,  and  the  Gilyaks  of  the 
Amoor  river,  all  of  Mongol  origin,  are  found 
as  far  W.  as  the  Yenisei  and  as  far  E.  as  Ana- 
dyrsk  in  Ion.  169°.  They  are  amiable,  and  easi 
ly  governed  and  influenced.  Their  original  re 
ligion  was  Shamanism,  but  they  now  profess 
almost  universally  the  Greek  faith.  They  train 
reindeer  for  riding  and  pack-carrying  (the  oth 
er  nations  using  them  only  in  sledges),  and  pay 
a  regular  tribute  in  furs  to  the  government. 
The  Tchuktchis  and  Koriaks,  inhabiting  the 
extreme  E.  part  of  Siberia,  between  the  160th 
meridian  and  Behring  strait,  strongly  resemble 
the  North  American  Indians  in  general  appear 
ance,  and  are  tall,  vigorous,  and  athletic.  A 
part  of  them  are  settled  along  the  seashore,  but 
most  are  nomadic.  The  latter  own  large  herds 
of  reindeer,  numbering  frequently  several 
thousand,  and  their  wandering  life  is  a  neces 
sity  to  provide  food  for  them.  The  Tchuktchis 
and  Koriaks  are  independent  of  civilization, 
impatient  of  restraint,  and  bold  and  self-reliant. 
They  are  the  only  Siberian  tribes  that  ever 
made  a  successful  stand  against  Russian  inva 
sion.  Nearly  all  the  Siberian  nations  eat  a 
species  of  toadstool,  called  by  them  mulc-a- 
mur,  which  in  small  doses  produces  all  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  liquor,  but  when  eaten  in 
large  quantities  is  a  violent  narcotic  poison. 
Its  habitual  use  shatters  the  nervous  system, 
and  its  sale  to  the  natives  by  traders  is  made  a 
penal  offence  by  Russian  law.  In  respect  to 
religious  belief  the  inhabitants  are  divided  as 
follows:  Orthodox  Greeks,  2,875,533;  Ras- 
kolniks,  65,505 ;  Armenian  Greeks,  9 ;  Ro 
man  Catholics,  24,754;  Protestants,  5,722; 
Jews,  11,400;  Mohammedans,  61,083;  pagans, 
283,621.  The  population  in  towns  numbers 
113,236. — Although  the  manufactures  of  Si 
beria  are  not  extensive,  a  remarkable  spirit  of 
enterprise  among  the  people  is  rapidly  devel 
oping  the  industrial  resources  of  the  coun 
try.  In  most  of  the  chief  towns  there  are 
manufactories  of  cotton  and  woollen  cloths, 
linen,  glass,  iron,  earthenware,  and  leather; 
and  others  are  springing  up  all  over  the  coun 
try.  The  internal  commerce  is  of  great  im 
portance,  consisting  principally  of  skins,  furs, 
cattle,  fish,  both  dry  and  salted,  caviare,  soap, 
and  tallow.  The  transit  trade  between  Chi 
na  and  European  Russia  is  also  largely  carried 
on  across  Siberia.  The  sole  entrepot  of  this 
commerce  was  formerly  at  Kiakhta,  S.  E.  of 
Lake  Baikal,  but  trade  is  not  now  restricted 
to  it.  The  principal  exports  to  China  are  cot 
ton  and  woollen  cloths,  linen,  furs,  gold  and 
silver  articles,  and  leather;  the  imports,  tea, 
both  leaf  and  compressed  in  cakes,  sugar, 
silks,  cottons,  wool,  cattle,  leather,  furs,  grain, 
dried  fruit,  and  colors.  This  trade  has  been 
chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  the  rivers 
which  flow  into  Lake  Baikal,  thence  through 
the  Upper  Tunguska  to  Yeniseisk,  thence  after 
a  land  carriage  of  about  40  m.  passing  through 


18 


SIBERIA 


SIBYL 


the  Ket,  the  Obi,  and  the  Irtish  to  Tobolsk, 
whence  there  is  again  a  land  conveyance  of 
about  500  m.  across  the  Ural  mountains  to 
Perm.  In  winter  it  is  maintained  by  means 
of  sledges.  But  recently  the  tendency  of  the 
trade  has  appeared  to  be  to  take  the  sea  route 
by  the  coast  of  China  to  Nikolayevsk,  and 
thence  up  the  Amoor  by  steamboat.  There  is 
also  a  considerable  caravan  trade  with  Hi, 
Tashkend,  Khokan,  &c.  A  great  deal  of  the 
trade  of  the  country  is  transacted  at  fairs  held 
at  stated  periods.  The  most  important  fairs 
are  at  Obdorsk  near  the  mouth  of  the  Obi,  Tu- 
rukhansk  on  the  Yenisei,  TJstyansk  on  the  Ya- 
na,  Ostrovnoye  on  a  tributary  of  the  Kolyma, 
Tiumen  on  a  W.  tributary  of  the  Irtish,  and  Ir- 
bit  in  the  E.  part  of  the  government  of  Perm. 
During  the  summer  steamers  ply  on  all  the 
large  streams  of  central  and  southern  Siberia 
and  on  Lake  Baikal,  so  that  there  is  less  than 
1,000  m.  of  wagon  transit  between  St.  Peters 
burg  and  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor.  A  great 
railway  across  the  continent  is  projected,  to 
connect  European  Russia  with  Peking.  The 
proposed  western  terminus  is  Yekaterinburg 
on  the  E.  slope  of  the  Ural  mountains,  whence 
the  line  will  pass  through  Shadrinsk,  Omsk, 
Tomsk,  and  Krasnoyarsk  to  Irkutsk. — Siberia 
is  divided  into  two  military  circumscriptions, 
East  and  West  Siberia :  the  former  comprises 
the  governments  of  Irkutsk  and  Yeniseisk, 
and  the  provinces  of  Transbaikul,  Yakutsk, 
Amoor,  and  the  Littoral;  the  latter  the  gov 
ernments  of  Tobolsk  and  Tomsk,  together  with 
the  Kirghiz  territories  of  central  Asia.  The 
respective  capitals  are  Irkutsk  and  Omsk. 
Each  of  these  two  great  divisions,  which  were 
formed  on  the  present  basis  in  1865,  has  a  mil 
itary  governor  general,  who  is  also  cominand- 
er-in-chief  of  the  troops,  and  has  control  of 
all  affairs,  civil  and  military.  Each  of  the 
governments  and  provinces  has  also  a  civil 
governor,  subordinate  to  the  governor  general, 
who  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  regency.  A 
vice  governor  fills  his  place  in  case  of  his  ab 
sence  or  sickness. — Genghis  Khan  conquered 
a  part  of  Siberia,  and  his  successors  reduced 
the  country  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Irtish. 
About  1580  the 'Russian  family  of  Stroganoff, 
to  whom  the  czar  had  granted  lands  on  both 
sides  of  the  Ural  mountains,  applied  to  a  Cos 
sack  chief,  Yermak  Timofeyeff,  for  assistance 
against  the  khan  Kutchum,  who  ruled  the 
country  on  the  Tobol  and  Irtish  rivers.  Yer 
mak  invaded  the  country  and  made  extensive 
conquests.  Other  adventurers  followed  up  his 
successes,  which  resulted  in  1587  in  the  sub 
jection  to  Russia  of  the  khanate  of  Sibir  (called 
after  a  town  of  that  name,  whence  the  name 
Siberia).  Tobolsk,  Tiumen,  Pelymsk,  and  Be- 
rezov  were  soon  after  founded  and  settled  by 
Europeans.  In  1604  Tomsk  was  founded,  and 
the  Cossacks,  pushing  eastward,  founded  suc 
cessively  Kuznetsk,  Yeniseisk,  Irkutsk,  Selen- 
ginsk,  and  Nertchinsk,  and  at  last  reached  the 
shores  of  Behring  strait.  The  conquest  of  the 


entire  country  was  effected  in  about  80  years. 
The  Amoor  region  was  soon  after  visited  by  a 
Pole  and  some  other  exiles  escaped  from  Ye 
niseisk,  who  built  a  small  fort  on  the  river; 
but  having  quarrelled  with  the  Tunguses,  they 
offered  the  conquest  to  the  emperor  of  Russia, 
and  begged  forgiveness  for  their  former  of 
fences,  while  the  Tunguses  about  the  same  time 
applied  to  the  emperor  of  China  for  assistance. 
This  led  to  disputes  between  the  two  govern 
ments,  but  war  was  prevented,  and  the  boun 
dary  between  China  and  Siberia  established, 
by  a  treaty  concluded  at  Peking  in  1689.  A 
second  treaty  was  made  in  1727,  confirming  the 
former  and  confining  commercial  intercourse  to 
Kiakhta  and  Maimatchin.  The  Amoor  coun 
try  was  finally  ceded  to  Russia  in  1858,  and 
in  1860  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which  the 
whole  line  of  the  frontier  was  thrown,  open 
for  traffic.  The  transportation  of  criminals  to 
Siberia  was  begun  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1710. 
A  well  organized  insurrection  of  Polish  exiles 
was  promptly  suppressed  in  1866.  In  1871  the 
Russians  took  possession  of  the  whole  of  the 
island  of  Saghalien,  which  by  a  treaty  conclu 
ded  in  1867  had  been  divided  between  Russia 
and  Japan,  and  in  1875  the  Japanese  govern 
ment  resigned  all  claims  to  it. — See  Atkin 
son,  "Oriental  and  "Western  Siberia"  (Lon 
don,  1858);  Pumpelly,  "Across  America  and 
Asia"  (New  York,  1870);  and  Kennan,  "Tent 
Life  in  Siberia"  (New  York,  1870). 

SIBLE1,  a  S.  county  of  Minnesota,  bounded 
S.  E.  by  the  Minnesota  river ;  area,  about  500 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,725.  The  surface  is 
undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  Lake  Minne- 
tonka,  30  m.  long,  is  in  this  county.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  237,706  bushels  of 
wheat,  142,060  of  Indian  corn,  221,416  of  oats, 
34,545  of  barley,  32,659  tons  of  'hay,  19,600 
Ibs.  of  wool,  and  310,217  of  butter.  There 
were  1,726  horses,  3,531  milch  cows,  5,952 
other  cattle,  3,666  sheep,  and  3,990  swine. 
Capital,  Henderson. 

SIBOIR,  Marie  Dominique  Anguste,  a  French  pre 
late,  born  at  St.  Paul-Trois-Chateanx,  Drome, 
April  4,  1792,  assassinated  in  Paris,  Jan.  3, 
1857.  lie  was  educated  at  Avignon  and  at 
Paris,  was  for  a  time  professor  in  the  semi 
nary  of  St.  Nicholas,  du  Charclonnet  in  Paris, 
was  next  vicar  to  the  parish  of  St.  Sulpice  and 
to  the  chapel  of  the  missions  etrangeres,  in  1822 
became  canon  of  the  church  of  Mmes,  in  1838 
vicar  general  of  that  diocese,  in  1840  bishop 
of  Digne,  in  1848  archbishop  of  Paris,  as  suc 
cessor  to  Affre,  and  in  1852  a  senator.  In 
1857,  while  opening  the  yearly  nine  days1  de 
votion  in  honor  of  St.  Genevieve  in  the  church 
of  St.  Etienne  du  Mont,  he  was  stabbed  to  the 
heart  by  a  priest  named  Verger,  whom  he  had 
recently  suspended.  He  was  distinguished  for 
religious  and  charitable  activity,  and  published 
Institutions  diocesains  (2  vols.,  1845). 

SIBYL  (Gr.  aifUvTifai),  a  name  applied  to  sev 
eral  women  reputed  prophetic  in  the  ancient 
mythical  period.  Some  authors  say  there 


SICARD 


SICILIES   (THE  Two) 


19 


were  four,  others  ten,  viz.  :  the  Babylonian, 
the  Libyan,  the  Delphian,  the  Cimmerian,  the 
Erythrasan,  the  Samian,  the  Cumsean  (some 
times  identified  with  the  Erythraean),  the  Hel- 
lespontian  or  Trojan,  the  Phrygian,  and  the 
Tiburtine.  Counsel  and  help  were  sought 
from  them  under  the  belief  that  they  were 
able  to  predict,  to  avert  calamities,  and  to  ap 
pease  the  gods.  The  most  famous  of  all  was 
the  Cumsean  sibyl,  so  called  from  Cumas,  her 
residence  in  Campania.  According  to  an  an 
cient  Roman  legend,  she  offered  to  sell  Tar- 
quinius  Priscus  nine  books,  which  the  king 
refused.  Burning  three,  she  offered  the  re 
maining  six  for  the  same  price  that  she  had 
asked  for  the  nine  ;  refused  again,  she  burned 
three  more,  and  still  demanded  the  same  price 
for  the  remaining  three.  The  king  purchased 
these,  and  the  sibyl  vanished.  They  were  the 
famous  sibylline  books,  and  were  preserved 
in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  in  care 
of  two  officers  (duumviri),  afterward  10  (de 
cemviri),  and  finally  15  (quindecemviri),  who 
alone,  directed  by  the  senate,  might  inspect 
their  contents.  Of  these  nothing  definite  is 
known.  The  sibylline  books  having  perished 
when  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  was 
burned  in  83  B.  C.,  a  new  collection  was  com 
piled  by  ambassadors  sent  to  the  various  sibyl 
line  oracles  in  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  was  deposited  in  the  new  temple  of  Jupi 
ter.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  spurious  pro 
phetic  books  multiplied  in  private  hands,  and 
the  emperor  ordered  2,000  of  them  to  be 
burned.  Those  volumes  in  custody  of  the 
state,  revised  by  Tiberius,  were  preserved  in 
two  gilt  chests  in  the  temple  of  Apollo.  Eight 
books  of  apocryphal  Christian  literature,  col 
lected  after  the  2d  century,  entitled  "  Sibyl 
line  Oracles,"  and  still  extant,  consist  of  a  he 
terogeneous  mixture  of  heathen,  Jewish,  and 
Christian  poems.  An  edition  of  these  books 
was  published  by  Gallseus  in  1689  (4to,  Am 
sterdam),  and  fragments  have  been  edited  by 
Angelo  Mai  (Milan,  1817)  and  Struve  (Konigs- 
berg,  1818). 

SICARD,  Roch  Ambroise  Cncnrron,  abbe,  a  French 
philanthropist,  born  at  Fousseret,  near  Tou 
louse,  Sept.  20,  1742,  died  in  Paris,  May  10, 
1822.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Toulouse,  entered  holy  orders,  received  instruc 
tion  from  the  abb6de  1'Epee,  opened  the  school 
for  deaf  mutes  at  Bordeaux  in  1786,  and  became 
vicar  general  of  Condom  and  canon  of  Bor 
deaux.  In  1789,  on  the  death  of  De  T^pee, 
he  was  appointed  his  successor  in  the  in 
stitution  at  Paris.  His  former  church  pre 
ferments  caused  him  to  be  suspected,  and  on 
Aug.  26,  1792,  he  was  imprisoned,  and  barely 
escaped  death  at  the  September  massacre.  His 
lectures  attracted  many  of  the  more  eminent 
literary  men  of  Paris;  but  he  incurred  the 
wrath  of  the  directory,  and  was  banished  for 
his  strictures  upon  the  government.  He  im 
proved  De  1'EpeVs  method  by  the  addition 
of  signs  for  metaphysical  ideas.  In  1815  he 


visited  England,  taking  with  him  his  pupils 
Massieu  and  Clerc.  He  published  several 
works  on  deaf-mute  instruction.  (See  DEAF 
AND  DUMB,  vol.  v.,  p.  733.) 

SICILIES,  The  Two  (It.,  Regno  delle  Due  Si- 
eilie),  formerly  a  kingdom  of  southern  Italy, 
including  the  island  of  Sicily,  with  various 
smaller  islands,  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 
At  the  time  of  its  incorporation  with  the  do 
minions  of  Victor  Emanuel  in  1860,  the  area 
was  43,225  sq.  m.,  and  the  population  8,703,130. 
It  now  forms  six  main  divisions  of  the  king 
dom  of  Italy,  viz. :  the  island  of  Sicily,  with 
seven  provinces  (see  SICILY),  and  the  conti 
nental  divisions  of  Abruzzo  and  Molise,  Cam 
pania  (with  Naples),  Apulia,  Basilicata,  and 
Calabria,  with  an  aggregate  of  16  provinces 
(including  Benevento,  which  formerly  belonged 
to  the  papal  dominions)  and  somewhat  over 
one  third  of  the  population  of  all  Italy.  (See 
ITALY.) — The  early  history  of  the  peninsular 
part  of  the  country,  which  in  ancient  times 
comprised  the  divisions  of  Bruttium,  Lucania, 
Calabria,  Apulia,  Samnium,  Campania,  and  a 
part  of  Latium,  is  closely  connected  with  the 
history  of  Rome,  and,  through  the  Magna 
Grsecian  cities  of  Tarentum,  Croton,  Sybaris, 
Thurii,  Rhegium,  Neapolis,  and  others,  partly 
also  with  that  of  Greece.  After  the  fall  of  the 
western  empire  the  country  was  successively 
under  the  power  of  the  Goths,  the  Byzantine 
exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  the  Saracens ;  but 
several  small  republics  or  duchies,  as  Naples, 
Salerno,  Amalfi,  Gaeta,  and  Benevento,  ulti 
mately  rose  to  independence.  During  the  first 
half  of  the  llth  century  great  numbers  of 
Norman  adventurers  served  these"  small  states 
as  mercenaries,  but  soon  began  to  wage  war  on 
their  own  account ;  and  under  the  leadership 
of  William  Bras  de  Fer,  Drogo,  and  Robert 
Guiscard,  they  conquered,  the  greater  part  of 
Apulia,  which  they  divided  into  12  counties, 
forming  together  a  feudal  confederation.  In 
1053  Pope  Leo  IX.,  at  the  head  of  German 
and  Italian  troops,  tried  to  expel  the  new  con 
querors  ;  but  he  was  defeated  at  Civitella  and 
taken  prisoner,' and  his  captors  obliged  him  to 
recognize  their  conquests  by  formally  holding 
them  as  vassals  of  the  holy  see.  Robert  Guis 
card  established  his  power  paramount  over  his 
companions  in  arms,  assumed  the  title  of  duke 
of  Apulia,  and  subdued  Calabria,  while  his 
youngest  brother  Roger  made  himself  master 
of  the  island  of  Sicily,  previously  occupied  by 
the  Saracens.  In  1127  the  whole  of  the  Nor 
man  acquisitions  were  united  under  Roger  II., 
son  of  Roger  I.,  the  conqueror  of  Sicily,  who 
received  in  1130,  from  the  antipope  Anacle- 
tus  II.,  the  title  of  king  of  Sicily  and  Apulia. 
The  bull  which  conferred  that  dignity  clear 
ly  established  the  paramount  lordship  of  the 
pope,  and  stipulated  the  annual  tribute  to  be 
paid  by  the  new  kingdom.  Roger  conquered 
Capua  and  Naples.  He  was  succeeded  in  1154 
by  his  son  William  I.  the  Bad,  who  left  his 
crown  to  William  II.  the  Good  (1166-'89)  ; 


SICILIES   (TiiE  Two) 


the  latter  promoted  public  prosperity,  and  was 
a  stanch  supporter  of  Pope  Alexander  III.  and 
the  cities  of  Lombardy  against  the  emperor 
Frederick  Barbarossa.  William  II.  died  with 
out  issue,  and  his  kingdom  was  claimed  by 
his  aunt  Constantia,  who  had  married  the  son 
of  Frederick  Barbarossa.  Her  husband,  Hen 
ry  VI.,  upheld  her  rights  against  the  usurper 
Tancred,  and  finally  in  1194  united  the  king 
dom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  to  the  empire.  On 
his  premature  death  in  1197,  his  Italian  crown 
passed  to  his  son,  afterward  the  emperor  Fred 
erick  II.  The  exertions  of  this  prince  to  an 
nihilate  the  -Lombard  league  and  to  strengthen 
his  dominion  over  Italy  drew  upon  himself  and 
his  descendants  the  persecution  of  the  papal 
court ;  and  during  the  minority  of  Conradin, 
his  grandson,  the  Roman  see  took  the  king 
dom.  Manfred,  a  natural  son  of  Frederick 
II.,  the  first  regent  for  his  nephew  Conra 
din,  then  king  on  the  pretended  death  of 
this  young  prince  (1258),  was  finally  defeated 
and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Benevento  (Feb.  26, 
12(36),  by  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  had  been 
crowned  as  his  successor  by  Pope  Clement  IV., 
and.  who  now  usurped  the  power  in  the  two 
kingdoms.  Conradin,  the  last  of  the  Hohen- 
staufen,  was  utterly  defeated  at  Tagliacozzo, 
Aug.  23,  1268,  and  beheaded  at  Naples,  Oct. 
29.  The  exasperation  produced  by  Charles's 
despotism  finally  culminated  (March  30,  1282, 
at  the  hour  of  vespers)  in  the  revolt  and  mas 
sacre  at  Palermo  provoked  by  the  licentious 
brutality  of  a  Frenchman,  and  the  expulsion 
of  the  French  from  Sicily,  an  event  known 
as  "the  Sicilian  vespers,"  and  Pedro  III.  of 
Aragon,  the  husband  of  Constantia,  Manfred's 
daughter,  became  king.  Charles  strove  in  vain 
to  regain  possession  of  Sicily.  For  more  than 
a  century  and  a  half  the  island  (mainly  ruled 
by  a  younger  branch  of  the  house  of  Aragon) 
and  the  continental  kingdom  were  separated 
from  each  other,  and  the  sovereigns  of  both 
parts  styled  themselves  kings  of  Sicily.  The 
destinies  of  the  house  of  Anjou  at  Naples,  ob 
scured  during  the  later  years  of  Charles  I.  and 
the  reign  of  his  son  Charles  •!!.  the  Lame, 
brightened  again  under  Robert  the  Wise  (1309- 
'43),  the  patron  of  Petrarch ;  but  the  reign  of 
his  granddaughter,  Joanna  I.,  was  marked  by 
all  sorts  of  domestic  crimes  and  disorders. 
After  her  execution  by  order  of  the  king  of 
Hungary  (see  JOANNA)  in  1382,  a  bloody  con 
test  raged  between  Louis  I.,  the  head  of  the 
second  house  of  Anjou,  her  adopted  son,  and 
Charles  of  Durazzo,  her  lawful  heir.  The  lat 
ter  finally  triumphed,  but  was  called  to  Hun 
gary  by  discontented  nobles  in  1385,  crowned 
king,  and  murdered  soon  after.  His  son  Ladis- 
las,  scarcely  10  years  old,  was  overthrown  by 
the  Angevine  party,  who  called  in  Louis  II.  of 
Anjou  in  1389  ;  but  in  1399  he  reascended  his 
throne,  and  crushed  the  adherents  of  his  rival. 
He  was  succeeded  in  1414  by  his  sister  Joanna 
II.,  whose  reign  of  21  years  was  as  shameful 
and  disastrous  as  that  of  Joanna  I.  After 


adopting  in  succession  Alfonso  V.  of  Aragon 
and  Louis  III.  of  Anjou,  she  finally,  on  the 
latter's  death,  bequeathed  the  crown  to  his 
brother  Rene.  After  a  few  years'  war  Rene 
was  expelled  by  Alfonso  V.,  who  received  the 
investiture  of  his  new  kingdom  from  Pope 
Eugenius  IV.,  and  thus  reunited  the  two  parts 
of  the  old  monarchy.  On  his  death  in  1458 
he  left  the  kingdom  of  Naples  to  his  natural 
son  Ferdinand  I.,  who  finally  maintained  his 
rights  against  John  of  Calabria,  son  of  King 
Ren6,  while  Sicily  as  well  as  Aragon  fell  to  his 
brother  John  II.  In  1494  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  was  suddenly  conquered  by  Charles 
VIII.  of  France,  and  its  possession  was  dis 
puted  by  the  French  and  Spaniards  until  Fer 
dinand  the  Catholic  became  master  of  it  in 
1503,  and  was  successively  known  as  Ferdi 
nand  III.  of  Naples  and  Ferdinand  II.  of  Sicily. 
The  oppressive  rule  of  the  Spanish  viceroys 
resulted  in  1647  in  the  rising  under  Masaniello 
at  Naples,  and  in  other  commotions ;  the  distur 
bances  created  by  the  former  lasted  for  years, 
though  Masaniello  was  speedily  assassinated 
(July  16,  1647).  During  the  war  for  the  Span 
ish  succession  the  people  sided  with  Philip  V., 
the  Bourbon  king;  but  in  1707  they  accepted 
his  competitor  Charles  of  Austria,  afterward 
emperor  of  Germany  as  Charles  VI.,  whose 
title  to  Naples  was  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  in  1713,  while  Sicily  was  given  to  Vic 
tor  Amadeus  of  Savoy.  The  latter  exchanged 
Sicily  in  1720  for  Sardinia,  and  the  two  king 
doms  remained  under  the  rule  of  Charles  VI. 
till  1734,  when  they  were  conquered  by  Don 
Carlos,  son  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  was 
crowned  at  Palermo  in  1735  as  Charles  III., 
and  acknowledged  as  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
In  1759,  on  his  succession  to  the  throne  of 
Spain,  his  son  Ferdinand  IV.  became  king  of 
Naples  and  Sicily.  Under  the  influence  of  his 
wife  Queen  Caroline  and  her  favorite  the  prime 
minister  Acton,  he  joined  the  first  coalition 
against  France,  and  in  1799  the  French  estab 
lished  the  Parthenopean  republic  in  the  Nea 
politan  territory.  This  was  overthrown  after 
a  few  months,  and  Ferdinand  restored.  He 
retained  the  island  of  Sicily  with  the  assistance 
of  England,  but  after  his  violation  of  the  treaty 
of  Paris  which  in  1801  he  had  concluded  with 
France,  Napoleon  deposed  the  Bourbons,  and 
in  1806  'gave  the  throne  of  Naples  to  his  brother 
Joseph,  and  in  1808  to  Murat.  In  1815,  after 
the  overthrow  of  Murat,  Ferdinand  was  re 
stored;  and  on  Dec.  12,  1816,  he  assumed 
power  over  the  two  countries  as  Ferdinand  I. 
of  the  (united)  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
He  abrogated  the  constitution  which  he  had 
granted  while  in  Sicily.  The  rising  under  Pepe 
in  1820  obliged  him  to  adopt  the  Spanish  lib 
eral  constitution  of  1812,  but  with  the  aid  of 
Austria  he  soon  suppressed  it.  On  his  death, 
Jan.  4,  1825,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Francis  I.,  who  had  become  popular  by  his 
liberalism,  but  whose  reign  was  notorious  for 
his  subserviency  to  Austria.  He  died  in  1830. 


•X  1  V  KUS  IT  V    01' 


SICILY 


21 


His  son  and  successor,  Ferdinand  II.  (1830-'59), 
was  the  most  odious  of  all  the  Bourbon  rulers 
from  his  sanguinary  repression  of  insurrections 
in  Sicily  and  Naples.  His  excesses  aroused  the 
national  spirit  and  paved  the  way  for  liberty. 
His  son  Francis  II.  adhered  to  his  despotic 
system.  In  1800  Garibaldi  invaded  Sicily,  con 
quered  it,  and  crossed  the  strait  of  Messina. 
On  his  approach  in  September  toward  Naples 
Francis  lied  to  Capua.'  There  he  rallied  an 
army,  which  was  however  compelled  to  sur 
render  with  the  fortress,  Nov.  2,  the  court 
retiring  to  Gaeta.  The  two  kingdoms  were 
merged  with  Victor  Emanuel's  possessions,  and 
the  flight  of  Francis  from  Gaeta  and  the  sur 
render  of  that  stronghold  to  Gen.  Cialtlini, 
Feb.  13,  1861,  removed  the  last  obstacles  to 
national  unity,  and  Victor  Emanuel  received 
on  Feb.  26  the  title  of  king  of  Italy.— See 
Giannone,  Storia  civile  del  regno  di  Napoli  (4 
vols.,  Naples,  1723  ;  new  ed.,  13  void.,  Milan, 
1823  et  seq.) ;  Colletta,  Storia  del  reame  di 
Napoli  dal  1734  sino  al  1825  (2  vols.,  Capo- 
lago,  1834 ;  English  translation,  1858) ;  and 
Reuchlin,  Qeschichte  Necipels  wdhrend  der  letz- 
ten  siebzig  Jalire  (Nordlingen,  1862). 

SICILY  (anc.  Trinacria,  from  its  triangular 
shape,  Sicania,  and  Sicilia\  the  largest  island 
of  the  Mediterranean,  forming  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  separated  from  Calabria  by 
the  strait  of  Messina,  between  lat.  36°  38'  and 
38°  18'  N.,  and  Ion.  12°  25'  and  15°  40'  E.  The 
northern  side  is  180,  the  southwestern  171,  and 
the  eastern  113  m.  long;  area,  11,291  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  2,584,099.  The  extreme  points 
of  the  island  are  Capo  di  Faro  or  Cape  Peloro 
(anc.  Pelorus)  at  the  northeast,  Cape  Passaro 
(Pachynus)  at  the  southeast,  and  Cape  Boeo 
(Lilyfiwum)  at  the  northwest.  It  is  divided 
into  the  provinces  of  Caltanisetta,  Catania, 
Girgenti,  Messina,  Palermo,  Syracuse,  and  Tra- 
pani.  Capital,  Palermo.  The  coast  has  nu 
merous  indentations,  the  largest  of  which  are 
the  gulf  of  Castellamare  on  the  northwest,  the 
gulf  of  Patti  on  the  northeast,  and  the  bay  of 
Catania  on  the  east ;  the  best  harbors  are  those 
of  Palermo,  Messina,  Agosta,  and  Syracuse.  The 
tides  on  the  coast  are  slight  and  irregular.  Of 
the  two  principal  currents  of  the  Mediterra 
nean,  that  from  the  Atlantic  and  that  from  the 
Black  sea,  only  the  first  is  felt  upon  the  shores 
of  Sicily,  and  in  its  set  through  the  strait  of 
Messina  it  causes  the  whirlpool  at  the  N.  end 
called  by  the  ancients  Charybdis.  Most  of  the 
mountains  of  Sicily  are  regarded  as  part  of  the 
system  of  the  Apennines.  The  northern  part 
of  the  island  is  generally  high,  the  mountains 
in  several  places  coming  close  to  the  sea ;  but 
in  the  opposite  direction  they  recede  to  a  con 
siderable  distance,  and  the  coasts  are  of  mod 
erate  elevation.  The  celebrated  volcano  Mt. 
Etna  rises  in  solitary  grandeur  (upward  of 
10,800  ft.)  from  the  E.  coast,  midway  between 
the  N.  and  S.  extremities  of  the  island.  (See 
ETNA.)  A  range  of  mountains  runs  from  Cape 
Peloro,  on  the  strait  of  Messina,  to  the  S.  W., 


following  the  E.  coast  to  near  Taormina,  30  m. 
from  Messina,  where  it  is  joined  by  a  chain 
from  the  west  which  keeps  much  nearer  the 
N.  than  the  S.  W.  shore,  and  sends  off  spurs 
to  the  coast  in  the  former  direction.  The 
first  chain,  now  called  Pelorian,  was  anciently 
known  as  Neptunius  Mons;  the  second  is  now 
called  Madonian,  and  was  anciently  known  as 
the  Nebrodian.  No  part  of  this  chain  rises 
above  6,300  ft.,  and  in  the  west  it  becomes 
much  broken.  About  half  way  across  the  isl 
and  a  chain  of  great  hills  breaks  off  from  the 
Madonian  mountains,  runs  W.  of  the  high  pla 
teau  of  Etna  to  the  southeast,  and  is  cut  up  by 
numerous  and  precipitous  ravines,  but  sinks 
into  a  flat  country  as  it  approaches  the  S.  E. 
point  of  Sicily.  The  island  is  watered  by  nu 
merous  streams,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  the  Alcantara  (anc.  Taurominius)  and  Gia- 
retta  or  Simeto  (Symcetlius)  on  the  E.  coast, 
the  Salso  (S.  Himerd),  Platani  (Halycus),  and 
Belici  (Hypsas)  on  the  S.  W.,  and  the  Termini 
(N.  Himerd)  on  the  N.  They  are  nearly  all 
mere  torrents,  dry  or  nearly  so  m  summer, 
but  swelling  into  floods  during  the  seasons  of 
heavy  rains;  and  few  of  them  are  navigable 
even  at  their  mouths.  The  largest  lake  is  that 
of  Lentini,  near  the  E.  coast,  between  Catania 
and  Syracuse;  it  is  about  12  m.  in  circumfer 
ence,  but  shallow  and  stagnant. — Sicily  contains 
no  strata  corresponding  to  those  of  the  Silu 
rian,  the  old  red  sandstone,  the  carboniferous, 
or  the  new  red  sandstone  formation;  granite 
and.  limestone  are  found  in  some  places,  and 
near  Etna  a  large  tract  is  covered  with  volca 
nic  products.  Different  kinds  of  fine  stone 
abound,  and  amber  is  procured  near  Catania. 
Small  quantities  of  argentiferous  lead,  quick 
silver,  iron,  copper,  and  antimony  are  found, 
but  they  are  seldom  worked.  The  other  min 
erals  include  marble,  petroleum,  emery,  alum, 
rock  salt,  agates,  and  sulphur,  the  most  impor 
tant  of  all.  The  climate  is  temperate  and  agree 
able.  The  thermometer  rarely  rises  higher  than 
92°  F.  and  seldom  sinks  below  36°,  and  the 
mean  annual  temperature  at  Palermo  is  about 
64°.  The  annual  fall  of  rain  is  about  26  inch 
es,  nearly  all  during  the  winter  months.  In 
summer  the  weather  is  settled,  but  after  the 
autumnal  equinox  it  becomes  for  a  time  hazy 
and  boisterous.  Thunder  storms  are  violent 
and  frequent ;  and  the  sirocco,  or  S.  E.  wind, 
blowing  for  three  or  four  days  at  a  time,  is  very 
distressing  in  some  parts  of  the  island.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  level  ground  in  Sicily.  Of  the 
first  an  example  is  found  in  the  dreary  wastes 
along  the  S.  shore,  where  the  limestone  rock 
coming  near  the  surface  supports  a  scanty  vege 
tation  ;  and  of  the  second  in  the  fertile  plains 
of  Palermo,  Catania,  and  Castellamare,  filling 
up  the  curves  of  the  mountains  which  recede 
from  the  sea.  The  hilly  regions  are  varied 
with  undulating  slopes  and  bold  crags,  the 
former  of  which  are  clothed  with  forests  of 
fine  timber,  or  covered  with  excellent  pastures. 
In  the  fertile  plains  cultivation  is  general,  and 


22 


SICILY 


SICKLES 


although  the  mode  is  rude  and  careless,  the 
crops  are  often  remarkable  for  their  luxuri 
ance;  the  most  important  are  wheat,  maize, 
barley,  and  pulse.  Artificial  grasses  are  grown 
to  a  small  extent,  and  hemp  is  raised  in  the 
deeper  and  lower  grounds.  The  vine  and  olive 
are  extensively  cultivated,  and  often  inter 
mixed.  The  other  productions  include  sugar, 
barilla,  cotton,  sumach,  saffron,  manna  ob 
tained  from  a  species  of  ash  (fraxinus  ornus), 
and  the  mulberry,  which  is  extensively  applied 
to  rearing  silkworms.  Various  kinds  of  fruit 
abound.  The  most  valuable  kinds  of  timber 
are  ash,  oak,  pine,  elm,  and  chestnut.  Cattle 
are  not  numerous,  and  are  generally  neglected. 
Sheep  are  extensively  reared,  but  the  breed  is 
inferior,  and  in  many  places  goats  are  preferred 
to  them.  Snakes  are  common  in  the  plains, 
and  wolves  in  the  mountains. — The  population 
is  a  mixture  of  many  races,  but  the  Sicanians 
or  Siculians  seem  to  have  been  the  aborigi 
nes.  Greeks,  Carthaginians,  Romans,  Vandals, 
Goths,  Herulians,  Arabs,  and  Normans  after 
ward  settled  among  them.  The  Sicilians  are 
of  light  olive  complexion,  middle  stature,  and 
well  made.  The  dialect  differs  considerably 
from  the  Italian,  being  much  mixed  with  Ara 
bic  and  other  languages.  They  are  all  Roman 
Catholics,  excepting  a  number  of  descendants 
of  modern  Greek  settlers,  who  adhere  to  the 
Greek  church.  The  unequal  distribution  of 
landed  property,  the  fatal  rule  of  the  Bour 
bons,  the  total  neglect  of  education,  and  other 
untoward  circumstances  have  produced  great 
misery  in  Sicily ;  but  the  island  is  gradual 
ly  improving  under  Victor  Emanuel,  although 
brigandage  still  prevails,  especially  under  a 
wide-spread  organization  known  as  the  Mafia. 
There  are  now  elementary  schools  in  the  vil 
lages  and  higher  schools  in  the  towns,  and 
Palermo  has  a  celebrated  university.  Industry 
is  not  much  developed,  and  the  manufactures 
are  limited  chiefly  to  the  larger  towns.  The 
wines  of  the  country  are  largely  exported,  along 
with  fruit,  grain,  oil,  sulphur,  silk,  wool,  su 
mach,  &c.  The  fisheries  are  among  the  most 
productive  in  the  Mediterranean. — The  first  in 
habitants  of  Sicily  are  supposed  to  have  come 
from  the  continent  of  Italy.  The  Phoenicians 
early  founded  colonies  there,  including  Panor- 
mus  (now  Palermo)  and  Eryx.  In  the  8th 
century  B.  C.  the  Greeks  drove  them  into  the 
interior,  and  in  that  and  the  following  two  cen 
turies  established  several  colonies  on  the  coasts, 
such  as  Zancle  or  Messana  (Messina),  Syracuse, 
Leontini  (Lentini),  Catana  (Catania),  several 
towns  called  Hybla,  Gela,  Selinus,  and  Agri- 
gentum  (Girgenti),  of  which  Syracuse  and  Mes 
sana  became  the  most  celebrated.  The  Cartha 
ginians  invaded  the  island  early  in  the  5th  cen 
tury  and  also  established  colonies,  which,  after 
long  contests  with  the  Greeks,  finally  fell  under 
the  power  of  Syracuse.  (See  SYEAOUSE.)  Du 
ring  the  first  Punic  war  Agrigentum  was  the 
principal  stronghold  of  the  Carthaginians,  but 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  who  subse 


quently  obtained  possession  of  the  whole  isl 
and,  afterward  their  principal  granary.  On 
the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  Sicily  was 
overrun  by  barbarians.  The  Ostrogoths,  who 
conquered  it  at  the  close  of  the  5th  century, 
were  expelled  in  535  by  the  Byzantine  general 
Belisarius.  The  Saracens  occupied  it  about 
830,  and  made  Palermo  their  capital.  In  the 
llth  century  they  were  driven  out  by  the  Nor 
mans,  who  established  the  feudal  system,  and 
united  Sicily  to  Naples,  with  which  its  subse 
quent  history  is  identified.  (See  SICILIES,  THE 
Two.) — Among  recent  works  on  Sicily  are: 
UIH&toire  de  la  Sidle  sous  la  domination  des 
Norlands,  by  Bazancourt  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1846) ; 
Storia  dei  Musulmani  di  Sicilia,  by  Amari 
(Florence,  1853);  Compendio  della  storia  di 
Sicilia,  by  San  Filippo  (7th  ed.,  Palermo, 
1859);  Neapel  und  Sicilien,  by  Loher  (2  vols., 
Munich,  1864);  Siciliana,  by  Gregorovius,  in 
cluded  in  his  Wanderjahre  in  Italien  (4  vols., 
Leipsic,  1874) ;  "  History  of  Sicily  to  the  Athe 
nian  War,"  by  W.  Watkiss  Lloyd  (London, 
1874)  ;  and  GescJiichte  Siciliens  im  Alterthum, 
by  Ad.  Holms  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1874  et  seq.~). 

SICMNGEN,  Franz  von,  a  German  soldier,  born 
in  the  castle  of  Sickingen,  Baden,  March  1, 
1481,  died  May  7,  1523.  He  was  rich  and  dis 
tinguished  for  valor  and  generosity.  He  en 
couraged  the  reformation,  protected  Reuchlin 
and  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  and  offered  an  asylum 
to  Luther.  In  1513  he  declared  war  against 
the  city  of  Worms,  and  subsequently  fought 
against  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  levied  large 
amounts  of  money  upon  Metz  and  other  cities, 
and  laid  siege  to  Mentz,  when  the  quarrel  was 
adjusted  by  the  emperor.  In  1521  he  invaded 
Picardy  with  the  count  of  Nassau,  but  was 
forced  by  a  stratagem  of  the  chevalier  Bayard, 
and  by  sickness  in  his  army,  to  abandon  the 
expedition.  In  1522  a  private  dispute  brought 
him  into  war  with  the  archbishop  of  Treves, 
and  he  raised  an  army  of  12,000  men  and  des 
olated  his  territories.  In  1523  he  was  besieged 
in  his  castle  Landstuhl  near  Kaiserslautern,  and 
surrendered  after  receiving  a  mortal  wound. 
He  was  one  of  the  last  nobles  who  maintained 
in  Germany  the  right  of  private  warfare.  His 
descendants  became  counts  of  the  empire; 
only  one  branch  of  them  now  survives. — See 
JRitter  Franz  von  Sickingen  und  seine  Nach- 
Itommen,  by  Schneegans  (Creuznach,  1867). 

SICKLE.     See  SCYTHE. 

SICKLE-BILL.     See  CUELEW. 

SICKLES,  Daniel  Ephraim.  an  American  general, 
born  in  New  York,  Oct.  20,  1822.  He  studied 
at  the  university  of  New  York,  but  did  not 
graduate,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1844. 
In  1847  he  was  elected  to  the  state  legislature, 
and  in  1853  was  appointed  corporation  attor 
ney  in  New  York  city.  In  the  latter  year  he 
accompanied  Mr.  Buchanan  to  England  as  sec 
retary  of  legation.  He  was  elected  to  the  state 
senate  in  1855  and  to  congress  in  1856,  and  re- 
elected  to  the  latter  in  1858  and  1860.  In  1859 
he  shot  Philip  Barton  Key  in  Washington  for 


SICYON 


SIDNEY 


an  intrigue  with  his  wife,  and  was  tried  for 
murder,  but  acquitted.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war  in  1861  he  raised  the  Excelsior 
brigade  in  New  York,  and  was  commissioned 
colonel.  In  September  his  nomination  as  a 
brigadier  general  of  volunteers  was  rejected  by 
the  senate,  but  on  its  renewal  was  confirmed ; 
and  in  the  battles  of  the  Chickahominy  cam 
paign  he  commanded  a  brigade  of  Hooker's  di 
vision  of  the  3d  corps.  He  succeeded  Hooker 
in  the  command  of  his  division,  which  he  led 
in  the  battles  of  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg. 
He  was  commissioned  a  major  general  of  vol 
unteers  Nov.  29,  1862,  and  commanded  the 
3d  corps  at  Chancellorsville,  May  2-4,  1863, 
and  at  Gettysburg,  July  2,  where  he  lost  a  leg. 
He  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  42d  infantry 
regiment  of  the  regular  army,  July  28,  1866, 
and  was  commander  of  the  second  military 
district  (North  and  South  Carolina)  till  Aug. 
26,  1867.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  minister 
to  Spain,  which  office  he  resigned  in  1874. 
He  married  a  Spanish  lady  as  his  second  wife. 

SICYON  (now  Vasilika),  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  of  Greece,  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
originally  on  a  plain  near  the  Corinthian  gulf. 
Having  been  destroyed,  it  was  rebuilt  by  De 
metrius  Poliorcetes  on  a  hill  between  the  Aso- 
pus  and  Helisson,  about  10  m.  N.  W.  of  Cor 
inth.  The  streets,  laid  out  at  right  angles,  are 
still  traceable.  Its  territory  was  called  Sicyo- 
nia.  It  was  one  of  the  Dorian  states,  and  was 
ruled  by  tyrants  for  about  a  century  after  676 
B.  C.  It  joined  the  Persians  in  their  wars, 
was  repeatedly  assailed  by  the  Athenians,  and 
favored  the  Spartans  in  the  Peloponnesian 
conflict.  Aratus,  its  general,  united  it  to  the 
Achaean  league  in  251.  It  was  long  a  chief  seat 
of  Grecian  art,  and  had  an  eminent  school, 
founded  by  Eupompus  and  including  Apelles 
and  Pamphilus,  and  was  the  model  of  taste 
and  fashion  in  dress  for  all  Greece. 

SIBDONS,  Sarah,  an  English  actress,  born  in 
Brecknock,  South  Wales,  July  5,  1755,  died  in 
London,  June  8,  1831.  The  eldest  of  the  chil 
dren  of  Roger  Kemble  (see  KEMBLE),  at  13 
years  of  age  she  took  principal  parts  in  Eng 
lish  operas.  At  18  she  married  Mr.  Siddons, 
a  young  actor  in  the  Kemble  company.  She 
first  appeared  at  Drury  Lane  theatre  Dec.  29, 
1775,  as  Portia  in  the  "Merchant  of  Venice," 
but  failed  to  produce  a  decided  impression, 
apparently  in  great  part  from  timidity,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  season  was  dismissed.  She 
devoted  herself  anew  to  study,  and,  after  great 
successes  at  various  provincial  theatres,  was 
solicited  to  reappear  at  Drury  Lane.  On  Oct. 
10,  1782,  she  began  this  second  engagement  as 
Isabella  in  "  The  Fatal  Marriage,"  producing  a 
profound  sensation.  At  once  she  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  British  stage,  and  so  continued  till 
her  retirement  from  professional  life,  June  29, 
1812.  On  this  occasion  she  played  Lady  Mac 
beth,  and  the  moment  the  night  scene  was  over 
the  audience  rose  and  demanded  that  the  play 
should  close.  Mrs.  Siddons  was  of  medium 


height,  symmetrical  and  majestic,  with  corre 
sponding  voice  and  expression.  Her  counte 
nance  was  of  extraordinary  flexibility.  Her 
genius  at  first  inclined  to  pathetic  characters, 
as  Isabella,  Ophelia,  Jane  Shore,  Belvidera,  or 
Euphrasia,  but  later  to  those  of  power  and 
majesty.  In  some  other  r61es  she  was  but 
moderately  successful.  Her  private  character 
was  highly  esteemed. 

SIDEREAL  TIME.     See  DAY. 

SIDI  MOHAMMED,  emperor  of  Morocco,  born 
in  1803,  died  Sept.  20,  1873.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  in  1859,  as  the  elder  son  of  Abder- 
rahman,  and  soon  afterward  was  engaged  in 
difficulties  with  France  and  in  a  serious  war 
with  Spain,  on  account  of  the  depredations 
of  the  Rif  pirates.  The  Spanish  forces  under 
Prim  and  O'Donnell  achieved  signal  victories, 
and  the  final  treaty  of  April  27,  I860,  bound 
the  emperor  to  pay  an  indemnity  to  Spain  of 
20,000,000  piasters,  and  to  cede  her  some  ter 
ritory,  besides  granting  her  other  concessions. 
He  afterward  strove  to  secure  the  good  will  of 
Christian  powers  by  introducing  reforms  and 
making  concessions  to  foreigners,  which  pro 
duced  such  discontent  among  his  subjects  that 
they  nearly  drove  him  from  the  throne  in  1862. 
Yet  in  1864  he  granted  liberty  of  commerce 
to  all  European  traders  in  his  dominions,  and 
the  result  was  repeated  insurrections.  That 
of  1867,  the  most  formidable,  he  quelled  by 
attacking  the  insurgents  in  person  at  the  head 
of  a  powerful  army.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Muley  Hassan. 

SIBMOlTTH,"Lord.     See  ADDINGTON. 

SIDNEY,  Algernon,  an  English  statesman,  born 
about  1622,  executed  on  Tower  hill,  London, 
Dec.  7,  1683.  He  was  the  second  surviving 
son  of  the  second  earl  of  Leicester  of  that 
creation,  by  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  earl 
of  Northumberland,  and  grandncphew  of  Sir 
Philip  Sidney.  In  1632  he  accompanied  his 
father  to  Denmark,  where  the  latter  was  ac 
credited  as  ambassador,  and  four  years  later 
to  France.  In  1641  he  served  in  Ireland  as 
captain  of  a  troop  of  horse  in  a  regiment  com 
manded  by  his  father  ;  and  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war,  while  on  his  way  with  his  broth 
er  to  join  the  king's  forces,  he  was  detained  at 
Liverpool  by  order  of  parliament.  The  king 
believed  this  had  been  done  through  the  con 
nivance  of  the  young  men,  who,  resenting  Ijis 
distrust,  at  once  declared  for  the  parliament. 
Algernon  Sidney  was  commissioned  a  captain 
in  May,  1644,  and  fought  with  gallantry  at 
Marston  Moor,  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 
In  1646  he  was  appointed  lieutenant  general  of 
horse  in  Ireland,  and  governor  of  Dublin.  In 
the  same  year  he  entered  parliament  for  Car 
diff,  and  in  May,  1647,  received  the  thanks  of 
parliament  for  his  services  in  Ireland,  and  was 
made  governor  of  Dover  castle.  He  acted  as 
one  of  the  judges  of  the  king,  but  refrained 
from  signing  the  warrant  for  his  execution, 
although  he  subsequently  characterized  it  as 
"the  justest  and  bravest  action  that  ever  was 


SIDNEY 


done  in  England  or  anywhere  else."  His  op 
position  to  the  protectorship  of  Cromwell  com 
pelled  him  to  relinquish  his  legislative  duties ; 
and  in  April,  1653,  he  retired  to  his  father's 
residence  at  Penshurst.  He  resumed  his  seat 
at  the  first  meeting  of  the  restored  parliament 
in  1659,  and  on  May  13  was  nominated  one  of 
the  council  of  state.  On  June  5  he  was  sent  as 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  negotiate  a  peace 
between  Sweden  and  Denmark,  and  was  ab 
sent  from  England  at  the  time  of  the  restora 
tion.  Unwilling  to  return  to  his  native  coun 
try  while  it  remained  under  "  the  government 
of  a  single  person,  kingship,  or  house  of  lords," 
he  remained  a  voluntary  exile  for  nearly  18 
years.  Intent  upon  establishing  an  English 
republic,  in  1665  he  sought  the  assistance  of 
the  Dutch  government  and  the  influence  of 
the  French  ministers  toward  that  end'.  Fail 
ing  in  both  instances,  he  retired  to  the  south 
of  France,  where  he  lived  till  1677,  when,  at 
the  solicitation  of  his  father  (a  centenarian),  a 
permission  for  him  to  return  home  was  ob 
tained  from  the  king.  He  soon  became  an  ac 
tive  opponent  of  the  court,  but  was  defeated 
in  two  attempts  to  obtain  a  seat  in  parliament. 
He  is  charged  with  accepting  500  guineas  for 
favoring  the  intrigues  of  Barillon,  the  French 
ambassador,  who  about  this  time  was  in  clan 
destine  correspondence  with  prominent  mem 
bers  of  the  popular  party  seeking  to  crush  the 
duke  of  York  and  the  Roman  Catholics,  the 
parliament,  and  the  ministry.  But  it  has  been 
alleged  that,  if  true,  the  act  was  not  criminal, 
as  it  required  no  betrayal  of  his  principles,  and 
as  he  needed  the  money  and  its  acceptance  was 
not  repugnant  to  the  practice  of  the  age.  The 
discovery  of  the  Rye  House  plot,  in  June, 
1683,  gave  the  king  an  opportunity  to  exact 
vengeance  for  years  of  restraint  and  humilia 
tion;  and  Sidney,  with  his  illustrious  compan 
ion  in  misfortune,  "William  Lord  Russell,  was 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  complicity  with  the 
conspirators,  and  imprisoned  in  the  tower.  At 
his  trial,  over  which  Jeffreys  presided,  but  a 
single  living  legal  witness  to  the  conspiracy 
for  an  insurrection,  the  infamous  Lord  How 
ard,  could  be  produced;  but  garbled  extracts 
from  a  theoretical  work  on  government  in 
manuscript,  which  had  been  found  among  Sid 
ney's  papers,  were  read  in  evidence  against 
him.  These,  though  containing  assertions  of 
the  right  of  a  people  to  depose  an  unworthy 
sovereign,  were  unconnected  by  other  evidence 
with  the  conspiracy  itself  ;  under  the  ruling  of 
the  court,  they  were  nevertheless  deemed  suffi 
cient  to  convict.  Sidney  met  his  death  "  with 
the  fortitude  of  a  stoic."  His  attainder  was 
reversed  by  the  first  parliament  of  William  and 
Mary.  His  "  Discourses  concerning  Govern 
ment"  were  published  in  1698,  and  a  fourth 
edition,  with  additions  by  Thomas  Hollis,  in 
cluding  his  "  Apology,"  dated  on  the  day  of 
his  death,  and  a  number  of  letters  and  miscel 
laneous  pieces,  in  1772.  His  "Essay  on  Vir 
tuous  Love"  was  published  in  vol.  viii.  of  the 


Somers  collection  of  tracts  (1742).  The  frag 
mentary  distich, 

.    .     .    manus  hfpc  inimica  tyrannis 
Ense  petit  placidam  sub  libertate  quietem, 

which  he  wrote  in  the  university  album  at 
Copenhagen,  is  perhaps  the  best  remembered 
extract  from  his  writings.  The  report  of  his 
trial,  after  Jeffreys  had  struck  out  whatever 
he  pleased,  was  published  in  1684;  it  is  also 
given  in  "  HowelPs  State  Trials."— His  life 
has  been  written  by  George  Wilson  Meadley 
(8vo,  London,  1813),  and  by  G.  Van  Sant- 
voord  (12mo,  New  York,  1851).  See  also  Ar 
thur  Collins,  "  Memoirs  of  the  Lives  and  Ac 
tions  of  the  Sidneys,"  prefixed  to  his  "  Letters 
and  Memorials  of  State,"  &c.  (2  vols.  fol., 
London,  1746),  and  Blencowe,  "Sydney  Pa 
pers"  (8vo,  1825). 

SIDNEY,  or  Sydney,  Sir  Philip,  an  English  au 
thor,  born  at  Penshurst,  Kent,  Nov.  29,  1554, 
died  in  Arnhem,  Holland,  Oct.  7,  1586.  His 
father,  a  descendant  of  Sir  William  Sidney, 
chamberlain  to  Henry  II.,  was  in  his  youth 
the  bosom  friend  of  Edward  VI.,  and  during 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  held  for  many  years  the 
office  of  lord  deputy  of  Ireland.  His  mother 
was  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  ambitious  and 
unfortunate  John  Dudley,  duke  of  Northum 
berland,  and  sister  of  Robert  Dudley,  earl  of 
Leicester.  At  the  age  of  12  Sidney  was  sent 
to  the  grammar  school  of  Shrewsbury,  and  in 
1569  entered  Christ  Church  college,  Oxford. 
He  subsequently  studied  at  Cambridge,  and  at 
both  universities  was  distinguished  not  less 
for  preeminence  in  manly  exercises  than  in 
mental  accomplishments.  In  May,  1572,  he 
obtained  a  license  from  the  queen  "  to  go  out 
of  England  into  parts  beyond  the  seas,"  in  or 
der  to  perfect  his  knowledge  of  the  continen 
tal  tongues.  At  the  court  of  Charles  IX.  of 
France  he  attracted  the  attention  of  the  king, 
who  appointed  him  gentleman  in  ordinary  of 
his  chamber ;  but  the  spectacle  of  the  St. 
Bartholomew  massacre  induced  him  to  depart 
abruptly  from  Paris,  and  he  travelled  through 
Germany,  Italy,  Hungary,  Poland  (where  he 
took  some  part  in  the  skirmishes  with  the 
Russians),  and  the  Low  Countries.  Returning 
to  England  at  the  expiration  of  three  years, 
he  at  once  took  his  place  among  the  foremost 
of  the  accomplished  Englishmen  of  the  time. 
The  queen  showed  him  special  favor,  and 
called  him  "her  Philip,"  in  opposition,  it  is 
supposed,  to  Philip  of  Spain,  her  sister  Mary's 
husband.  In  1576  he  was  nominated  ambas 
sador  to  Vienna,  ostensibly  to  condole  with 
the  emperor  Rudolph  on  the  demise  of  his  fa 
ther,  Maximilian  II.,  but  with  the  secret  in 
struction  to  cement  an  alliance  of  the  Protes 
tant  states  against  Spain ;  a  mission  which  he 
discharged  successfully,  gaining  the  esteem  and 
high  praise  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  He  re 
turned  in  1577,  and  for  the  next  few  years  was 
employed  in  no  important  public  capacity,  part 
ly  from  his  reluctance  to  give  up  his  literary 


SIDNEY 


SIDON 


occupations,  and  partly,  it  has  been  suggested, 
through  the  machinations  of  Lord  Burleigh. 
But  he  defended  successfully  the  character  of 
his  father,  whose  administration  in  Ireland 
had  been  misrepresented  by  enemies  at  court. 
When  admonished  by  the  queen,  in  conse 
quence  of  a  dispute  between  himself  and  the 
earl  of  Oxford,  of  the  difference  in  degree 
between  earls  and  gentlemen,  he  replied  that, 
"although  Oxford  was  a  great  lord  by  birth, 
alliance,  and  grace,  yet  he  was  no  lord  over 
him ;  and  therefore  the  difference  of  degrees 
between  freemen  could  not  challenge  any  oth 
er  homage  than  precedency."  Although  the 
answer  was  taken  in  good  part  by  the  queen, 
Sidney  deemed  it  prudent  to  retire  for  a  while 
from  court ;  and  while  residing  at  the  seat  of 
his  sister,  the  countess  of  Pembroke,  he  wrote 
his  pastoral  romance  of  "Arcadia,"  which  is 
in  prose,  interspersed  with  short  poems.  It 
never  received  the  finishing  touches  and  cor 
rections  of  the  author,  and  was  moreover  left 
incomplete.  After  circulating  in  manuscript 
for  several  years,  it  was  published  by  the  coun 
tess  of  Pembro'ke  in  1590;  and  such  was  its 
popularity,  that  previous  to  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  upward  of  ten  editions  had  ap 
peared,  and  a  French  translation  was  pub 
lished  in  1G24.  To  this  period  also  probably 
belong  the  "Defence  of  Poesie,"  published  in 
1595,  and  originally  designed  as  an  answer  to 
the  attacks  of  the  Puritans,  and  the  series  of 
amatory  poems  entitled  "  Astrpphel  and  Stella" 
(1591),  which  recount  the  author's  passion  for 
Lady  Rich,  sister  of  Lord  Essex,  to  whom  he 
was  at  one  time  betrothed.  In  the  intervals 
of  his  literary  occupations  he  participated  in 
courtly  pageants  and  jousts,  the  most  conspic 
uous  of  all  the  brilliant  circle  who  surround 
ed  the  throne ;  and  in  1583  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Walsingham,  and  was 
knighted.  In  1585  he  was  nominated  governor 
of  Flushing,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year 
appointed  general  of  horse  under  his  uncle  the 
earl  of  Leicester,  who  was  sent  with  a  body 
of  English  troops  to  aid  the  Dutch  in  their 
war  of  independence.  Sidney  was  fast  build 
ing  up  a  reputation  as  a  skilful  general  when 
his  career  was  brought  to  an  untimely  close. 
On  Sept.  22,  1586,  a  small  detachment  of  Eng 
lish  troops  under  his  command  unexpectedly 
encountered  3,000  Spaniards  who  were  march 
ing  to  the  relief  of  Zutphen,  and  a  desperate 
engagement  was  fought  under  the  walls  of  the 
fortress,  in  which  the  enemy  were  signally 
defeated.  Sidney,  seeing  the  Spanish  leader 
going  into  battle  lightly  armed,  was  induced 
by  a  chivalric  spirit  of  emulation  to  imitate 
his  example ;  and  after  a  series  of  gallant 
charges,  in  which  he  had  a  horse  killed  under 
him,  he  received  a  musket  ball  in  his  left  thigh. 
While  leaving  the  field,  "being  thirsty  with 
excess  of  bleeding,"  says  Lord  Brooke,  "he 
called  for  drink,  which  was  presently  brought 
him ;  but  as  he  was  putting  the  bottle  to  his 
mouth,  he  saw  a  poor  soldier  carried  along, 


who  had  eaten  his  last  at  the  same  feast,  ghast 
ly  casting  up  his  eyes  at  the  bottle.  Which 
Sir  Philip  perceiving,  took  it  from  his  head 
before  he  drank,  and  delivered  it  to  the  poor 
man,  with  these  words :  '  Thy  necessity  is 
yet  greater  than  mine.'  "  Ho  lingered  several 
weeks  in  great  agony,  and  met  his  death  with 
Christian  serenity,  solacing  even  his  last  hours 
with  literary  composition.  His  body  was 
taken  to  London,  and  after  lying  in  state  was 
interred  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  Feb.  1C,  1587; 
and  a  general  mourning,  the  first  on  record  in 
England,  was  observed.  Spenser  has  embalmed 
their  mutual  friendship  in  a  pastoral  ode  en 
titled  "  Astrophel."  Sidney  left  an  only  daugh 
ter,  who  became  fifth  countess  of  Rutland,  but 
died  without  issue ;  and  his  name  is  now-rep 
resented  in  the  English  peerage  by  Lord  De 
1'Isle,  a  descendant  of  his  brother  Robert. 
His  "Complete  Works"  were  published  in  3 
vols.  8vo  (London,  1725),  and  his  "Miscella 
neous  Works  "  were  edited  with  a  memoir  by 
W.  Gray  (Oxford,  1829;  reprinted,  Boston, 
1860).  The  latest  edition  of  his  works  is  "  The 
Complete  Poems  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,"  edited 
by  the  Rev.  A.  Grosart,  in  the  "  Fuller  Wor 
thies'  Library,"  printed  for  private  circulation 
(2  vols.,  1873). — His  sister  MAEY,  countess  of 
Pembroke  (died  Sept.  25,  1621),  is  intimately 
connected  with  his  private  history.  He  joined 
with  her  in  a  translation  of  the  Psalter  V  into 
sundry  kinds  of  verse,"  first  printed  in  London 
in  1823.  She  wrote  an  elegy  on  her  brother, 
a  pastoral  poem  in  praise  of  Astrasa  (Eliza 
beth),  and  a  poem  "  On  our  Saviour's  Passion," 
preserved  in  manuscript  in  the  British  muse 
um,  and  published  in  1862,  besides  translating 
from  the  French  the  "  Tragedy  of  Anfonie." 

SIDON,  or  Zidon  (Heb.  Tzitlon,  fishery;  now 
Saida),  an  ancient  city  of  Phoenicia,  on  the 
coast,  23  m.  N.  of  Tyre.  According  to  Jose- 
phus,  it  was  called  Sidon  after  the  first  born  of 
Canaan,  but  the  name  probably  has  reference 
to  the  first  occupation  of  its  inhabitants.  From 
its  antiquity  it  was  termed  the  metropolis  of 
Phoenicia.  It  seems  to  have  been  divided  into 
Great  Sidon,  on  the  sea,  and  Little  Sidon,  some 
distance  inland.  The  Phoenicians  as  a  nation 
often  designated  themselves  as  Sidonians,  and 
were  generally  called  so  by  neighboring  peo 
ples.  The  period  of  the  greatest  prosperity  of 
Sidon,  according  to  the  classical  historians, 
was  from  about  1600  to  1200  B.  C.,  during 
which  time,  as  appears  from  the  Egyptian  in 
scriptions,  it  was  more  or  less  under  the  su 
premacy  of  Egypt.  At  the  time  of  the  He 
brew  conquest  of  Palestine,  the  rule  of  Sidon 
extended  over  the  N.  W.  part  of  that  country. 
The  ancient  history  of  the  town  is  in  a  mea 
sure  that  of  the  whole  of  Phoenicia,  at  least 
until  the  commencement  of  the  supremacy  of 
Tyre.  (See  PHOENICIA,  and  TYKE.)  It  flour 
ished  under  the  Persians,  but  was  destroyed 
in  351  B.  C.,  as  a  punishment  for  rebelling 
against  Artaxerxes  III.  Ochus.  It  was  thence 
forth  a  provincial  capital,  but  retained  its  own 


26 


SIDONIUS   APOLLINARIS 


SIEGE 


local  government  until  the  time  of  Roman  su 
premacy.  Christianity  early  found  an  asylum 
here  (Acts  xxvii.  3),  and  a  Sidonian  bishop  is 
mentioned  as  present  at  the  Nicsean  council  of 
325.  On  the  rise  of  Moslem  power  it  read 
ily  submitted  to  it.  In  1108  it  was  invested 
by  the  crusaders,  and  in  1110  it  was  taken 
by  Baldwin  I.  The  Saracens  captured  it  in 
1187,  but  the  Christians  recovered  it  in  1197. 
They  abandoned  it  in  1291,  and  Sultan  Malek 
Ashraf  ordered  it  to  be  razed.  (See  SAIDA.) 

SIDOXIUS  APOLLINARIS,  Cains  Sollins  Modestns, 
a  Latin  author  and  saint,  born  probably  in 
Lyons  about  A.  D.  431,  died  at  Clermont  in 
Auvergne,  in  482  or  484.  He  was  a  diligent 
student,  and  early  acquired  a  high  reputation. 
He  married  a  daughter  of  Flavins  Avitus,  after 
ward  emperor,  accompanied  him  to  Rome  in 
456,  and  pronounced  his  panegyric  in  verse  be 
fore  the  senate,  for  which  that  body  erected  a 
bronze  statue  in  his  honor.  He  was  prefect  of 
Rome  when  Avitus  was  dethroned  by  Majorian. 
Sidonius  pronounced  at  Lyons  a  public  pane 
gyric  on  the  latter,  by  whom  he  was  created  a 
count  and  sent  to  govern  the  Gallic  province 
of  Aries.  In  467  he  went  to  Rome  as  ambas 
sador  of  the  Arverni,  delivered  a  panegyric  on 
the  reigning  emperor  Anthemius,  was  made  a 
patrician,  and  governor  of  the  city  a  second 
time,  and  was  honored  with 'a  second  statue. 
In  472  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Clermont 
(Arvernum),  though  only  a  layman,  accepted 
the  office  reluctantly,  fulfilled  its  duties  faith 
fully,  and  strenuously  opposed  the  spread  of 
Arianism.  lie  left  nine  books  of  epistles  of 
considerable  historical  interest,  which,  with  his 
poems  and  panegyrics,  were  published  in  Milan 
in  1498  by  Sirmond  (Paris,  1614;  republished 
by  Labbe  in  1652,  the  best  edition),  and  by 
Migne  in  vol.  Iviii.  of  his  Patrologie  latine. — 
See  Saint  Sidoine  Appollinaire  et  son  siecle, 
by  Chaix  (2  vols.,  Clermont-Ferrand,  1867-'8). 

SIDRA,  Gulf  of.     See  SYRTIS. 

SIEBOLD.  I.  Philipp  Franz  TOD,  a  German  trav 
eller,  born  in  Wiirzburg,  Feb.  17,  1796,  died  in 
Munich,  Oct.  18,  1866.  He  studied  medicine, 
natural  sciences,  and  geography,  and  in  1822 
went  to  Batavia  as  a  physician  and  naturalist 
in  the  Dutch  service,  and  in  1823  to  Japan  as 
a  member  of  the  Dutch  embassy.  In  1826  he 
went  to  Yedo,  and  was  involved  in  difficul 
ties  with  the  Japanese  for  procuring  an  official 
map  of  their  country.  Finally  acquitted,  lie 
returned  to  Europe  in  1830,  but  from  1859  to 
1862  resided  again  in  Japan.  He  published 
Nippon,  Archw  zur  Beschreilmng  von  Japan 
(20  vols.,  Leyden,  1832-'57) ;  Fauna  Japonica 
(jointly  with  Temminck  and  others,  1833  et 
seq.) ;  Flora  Japonica  (1835  et  seq.) ;  B-ibli- 
otheca  Japonica  (jointly  with  J.  Hoffmann,  6 
vols.,  1S33-'41);  and  several  other  works  on 
Japan.  II.  Karl  Theodor  Ernst  von,  a  German 
physiologist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Wtirzburg,  Feb.  16,  1804.  After  teaching  in 
various  places,  he  became  in  1853  professor  of 
physiology,,  comparative  anatomy,  and  after 


ward  also  of  zoology,  at  Munich.  His  principal 
works  are  Lehrbuch  der  vergleicJienden  Anato- 
mie  der  wirlellosen  Thiere  (Berlin,  1848  ;  Eng 
lish  translation,  London,  1854),  and  Beitrage 
zur  Parthenogenesis  der  ArtJiropoden  (1871). 

SIEDLCE.  I.  A  W.  government  of  Russia,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Poland,  bordering  on  the  gov 
ernments  of  Lomza,  Warsaw,  Radom,  Lublin, 
Volhynia,  and  Grodno ;  area,  5,534  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  543,392.  It  is  level  and  fertile. 
The  chief  river  is  the  Bug,  which  forms  the 
E.  and  N".  E.  frontier.  The  principal  towns 
are  Siedlce,  Miendzyrzecz,  and  Wlodawa.  The 
government  embraces  the  principal  portions 
of  the  former  palatinate  of  Podlachia.  The 
more  ancient  Polish  territory  of  the  same 
name,  however,  lay  mainly  between  the  mid 
dle  Bug  and  the  Niemen.  II.  A  town,  capital 
of  the  government,  51  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Warsaw, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail ;  pop.  in 
1867,  10,013.  It  has  a  fine  palace  and  town 
hall,  distilleries,  sugar  refineries,  and  manu 
factories  of  agricultural  implements.  During 
the  wars  between  the  Russians  and  Poles  it 
was  repeatedly  taken  and  retaken. 

SIEGE  (Fr.  siege,  seat),  a  protracted  military 
attack  upon  a  fortified  place.  Such  a  place 
may  sometimes  be  taken  by  throwing  in  heavy 
projectiles,  explosive  shells,  incendiary  balls, 
&c. ;  or  by  completely  surrounding  it,  prevent 
ing  reception  of  supplies,  the  defenders  may  be 
compelled  to  surrender  ;  or,  advancing  by  reg 
ular  approaches,  the  besiegers  may  breach  the 
walls,  and  carry  the  place  by  assault.  The 
first  is  called  a  bombardment,  the  second  a 
blockade,  and  the  third  a  siege,  which  term  is 
often  also  applied  to  the  other  two.  In  a  strict 
sense,  the  term  siege  signifies  the  process  of 
advancing  toward  a  fortified  place  under  cover 
of  earth  thrown  up  from  trenches,  silencing 
the  fire  from  the  work  by  a  superior  one,  arid 
breaching  the  ramparts,  compelling  a  surren 
der  or  carrying  the  place  by  assault.  Sieges 
are  divided  into  ancient  and  modern,  or  those 
carried  on  before  and  after  the  application 
of  gunpowder  to  military  purposes. — Ancient 
Sieges.  The  ancients  fortified  a  place  by  sur 
rounding  it  with  a  wall  of  brick  or  stone,  form 
ing  a  continuous  line  around  the  city  or  town, 
high  enough  to  render  escalade  difficult,  and 
thick  enough  to  offer  considerable  resistance 
to  the  battering  ram.  Sometimes  there  were 
two  and  even  three  of  these  walls,  often  con 
nected  by  others  to  give  them  greater  solidity. 
Outside  of  the  wall  was  a  ditch,  always  filled 
with  water  if  circumstances  permitted.  The 
inhabitants  were  the  defenders ;  and  as  their 
lives,  liberty,  and  property  were  involved,  the 
resistance  in  ancient  sieges  was  more  obsti 
nate  and  persevering  than  that  usually  made 
in  modern  times.  The  modes  of  attack  were 
by  surprise,  aided  by  treason  or  particular 
knowledge  of  unguarded  points  ;  by  escalade, 
having  surprised  the  place  ;  by  escalade  in  an 
assault,  having  outnumbered  and  overpowered 
the  defenders ;  by  blockade,  having  deprived 


SIEGE 


27 


them  of  supplies ;  and  by  regular  siege  opera 
tions.  When  the  siege  seemed  likely  to  last 
some  time,  the  ancients  were  in  the  habit,  if 
they  expected  sorties  from  the  place  or  an  at 
tempt  to  relieve  it  from  without,  of  securing 
their  position  by  a  double  line  of  works,  of 
circumvallation  and  countervallation.  These 
were  generally  continuous  lines  constructed 
of  earth,  wood,  and  sometimes  of  masonry, 
flanked  by  towers.  Annoying  the  besieged 
with  missiles  thrown  from  all  the  artillery 
known  in  that  day,  they  pushed  forward  cov 
ered  approaches  on  the  points  of  attack.  These 
were  wooden  frames,  7  ft.  high,  8  ft.  wide, 
and  16  ft.  long,  mounted  on  wheels,  with  a 
roof  strong  enough  to  resist  the  projectiles 
thrown  by  the  besieged.  They  were  covered 
with  raw  hides  or  turf,  or  protected  by  other 
expedients  from  being  set  on  fire.  The  ditch 
when  reached  was  filled  with  earth,  logs,  and 
stones,  upon  which  the  battering  ram  could 
be  placed  in  position  to  breach  the  wall ;  or 
a  descent  was  made  into  it  for  the  purpose 
of  undermining  the  wall.  The  battering  ram 
was  ordinarily  placed  in  the  lower  story  of  a 
tower  and  suspended  by  chains  or  other  mech 
anism.  The  tower  was  high  enough  to  com 
mand  those  of  the  place,  and  was  filled  with 
armed  men,  who  drove  the  defenders  away 
from  that  part  of  the  wall  in  its  front.  They 
were  frequently  aided  by  other  towers  pushed 
along  on  the  ground  or  on  inclined  planes. 
The  besieged,  besides  shooting  lighted  arrows 
and  throwing  incendiary  compositions  against 
the  approaches,  made  sorties,  which  were  usu 
ally  bloody  in  their  results,  for  want  of  cov 
ered  ways  or  other  exterior  works  beyond  the 
ditch.  The  battering  ram  being  in  position, 
the  besieged  suspended  beams  of  wood,  stuffed 
contrivances  like  huge  mattresses,  and  other 
devices,  between  the  head  of  the  ram  and  the 
wall,  to  deaden  its  blows.  They  sometimes 
used  machines  on  the  principle  of  the  crane, 
by  means  of  which  they  caught  the  head  of 
the  ram,  or  even  the  whole  engine,  and  lifted 
it  from  the  ground  or  overturned  it.  Archi 
medes  devised  such  machines  for  the  defence 
of  Syracuse  when  it  was  besieged  by  the 
Romans,  in  214-212  B.  C.  The  wall  being 
breached  by  the  ram,  or  thrown  down  by  un 
dermining,  preparations  were  made  to  assault 
the  place  through  the  opening.  Often,  while 
the  besiegers  were  engaged  in  removing  the 
ruins  from  the  breaches,  so  that  an  assault 
could  be  made,  the  besieged  were  building  a 
new  wall  in  rear  of  the  breach  enclosing  the 
part  attacked,  and  the  whole  operation  of 
moving  forward  the  battering  rams  and  breach 
ing  the  wall  had  to  be  renewed.  The  surren 
der  or  capture  was  generally  due  to  the  ex 
hausted  condition  of  the  besieged,  rather  than 
to  the  assaults.  It  was  the  custom  for  the 
besieging  army  to  demand  a  surrender  before 
they  began  the  siege ;  and  usually  the  besieged 
offered  to  capitulate  before  the  final  assault 
was  made,  as  a  hopeless  resistance  entailed 


death  or  slavery  on  all  the  defenders.  Even 
in  modern  times  the  lives  of  the  garrison  are 
jeoparded  if  the  besieged  delay  making  terms 
until  the  final  assault  is  successful. —  Transi 
tion  Period.  The  introduction  of  gunpowder 
in  military  operations  led  to  the  substitution 
of  earthen  trenches  for  the  wooden  covers  and 
other  ancient  expedients,  and  also  replaced  the 
battering  ram  by  heavy  cannon.  In  this  pe 
riod,  owing  to  the  imperfection  of  the  artil 
lery,  the  want  of  connection  between  the  ap 
proaches,  and  other  deficiencies  in  the  mea 
sures  of  attack,  the  besieged  were  often  able 
to  make  a  vigorous  and  prolonged  defence, 
and  sieges  became  the  most  important  military 
operations  of  the  time.  Before  1741  there 
were  more  sieges  than  battles;  from  1741  to 
1783  the  proportion  was  67  sieges  to  100  bat 
tles  ;  during  the  French  revolution  the  propor 
tion  was  about  25  to  100 ;  and  during  the  first 
empire  there  were  only  16  sieges  to  100  bat 
tles.  In  recent  wars  these  proportions  have 
still  further  diminished.  But  the  necessity  for 
sieges  still  exists,  and  the  rules  and  practice 
of  taking  a  fortified  place  still  hold  a  promi 
nent  position  in  the  military  art.  The  present 
method  of  attacking  a  fortified  place  by  regu 
lar  approaches  is  practically  that  organized  by 
Vauban.  Previous  to  his  time,  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century,  although  many  sieges  had 
terminated  successfully,  there  was  no  uniform 
system  in  the  modes  of  attack.  Vauban  is 
especially  credited  with  the  invention  of  rico 
chet  firing,  the  concentration  of  enfilading 
batteries,  and  the  systematic  arrangement  of 
the  parallels. — Modern  Sieges.  Let  it  be  sup 
posed  that  siege  operations  are  to  be  conducted 
against  a  fortified  place  immediately  upon  the 
theatre  of  war.  As  the  operations  against  a 
place  fortified  by  any  of  the  modern  systems 
are  governed  by  the  same  general  conditions, 
and  are  practically  the  same  until  the  besieg 
ers  reach  the  counterscarp  of  the  ditch,  the 
methods  used  will  be  fully*explajned  by  con 
sidering  the  mode  of  conducting  an  attack  on 
a  place  fortified  by  the  bastioned  system.  (See 
FORTIFICATION.)  To  simplify  the  explanation, 
it  is  supposed  that  the  front  to  be  attacked 
has  the  usual  outworks  and  occupies  a  hori 
zontal  site,  and  that  the  cannon  used  by  both 
the  besiegers  and  besieged  are  the  ordinary 
smooth-bore  siege  artillery.  Irregularity  of 
site  and  the  use  of  heavier  calibre  or  rifled 
cannon  will  only  have  the  effect  of  increasing 
certain  distances  and  adding  to  the  difficulties 
of  the  siege,  without  affecting  the  principles 
common  to  them  all.  As  the  scarp  walls  are 
hidden  from  the  besiegers'  view  by  masks  of 
earth,  the  object  of  the  ciege  works  is  to  reach, 
under  cover,  positions  where  openings  in  the 
walls  can  be  made  either  by  breaching  bat 
teries  or  mines ;  and  under  the  shelter  of  these 
approaches  troops  can  be  brought  up  to  make 
assaults  through  the  openings.  In  this  front, 
in  order  to  make  a  breach  in  the  scarp  by 
artillery  fire  that  will  be  practicable  for  the 


SIEGE 


assaulting  column,  the  cannon  must  be  placed 
on  the  crest  of  the  covered  way,  and  to  make 
it  accessible  a  descent  into  and  passage  of  the 
ditch  are  necessary.  If  it  is  proposed  to  make 
an  opening  by  mining,  all  the  preliminary  ope 
rations  as  far  as  the  glacis  of  the  work  are 
identical.  If  the  main  work  has  outworks 
from  which  a  reverse  fire  can  be  had  on  that 
part  of  the  covered  way  where  the  breaching 
batteries  are  to  be  placed,  they  must  first  be 
taken.  The  accompanying  plan  will  aid  in 
explaining  practical  siege  operations.  The  at 
tack  is  made  on  bastion  A,  and  as  the  adja 
cent  demilunes  D,  D,  those  on  the  right  and 
left  of  A,  place  the  covered  way  of  this  point 


1.  Half  of  Plan  of  regular  Approaches  against  a  Front  of  Attack. 

A.  Point  of  attack.  B.  Adjacent  bastion.  D.  Demilune  of  front  of  attack.  C.  Collateral 
demilune.  E,  F.  Trench  connecting  first  and  second  parallels.  K.  K.  Demi-parallels. 
M,  M,  M.  Enfilading,  counter,  and  mortar  batteries.  T,  T.  Troops,  called  guards  of  the 
trenches,  protecting  the  -workmen  on  opening  the  first  parallel. 

2.  Section  showing  Slopes  and  Dimensions  of  Profile  of  Approach  by  simple  Trench. 

A  bastion  corresponding  to  B,  demilunes   to  C  and   D,  and   approaches  on  the  left  of  A, 

are  supposed  to  be  indicated  and  to  form  the  whole  front  of  attack. 

in  a  reentrant  angle,  these  demilunes  must  be 
taken  before  the  bastion  can  be  breached. 
This  bastion  and  the  adjacent  demilunes  with 
their  outworks  must  be  taken  by  breach  or 
assault,  and  the  fire  from  the  collateral  de 
milune  G  and  bastion  B  shown  in  the  plan, 

and  the  corresponding  ones  on  the  left  not  j  of  the  ground,  and  the  facilities  for  transport- 
shown,  must  be  kept  under  by  opposing  bat-  !  ing  troops  and  supplies  from  the  depots  are 
teries  during  these  operations,  to  enable  the  |  governing  considerations  in  selecting  the  front 

ho,sip<TArs    tr»    nnrrv  nn    -fhmi*  Tirnvlr    cnonocaf nllv         rv-P     a-H-oi->l-          Solianfa     nrfi     nsnnllv    tllA    WAfllrASt 


vent  ingress  and  egress,  the  other  those  re 
quired  to  gain  possession  of  the  place ;  but  for 
convenience  they  are  ordinarily  classed  into 
three  parts,  called  the  first,  second,  and  third 
periods.  The  first  period  comprises  the  in 
vestment  and  the  encampment  of  the  besieging 
army  around  the  place ;  the  second,  all  the 
works  from  the  opening  of  the  trenches  until 
the  completion  of  the  third  parallel ;  and  the 
third,  all  subsequent  measures  until  the  place 
is  taken.  The  investment  is  performed  by  de 
taching  a  strong  corps,  who,  moving  quickly 
and  secretly,  suddenly  surround  the  place, 
seize  all  avenues  of  approach,  cut  off  all  com 
munications,  and  secure  everything  that  may 
be  of  service  to  the 
defence.  The  main 
army  follows  and  in 
trenches  in  positions 
around  the  place  out 
side  of  cannon  range. 
The  intrenchments 
ordinarily  form  two 
lines,  between  which 
the  besieging  army 
places  its  camps, 
and  are  called  lines 
of  circumvallation 
and  countervalla- 
tion.  They  may  be 
continuous  or  with 
intervals,  the  out 
er  line  being  used 
to  prevent  succors, 
and  the  inner  to  re 
sist  the  attacks  of 
the  garrison.  This 
method  of  construct 
ing  lines  and  enclo 
sing  the  army  be 
tween  them  was 
used  by  the  an 
cients,  and  fell  into 
disuse  during  the 
middle  ages.  It 
was  revived  in  the 
16th  century  by  the 
princes  of  Nassau, 
and  has  been  prac 
tised  more  or  less 

ever  since.  These  lines  not  only  enable  the 
besieging  army  to  repulse  detachments  that 
try  to  reenforce  the  place,  but  are  also  useful 
where  the  besieging  army  is  forced  to  take  up 
weak  positions  to  complete  the  investment. 
The  strength  of  the  besieged  work,  the  nature 


besiegers  to  carry  on  their  work  successfully. 
Approaches  are  made  on  the  three  salients, 
A,  D,  D,  and  these  connected  by  parallels 
to  hold  large  bodies  of  troops  to  protect  the 
workmen  and  repel  sorties.  The  siege  opera 
tions  may  be  divided  into  two  general  parts, 
one  including  all  the  measures  taken  to  pre- 


of  attack.  Salients  are  usually  the  weakest 
points  of  a  fortification ;  low,  marshy  soil  and 
rocky  ground  present  the  greatest  difficulties 
in  constructing  siege  works. — The  second  pe 
riod  begins  with  the  opening  of  the  trenches, 
which  is  done  by  digging  a  ditch  or  trench, 
between  600  and  TOO  yards  from  the  most 


SIEGE 


29 


advanced  point  of  the  fortification,  from  3 -to 
4  ft.  deep  and  10  to  12  yards  wide,  and  throw 
ing  up  the  earth  in  the  form  of  a  parapet 
on  the  side  toward  the  work.  This  trench 
and  all  similar  ones  are  constructed  according 
to  the  general  rules  for  throwing  up  field 
works ;  that  is,  they  must  afford  a  shelter  from 
the  enemy's  fire,  and  permit  those  occupying 
them  to  use  their  arms  with  effect.  The  trench 
is  extended  far  enough  on  each  side  of  the 
point  of  attack  to  embrace  all  the  positions 
required  for  batteries  to  keep  down  the  fire  of 
the  collateral  works.  From  its  being  parallel 
to  or  concentric  with  a  line  connecting  the 
most  salient  points  of  the  work,  it  is  called  the 
first  parallel.  At  this  distance,  the  fire  of  the 
besieged  upon  the  workmen  in  the  obscurity 
of  twilight  and  darkness  will  not  be  trouble 
some  ;  but  the  distance  will  be  materially  af 
fected  by  irregularity  of  site  and  the  size 
and  kind  of  cannon  used.  At  Sebastopol  in 
1854  the  French  established  their  first  paral 
lels,  one  at  nearly  1,000  and  the  other  at  1,800 
yards,  and  the  English  at  1,800  yards,  from 
the  defences  in  their  front.  At  Fort  Wag 
ner,  Charleston  harbor,  in  1863,  Gen.  Gill- 
more  opened  his  first  parallel  at  1,360  yards 
from  the  works.  Accidents  of  the  ground  may 
enable  the  besieger  to  place  it  much  closer. 
Communications  are  opened  from  the  parallel 
to  the  depots  in  the  rear,  by  trenches  of  the 
same  general  form,  so  arranged  as  to  avoid  an 
enfilading  fire  from  the  fortifications.  As  the 
besiegers  desire  to  get  as  near  as  they  can  to 
the  point  of  attack  with  as  little  sacrifice  of 
life  as  possible,  they  make  their  advances  by 
means  of  trenches  similar  in  form  to  the  par 
allel.  These  are  pushed  forward  toward  the 
point  of  attack,  running  in  zigzag  directions, 
crossing  and  recrossing  the  lines  of  the  capitals 
of  the  salients,  and  avoiding  enfilading  fires 
from  any  point  of  the  defences  within  cannon 
range.  The  approaches,  called  by  many  wri 
ters  Ijoyaux  or  branches,  are  as  a  general  rule 
not  longer  than  100  yards,  and,  starting  at  the 
first  parallel  with  a  front  of  60  yards,  are  nar 
rowed  to  30  yards  at  the  third  parallel.  In 
this  position  along  the  capitals  of  the  salients, 
they  are  less  in  the  way  and  less  exposed. 
These  are  shown  in  the  plan,  one  to  each 
salient,  or  three  in  this  particular  case,  but 
there  should  be  more  if  "the  circumstances  re 
quire  them.  When  advanced  not  quite  half 
way  between  the  first  parallel  and  the  fortifi 
cation,  they  are  connected  by  a  second  parallel, 
which  in  all  essential  particulars  except  in  ex 
tent  is  like  the  first.  Being  constructed  within 
destructive  range  of  case  shot,  the  flying  sap 
is  used  instead  of  the  simple  trench,  as  more 
speedy  cover  for  the  workmen  is  obtained 
by  it,  and  differs  from  it  only  in  having  the 
interior  slope  revetted  with  gabions.  Being 
nearer  to  the  first  parallel  than  to  the  forti 
fication,  it  is  protected  from  sorties  made 
against  it  in  its  unfinished  condition,  and  its 
object  is  to  protect  the  approaches  as  they  are 


pushed  forward  from  it.  Vauban  prescribes 
that  there  shall  be  at  least  three  of  these  par 
allels.  They  serve  as  places  of  arms  in  which 
troops  are  stationed  to  protect  the  workmen 
and  to  resist  sorties,  as  communications  be 
tween  the  approaches,  and  to  keep  these  free 
for  the  workmen  and  clear  of  troops.  Only 
three,  and  the  demi-parallels  K,  K,  are  shown 
in  the  plan,  but  there  are  often  many  more. 
At  Sebastopol  the  French  constructed  sev 
en,  and  at  Fort  Wagner  Gen.  Gillmore  used 
five.  Whatever  the  number,  they  should  be 
placed  in  good  tactical  relations  with  each 
other,  not  so  far  in  advance  that  the  troops 
occupying  the  one  in  the  rear  cannot  come  to 
their  support  before  they  are  reached  by  a 
sortie  from  the  fortification.  The  besiegers 
place  in  front  of  the  second  parallel  mortar, 
ricochet,  and  counter  batteries,  which,  firing 
upon  the  work,  break  down  the  palisades,  dis 
mount  the  guns,  and  drive  away  the  defenders. 
The  use  of  rifled  guns  will  cause  these  batteries 
to  be  placed  further  away  from  the  Avork  than 
is  here  represented,  probably  from  2,000  to 
3,000  yards,  in  which  case  they  should  be  en 
closed  in  small  works  with  a  sufficient  number 
of  men  in  each  to  defend  them.  From  the 
nearness  to  the  work,  the  advance  from  the 
second  parallel  can  only  be  made  by  means  of 
saps.  These  are  the  flying,  single  or  full,  the 
double  and  half  double  saps,  according  to  the 
direction  and  amount  of  fire  to  which  the  ap 
proach  is  exposed,  and  are  constructed  by  en 
gineer  soldiers  called  sappers.  When  the  foot 
of  the  glacis  is  reached,  from  60  to  30  yards 
from  the  salient,  the  third  parallel  is  con 
structed,  demi-parallels  which  are  long  enough 
to  contain  troops  to  protect  the  workmen,  and 
short  enough  not  to  hinder  the  fire  from  the 
batteries,  having  been  made  between  it  and 
the  second  parallel.  The  second  period  ends 
with  the  construction  of  the  third  parallel. — 
Thus  far  the  advance  and  progress  of  the  siege 
have  been  made  without  any  great  degree  of 
difficulty  or  danger.  This  is  now  changed,  and 
if  the  defence  is  vigorous  future  progress  must 
be  made  under  a  murderous  fire  from  the  be 
sieged,  accompanied  by  many  difficulties  in  the 
construction  of  the  necessary  works  for  pro 
tection.  The  advance  on  the  nearest  point  of 
the  covered  way  from  the  third  parallel  is  by 
assault  or  by  regular  approach.  The  former 
is  more  rapid  and  more  brilliant,  but  is  seldom 
successful,  and  ought  never  to  succeed  if  the 
besieged  are  not  entirely  exhausted  and  make 
even  an  ordinary  resistance.  It  has  been  shown 
in  recent  wars  that  a  single  trench,  defended 
by  two  ranks  of  infantry  armed  with  the  im 
proved  weapons  of  the  present  day,  is  almost 
unassailable  by  main  force.  In  an  attack  by 
two  divisions  of  infantry  on  a  continuous 
trench  before  Petersburg,  Va.,  defended  by  a 
single  line  of  infantry,  the  number  of  the  at 
tacking  force  killed  exceeded  the  total  effective 
strength  of  the  defenders.  If  it  be  decided  to 
make  the  assault,  the  third  parallel  is  arranged 


30 


SIEGE 


SIEGEN 


with  steps  on  the  inner  side  to  allow  a  detach 
ment  of  picked  men  to  sally  out  at  a  given  sig 
nal  with  a  front  equal  to  that  of  the  assaulting 
column.  They  are  preceded  by  engineer  offi 
cers,  who  mark  out  the  lines  for  a  trench  four 
or  five  yards  from  the  crest  of  the  glacis,  and 
extending  around  the  salient  place  of  arms, 
and  are  followed  by  a  detachment  of  engineer 
troops  to  construct  it.  When  everything  is 
in  readiness,  all  the  batteries  open  fire  on  the 
place.  At  a  given  signal  they  cease,  and  the 
column  of  assault  rushes  forward  and  takes 
possession  of  the  covered  way.  The  engineers 
immediately  make  the  sap,  into  which  the 
troops  retire  if  successful,  and  afterward  con 
nect  it  by  suitable  communications  with  the 
third  parallel.  The  execution  of  this  trench 
around  the  salient  place  of  arms  is  called  crown 
ing  the  covered  way.  In  1708,  at  the  siege  of 
Lille,  the  covered  ways  of  two  of  the  salients 
of  the  front  of  attack  were  crowned  by  assault. 
The  attack  was  made  at  nightfall  by  10,450 
men,  not  counting  the  troops  in  the  trench 
es;  they  lost  2,000  killed  and  4,000  wounded. 
The  best  engineering  authorities  are  opposed 
to  an  assault  except  in  case  of  urgent  necessity, 
when  a  day  gained  may  decide  the  fate  of  the 
besiegers  themselves,  or  the  time  saved  by  it 
compensates  for  the  immense  loss  of  life  that 
must  accompany  it.  If  the  advance  is  to  be 
made  by  regular  approaches,  they  are  started 
from  the  third  parallel  by  saps,  which  when 
within  30  yards  of  the  salient  are  spread  out 
in  a  circular  form  to  enclose  it,  and  high 
mounds  of  earth,  called  tre'nch  cavaliers,  are 
thrown  up,  by  which  a  command  over  the 
covered  way  is  obtained.  Protected  by  them, 
the  engineers  advance  their  saps  to  the  salients 
and  extend  them  to  the  right  and  left  along 
the  faces,  at  least  as  far  as  the  traverses,  as  in 
the  case  when  the  assault  was.  made.  As  soon 
as  this  is  done,  they  proceed  to  establish  coun 
ter  and  breaching  batteries  to  fire  against  the 
demilune  and  bastion.  The  former  are  placed 
around  the  salients  so  as  to  fire  in  the  direction 
of  the  ditches  against  the  portion  of  the  work 
by  which  they  are  swept,  while  the  latter  are 
placed  near  the  counter  batteries  and  nearly 
opposite  to  the  points  where  the  breaches  are 
to  be  made.  Underground  galleries  are  also 
constructed,  by  means  of  which  a  descent  into 
the  ditch  can  be  effected.  A  breach  is  con 
sidered  practicable  for  assault  when  the  in 
terior  of  the  work  is  exposed  for  a  width  equal 
to  the  front  of  the  column  of  attack  and  the 
debris  forms  a  slope  of  easy  ascent.  If  breaches 
are  to  be  made  at  several  points,  the  operations 
should  be  carried  on  and  the  assaults  made 
simultaneously.  The  breach  in  the  demilune 
will  be  carried  by  assault  or  by  regular  ap 
proach,  and  in  all  essential  things  there  will  be 
no  difference  in  the  mode  of  taking  it  from  that 
described  for  the  covered  way.  As  soon  as  the 
breach  is  gained,  it  is  crowned,  or  a  lodgment 
made  by  encircling  it  with  a  trench  in  which 
troops  are  placed  to  prevent  the  besieged  from 


regaining  possession  of  the  work.  The  demi 
lune  being  taken,  advances  are  made  against 
the  reentrant  places  of  arms  and  salient  of  the 
covered  way  of  the  bastion,  if  they  have  not 
already  been  crowned.  Other  batteries  are 
established  against  the  faces  and  flanks  of  the 
bastion,  and  operations  similar  to  those  already 
described  are  carried  on  against  the  main  work. 
A  capitulation  will  ordinarily  follow  the  crown 
ing  of  the  breach  in  the  bastion,  unless  there 
are  interior  retrenchments,  in  which  case  the 
same  method  of  attack  will  be  followed  until 
there  is  no  longer  any  defence  between  the 
besieger  and  besieged.  The  breaches  are  sup 
posed  to  have  been  made  by  battering  the  ram 
parts  with  artillery  fire.  The  other  method  is 
by  means  of  mines,  which  are  rarely  used  be 
cause  of  the  slowness  of  the  operation  and  the 
uncertainty  of  the  result.  The  explosion  of 
the  mine  gives  no  practicable  slope  for  the  use 
of  the  assaulting  column,  and  this  must  be 
made  by  workmen  before  it  can  be  used,  which 
is  very  difficult  and  dangerous.  To  resist  the 
approach  of  the  besiegers,  the  defence  make 
use  of  mines ;  to  destroy  these,  and  to  advance 
their  works,  the  besiegers  also  employ  them. 
They  will  be  most  largely  used  between  the 
third  parallel  and  the  main  work.  The  passage 
of  the  ditch  is  a  difficult  and  dangerous  opera 
tion,  rendered  doubly  so  when  the  besieged 
have  a  wet  ditch,  or  can  make  use  of  water  in 
their  defence.  In  an  actual  siege,  a  daily  rec 
ord  is  made  by  the  engineers  of  the  amount 
of  work  done  and  the  time  required,  which 
is  transmitted  to  headquarters  and  preserved. 
By  comparisons  of  these  records  and  the  re 
sults  obtained  in  engineering  schools,  the  time 
necessary  to  complete  all  these  works  has 
been  calculated.  This  time  has  been  used  in 
comparing  the  relative  value  of  different  sys 
tems  or  methods  of  fortification,  by  submitting 
them  to  a  fictitious  siege.  It  is  of  no  value  in 
practice,  for  the  duration  of  sieges  depends  on 
laws  which  no  method  of  calculation  can  de 
termine.  In  order  that  the  besiegers  should 
be  successful,  their  numbers  and  their  arma 
ment  should  be  in  excess  of  those  brought  to 
resist  them,  and  no  fixed  rules  can  be  stated 
for  this  excess.  As  a  general  rule,  supposing 
the  investment  to  be  complete,  the  besiegers 
should  be  about  six  times  as  numerous  as  the 
besieged,  and  should  be  kept  so  by  sending 
the  wounded  and  sick  to  the  rear  and  replacing 
them  by  fresh  troops.  As  the  defence  have 
not  this  resource,  their  numbers  constantly 
dwindle  until  they  are  exhausted  or  overpow 
ered. — Among  the  most  celebrated  sieges  in 
history  are  those  of  Babylon,  Tyre,  Syracuse, 
Carthage,  Numantia,  and  Jerusalem  in  ancient 
times,  and  of  Constantinople,  Antwerp,  Ber- 
gen-op-Zoom,  Stralsund,  Candia,  Lille,  Buda, 
Schweidnitz,  Saragossa,  Sebastopol,  Vicksburg, 
Strasburg,  Metz,  and  Paris  since  the  introduc 
tion  of  gunpowder. 

SIEGE.Y,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Westphalia,  on  the  Sieg,  37  m.  S.  of  Arns- 


SIEGERT 


SIERRA 


31 


berg;  pop.  in  1871,  11,070.  It  is  the  chief 
seat  of  the  tanning  and  leather  industry  of 
Westphalia,  and  has  large  manufactories  of 
iron  and  steel  ware,  and  of  linen,  cotton,  and 
woollen  goods.  It  is  rapidly  increasing  in 
population.  Rubens  was  born  here. 

SIEGERT,  Karl  August,  a  German  painter,  born 
in  Neuwied  in  1820.  He  studied  at  Dtissel- 
dorf  under  Hildebrandt  from  1837  to  1841, 
and  subsequently  at  the  academy  till  1840, 
travelled  in  various  countries,  and  in  1851  be 
came  a  professor  of  painting  at  Diisseldorf. 
He  excels  in  genre  pictures.  His  recent  works 
include  "Dinner  Hour,"  "A  Welcome  Pause," 
"  Sunday  Morning,"  and  "  A  Lay  Brother  dis 
tributing  Alms." 

SIEMENS.  I.  Ernst  Werner,  a  German  inven 
tor,  born  at  Lenthe,  near  Hanover,  Dec.  13, 
1816.  He  entered  the  Prussian  army  in  1834, 
became  an  artillery  officer  in  1838,  busied  him 
self  with  researches  in  electro-metallurgy,  and 
took  out  in  1841  a  patent  for  electro-plating 
and  gilding.  From  1844  he  had  charge  of  the 
government  artillery  works  at  Berlin,  and  also 
devoted  himself  to  perfecting  the  electric  tele 
graph.  In  1848  he  laid  at  Kiel  the  first  sub 
marine  mines  exploded  by  electricity.  In  1849 
he  left  the  army  and  founded  in  Berlin  the 
telegraph-building  establishment  of  Siemens 
and  Halske.  Among  the  more  important  of 
Siemens's  inventions  are :  the  method  of  de 
termining  the  position  of  injuries  in  subter 
ranean  and  submarine  lines  ;  of  examining  in 
sulated  wires ;  of  charging  subterraneous  and 
submarine  conductors,  in  order  to  lessen  the 
disturbing  influences  of  induced  currents  in 
the  cables.  II.  Karl  Wilhelm,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Lenthe,  April  4,  1823.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  entered  the  Stolberg  ma 
chine  works,  and  in  1843  settled  in  London 
as  a  civil  engineer.  In  1858  he  undertook 
the  management  of  a  London  branch  of  the 
firm  of  Siemens  and  Halske  of  which  he  had 
become  a  partner.  With  his  brother  Werner 
he  carried  on  investigations  in  electro-magnet 
ism,  and  several  important  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  submarine  cables  and  the 
mode  of  insulating  with  caoutchouc  were  made 
by  them  jointly.  Assisted  by  his  younger 
brother  Friedrich  (born  Dec.  8,  1826),  he  insti 
tuted  in  1846  experiments  looking  to  the  dis 
covery  of  a  more  perfect  combustion  of  fuel. 
The  result  was  the  regenerating  gas  furnace. 
(See  FURXACE,  vol.  vii.,  p.  543.)  In  perfecting 
this  invention  all  the  brothers  took  part,  al 
though  the  chief  merit  belongs  to  Wilhelm. 
In  1869  the  Siemens  steel  works  were  erected 
at  Landore  in  Wales,  in  which  nearly  1,000 
tons  of  cast  steel  are  produced  weekly,  partly 
by  the  Siemens  method  directly  from  the  ore, 
and  partly  from  cast  and  wrought  iron.  Oth 
er  inventions  of  Wilhelm  Siemens  are :  the 
bathometer,  a  hydrostatic  instrument  for  mea 
suring  depths  at  sea;  the  hydraulic  brake  to 
prevent  the  recoil  of  artillery  on  ships  of  war ; 
a  pyrometer  (see  PYROMETER),  &c.  He  has 
VOL.  xv. — 3 


published  dissertations  "On  a  Regenerative 
Condenser"  (1850);  "On  the  Conversion  of 
Heat  into  Mechanical  Effects"  (1853);  "On 
a  Regenerative  Steam  Engine "  (1856) ;  and 
"  On  the  Increase  of  Electrical  Resistance  in 
Conductors  with  Rise  of  Temperature,  and  its 
Application  to  the  Measure  of  ordinary  and 
Furnace  Temperatures"  (1871). 

SIENA,  or  Sienna.  I.  A  central  province  of 
Italy,  in  Tuscany,  bordering  on  Florence,  Arez- 
zo,  Perugia,  Rome,  Grosseto,  and  Pisa;  area, 
1,465  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  206,446.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Ombrone,  Orcia,  and  other 
rivers.  The  N.  E.  portion  is  very  mountain 
ous.  There  are  several  lakes.  A  portion  of 
the  soil  is  fertile,  producing  wheat,  olive  oil, 
and  wine ;  a  larger  portion  comprises  forests, 
prairies,  and  pasture  grounds;  much  of  it  is 
uncultivated.  Cattle  raising  is  a  chief  occu 
pation.  It  comprises  the  districts  of  Siena 
and  Montepulciano.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
province,  on  two  hills  in  a  dreary  plain,  31 
m.  S.  by  E.  of  Florence;  pop.  in  1872,  22,- 
965.  The  streets  are  narrow,  and  many  of 
them  too  steep  for  vehicles.  The  cathedral, 
built  in  the  13th  century,  is  a  fine  specimen 
of  Italian  Gothic,  and  there  are  several  other 
churches  which  are  rich  in  works  of  art.  The 
university,  which  was  flourishing  in  the  mid 
dle  ages,  has  a  library  of  50,000  volumes  and 
5,000  manuscripts.  Siena  is  an  archbishop's 
see,  and  has  numerous  academies  of  litera 
ture,  science,  and  the  fine  arts.  The  hos 
pital  of  Santa  Maria  della  Scala  is  one  of 
the  oldest  in  Europe.  The  piazza  del  Campo, 
celebrated  in  Dante's  Purgatorio,  contains  the 
loggia  di  San  Paolo,  the  seat  of  a  commercial 
tribunal  in  the  middle  ages. — Siena  is  a  very 
ancient  place,  as  the  remains  of  Etruscan  wralls 
still  visible  testify.  It  was  a  bishop's  see  in 
the  6th  century.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  a 
powerful  republic,  and  rivalled  Florence,  with 
which  it  was  often  at  war.  In  the  struggle 
between  the  popes  and  emperors  it  sided  with 
the  Ghibelline  party,  and  its  soldiers  defeated 
the  Guelphs  at  Monte  Aperto  or  Montaperti 
in  1260.  The  council  of  Pavia,  transferred  to 
Siena,  lasted  from  June  22,  1423,  to  Feb.  26, 
1424.  A  long  period  of  civil  war  ended  in  its 
capture  by  the  troops  of  Charles  V.  in  1555, 
and  it  was  united  with  Tuscany  in  1557. 

SIERRA,  a  N.  E.  county  of  California,  bound 
ed  E.  by  Nevada,  and  drained  by  the  North 
and  Middle  forks  of  the  Tuba  river  ;  area,  830 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,619,  of  whom  810  were 
Chinese.  It  is  situated  among  the  Sierra 
Nevada  mountains,  and  but  little  of  it  is  less 
than  3,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  There  are  several 
isolated  peaks,  the  most  conspicuous  of  which 
are  Table  mountain,  more  than  6,500  ft.  high ; 
Saddle  mountain,  a  little  lower ;  and  the  Sierra 
buttes,  8,300  ft.  high.  Nearly  the  whole  county 
is  underlaid  by  auriferous  slates,  generally  cov 
ered  by  volcanic  accumulations.  It  is  one  of 
the  chief  gold-producing  counties  in  the  state. 
The  surface  is  covered  with  a  heavy  growth 


32 


SIERRA  LEONE 


SIEYES 


of  coniferous  trees.  The  land  suited  to  agri 
culture  or  grazing  is  mostly  confined  to  a  few 
small  valleys  and  mountain  flats.  The  climate 
in  winter  is  rigorous.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  7,794  bushels  of  wheat,  8,250 
of  oats,  10,415  of  barley,  8,451  of  potatoes, 
39,200  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  7,466  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  464  horses,  887  milch  cows,  2,257 
other  cattle,  402  sheep,  and  437  swine ;  13  saw 
mills,  1  machine  shop,  and  6  quartz  mills. 
Capital,  Downieville. 

SIERRA  LEONE,  a  British  colony  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Africa,  forming  one  of  the  West  Af 
rican  settlements.  It  occupies  a  small  penin 
sula  terminating  in  Cape  Sierra  Leone,  lat.  8° 
30'  N.,  Ion.  13°  18'  E.,  and  extending  N.  to 
the  estuary  of  the  same  name.  Along  the 
N.  bank  of  this  estuary  is  a  narrow  strip  of 
territory  belonging  to  the  colony,  which  also 
includes  the  district  around  the  mouth  of  the 
Sherbro  river,  about  70  m.  down  the  coast ; 
area,  468  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  38,936,  of  whom 
107  were  Europeans  and  1,741  were  native 
Christians.  The  peninsula  is  mountainous, 
some  of  the  peaks  rising  to  the  height  of  3,000 
ft.  above  the  sea ;  but  there  are  tracts  of  level 
ground,  and  several  small  valleys,  the  whole 
being  well  watered  and  for  the  most  part 
densely  wooded.  The  lower  districts  are 
purely  alluvial,  but  in  the  more  elevated  parts 
the  geological  formation  is  volcanic,  and  iron 
ore  occurs.  Free  Town  is  the  capital,  in  addi 
tion  to  which  the  colony  contains  several  con 
siderable  villages.  The  climate  is  deadly  to 
Europeans.  The  wet  season  extends  from  May 
to  November  inclusive ;  the  average  annual 
rainfall  is  160  inches,  and  the  mean  temper 
ature  not  far  from  82°  F.  From  February  to 
December,  1871,  of  the  98  Europeans  resident 
at  Free  Town,  24  died,  a  death  rate  far  ex 
ceeding  any  other  in  the  British  dominions. 
This  excessive  mortality,  however,  is  confined 
to  the  coast ;  the  mountain  villages,  only  3  or 
4  m.  inland  from  Free  Town,  are  described  as 
quite  salubrious.  The  land  breeze,  which  be 
gins  to  blow  in  the  evening,  comes  over  swampy 
ground  laden  with  malaria,  and  the  unwhole 
some  mists  cling  to  the  lower  terraces.  The 
soil  is  not  naturally  very  productive,  but  cassa- 
da,  cacao,  maize,  ginger,  ground  nuts,  Guinea 
corn,  yams,  plantains,  sugar  cane,  and  fruits  are 
all  successfully  grown.  The  principal  exports 
are  palm  oil,  nuts,  hides,  and  timber ;  the  total 
value  of  the  exports  in  1871  was  £467,755, 
against  imports  to  the  amount  of  £305,849. 
In  the  same  year  411  vessels  of  110,646  tons 
were  entered  in  the  colony,  and  409  of  110,- 
919  tons  were  cleared.  The  established  edu 
cational  system  is  inefficient.  The  colony  has 
two  bishops  of  the  church  of  England,  and 
there  are  100  Christian  ministers  of  all  denom 
inations,  many  of  the  most  intelligent  being 
natives ;  but  the  Mohammedan  priests  from 
the  interior  have  achieved  tenfold  the  success 
of  the  Christian  missionaries  in  making  con 
verts.  The  colonial  governor,  who  is  appoint 


ed  by  the  crown  and  is  officially  known  as  the 
chief  administrator,  is  the  executive  of  all  the 
West  African  settlements.  He  is  assisted  by 
a  legislative  council,  of  which  some  of  the 
members  are  pure  negroes.  The  revenue  in 
1871  was  £80,486,  collected  partly  by  import 
duties  on  spirits,  tobacco,  and  gunpowder, 
while  the  expenditure  amounted  to  £76,130. — 
The  settlement  was  originally  formed  in  1787 
by  Granville  Sharp  and  other  British  philan 
thropists,  with  the  view  of  providing  a  suit 
able  home  for  destitute  negroes  from  different 
parts  of  the  world,  as  well  as  promoting  Afri 
can  civilization.  The  first  foreign  inhabitants 
were  destitute  negroes  from  London,  nearly 
500  in  number.  These  were  followed  in  1790 
by  more  than  1,000  freed  slaves  who  had  been 
collected  in  Nova  Scotia,  in  1800  by  about  500 
maroons  from  Jamaica,  and  in  1819  by  a  dis 
banded  West  India  negro  regiment.  In  1807 
the  Sierra  Leone  company,  which  was  organ 
ized  by  Sharp,  Wilberforce,  and  others,  and 
had  previously  controlled  the  colony,  trans 
ferred  all  its  rights  to  the  British  government. 
From  that  time  until  recent  years  the  popu 
lation  was  largely  augmented  by  the  introduc 
tion  of  the  negroes  taken  from  slave  ships  by 
vessels  of  the  British  navy. 

SIERRA  MADRE.    See  MEXICO,  vol.  xi.,  p.  465. 

SIERRA  MORENA.     See  SPAIN. 

SIERRA  NEVADA.  See  CALIFOKNIA,  ROCKY 
MOUNTAINS,  and  SPAIN. 

SIETES,  Emmanuel  Joseph,  count,  better  known 
as  abbe,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Frejus, 
May  3,  1748,  died  in  Paris,  June  20,  1836. 
After  completing  his  studies  in  the  university 
of  Paris,  he  took  orders,  received  in  1775  a  can- 
onship  in  Brittany,  and  became  in  1784  vicar 
general  and  chancellor  of  the  bishop  of  Char- 
tres.  The  ministry  having  invited  French  wri 
ters  to  present  their  views  upon  the  summon 
ing  of  the  states  general,  he  almost  simultane 
ously  published  three  pamphlets :  Vues  sur  les 
moyens  d? execution  dont  les  representants  de  la 
France  pourront  disposer  en  1789;  Essai  sur 
les  privileges,  a  vindication  of  the  rights  of  the 
people ;  and  Qu'est  ce  que  le  tiers  etat  ?  The 
answer  to  this  question,  which  he  summed  up 
in  "the  nation,"  made  him  famous  as  the 
oracle  of  the  revolution.  He  was  elected  dep 
uty  to  the  states  general,  where  he  moved  that 
the  three  orders  should  immediately  meet  in 
general  assembly  to  verify  their  powers  in 
common;  and  the  privileged  orders  refusing 
to  comply  with  this  motion,  he  insisted  that 
the  third  should  declare  itself  the  "national 
assembly."  He  drew  up  the  oath  taken  by 
the  deputies,  June  20,  1789,  and  originated  the 
organization  of  the  national  guards  and  the 
division  of  France  into  departments.  In  his 
Apercu  d'une  nouvelle  organisation  de  la  jus 
tice  et  de  la  police  en  France,  he  proposed  jury 
trial  in  civil  as  well  as  criminal -cases.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  assembly  in  1790. 
After  the  flight  of  the  king  to  Varennes,  he 
vigorously  opposed  the  establishment  of  a  re- 


SIGISMUND 


SIGNAL  SERVICE 


33 


public.  In  September,  1792,  he  took  his  seat 
in  the  convention,  being  elected  by  three  de 
partments  at  once.  On  the  trial  of  the  king, 
he  at  first  protested  against  the  unlawful  as 
sumption  of  powers  by  the  convention;  but 
yielding  to  the  majority,  he  sat  as  one  of  the 
judges,  and  silently  voted  for  death  without 
appeal  to  the  people.  During  the  reign  of 
terror  he  gave  up  his  priesthood  and  pension, 
and  skilfully  avoided  attention,  but  after  the 
fall  of  Robespierre  regained  influence  among 
the  moderate  party.  Pie  moved  the  restora 
tion  of  the  surviving  Girondists  to  their  seats 
in  the  assembly,  and  had  a  large  share  in  the 
direction  of  foreign  policy.  On  the  establish 
ment  of  the  directorial  government  he  was 
elected  one  of  the  five  directors,  but  declined, 
contenting  himself  with  being  a  member  of 
the  council  of  500.  An  unsuccessful  attempt 
was  made  to  assassinate  him  in  1797.  In  1798 
he  went  as  minister  to  Berlin,  and  secured  the 
neutrality  of  Prussia.  In  May,  1799,  he  suc 
ceeded  Rewbell  as  a  member  of  the  directory, 
of  which  he  soon  became  president.  After  the 
coup  d'etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire,  of  which  he 
was  one  of  the  originators,  the  liberal  consti 
tution  prepared  by  him  was  altered  so  as  to 
suit  the  aspirations  of  the  first  consul ;  and 
while  Bonaparte  seized  upon  absolute  power, 
Sieyes,  after  having  been  one  of  the  provision 
al  consuls,  had  to  content  himself  with  a  seat 
in  the  senate,  the  presidency  of  which  he  held 
for  a  while.  He  also  received  as  a  compensa 
tion  the  princely  estate  of  Crosne,  with  a  large 
income.  Although  he  figured  among  those  op 
ponents  whom  Bonaparte  styled  ideologists,  he 
was  afterward  made  a  count.  In  1814,  while 
absent  fi$>m  the  senate,  he,  through  Talley 
rand's  advice,  adhered  by  letter  to  such  mea 
sures  as  were  taken  by  that  body  against  the 
emperor,  but  was  nevertheless  made  a  peer 
during  the  hundred  days.  He  however  stood 
aloof,  censured  the  "Additional  Act  to  the 
Constitution  of  the  Empire,"  and  appeared 
neither  at  the  meeting  in  the  Champ  de  Mai 
nor  at  the  opening  of  the  chambers.  On  the 
second  return  of  the  Bourbons,  he  sought  a 
refuge  at  Brussels.  After  the  revolution  of 
July,  1830,  he  returned  to  Paris.  One  volume 
of  his  collected  works,  ^edited  by  Cramer,  ap 
peared  in  1796. — See  Etude  sur  Sieyes,  by  E. 
de  Beauverger  (Paris,  1851). 

SIGISMUND,  emperor  of  Germany,  the  last  of 
the  Luxemburg  line,  born  in  1368,  died  Dec.  9, 
1437.  He  was  the  second  son  of  the  emperor 
Charles  IV.,  and  became  elector  of  Branden 
burg,  while  his  elder  brother  Wenceslas  suc 
ceeded  to  the  empire  in  1378.  He  was  af 
fianced  to  Mary,  daughter  of  Louis  the  Great 
of  Hungary  and  Poland,  and  was  designated 
as  successor  in  both  kingdoms.  But  on  the 
death  of  Louis,  in  1382,  the  Poles  rejected 
him,  while  an  adverse  party  in  Hungary  raised 
Charles  the  Little  of  Naples  to  the  throne. 
Charles  was  assassinated,  and  Sigismund,  hav 
ing  espoused  Mary,  was  crowned  king  of  Hun 


gary  (1387).  He  fought  the  Turks,  was  rout 
ed  by  Bajazet  at  Nicopolis  in  1396,  and  fled 
to  Greece ;  and  when  after  several  years  he  re 
turned  to  Hungary,  he  had  to  contend  against 
a  new  rival,  Ladislas  of  Naples,  who  finally 
withdrew  in  1403.  In  1400  the  incapable  em 
peror  Wenceslas  had  been  deposed  and  suc 
ceeded  by  Rupert  of  the  Palatinate,  and  on 
the  death  of  the  latter  in  1410  Sigismund  and 
his  cousin  Jodocus  of  Moravia  contested  the 
imperial  crown.  The  electors  were  at  first 
divided,  but  on  the  death  of  Jodocus  in  1411 
Sigismund  was  elected.  He  called  a  general 
council  at  Constance,  violated  the  safe-con 
duct  accorded  to  Huss,  and  provoked  the  great 
Hussite  war.  He  succeeded  Wenceslas  in  Bo 
hemia,  received  the  Lombard  crown  in  1431, 
and  was  crowned  at  Rome  in  1433.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son-in-law,  Albert  II.  of 
Hapsburg. 

SIGISMUND  L,  II.,  and  III.,  kings  of  Poland. 
See  POLAND,  vol.  xiii.,  pp.  645-'6. 

SIGMARINGEN.     See  HOHENZOLLEKN. 

SIGNAL  SERVICE.  Organized  signal  services 
existed  in  armies  from  very  early  periods. 
Polybius  (about  200  B.  C.)  mentions  the  won 
derful  skill  acquired  by  the  signal  corps  of  his 
day.  In  later  years  semaphores  were  used 
ivith  armies,  and  codes  of  flag  signals  became 
common  for  fleets.  The  invention  of  the  elec 
tric  telegraph  greatly  developed  organizations 
of  this  description.  Telegraphic  corps  are 
now  attached  to  many  armies,  and  field  signals 
are  widely  used.  Messages  of  any  description, 
and  in  words  or  characters  of  any  language, 
can  be  sent  by  signals,  by  day  or  night,  as  far 
as  one  man  can  by  telescopes  or  other  means 
be  made  visible  to  another.  The  apparatus 
can  easily  be  carried  in  the  hand  on  horseback 
or  on  foot.  To  transmit  any  message'  by  the 
use  of  portable  signal  apparatus,  a  distance 
of  10  in.  would  be  now  considered  easy. 
Ranges  of  from  16  to  20  m.  are  often  reached 
in  ordinarily  clear  weather ;  and  on  the  west 
ern  prairies  messages  have  been  transmitted  30 
m.  by  flags.  In  time  of  war  systems  of  reports 
are  sometimes  organized  to  cover  extensive' 
sections  of  territory.  In  some  instances  com 
munication  can  be  had  from  stations  on  ele 
vated  points  over  the  heads  of  an  enemy. — 
The  signal  service  of  the  United  States  army 
is  equipped  to  maintain  communication  by 
signals,  by  telegraph,  or  by  semaphores,  be 
tween  officers  or  the  different  portions  of  an 
army  or  armies,  or  between  armies  and  fleets. 
In  time  of  peace  it  transmits  intelligence  in 
reference  to  storms  or  approaching  weather 
changes  by  the  display  of  signals  of  warning, 
and  by  reports  at  the  different  cities  and  ports 
of  the  United  States.  Maps  showing  the 
weather  conditions  are  exhibited  at  board  of 
trade  rooms,  chambers  of  commerce,  and  oth 
er  places  of  resort.  Bulletins  of  data  are  also 
prominently  displayed,  and  are  furnished  with 
out  expense  to  leading  newspapers.  Signal 
stations  are  established  also  in  connection  with 


34: 


SIGNAL   SERVICE 


life-saving  stations,  which  are  connected  by 
telegraph,  and,  in  addition  to  displaying  storm 
signals  and  making  the  regular  meteorological 
reports,  are  required  to  make  special  reports 
upon  tempests  at  sea,  the  sea  swell,  currents, 
temperatures,  &c.  They  also  summon  assis 
tance  to  vessels  in  distress,  either  from  neigh 
boring  life-saving  stations  or  from  the  nearest 
port.  Stations  for  river  reports,  to  give  notice 
of  dangerous  floods  or  conditions  of  the  rivers 
affecting  navigation,  are  established  upon  the 
courses  of  the  great  interior  rivers.  The  offi 
cers  and  men  of  the  signal  service  are  instructed 
for  the  different  branches  of  the  service  at  the 
signal  school  of  instruction  at  Fort  Whipple, 
Va.,  and  at  the  central  office  in  Washington. 
They  are  taught  the  use  of  meteorological  in 
struments,  the  modes  of  observing,  and  the 
forms  and  duties  required  at  stations  of  obser 
vation,  and  for  the  display  of  storm  signals. 
The  force  is  also  drilled  with  arms  and  in  the 
usual  duties  of  soldiers.  The  field  telegraph 
trains  of  the  signal  service  are  organized  for 
use  with  armies,  and  are  managed  by  soldiers 
who  are  drilled  to  march  with,  manoauvre, 
work,  and  protect  them.  The  trains  carry 
light  or  field  telegraph  lines,  which  can  be  very 
quickly  erected  or  run  out  at  the  rate  of  two 
or  three  miles  an  hour.  They  can  be  put  in 
use  for  any  distance,  and  as  rapidly  taken  down, 
repacked,  and  marched  off  with  the  detach 
ment  to-be  used  elsewhere. — For  the  duties 
of  the  observation  of  storms,  and  for  the  dis 
play  of  storm  signals,  all  stations  communicate 
directly  with  the  signal  office  in  Washington 
over  telegraphic  circuits  arranged  with  the 
different  telegraph  companies,  or  connecting 
with  the  office  at  fixed  hours  each  day  and 
night.  Each  station  is  supplied  with  the  fol 
lowing  instruments :  barometer,  thermometer, 
maximum  thermometer,  minimum  thermome 
ter,  Robinson's  anemometer  with  electrical  at 
tachment  and  self-registering  apparatus,  hy 
grometer,  wind  vane,  rain  gauge,  and,  on 
stations  located  on  rivers,  lakes,  or  seacoast, 
thermometers  designed  for  taking  the  temper 
ature  of  water  at  different  depths.  The  read 
ings  of  these  instruments,  made  three  times 
a  day  at  fixed  hours,  are  reported  to  the  cen 
tral  office  in  cipher.  The  stations  at  which 
cautionary  signals  are  displayed  are  equipped 
with  flags  and  apparatus  for  exhibiting  the 
cautionary  day  or  night  signal.  These  stations 
are  established  (with  the  exception  of  those 
in  the  principal  cities)  solely  with  reference  to 
the  importance  of  their  position  for  meteoric 
observations.  Three  graphic  charts  are  pre 
pared  at  the  central  office  on  the  receipt  of 
each  report,  as  follows:  1.  A  chart  of  baro 
metric  pressures,  temperatures,  and  winds,  to 
gether  with  the  wind  velocities  at  the  differ 
ent  stations,  and  the  precipitation  occurring ; 
it  exhibits  the  barometric  pressures  and  the 
temperatures  in  their  relation  to  districts  and 
to  each  other  by  a  system  of  isobaric  and  iso 
thermal  lines,  and  the  wind  directions  by  ar 


rows  at  the  different  stations.  2.  A  chart  of 
the  cloud  conditions  prevailing  over  the  Uni 
ted  States,  on  which  the  different  varieties  and 
amount  of  clouds  visible  at  the  different  sta 
tions  appear  by  symbols;  on  this  chart  is  also 
indicated  the  weather  as  reported  at  each  sta 
tion,  the  direction  and  movement  of  upper  and 
lower  clouds,  and  each  morning  the  minimum 
temperature  of  the  preceding  night,  in  relation 
to  districts  of  territory.  3.  A  chart  showing 
the  relative  humidities  over  territorial  districts, 
with  the  temperature  at  the  several  stations ; 
this  enables  studies  to  be  made  for  territorial 
sections,  the  difficulties  attending  the  study  of 
observations  of  this  character  being  obviated 
to  a  very  considerable  degree  by  the  intercor- 
rections  of  the*  stations  among  themselves,  and 
by  the  great  extent  of  the  regions  over  which 
the  readings  are  simultaneously  made.  In  the 
study  of  the  charts  for  the  reports,  the  well 
known  rules  and  generalizations  established  by 
the  experience  of  meteorologists  are  used.  The 
published  office  report,  based  upon  each  gen 
eral  report  of  observations,  consists  of  a  synop 
sis  of  the  meteoric  conditions  existing  over 
the  territory  of  tbe  United  States  at  the  time 
of  the  report,  and  a  statement  of  the  changes 
likely  to  occur  Avithin  the  next  24  hours.  For 
the  purposes  of  convenient  study  and  of  con 
densed  description,  the  territory  of  the  Uni 
ted  States  is  arbitrarily  divided  into  districts. 
The  reports  from  the  stations,  extending  over 
territory  reaching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  and  from  the  capes  of  Florida  into 
British  America,  are  not  unfrequently  concen 
trated  at  the  central  oflice  in  the  space  of  45 
minutes.  In  military  lines  connecting  frontier 
posts  and  lines  connecting  life-saving  stations 
upon  the  seacoast,  the  telegraphic  outies  are 
performed  by  the  men  of  the  signal  service. 
The  reports  are  those  of.  readings  of  the  dif 
ferent  meteorological  instruments  made  as 
nearly  simultaneously  as  possible.  The  re 
ports,  made  simultaneously  from  all  the  sta 
tions  and  received  at  the  central  office  thrice 
daily,  at  intervals  of  about  eight  hours,  are  at 
once  entered  graphically  upon  synoptic  charts 
(the  weather  maps),  and  from  the  study  of 
these  charts  a  deduction  is  had  as  to  probable 
weather  changes  within  the  ensuing  24  hours. 
This  deduction  is  furnished  to  the  press  and 
is  telegraphed  to  21  centres  of  distribution,  to 
be  there  published  and  distributed  in  bulletin 
form  for  the  use  of  farmers.  The  bulletins 
are  displayed  at  post  offices  in  numerous  vil 
lages  in  the  agricultural  districts.  In  the  case 
of  serious  storms  noticed  as  approaching  the 
lakes,  or  threatening  any  part  of  the  seacoast, 
cautionary  signals  are  ordered  from  the  cen 
tral  office  to  be  displayed  at  the  different  lake 
and  sea  ports  and  upon  the  coasts,  as  a  warn 
ing  to  mariners.  The  fortunate  position  of 
the  territory  of  the'  United  States  and  its  great 
extent  enable  a  service  of  this  kind  to  be  con 
ducted  with  especial  advantage.  The  move 
ments  of  the  storms  over  the  continent  can  be 


SIGNALS 


35 


traced  upon  the  charts  from  report  to  report, 
and  the  direction  and  rate  of  their  progress 
together  with  their  intensity  be  noted  in  time 
to  give  warning  of  their  approach.  Floods 
occurring  upon  the  western  rivers  can  be 
traced  sometimes  from  the  fall  of  rain  with 
in  the  respective  watersheds,  and  along  the 
courses  of  the  different  confluent  streams,  un 
til  culminating  in  the  dangerous  flood  of  the 
principal  river.  In  nearly  the  same  manner 
that  storms  can  be  traced  upon  the  charts, 
approaching  changes  of  temperature  and  rain 
fall  are  foreseen,  and  notice  is  frequently  given 
in  time  to  prevent  injury  to  agricultural  and 
other  interests.  In  the  analyses  of  the  official 
deductions  of  the  office,  or  the  "probabili 
ties,"  the  percentage  of  verifications  is  found 
to  have  been  as  follows:  1872,  76'8  per  cent. ; 
1873,  77-0  per  cent, ;  1874,  84-4  per  cent.  The 
cautionary  signal  is  a  red  flag  with  a  black 
centre  by  day,  and  a  red  light  by  night.  This 
signal  indicates  a  probability  of  stormy  or  dan 
gerous  weather  for  the  port  or  place  at  which 
it  is  displayed,  or  in  that  vicinity.  While 
storms  of  limited  extent,  such  as  squalls,  tor 
nadoes,  &c.,  may  spring  up  suddenly  or  pass 
between  stations  in  such  a  way  that  their 
coming  or  courses  cannot  be  foreseen,  exten 
sive  and  well  defined  disturbances  can  as  a 
rule  be  readily  traced  in  time  to  forewarn  the 
coasts  or  districts  threatened.  Arrangements 
have  been  made  with  the  chiefs  of  meteoro 
logical  services  in  Europe,  in  accordance  with 
the  recommendation  of  the  Vienna  conference 
of  meteorologists  (1873),  providing  for  the  ex 
change  daily  of  one  report  taken  at  the  same 
instant  over  all  the  territories  of  the  United 
States,  nearly  all  Europe,  extending  through 
Kussian  Asia  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  the 
northern  portion  of  Africa.  These  exchanges 
are  made  every  15  days  by  mail.  Besides  the 
daily  bulletins  and  weather  maps,  the  signal 
office  publishes  a  weekly  review  of  the  weather 
which  is  furnished  to  the  press,  and  a  monthly 
review,  accompanied  with  charts  showing  the 
isobaric  and  isothermal  lines,  the  prevailing 
winds,  the  tracks  of  low  barometer,  and  a  pre 
cipitation  chart  for  the  month. 

SIGNALS,  Fog.  See  LIGHTHOUSE,  vol.  x.,  p. 
457. 

SIGNALS,  Naval.  Naval  signals  are  frequently 
mentioned  by  the  classical  writers,  and  recent 
investigation  has  discovered  the  fact  that  the 
system  which  prevailed  during  the  naval  su 
premacy  of  Greece  and  Carthage  bore  a  stri 
king  resemblance  to  our  present  army  code, 
invented  by  Gen.  A.  J.  Myer,  U.  S.  A.  Sig 
nal  flags  began  to  be  used  in  the  English  navy 
in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  or  perhaps  a  little 
earlier.  In  the  reign  of  James  II.  their  use 
was  somewhat  systematized,  and  in  1790  or 
thereabouts,  under  Earl  Howe  and  Kempen- 
felt,  a  regular  code  of  day'  and  night  signals 
was  perfected.  Besides  flags  during  the  last 
century,  arbitrary  signs  were  used  as  signals, 
which  were  well  known  to  all  seafaring  peo 


ple.  The  signal  to  unmoor  ship,  for  example, 
was  the  loosing  of  the  maintopsail ;  that  to 
prepare  for  sailing  was  loosing  the  foretopsail 
and  firing  one  gun.  In  general  there  are  three 
classes  of  signals  :  those  for  the  day,  made  by 
square  flags  and  triangular  pennants  variously 
colored  of  red,  blue,  white,  and  yellow ;  night 
signals,  made  with  colored  lights,  rockets,  &c. ; 
and  fog  signals  made  by  steam  whistles,  fog 
horns,  bells,  or  guns.  By  means  of  the  "  In 
ternational  Code  of  Signals  for  the  use  of  all 
Nations,"  all  maritime  countries  use  the  same 
kind  of  signal  flags,  and  having  the  signal 
book  of  each  country  printed  in  its  own  lan 
guage,  ships  of  different  nationalities  commu 
nicate  as  readily  with  each  other  as  ships  sail 
ing  under  the  same  flag.  In  most  systems  the 
signal  flags  represent  the  numerals  from  1  to 
10,  and  in  the  signal  book,  corresponding  to 
the  numbers  from  1  up  to  several  thousand, 
are  words  and  phrases  most  likely  to  be  used 
by  ships.  But  in  the  code  just  referred  to  the 
consonants  of  the  alphabet  were  used  in  pref 
erence  to  numerals,  by  which  means  it  was 
found  that  with  18  flags  more  than  78,000  dis 
tinct  signals  could  be  made  without  displaying 
more  than  four  flags  at  a  time.  The  number 
of  flags  and  their  position  are  also  significant. 
Thus,  when  but  two  flags  are  shown,  "  danger  " 
or  "  urgency  "  is  implied.  If  in  a  signal  con 
sisting  of  two  flags  a  burgee  (a  swallow-tail 
flag)  is  uppermost,  it  is  known  at  once  to  be 
an  "  attention  "  signal.  If  a  pennant  is  upper 
most,  it  is  a  compass  signal.  A  square  flag 
above  indicates  an  "urgent"  signal.  Three 
flags  in  one  hoist  express  "latitude,  longitude, 
time,"  and  all  ordinary  signals  required  for 
communications.  Four  flags  indicate  geograph 
ical  signals.  The  flags  representing  the  alpha 
bet  are  for  spelling  out  words  not  found  in  the 
vocabulary.  With  a  pennant  above,  the  name 
of  a  ship  of  war  is  indicated  ;  with  a  square 
flag  uppermost,  that  of  a  merchant  vessel. 
Observing,  then,  the  colors  of  each  flag,  we 
seek  in  the  signal  book  the  same  combination 
of  letters  and  the  corresponding  message.  Let 
us  suppose,  for  example,  that  on  the  meeting 
of  two  ships  at  sea  one  is  observed  to  hoist 
two  flags.  We  know  at  once  it  is  an  urgent 
signal,  and  on  closer  examination  find  the  up 
per  one  divided  vertically,  in  white  and  red, 
the  lower  one  a  red  burgee.  The  upper  flag 
represents  the  letter  H,  the  lower  one  the  let 
ter  B.  The  combination  H  B  in  the  signal 
book  stands  opposite  the  sentence,  "  Want  im 
mediate  assistance."  Thereupon  the  second 
ship  hoists  a  white  and  red  vertical  flag  (H), 
and  beneath  a  red  pennant  with  white  ball  in 
centre  (F).  II  F  in  the  signal  book  corresponds 
to  the  sentence,  "  Wre  are  coming  to  your  as 
sistance."  As  each  ship  has  a  signal  book 
printed  in  the  language  of  its  country,  this 
code  furnishes  a  kind  of  universal  language. 
If  the  ship  first  mentioned  had  found  herself 
on  a  strange  coast,  she  might  have  made  the 
same  signal  to  a  shore  station,  and  received 


36 


SIGOURNEY 


SIKHS 


the  friendly  aid  of  a  life  boat.  Should  the  1 
distance  between  two  points  be  too  great  to 
distinguish  colors,  the  shape  alone  indicates 
the  value  of  the  signal,  for  which  purpose  a 
ball,  a  long  pennant,  and  a  square  flag  are 
used,  known  as  "distance  signals."  In  addi 
tion  to  the  above,  each  national  marine  has  a 
system  of  signals  adapted  to  its  own  particular 
wants,  not  only  for  holding  free  communica 
tion  among  the  ships  of  a  fleet,  the  transmit 
ting  of  orders,  conveying  of  intelligence,  &c., 
but  to  enable  the  comrnander-in-chief  of  a 
naval  force  to  signal  orders  to  his  ships  for  the 
various  evolutions  of  naval  tactics.  A  com 
plete  naval  signal  book  comprehends  therefore 
a  system  of  evolutionary  tactics.  For  night 
signals,  red,  green,  and  white  lights  are  used 
to  represent  those  colors  in  the  flags  of  the 
day  signals,  the  green  light  taking  the  place  of 
the  blue  bunting.  The  night  signals  known  as 
the  "  Ooston  lights"  are  the  best  in  use. — The 
greatest  improvement  of  recent  times  in  sig 
nalling  is  that  made  by  Gen.  A.  J.  Myer,  al 
ready  referred  to.  For  its  perfect  simplicity 
and  comprehensiveness  it  is  now  considered 
indispensable  to  both  branches  of  the  public 
service.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  repre 
sented  by  combinations  of  the  numerals  1  and 
2  for  spelling  the  words  of  a  message.  Each 
word  is  punctuated  by  a  comma  represented 
by  the  numeral  3  ;  1,2,  and  3  being  repre 
sented  by  arbitrary  signs.  A,  for  instance,  is 
represented  by  2-2,  B  by  2-1-1-2,  0  by  1-2-1, 
&c. ;  3  indicates  the  end  of  a  word,  3-3  the 
end  of  a  sentence,  and  3-3-3  the  end  of  the 
message.  There  are  also  abbreviations.  The 
signals  commonly  used  to  represent  these  num 
bers  are  as  follows  :  The  signalman,  facing  his 
correspondent,  waves  a  flag  (at  night  a  light 
ed  torch)  to  his  right  to  indicate  1,  bringing 
his  flag  to  a  rest  in  a  vertical  position ;  to  the 
left  to  denote  2 ;  and  to  his  front  for  3.  By 
waving  his  flag  or  torch  to  his  right  and  left 
he  spells  out  the  words  of  his  message,  using 
frequent  abbreviations,  so  that  two  expert 
signalmen  may  transmit  long  communications 
with  great  rapidity  and  exactness. 

SIGOURNEY,  Lydia  Hnntley,  an  American  au 
thoress,  born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  Sept.  1,  1791, 
died  in  Hartford,  June  10,  1865.  In  1814  she 
opened  a  private  school  in  Hartford,  and  in 
1815  published  "Moral  Pieces  in  Prose  and 
Verse."  In  1819  she  married  Charles  Sigour- 
ney,  a  merchant  of  Hartford.  In  1840  she 
visited  Europe,  and  recorded  her  reminiscences 
in  "Pleasant  Memories  of  Pleasant  Lands" 
(1842).  She  published  nearly  60  volumes  of 
poems,  prose,  and  selections.  Among  her 
works  are :  "  Letters  to  Young  Ladies  "  (1833)  ; 
"Pocahontas,  and  other  Poems"  (1841) ;  "Past 
Meridian"  (1854);  "The  Man  of  Uz,  and  oth 
er  Poems "  (1802) ;  and  her  autobiography, 
posthumously  published  under  the  title  "Let 
ters  of  Life  "  (New  York,  1866). 

SIGUENZA  ¥  GONG0RA,  Carlos  de,  a  Mexican 
scholar,  born  in  Mexico  in  1645,  died  there, 


Aug.  22,  1700.  He  was  chaplain  to  the  arch 
bishop  of  Mexico,  and  taught  astronomy  and 
mathematics  in  the  university  of  that  city  for 
20  years.  King  Charles  II.  of  Spain  created 
him  royal  cosmographer  and  mathematician. 
He  had  several  discussions  on  the  nature  of 
comets  with  Father  Kuhn,  the  colonizer  of 
California,  and  wrote  histories  of  Texas  and 
the  Chichimecas,  an  account  of  the  recovery  of 
New  Mexico  after  the  revolt  of  1680,  and  a 
history  of  the  university  of  Mexico.  With 
Juan  de  Alva  Ixtlixochitl  he  prepared  several 
treatises  on  Mexican  antiquities  and  early 
American  history,  which  perished  with  his 
library  in  the  great  fire  of  June,  1692.  He 
was  director  of  the  military  school  of  Mexico 
for  several  years,  and  in  1693  was  appointed 
to  accompany  the  expedition  of  Andres  de  Pes 
against  the  French  settlements  in  the  gulf  of 
Mexico.  He  planned  the  fortifications  of  Pen- 
sacola,  and  soon  afterward  published  maps  of 
the  bays  of  Pensacola  (Santa  Maria  de  Galve) 
and  Mobile,  and  of  the  Rio  de  la  Palizada  or 
Mississippi.  His  name  was  subsequently  given 
to  one  extremity  of  Santa  Rosa  island  and  to 
the  fort  erected  there.  He  entered  the  society 
of  Jesus  in  1693.  His  principal  works  are: 
Vcr  Indicum,  Poema  sacro-epicum  (8vo,  Mexi 
co,  1668;  4to,  1680);  Expos itio  PhilosopMca 
adversus  Cometas  (1681);  TriumpJius  Parthe- 
nicus  (4to,  1684);  Libra  Astronomica  et  Philo 
sopMca  (1690) ;  Infortunia  Alfonsi  Ramirez 
circum  per  Orb  em  euntis  (1693)  ;  Mercurius 
wlans  et  Novum  Mexicum  restauratum  prcc  se 
ferens  (1693);  Descriptio  Sinus  Sanctce  Marias 
de  Galve  (1693);  and  a  topography  of  Mexico 
and  its  neighborhood,  enlarged  and  republished 
by  Alzate  in  1786. 

SIIION,  a  name  applied  by  some  geographers 
to  the  Sir  Darya  or  Jaxartes.  (See  JAXAKTES.) 

SIKHS  (Hind,  sikh,  a  disciple),  a  people  of 
India,  chiefly  inhabiting  the  Punjaub.  They 
were  originally  a  religious  sect,  the  founder 
of  which  was  Nanak,  a  Hindoo  of  the  warrior 
caste,  born  in  1469  near  Lahore,  who  was  a 
deist,  advocating  the  worship  of  God  without 
regard  to  form  as  an  essential,  universal  tol 
eration,  and  a  fusion  of  Brahmanism  and  Mo 
hammedanism,  on  the  basis  of  a  pure  mono 
theism  and  of  human  brotherhood.  He  died 
in  1539,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Angad, 
who  wrote  commentaries  upon  his  father's  sys 
tem,  which  underwent  considerable  change  at 
the  hands  of  his  successors  Amardas  and  Ram- 
das.  Arjoon,  the  son  of  Ramdas,  compiled  the 
Sikh  doctrines  in  a  volume  called  Adi-  Granth, 
established  himself  at  Amritsir  in  1581,  and 
organized  his  followers,  who  had  hitherto  been 
only  a  religious  community,  into  a  confedera 
tion  possessing  also  a  political  character,  of 
which  he  became  the  sole  chief.  As  the  Sikhs 
rejected  alike  the  Koran  and  the  Vedas,  they 
drew  down  upon  themselves  the  hatred  both 
of  Moslems  and  Brahmans ;  and  notwithstand 
ing  the  peaceable  increase  of  the  sect  up  to 
that  period,  Arjoon  was  imprisoned  by  the 


SIKHS 


SILENUS 


Mussulman  government,  tortured,  and  put  to 
death  in  1606.  His  son,  Har  Govind,  to  avenge 
his  death,  led  the  Sikhs  against  their  Moham 
medan  foes ;  but  they  were  driven  from  the 
region  which  they  occupied  about  Lahore,  and 
forced  to  find  refuge  in  the  mountains  in  the 
north.  In  1675  Guru  Govind,  a  grandson  of 
Har  Govind,  became  their  tenth  theocratic 
chief,  gave  them  a  code  of  laws,  and  organized 
them  as  a  state.  He  added  to  their  sacred 
books  by  writing  the  biographies  of  his  nine 
predecessors.  He  abolished  caste,  established 
absolute  equality,  and  introduced  a  peculiar 
dress,  such  as  the  wearing  of  blue,  peculiar 
customs,  such  as  allowing  the  hair  and  beard 
to  grow  long  and  uncut,  and  peculiar  require 
ments,  such  as  that  every  man  should  be  a 
soldier  and  always  carry  steel.  He  recom 
menced  the  struggle  against  the  Mogul  em 
perors,  but  without  avail,  and  was  defeated 
and  finally  murdered  by  a  private  enemy.  His 
successor,  a  chief  named  Banda,  renewed  the 
contest  early  in  the  18th  century,  devastating 
the  eastern  Punjaub  and  Sirhind  with  such  suc 
cess  that  Bahadoor  Shah  himself  took  the  field 
against  the  Sikhs,  and  partially  repressed  their 
rising  power.  In  1716  they  were  overwhelm 
ingly  defeated  and  almost  annihilated.  Their 
religious  fervor  decreased,  and  for  many  years 
they  did  not  recover  from  this  blow  ;  but  they 
finally  united  their  roving  bands  and  drove 
the  Afghans  from  the  Punjaub  in  1764.  For 
the  following  30  years  they  were  divided  into 
12  small  confederations,  called  misals,  which 
were  governed  by  sirdars  or  petty  chiefs,  of 
whom  Maha  Singh  was  the  most  powerful. 
After  his  death  in  1794,  his  son  Runjeet  Singh 
brought  the  other  sirdars  into  subjection,  and 
reduced  the  Punjaub  to  his  sway.  (See  RUN 
JEET  SINGH.)  When  this  distinguished  Sikh 
chieftan  died,  in  1839,  his  dominions,  known 
as  the  kingdom  of  Lahore,  included  all  the 
principal  Sikh  states  except  those  E.  of  the 
Sutlej.  They  soon  fell  into  anarchy,  the  pow 
er  of  the  army  became  supreme,  and  war  with 
the  English  broke  out  in  1845.  Battles  were 
fought  and  victories  won  by  the  British,  un 
der  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  at  Moodkee,  Dec.  18  ; 
at  Ferozeshah,  Dec.  21  and  22;  at  Aliwal, 
Jan.  28,  1846;  and  finally  at  Sobraon,  Feb. 
10,  where  the  Sikhs  lost"  10,000  men.  The 
contest  then  terminated, in  a  treaty  by  which 
the  greater  part  of  their  territory  and  almost 
their  entire  government  was  ceded  to  the  East 
India  company.  This  treaty  soon  led  to  new 
complications,  and  to  a  second  war  between 
the  British  and  the  Sikhs,  beginning  in  1848. 
Mooltan  was  invested  in  the  autumn  of  that 
year,  and  taken  in  January,  1849  ;  but  the 
British,  under  Gough,  were  repulsed  and  nar 
rowly  escaped  disastrous  defeat  at  the  battle 
of  Chillianwallah,  Jan.  13,  when  they  lost 
2,446  killed  and  wounded.  A  subsequent  vic 
tory  at  Guzerat,  in  Febru-ary,  concluded  the 
war ;  the  Sikh  army  surrendered,  and  the  Pun 
jaub  was  incorporated  into  the  British  domin 


ions.  The  only  portion  of  the  Sikh  territories 
remaining  independent  is  comprised  in  the  nine 
small  states  of  Sirhind.  The  Sikhs  were  faith 
ful  troops  during  the  sepoy  mutiny  of  1857, 
and  aided  materially  in  its  suppression. — In 
1868  the  number  of  Sikhs  in  British  India  was 
officially  stated  at  1,129,319.  Their  ethnologi 
cal  affinities  are  with  the  Jats.  In  spite  of  the 
destruction  of  their  commonwealth,  they  main 
tain  their  national  characteristics,  being  tall, 
thin,  dark,  and  active,  excellent  soldiers  and 
horsemen,  frank,  sociable,  and  pleasure-loving. 
Amritsir  is  their  spiritual  capital. 

SIKKIM,  a  native  state  of  British  India,  on 
the  S.  slope  of  the  Himalaya  range,  bounded 
N.  by  Thibet,  E.  by  Bhotan,  S.  by  Bengal,  and 
W.  by  Nepaul,  between  lat.  27°  and  28°  10' 
K,  and  Ion.  88°  and  89°  E. ;  area,  2,544  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  7,000,  principally  mountaineers. 
The  surface  consists  of  a  series  of  ranges  of 
the  Himalaya  mountains,  which  on  the  south 
rise  abruptly  frem  the  plains  to  the  height  of 
from  6,000  to  10,000  ft.,  and  increase  toward 
the  north  and  northwest,  where  Kintchinjun- 
ga,  long  believed  to  be  the  loftiest  point  on 
the  surface  of  the  globe,  attains  a  height  of 
more  than  28,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The 
mountains  are  separated  by  precipitous  ra 
vines,  nowhere  wide  enough  to  form  plains. 
The  drainage  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Gan 
ges,  toward  which  it  flows  by  the  Teesta,  which 
rises  in  Thibet,  and  pursues  a  winding  course 
through  Sikkim.  The  mountains  are  covered 
with  vegetation  to  the  height  of  12,000  ft., 
and  at  the  lower  levels  it  is  often  very  luxuri 
ant.  Sikkim  abounds  in  fine  timber,  produ 
cing  oak,  walnut,  chestnut,  and  cherry  at  ele 
vations  of  from  6,000  to  8,000  ft.,  and  saul  and 
sissoo  further  down.  Copper  is  the  chief  min 
eral  product.  The  soil  consists  mostly  of  a 
rich  black  mould ;  and  the  principal  crops  are 
millet,  maize,  and  rice,  the  last  of  which  has 
been  cultivated  to  the  height  of  8,000  ft.  above 
the  sea.  The  aboriginal  inhabitants  have 
Mongolian  features,  and  speak  a  Thibetan  dia 
lect. — The  Gorkhas  conquered  Sikkim  in  1789, 
and  it  bccime  tributary  to  them  ;  but  during 
the  Nepaul  war  of  1814  the  rajah  cooperated 
with  the  British,  and  in  1817,  after  peace  was 
concluded,  his  independence  was  guaranteed, 
and  his  dominions  were  increased  by  the  grant 
of  certain  tracts  of  ISTepaulese  territory.  In 
1836  the  rajah  ceded  Darjeeling  to  the  Brit 
ish,  for  an  annual  grant  of  £300,  subsequently 
increased  to  £600.  In  1849  he  countenanced 
some  outrages  on  British  subjects,  which  led 
to  a  temporary  forfeiture  of  this  allowance, 
and  a  further  loss  of  territory.  In  1861  he 
opened  his  dominions  to  British  trade  without 
restriction,  and  in  1872  his  allowance  was  in 
creased  to  £1,200.  His  capital  is  Tumloong. 

SILENUS,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythology,  a 
satyr  prominent  in  the  retinue  of  Bacchus. 
He  is  differently  called  the  son  of  Mercury 
and  of  Pan,  and  is  represented  as  a  jovial  old 
man  with  a  bald  head,  a  pair  of  goat's  ears, 


38 


SILESIA 


SILICON 


and  a  fat,  sensual  face,  always  intoxicated,  and 
either  mounted  upon  an  ass  or  carried  by  sa 
tyrs.  In  the  contest  with  the  giants  Bacchus 
was  assisted  by  Silenus,  who  slew  Enceladus. 
Silenus  is  also  represented  as  an  inspired 
prophet,  and  a  sage  who  despised  the  gifts  of 
fortune.  When  he  was  drunk  and  asleep,  any 
one  could  compel  him  to  prophesy  by  sur 
rounding  him  with  a  garland  or  chain  of  flow 
ers.  There  was  a  temple  sacred  to  him  at 
Elis.  Several  poems  and  works  of  plastic  art 
introduced  more  than  one  Silenus  at  a  time, 
representing  the  older  satyrs. 

SILESIA  (Ger.  ScJilesien\  Austrian,  a  duchy 
comprising  that  part  of  Silesia  which  remained 
to  the  house  of  Austria  after  the  peace  of  1763, 
bounded  by  Prussian  Silesia,  Galicia,  Hungary, 
and  Moravia;  area,  1,988  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1874, 
544,459,  of  whom  about  14  per  cent,  were  Prot 
estants,  1  per  cent.  Jews,  and  the  remainder 
Roman  Catholics.  Fully  one  half  of  the  pop 
ulation  are  Germans,  29  percent.  Poles,  and 
over  19  per  cent.  Czechs.  'The  Carpathian 
mountains  pass  through  it  in  the  southeast, 
and  the  Moravian  in  the  northwest,  and  it  is 
watered  by  the  upper  Oder,  the  Vistula,  which 
rises  in  the  province,  and  other  rivers.  About 
one  third  of  the  territory  is  covered  with  for 
ests.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  grazing 
provinces  of  Austria.  The  mining  and  weav 
ing  industries  are  important.  Before  1849  it 
formed  with  Moravia  a  single  administrative 
province,  and  then  became  a  separate  crown 
land  under  the  name  of  the  duchy  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Silesia.  Until  1866  it  was  one  of 
the  11  Austrian  states  belonging  to  the  Ger 
man  confederation,  and  since  1867  it  has  been 
one  of  the  14  Cisleithan  provinces  represent 
ed  in  the  Reichsrath.  The  principal  towns 
are  Troppau,  the  capital,  Teschen,  Bielitz,  and 
Jagerndorf. 

SILESIA,  Prussian,  the  S.  E.  province  of  Prus 
sia,  bounded  N.  by  Brandenburg  and  Posen,  E. 
by  Russian  Poland  and  Austrian  Galicia,  S.  by 
Austrian  Silesia  and  Moravia,  and  S.  W.  and  W. 
by  Bohemia,  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  the 
Prussian  province  of  Saxony;  are^p  15,556  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  3,707,167,  of  whom  1,760,- 
341  belonged  to  the  Evangelical  church,  1,896,- 
136  were  Roman  Catholics,  and  46,629  Jews. 
It  is  divided  into  the  districts  of  Breslau,  Lieg- 
nitz,  and  Oppeln.  It  is  separated  from  the 
Austrian  dominions  by  the  Sudetic  chain  of 
mountains,  which  consist  of  long  well  wooded 
ridges  with  isolated  peaks.  There  are  two 
principal  groups,  the  Riesengebirge  in  the  N". 
"W.  part  of  the  range  and  the  Glatz  mountains 
in  the  opposite  direction;  the  most  elevated 
peak  of  the  former,  the  Schneekoppe,  is  up 
ward  of  5,000  ft.  high,  and  of  the  latter,  the 
Great  Schneeberg,  nearly  5,000  ft.  There  are 
fertile  valleys  of  considerable  extent.  The 
Oder  flows  through  the  province  in  a  general 
N.  W.  direction,  and  divides  it  into  two  nearly 
equal  portions,  that  on  the  left  of  the  river 
being  mountainous,  and  that  on  the  right  flat. 


This  level  portion  is  sandy,  with  extensive 
tracts  of  heath  and  stagnant  pools.  A  small 
portion  of  the  S.  E.  corner  is  drained  by  the 
upper  course  of  the  Vistula.  The  mineral 
wealth  of  Silesia  is  confined  principally  to  the 
upper  or  S.  E.  part  of  the  province.  Gold 
and  silver  are  procured  in  small  quantities ; 
copper,  lead,  and  zinc  are  found ;  and  coal  and 
iron  are  abundant.  Quarries  of  limestone,  mar 
ble,  and  sandstone  are  worked.  Large  num 
bers  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised,  the  wool 
of  Silesia  being  of  superior  quality,  and  form 
ing  next  to  linen  the  chief  export.  The  prin 
cipal  manufactures  are  of  linen,  cotton,  and 
woollens,  iron,  paper,  leather,  glass,  porcelain, 
castings,  and  sheet  iron.  Among  the  principal 
towns,  besides  Breslau,  the  capital,  are  Glogau, 
Liegnitz,  Oppeln,  and  the  fortresses  Schweid- 
nitz,  Ncisse,  Glatz,  and  Kosel. — Silesia  became 
subject  to  Poland  in  the  10th  century,  and  in 
1163  it  was  ruled  by  three  independent  Polish 
princes.  It  was  afterward  subdivided  into 
numerous  petty  states,  which  in  detail  became 
tributary  to  the  king  of  Bohemia,  and  fell  to 
Austria  in  1526.  The  claims  of  Frederick  the 
Great  upon  the  former  duchies  of  Liegnitz, 
Brieg,  Wohlau,  and  Jagerndorf,  founded  on 
an  old  treaty  of  inheritance,  gave  rise  to  three 
wars  for  the  possession  of  Silesia,  the  first  in 
the  years  1740-'42,  the  second  in  l744-'o,  and 
the  last  in  !756-'63  (the  seven  years'  war). 
By  the  treaty  of  Hubertsburg  in  1763  the 
province  was  finally  secured  to  Prussia,  except 
the  part  now  known  as  Austrian  Silesia.  A 
part  of  Lusatia  was  added  to  it  by  the  treaties 
of  1815. 

SILICA.     See  SILICOX. 

SILICATES,  Soluble.     See  GLASS,  SOLUBLE. 

SILICON,  or  Silieinm,  the  essential  constituent 
of  silex  or  flint.  It  is  obtained  in  a  dull  brown 
amorphous  powder  by  passing  the  vapor  of 
chloride  of  silicon  over  heated  potassium  or 
sodium  contained  in  a  glass  tube.  It  may  also 
be  obtained  from  the  aqueous  solution  of  the 
gaseous  fluoride  of  silicon.  Neutralized  with 
solution  of  potash,  this  affords  a  silico-fluoride 
of  potassium,  which  when  well  dried  is  mixed 
in  a  glass  or  iron  tube  with  -fa  or  -fa  of  its 
weight  of  potassium  or  sodium  and  heated. 
The  silicon  set  free  partially  combines  with 
the  excess  of  the  alkali,  from  which  it  is  finally 
removed  by  washing  in  water.  When  heated 
in  air  or  oxygen,  it*  burns  vividly,  and  with 
such  intense  heat  as  to  fuse  the  external  crust 
of  silica.  In  its  chemical  properties  silicon 
exhibits  striking  analogies  with  carbon  and 
boron.  When  strongly  heated  in  a  close  plati 
num  crucible,  it  becomes  darker  and  of  great 
er  specific  gravity;  it  loses  its  affinity  for  oxy 
gen,  so  that  it  will  not  ignite  even  if  heat 
ed  by  the  blowpipe  and  immersed  in  oxygen, 
and  is  not  attacked  by  pure  hydrofluoric  acid. 
If  aluminum  be  substituted  for  the  sodium 
of  the  above  experiment,  silicon  is  obtained 
in  a  crystalline  condition.  Two  methods  are 
employed  to  prepare  crystalline  silicon  :  1, 


SILICON 


SILISTRIA 


39 


fuse  a  mixture  of  5  parts  pulverized  glass,  10 
parts  cryolite,  1  part  aluminum,  and  wash  the 
product  with  hydrochloric  and  hydrofluoric 
acids;  2,  fuse  15  parts  silico-rluoride  of  sodi 
um,  20  parts  granulated  zinc,  4  parts  sodium, 
and  wash  with  hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids. 
Amorphous  silicon  was  discovered  by  Berze- 
lius  in  1824,  crystalline  by  Deville  in  1855. 
Crystalline  silicon  forms  brilliant  black  scales 
having  a  lustre  like  that  of  specular  iron  ore, 
sometimes  prismatic,  at  others  octahedral,  foli 
ated,  graphitic,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  2 -49. 
The  symbol  of  silicon  is  Si ;  atomic  weight,  28. 
It  is  a  poor  conductor  of  electricity,  fuses  at 
a  temperature  between  that  of  cast  iron  and 
steel,  is  harder  than  glass,  and  is  insoluble  in 
all  acids  excepting  hydrofluoric  and  nitric. 
There  were  'at  one  time  supposed  to  be  three 
modifications  of  silicon,  the  amorphous,  gra- 
phitoid,  and  crystalline,  but  the  graphitoid  is 
now  regarded  as  somewhat  problematical. 
Silicon  belongs  to  the  class  of  tetrads,  being 
equivalent  in  its  most  usual  combinations  to 
four  atoms  of  hydrogen. — There  is  but  one 
anhydrous  oxide  of  silicon,  commonly  known 
as  silicic  acid  or  silica;  its  formula  is  SiO2. 
Silica,  or  silicic  anhydride,  occurs  in  nature 
dimorphous :  1,  in  hexagonal  prisms  with  ter 
minated  pyramids,  as  quartz,  rock  crystal,  smo 
ky  quartz,  amethyst,  &c. ;  2,  in  wedge-shaped 
crystals,  with  sharp  angles,  or  hexagonal  tables, 
or  in  twins  (called  tridymite),  colorless  and 
clear  as  water.  The  former  has  the  specific 
gravity  of  2-6,  the  latter  of  2'3.  Its  only  sol 
vent  among  the  acids  is  the  hydrofluoric,  by 
means  of  which  it  is  decomposed,  and  a  gaseous 
compound  is  obtained  of  its  base  with  the  acid. 
"When  passed  into  water  this  combination  is 
broken  up,  and  silica  is  reproduced  in  the 
form  of  little  bubbles  and  white  flocculi,  which 
by  washing  and  igniting  become  perfectly  pure 
and  snow-white  silica.  Pulverized  silica,  when 
mixed  with  an  alkaline  c^bonate  and  fused, 
dispels  the  weaker  carbonic  acid,  and  itself 
combines  with  the  alkali,  thus  exhibiting  its 
properties  as  an  acid.  But  these  are  too  feeble 
to  act  upon  test  paper.  An  excess  of  silica  in 
the  alkaline  mixture  determines  the  produc 
tion  of  glass,  which  is  insoluble  in  water  or 
common  acids  ;  Hut  if  no  more  silica  be  added 
to  the  melted  mass  after  this  ceases  to  effer 
vesce  on  its  introduction,  the  product  after  be 
ing  cooled  may  be  dissolved  in  water.  When 
silica  is  separated  from  its  alkaline  combina 
tion  by  hydrochloric  acid,  it  appears  before 
evaporation  as  a  jelly,  which  is  a  hydrate  of 
silica,  soluble  in  a  large  excess  of  water ;  but 
once  deprived  of  water  by  heat,  it  can  no  more 
be  dissolved.  Silica  of  this  character  is  met 
with  in  several  mineral  compounds.  It  con 
stitutes  the  opal,  in  which  the  proportion  of 
water  varies  from  3  to  10  per  cent.,  and  also 
great  deposits  of  a  white  silicious  earth  made 
up  of  infusorial  remains.  The  zeolites  are  hy- 
drated  silicious  compounds,  which  when  finely 
pulverized  and  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid 


swell  up  into  the  transparent  jelly. — Silica  is 
an  important  element  in  the  composition  of 
the  grasses,  and  forms  in  chief  part  the  hard 
external  coat  of  the  reeds.  It  combines  with 
bases  and  forms  silicates,  among  which  are 
found  a  large  proportion  of  the  minerals. 
Their  variety  is  multiplied  by  the  number  of 
bases,  as  lime,  alumina,  magnesia,  protoxide  of 
iron,  and  several  of  the  other  metals,  and  by 
the  diversity  in  the  relative  proportions  of  the 
different  silicates,  the  substitution  of  one  base 
for  another.  They  comprise  the  hydrous  and 
anhydrous  silicates,  the  former  including,  be 
sides  those  already  named,  the  talcs,  serpen 
tines,  and  chlorites,  and  the  latter  the  augites, 
garnets,  micas,  and  feldspars.  They  are  for 
the  most  part  fusible,  and  those  melt  easily 
which  consist  largely  of  fusible  oxides.  They 
are  decomposed  by  vegetable  acids,  and  grad 
ually  even  by  the  carbonic  acid  gas  of  the 
atmosphere ;  but  at  high  temperatures  in  a 
furnace  the  silica,  not  being  volatile,  takes  the 
place  of  most  other  acids,  expelling  even  sul 
phuric  acid  from  its  combinations. — Diatoma- 
ceous  or  infusorial  silica,  of  which  large  de 
posits  have  been  found  in  Nevada,  New  Jersey, 
and  Virginia,  is  now  employed  in  the  arts  for 
a  great  variety  of  purposes,  among  which  are : 
as  a  polish  for  metals  under  the  name  of  tri- 
poli  or  electric  silicon ;  as  a  non-conductor  in 
refrigerators  and  fire-proof  safes;  as  an  ab 
sorbent  of  nitre-glycerine  in  the  manufacture 
of  dynamite ;  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  en 
amel,  pottery,  and  soluble  glass.  Chloride  of 
silicon,  SiCh,  is  a  transparent,  colorless  liquid, 
with  a  pungent,  acid,  irritating  odor.  It  is 
very  volatile  and  fumes  strongly  in  the  air, 
and  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  -chlorine  on  a 
heated  mixture  of  silica  and  charcoal.  Fluo 
ride  of  silicon,  SiF4,  is  a  colorless  gas  of  a 
peculiar,  pungent  acid  odor,  which  is  evolved 
when  equal  parts  of  finely  powdered  fluor  spar 
and  silicious  sand  or  powdered  glass  are  mixed, 
in  a  capacious  flask  or  retort,  with  12  times 
their  weight  of  oil  of  vitriol.  The  gas  was 
converted  into  a  liquid  by  Faraday.  When  a 
stream  of  gaseous  fluoride  of  silicon  is  trans 
mitted  through  water,  it  is  partially  decom 
posed  and  partially  dissolved.  Two  atoms  of 
water  react  on  three  of  fluoride,  and  produce 
silico-fluoric  or  hydrofluosilicic  acid,  which  is 
dissolved,  while  one  third  of  its  silicon  is  de 
posited  as  silica.  Efforts  have  been  made  in 
metallurgical  operations  to  economize  the  flu 
oride  of  silicon  and  hydrofluosilicic  acid  hith 
erto  wasted,  and  to  employ  the  latter  in  the 
beet-sugar  refinery  and  for  chemical  uses. 

SILISTRIA  (Turk.  Dristra},  a  fortified  town 
of  European  Turkey,  in  Bulgaria,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  57  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Shumla 
and  230  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Constantinople;  pop. 
with  the  garrison  about  20,000.  The  river  is 
here  more  than  1,200  ft.  wide,  and  studded  with 
numerous  islands  between  the  town  and  the 
Wallachian  shore.  There  are  several  mosques, 
a  large  Greek  church  and  convent,  capacious 


SILK 


barracks,  public  baths,  and  a  custom  house 
with  magazines  for  storing  grain  and  flour.  It 
has  no  important  manufactures,  and  the  chief 
trade  is  in  wood  and  cattle.  It  is  a  very  an 
cient  place,  and  near  the  city  are  remains  of 
fortifications  erected  during  the  Byzantine  em 
pire.  In  971  the  emperor  John  Zimisces  here 
routed  the  Russians  under  Sviatoslav.  It  was 
besieged  by  the  Russians  in  1773,  and  again 
in  1779,  when  they  suffered  a  severe  loss.  It 
capitulated  to  them  in  1810.  In  1828  they 
besieged  it  for  several  months,  and  were  ob 
liged  to  retire;  but  in  1829  it  was  reduced  by 
them,  and  held  for  some  years  as  a  pledge  for 
the  payment  of  an  indemnity  by  the  Porte, 
but  was  eventually  returned.  In  1849-'53  the 
fortifications  were  greatly  strengthened  by  the 
addition  of  12  detached  forts,  of  which  that 
on  the  hill  commanding  the  town  is  one  of 
the  best  military  works  of  the  time.  In  May, 
1854,  it  was  invested  by  Gortchakoff,  and  af 
terward  by  Paskevitch ;  but  after  bombarding 
it  for  39  days  the  Russians  retreated  with  a 
loss  of  about  12,000  men  and  most  of  their 
armament.  During  the  siege  the  town  was 
laid  in  ruins  by  the  Russian  batteries  and  mines. 
SILK,  a  fibre  obtained  chiefly  from  the  co 
coons  of  the  caterpillar  of  the  mulberry  tree 
moth  (boml)yx  mori).  The  fibre  produced  by 
other  species  of  the  genus  bombyx  and  by  other 
genera  of  the  same  family  is  inferior  to  that  of 
B.  mori.  For  an  account  of  these  silk-produ 
cing  insects,  see  SILKWORM.  The  spider's  thread 
resembles  silk  in  character,  but  the  rearing  of 
spiders  is  so  difficult,  and  the  produce  of  each 
individual  so  small,  that  all  attempts  to  convert 
the  fibre  into  textile  fabrics  have  been  aban 
doned.  The  byssus  of  the  pinna  nobilis,  a 
shell  fish  inhabiting  the  Mediterranean,  consists 
of  long,  silken  filaments,  which  have  sometimes 
been  woven  into  fabrics,  but  rather  for  curi 
osity  than  for  use.  The  manufacture  of  silk 
doubtless  originated  in  China.  It  is  asserted 
by  Chinese  historians  that  the  wife  of  the  em 
peror  Hwang-ti  (about  2600  B.  C.)  was  the 
first  who  unwound  the  silkworm's  cocoon. 
As  early  as  the  time  of  Aristotle  silken  fab 
rics  were  woven  in  the  island  of  Cos,  but  the 
fibre  there  employed  appears  to  have  been  im 
ported  from  the  country  of  the  Seres  (Chinese). 
Later  the  product  of  the  Coan  looms  was  fa 
mous  throughout  the  Roman  empire  as  Coa 
vestis,  a  transparent  gauze.  The  silkworm  was 
unknown  to  Europe  prior  to  the  reign  of  Jus 
tinian  (A.  D.  527-565),  when  some  "  grains" 
or  eggs  of  the  insect  were  brought  to  Con 
stantinople  by  two  Persian  monks,  the  intro 
duction  of  the  white  mulberry  following  soon 
after.  The  silk  manufacture  made  rapid  prog 
ress,  its  chief  centres  being  Thebes,  Corinth, 
and  Argos.  In  1147  many  inhabitants  of 
Grecian  cities  who  were  skilled  in  this  art  were 
taken  prisoners  by  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  and 
carried  to  Palermo.  The  silk  industry  soon 
spread  into  Italy,  and  Venice,  Milan,  Florence, 
and  Lucca  were  distinguished  for  the  excel 


lence  of  their  fabrics.  The  Moors  at  an  early 
period  introduced  the  manufacture  into  Spain, 
and  a  flourishing  silk  trade  was  already  es 
tablished  at  Granada  when  that  city  was  cap 
tured  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  Louis  XI. 
of  France  in  1480,  and  Francis  I.  while  the 
French  occupied  Milan  in  1521,  introduced 
workmen  from  there  for  the  purpose  of  es 
tablishing  the  production  of  silk  in  France; 
but  the  attempts  were  not  successful  till  1564, 
when  a  gardener  at  Nimes  had  cultivated  the 
white  mulberry  trees  and  prepared  suitable 
food  for  the  worms.  The  silk  manufacture 
had  a  rapid  development  in  the  south  of 
France,  and  England  began  to  import  thence 
costly  fabrics,  such  as  she  had  previously  im 
ported  from  Italy  and  China.  The  manufac 
ture  of  silk  goods  made  great  progress  in  Eng 
land  during  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and  it  is 
said  that  in  1C66  the  trade  had  become  so  im 
portant  as  to  give  employment  to  40,000  per 
sons.  In  1685  a  large  body  of  silk  weavers, 
driven  from  France  by  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes,  took  refuge  in  England  and 
settled  in  Spitalfields,  London,  where  they 
established  several  new  branches  of  the  art. 
In  1783  the  value  of  the  silk  products  was  rated 
at  £3,350,000.  James  I.  early  sought  to  estab 
lish  silkworm  culture  in  the  American  colonies. 
He  himself  forwarded  eggs  to  Virginia,  and 
high  rewards  were  offered  with  the  hope  of 
placing  the  culture  upon  a  permanent  footing. 
But  it  was  all  in  vain ;  tobacco  superseded  silk. 
In  Louisiana  the  cultivation  of  silk  was  intro 
duced  in  1718  by  the  "  Company  of  the  West." 
Government  grants  were  made  to  the  settlers 
in  Georgia,  to  encourage  the  cultivation  of  the 
mulberry  tree.  Artisans  were  sent  to  that 
colony  in  1732  from  different  parts  of  Europe 
to  direct  the  management  of  the  worms  and 
winding  of  the  silk,  and  trees,  seed,  and  silk 
worm  eggs  were  abundantly  furnished.  In 
1734  the  first  expert  of  raw  silk,  amounting 
to  8  Ibs.,  was  made  to  England.  More  was 
sent  the  next  year,  and  being  manufactured 
into  organzine  by  Sir  Thomas  Lombe,  it  was 
much  admired.  At  the  German  settlement  of 
Ebenezer,  on  the  Savannah  river,  the  produc 
tion  in  1749  had  amounted  to  over  1,000  Ibs. 
of  cocoons,  and  the  silk  was  s*o  well  reeled  that 
it  commanded  in  London  the  highest  prices. 
In  1751  the  trustees  of  the  Ebenezer  settle 
ment  erected  in  Savannah  a  public  filature  or 
silk  house,  to  instruct  in  the  management  of 
private  filatures.  At  the  end  of  1754  the  ex 
ports  of  raw  silk  for  the  four  preceding  years 
amounted  in  value  to  $8,880,  and  for  the  next 
18  years  the  annual  exports  averaged  546  Ibs. 
The  cocoons  delivered  at  the  filature  in  1757 
were  1,050  Ibs. ;  in  1760,  15,000  Ibs. ;  and  in 
the  next  eight  years  they  amounted  altogether 
to  nearly  100,000  Ibs.  But  when  parliament 
in  1766  reduced  the  price  of  cocoons  from  Bs. 
(one  half  of  which  had  been  in  the  way  of 
bounty)  to  Is.  6^.,  the  production  rapidly  de 
clined  from  20,000  Ibs.  of  cocoons  in  1766  to 


SILK 


290  Ibs.  in  1770.  The  business  was  entirely 
broken  up  by  the  revolutionary  war.  In  South 
Carolina  silk  growing  was  practised  before  the 
revolution  by  the  Swiss  settlers  at  Perrysburg, 
and  also  by  the  French,  who  wrought  it  up 
with  wool  into  fabrics.  In  1765,  630  Ibs.  of 
cocoons  were  raised  upon  a  plantation  in  St. 
Thomas  parish ;  but  though  some  progress  con 
tinued  to  be  made  in  the  business,  it  was  at 
last  brought  to  an  end  by  the  same  causes  that 
broke  it  up  in  Georgia.  In  Connecticut  the 
culture  of  silk  was  also  undertaken  at  an  early 
period,  and  was  encouraged  by  the  home  gov 
ernment  as  in  the  other  colonies.  Dr.  Aspin- 
wall  succeeded  in  establishing  the  business  in 
Mansfield,  Conn.,  where  it  is  still  carried  on, 
and  before  the  revolutionary  war  it  was  already 
in  a  very  promising  condition.  In  1789  about 
200  Ibs.  of  raw  silk,  worth  $5  a  pound,  were 
made  at  Mansfield ;  it  was  mostly  manufactured 
into  stockings,  handkerchiefs,  ribbons,  buttons, 
and  sewing  silk  worth  $1  an  ounce.  In  1790 
about  50  families  in  New  Haven  were  engaged 
in  the  business,  and  in  Norfolk  about  30  fam 
ilies  raised  and  spun  1,200  "run  of  silk."  In 

1839  the  product  of  Mansfield  and  its  vicin 
ity  is  reported  to  have  been  about  five  tons  of 
raw  silk.     In  Massachusetts  attention  was  also 
directed  to  the  silk  culture  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  last  century.     The  town  of  Ipswich  was 
noted  in  the  manufacture  of  silk  and  thread 
lace.     A  filature  was  opened  in  1770  at  Phila 
delphia,  and  1771  from  June  to  the  middle  of 
August  it  received  2,300  Ibs.  of  cocoons.     In 
some  of  the  interior  towns  of  Pennsylvania, 
as  Washington  in  the  S.  W.  part,  silk  is  still 
produced  to  a  moderate  extent,  and  not  only 
converted  into  sewing  silk,  but  also  woven.     In 
Ohio,  the  E.  parts  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
and  N.  Georgia,  the  production  has  proved  well 
adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate,  and  many  have 
anticipated  for  it  a  great  success  in  this  portion 
of  the  country.     There  seem  in  fact  to  be  no 
natural  obstacles  to  the  prosecution  of  the  busi 
ness  over  all  the  middle  and  southern  portion 
of  the  United  States.     Several  species  of  mul 
berry,  quite  as  well  adapted  for  feeding  the 
worms  in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth  as 
the  white  mulberry,  grow  wild  from  Pennsyl 
vania  southward,  and  are  easily  cultivated  in 
other  districts.     The  foreign  species  of  the  tree 
have  also  been  introduced,  and  are  now  almost 
as  well  known  as  the  native  sorts.     The  total 
product  of  silk  raised  in  the  United  States  in 

1840  was  reported  at  61,552  Ibs.,  worth  about 
$250,000.     In  1844,  according  to  the  report  of 
the  commissioners  of  the  census,  it  was  396,790 
Ibs.,  worth  $1,400,000 ;  but  in  1850  it  was  only 
14,763  Ibs.     The  United  States  census  of  1870 
gives  no  statistics  of  native  silk  culture ;  neither 
is  there  any  mention  of  American  silk  in  the 
u  Report  of  the  Silk  Association  of  America" 
for  1875.     The   growth   and  manufacture  of 
silk  have  been  successfully  attempted  in  Cali 
fornia.     Just  before  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Franco-German  war,  French  cooperation  had 


been  secured  for  the  establishment  of  a  silk 
colony  in  San  Bernardino  co. ;  but  the  project 
failed,  owing  to  the  disastrous  termination  of 
that  conflict.  There  was  in  San  Jose  in  1875 
one  cocoonery  with  about  1,000,000  silkworms, 
and  a  silk  manufacturing  company  has  been 
organized  in  San  Francisco.  In  the  same  year 
Sonoma  co.  had  an  association  for  the  pro 
motion  of  silkworm  culture. — SILK  MANUFAC- 
TUEE.  The  cocoons  consist  of  the  sheath  of 
loose  filaments  attached  to  the  twigs  that  sup 
port  the  whole,  and  beneath  this  the  external 
coat  of  soft  flossy  silk,  within  which  is  the 
compact  oval  ball,  or  cocoon  proper.  The 
thread,  as  laid  by  the  worm  in  successive 
coats  in  his  constantly  diminishing  tenement, 
is  not  wound  regularly  around  the  inside  of 
the  hollow  ball,  but  is  passed  back  and  forth 
in  one  place  after  another  in  such  manner 
that  many  yards  may  be  wound  off  without 
turning  over  the  ball.  It  is  produced  through 
two  orifices  in  the  nose  of  the  worm,  and 
the  two  fibres  on  issuing  forth  are  secured 
together  by  the  glutinous  matter  which  accom 
panies  them  and  forms  nearly  one  quarter  of 
their  weight.  The  average  size  of  each  one  of 
the  primary  fibres  is  about  ?TJVo  of  an  inch. 
Raw  silk  consists  of  any  number  of  the  double 
filaments  slightly  twisted  and  agglutinated  to 
gether  to  form  one  thread,  called  single.  This 
is  commonly  of  a  golden  yellow  color,  of  spe 
cific  gravity  T3,  and  is  the  strongest  of  all 
fibres  used  for  weaving,  threads  made  of  it 
being  three  times  stronger  than  those  of  the 
same  size  made  of  flax,  and  twice  as  strong 
as  those  of  hemp.  Some  of  the  best  cocoons 
are  kept  for  breeding;  the  remainder  are  clas 
sified,  each  sort  being  worked  by  itself.  Be 
fore  the  chrysalis  matures  and  the  moth  can 
begin  to  eat  his  way  out,  the  cocoons  are  ex 
posed  to  a  moderate  degree  of  heat,  either  in 
an  oven,  or  in  a  steam  bath,  or  in  water  heated 
to  about  200°  F.  The  floss  covering  being 
opened  at  one  end,  the  cocoon  is  slipped  out, 
and  is  then  ready  to  be  unwound.  The  co 
coons  are  placed  about  five  together  in  each  one 
of  four  compartments  in  a  sort  of  trough  or 
basin  holding  hot  water,  which  is  kept  at  the 
necessary  temperature  by  a  steam  pipe.  The 
gummy  matters  are  softened  by  the  water,  and 
the  fibre  is  thus  released.  The  ends  are  caught 
up  by  a  little  sort  of  broom  with  which  the 
cocoons  are  stirred,  and  those  from  each  com 
partment  being  brought  together  are  passed 
through  an  eyelet,  which  strips  off  a  portion 
of  the  gum,  and  still  more  is  rubbed  off  by 
causing  the  threads  formed  by  each  bundle  of 
fibres  to  cross  and  rub  against  each  other,  as 
they  are  conducted  diagonally  through  a  suc 
cession  of  eyelets  toward  the  reel,  just  pre 
vious  to  reaching  which  all  are  united  in  one 
thread.  The  reel  is  set  at  some  distance  from 
the  trough,  to  allow  the  gum  to  harden,  and 
prevent  the  threads  from  sticking  together; 
and  it  has  a  slight  lateral  motion,  so  that  the 
threads  are  laid  in  spirals,  and  do  not  come  in 


SILK 


SILK  SPIDER 


contact  while  fresh  from  the  bath.  When  a' 
thread  breaks,  or  a  cocoon  gives  out,  a  fresh 
cocoon  is  substituted ;  and  as  the  inner  fibres 
are  always  much  finer  than  the  outer,  new  co 
coons  are  added  before  the  first  lot  have  been 
unwound.  These  finer  filaments,  as  also  the 
immediate  envelope  of  the  chrysalis,  constitute 
with  the  floss  silk  what  is  known  as  waste. 
The  raw  silk  taken  off  from  the  reels  is  in  China 
made  up  into  bundles,  called  books,  for  expor 
tation,  and  elsewhere  the  hanks  are  simply 
twisted  so  as  to  hold  snugly  together.  They 
are  then  ready  for  the  factory  of  the  silk  throw 
sters,  where  are  conducted  the  operations  con 
nected  with  the  throwing,  a  term  variously 
used  to  express  the  putting  a  twist  into  fibres. 
For  bandanna  handkerchiefs  the  only  prepara 
tion  of  the  silk  is  winding  the  hanks  and  clean 
ing  ;  bleaching  is  added  for  silk  intended  for 
gauze  and  similar  fabrics.  Winding,  cleaning, 
and  throwing  prepare  it,  under  the  name  of 
thrown  singles,  for  ribbons  and  common  silks. 
If  simply  doubled  before  throwing,  it  is  known 
as  tram,  and  is  used  for  the  woof  or  shoot  of 
gros  de  Naples,  velvets,  and  flowered  silks. 
The  twisting  of  each  strand  before  doubling, 
as  well  as  afterward,  converts  it  into  organzine, 
a  strong  thread  suitable  for  warp.  The  wind 
ing  is  done  from  light  six-sided  reels  called 
swifts,  upon  which  the  hanks,  first  washed  in 
soap  and  water,  are  extended,  and  rows  of 
which  are  set  upon  long  shafts  in  an  iron  frame 
and  connected  each  with  its  own  bobbin,  upon 
the  top  of  the  frame.  The  revolution  of  the 
latter  carries  around  the  reel  beneath,  and  the 
movement  is  properly  checked  and  regulated 
by  appliances  to  the  reel.  The  next  process  is 
that  of  cleaning  the  threads,  whkjh  is  effected 
upon  the  cleaning,  drawing,  or  picking  ma 
chine.  The  full  bobbins  are  set  horizontally 
upon  plain  spindles,  from  which  each  thread 
is  conducted  over  an  iron  or  glass  guide  rod, 
thence  through  an  adjustable  opening  between 
two  upright  iron  blades  of  an  instrument  called 
the  cleaner,  and  then  to  the  empty  bobbins, 
which  by  their  revolution  wind  it  off  from  the 
full  ones.  Knots  and  other  irregularities  are 
stopped  by  the  cleaner,  and  if  not  brushed  off 
they  stop  the  movement  of  the  bobbin  until 
they  are  removed  by  hand.  The  spinning  or 
rather  twisting  process  is  conducted  by  means 
of  machines  similar  to  those  used  for  the  same 
purpose  in  cotton  spinning.  Doubling  is  the 
process  of  bringing  two  or  mo-re  of  the  twisted 
threads  into  one  and  winding  this.  The  bob 
bins  of  doubled  thread  are  next  twisted  at  the 
spinning  frames,  which* completes  the  prep 
aration  of  silk  thread  whether  for  sewing  or 
weaving  purposes.  The  American  machines 
for  doubling  and  twisting  are  much  superior 
to  those  used  in  England,  but  for  winding  the 
same  are  employed  in  both  countries.  The 
thread  is  colored  by  dyeing  after  the  gum  has 
been  removed  from  it  by  boiling  for  three  or 
four  hours  in  soap  and  water.  It  loses  about 
one  quarter  its  weight  by  this  operation,  but 


recovers  nearly  half  the  loss  in  the  dye  stuff  it 
absorbs. — Waste  silk  is  prepared  for  spinning 
by  first  hackling  in  the  same  manner  as  flax  is 
hackled,  and  with  the  same  sort  of  hand  instru 
ment.  This  is  followed  by  machine  hackling 
upon  the  filling  engine,  which  more  effectually 
combs  out  the  filaments  and  removes  the  im 
purities.  The  sliver  of  parallel  fibres  is  then 
chopped  into  lengths  of  about  IJin.,  which  after 
scutching,  as  in  the  treatment  of  cotton,  are 
converted  into  a  sort  of  fine  down.  This  is  put 
into  bags  and  boiled,  first  with  soap  and  water 
for  an  hour  and  a  half,  and  afterward  with 
pure  water.  It  is  then  powerfully  squeezed 
under  a  Brainah  press,  dried  by  artificial  heat, 
and  again  scutched.  The  succeeding  opera 
tions  of  carding,  drawing,  and  roving  by  the 
fly  frames,  and  spinning  by  the  spinning  mill 
and  throstle  frames,  are  similar  to  those  prac 
tised  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  yarns.  The 
product  is  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of 
shawls,  bandanna  handkerchiefs,  and  similar 
fabrics. — In  the  year  ending  Dec,  31,  1874, 
there  were  in  the  United  States  180  silk  man 
ufactories,  employing  141,479  operatives  of 
both  sexes,  distributed  as  follows :  New  Jersey 
42,  with  5,414  operatives ;  New  York  70,  with 
3,378;  Connecticut  21,  with  2,651;  Pennsyl 
vania  23,  with  1,541;  Massachusetts  11,  with 
1,249;  California  3,  with  100;  Ohio  3,  with 
40 ;  Illinois  2,  with  35 ;  New  Hampshire,  Ma 
ryland,  Vermont,-  Missouri,  and  Kansas,  each 
1.  The  total  capital  invested  was  $14,708,184 ; 
total  value  of  production,  $20,082,482.  Of 
this  sum,  thrown  and  spun  silks  amounted  to 
$3,863,325;  sewing  silks  and  machine  twist, 
$5,766,684;  broad  goods  and  ribbons,  $6,154,- 
313;  laces,  braids,  and  trimmings,  $4,298,196. 
The  importations  of  silk  into  the  United  States 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1 875,  were  as  fol 
lows:  raw  silk,  1,101,681  Ibs.,  costing  at  the 
foreign,  port  of  shipment,  $4,504,306;  sewing 
silk,  $30,389;  silk,  satins,  crapes,  pongees, 
plushes,  ribbons,  &c.,  $19,226,672;  gloves  and 
hosiery,  $71,053;  mixed  goods,  $3,482,369; 
total,  $27,314,787.  There  were  imported  be 
sides  398,012  Ibs.  of  cocoons.  The  silk  crop 
of  Europe  in  the  year  1874-'5  was  9,000,000 
Ibs.,  of  Avhich  Italy  supplied  6,300,000,  France 
1,600,000,  and  Spain  about  310,000.  The  im 
port  from  Asia  amounted  to  11,500,000  Ibs. 

SILK  SPIDER  (nepJiila  plumipev,  Koch),  a 
geometric  spider  of  the  family  epeiridce,  first 
brought  to  notice  by  Dr.  B.  Gr.  Wilder  in  1865  ; 
he  discovered  it  on  the  sea  islands  off  the  coast 
of  South  Carolina.  The  female  is  1-1  in.  long, 
with  a  longitudinal  spread  of  legs  2|  in.,  and 
a  lateral  extent  of  3f-  in. ;  the  cephalo-thorax 
is  black  above,  mostly  covered  with  silvery 
hairs  ;  abdomen  olive  brown,  with  yellow  and 
white  spots  and  stripes ;  eye  spots  black  and 
eight  in  number  ;  it  received  its  specific  name 
from  the  closely  set  stiff  brushes  of  hairs  on 
the  legs.  They  are  found  in  forests,  building 
strong  viscid  webs,  3  to  4  ft.  in  diameter,  and 
usually  over  10  ft.  from  the  ground.  The  web 


.V     It     \ 


SILKWOEM 


XI  V  Kirs  [TV 


Silk  Spider,  Male  and  Female,  one 
half  the  natural  size. 


is  made  of  a  dry,  inelastic,  silvery  gray  silk, 
and  of  a  very  elastic,  viscid  yellow  silk ;  the 
former  is  the  supporting  radiating  framework, 
and  the  latter  forms  the  concentric  entangling 
circles.  It  sucks  out  the  gum  of  its  old  web 
for  making  a  new  one ;  this  is  a  circle  minus 

its  upper  sextant, 
consisting  of  a 
continuous  spiral 
viscid  line  laid 
upon  the  numer 
ous  radii.  The 
spider  remains 
quiet  in  its  web, 
head  downward, 
and  is  very  active 
upon  it  when  a 
fly  is  entangled ; 
it  is  slow  on  the 
ground,  and  likes 
the  full  glare  of 
the  sun.  The 
web  is  never 
vertical,  but  in 
clined  at  an  an 
gle  of  70° ;  when 
it  is  touched,  it 
shakes  its  web  violently.  Like  most  if  not  all 
geometric  spiders,  though  well  provided  with 
eyes,  it  can  distinguish  only  light ;  if  the  in 
sect  caught  happens  to  be  on  a  radius  beyond 
her  reach,  she  cannot  see  it,  and  returns  to  the 
centre  to  shake  the  web  and  ascertain  what 
radius  holds  the  weight ;  two  spiders  will  often 
approach  each  other  till  their  legs  interlock 
before  they  are  aware  of  their  proximity. 
Hearing  and  touch  are  acute.  The  males  are 
only  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  with  the  legs 
spreading  laterally  and  longitudinally  about 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  ;  the  body  and  legs 
are  dark  brown ;  they  make  no  webs,  unless 
when  very  young,  and  seem  to  hang  on  to  that 
of  some  female,  or  to  some  part  of  her  body. 
Prof.  Wilder  had  an  idea  that  the  silk  of  this 
spider  might  be  useful  in  the  arts,  and  devised 
several  ingenious  ways  to  procure  it.  He  found 
that  from  one  pair  of  spinners  came  white  and 
from  another  yellow  silk,  which  he  was  enabled 
to  wind  separately  by  a  simple  machine  to  the 
extent  of  nearly  two  miles,  at  170  revolutions 
a  minute,  in  less  than  five  hours  of  winding 
time ;  he  could  not  reel  more  than  300  yards 
at  one  time;  the  diameter  varied  from  -^-5- 
to  xoVo  of  an  inch,  and  its  strength  was  very 
great.  For  details  see  the  "  Popular  Science 
Monthly"  for  April,  1875. 

SILKWORM,  the  larva  of  a  lepidopterous  in 
sect  of  the  moth  division,  family  bombycidc?, 
and  genus  lomlyx  (Schrank).  Of  all  the  silk- 
producing  larvee,  that  of  the  common  silkworm 
(B.  mori,  Schr.)  is  the  most  important,  as 
from  it  is  obtained  all  the  European  and  most 
of  the  Chinese  silk.  The  moth  is  about  an 
inch  long  and  2  in.  in  alar  extent,  of  a  whitish 
or  pale  yellowish  color,  with  two  or  three  ob 
scure  streaks  and  a  lunate  spot  on  the  upper 


43 


wings  ;  the  trunk  is  very  short ;  the  superior 
wings  decumbent,  and  the  inferior  extending 
almost  horizontally  beyond  them;  the  anten- 


Larva,  Pupa,  Cocoon,  and  Moth  of  Bombyx  niori. 

nse  of  the  males  are  pectinated ;  the  males  fly 
swiftly  in  the  evening  and  sometimes  by  day, 
but  the  females  are  inactive ;  the  latter  live  but 
a  few  hours  after  the  eggs  are  deposited  on 
the  mulberry  trees.  The  eggs  are  about  the 
size  of  mustard  seeds,  and  the  young  emerge 
in  a  few  days  if  the  weather  or  air  of  the 
breeding  room  is  warm  and  dry ;  when  first 
hatched  they  are  one  or  two  lines  long,  of  a 
dark  color,  and  very  soon  begin  to  eat  vora 
ciously,  with  short  intervals  of  abstinence  du 
ring  the  moultings,  until  full  grown,  when  they 
are  about  3  in.  long,  light  green  with  darker 
marks,  with  blackish  head,  and  fleshy  protuber 
ance  on  the  last  joint  but  one ;  there  are  12 
segments  to  the  body,  9  stigmata  or  breathing 


Silkworm  Moth,  Male. 

holes  on  each  side,  and  16  legs,  of  which  the 
anterior  6  are  hooked,  and  the  others,  inclu 
ding  the  2  on  the  last  segment,  end  in  disks ; 


SILKWORM 


the  mouth  has  a  vertical  opening,  with  strong 
and  serrated  jaws ;  the  stomach  is  very  large, 
as  would  be  expected  in  such  a  voracious  lar 
va.  It  lives  exposed  in  the  wild  state,  but 
none  of  the  Chinese  or  European  worms  are 
allowed  to  incur  the  risks  of  life  in  the  open 
air.  According  to  the  experiment  of  Count 
Dandolo,  100  newly  hatched  silkworms  weigh 
1  grain,  after  the  first  moult  15,  after  the  sec 
ond  94,  after  the  third  400,  after  the  fourth 
4,628,  and  at  full  size  9,500  grains;  each  con 
sumes  an  ounce  of  mulberry  leaves  during 
these  stages,  about  60,000  times  its  primitive 
weight,  and  its  length  increases  from  1  to  40 
lines  during  the  same  period;  by  calculation 
the  product  of  an  ounce  of  eggs  eats  upward 
of  1,200  Ibs.  of  leaves,  and  should  furnish 
120  Ibs.  of  cocoons.  Like  most  other  cater 
pillars,  it  changes  its  skin  four  times,  at  in 
tervals  depending  on  the  temperature  and  on 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  food ;  if  kept 
at  80°  to  100°  F.  it  moults  in  half  the  time  re 
quired  at  ordinary  temperatures.  As  usually 
treated,  the  first  moult  takes  place  on  the  4th 


Silkworm  Moth,  Female. 

or  5th  day  after  hatching,  the  second  begins  on 
the  8th,  the  third  takes  up  the  13th  and  14th, 
and  the  last  happens  on  the  22d  or  23d  day ; 
after  this  the  fifth  age  lasts  10  days,  making 
about  32  days  for  the  whole  process  to  matu 
rity.  The  appetite  increases  with  the  size  till 
after  the  fourth  moult;  during  the  last  10 
days  the  silk  gum  is  elaborated,  the  appetite 
diminishes,  and  the  larva  begins  to  spin  its 
cocoon.  The  spinning  apparatus  is  near  the 
mouth  and  connected  with  the  silk  bags,  which 
are  long,  slender,  and  convoluted,  contain 
ing  a  liquid  gum ;  they  are  closed  below,  and 
end  above  in  slender  tubes,  one  on  each  side, 
which  unite  to  form  the  single  spinning  tube  ; 
the  gum  from  which  the  silk  is  produced  on 
contact  with  the  air  is  elaborated  by  the  long 
glandular  organs;  every  thread  of  silk  is 
made  up  of  two  strands.  It  is  customary 
to  supply  to  the  worms  a  piece  of  rolled 
paper  or  some  hollow  substance  into  which 
they  can  retire,  or  a  convenient  twig,  for  the 
formation  of  the  cocoons.  They  first  make 
an  outer  covering  of  floss  silk  to  keep  off  the 


rain ;  within  this  they  spin  fine  silk,  bending 
the  head  and  body  up  and  down  and  cross 
ing  to  every  side,  entirely  surrounding  the  body 
as  a  protection  against  wind  and  cold;  and 
within  this  is  a  more  delicate  silk,  glued  firmly 
together  for  the  inner  chamber,  resisting  both 
cold  air  and  water.  After  building  the  cocoon 
the  larva  is  transformed  into  a  chrysalis,  and 
comes  forth  a  moth,  easily  bursting  through 
the  case,  the  silk,  and  the  floss.  The  cocoon 
resembles  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  is  from  1  to  1-^ 
in.  long,  and  bright  yellow ;  the  moth  emerges 
from  it  in  from  15  to  56  days,  according  to 
temperature,  the  former  being  the  time  in  the 
southern  United  States;  18  to  20  days  is  the 
time  in  Connecticut,  three  weeks  in  France, 
and  five  to  six  weeks  in  England ;  the  cocoon 
is  made  in  from  a  few  hours  to  three  days, 
and  is  more  pointed  at  one  end  than  the  other ; 
the  silk  is  not  interwoven  nor  the  glue  applied 
at  the  pointed  end,  toward  which  the  head  is 
always  placed.  The  chrysalis  has  no  spines 
nor  serrations  on  the  edge  of  the  abdominal 
rings,  has  a  leathery  skin,  and  the  stomach 
filled  with  a  yellowish  nutritive  fluid ;  the  or 
gans  of  the  moth  are  gradually  developed,  and 
in  two  or  three  weeks  the  skin  of  the  chrysalis 
gives  way,  the  moth  escapes  into  the  cocoon 
chamber,  and  readily  sets  itself  free,  leaving 
within  the  remains  of  its  former  covering. 
In  the  wild  state  the  cocoon  is  made  about  the 
middle  of  June.  The  silk  from  the  cocoons 
containing  males  is  finer  and  more  tenacious 
than  that  from  the  female  cocoons.  It  is  for 
tunate  that  the  threads  do  not  adhere  as  they 
do  in  the  cocoons  of  many  other  larvce,  else  the 
operation  of  unwinding  would  be  very  difficult 
if  not  impracticable ;  even  in  the  B.  mori  the 
silk  is  sometimes  coarse  and  adherent,  when 
the  quality  of  the  food  has  not  been  good. 
Like  other  caterpillars,  the  silkworm  some 
times  makes  mistakes,  and  two  or  three  are 
occasionally  shut  up  in  a  single  cocoon,  in  which 
they  undergo  metamorphosis  perfectly  well. 
The  usual  way  of  throwing  the  cocoons  into 
boiling  water  kills  the  chrysalis ;  but  merely 
steaming  them  over  boiling  water  softens  the 
glue  sufficiently  to  allow  the  unwinding  of  the 
silk,  and  permits  the  moth  to  come  forth  alive 
from  the  interior  layer  and  deposit  the  eggs  or 
prepare  for  a  new  brood. — The  whole  secret 
in  raising  the  silkworm  consists  in  securing  for 
it  warmth,  dryness,  plenty  of  proper  food,  and 
pure  air.  The  mulberry  tree,  the  leaves  of 
which  constitute  the  food  of  the  silkworm, 
requires  for  its  perfect  growth  long  continued 
dry  and  warm  weather,  and  suffers  in  the  rainy 
seasons  of  England  and  France ;  it  is  said  to 
have  no  insect  feeding  upon  it  but  the  lom'byx  ; 
it  exhausts  the  earth  where  it  is  planted,  as  far 
as  any  other  vegetation  is  concerned ;  one  tree 
of  the  M.  multicaulis,  it  is  computed,  will  feed 
as  many  silkworms  as  would  produce  annually 
7  Ibs.  of  silk.  Silkworms  are  very  tender  and 
liable  to  perish  from  slight  changes  of  temper 
ature  and  dampness,  from  foul  air,  and  im- 


SILLIMAN 


proper  or  insufficient  food  ;  the  periods  of  the 
moultings  are  times  of  sickness  and  danger ; 
great  destruction  is  caused  by  a  disease  called 
muscadine,  which  is  a  minute  fungus  (botrytis 
Bassiana)  occupying  the  interior  of  the  body 
and  bursting  through  the  skin.  The  disease 
called  the  "reds,"  manifested  by  red  stains 
and  blotches  on  the  skin,  is  ascertained  to  be 
due  to  some  acid,  resulting  from  disordered 
digestion  ;  the  larvae  seem  cramped  and  stupe 
fied,  the  rings  dry  up,  and  they  look  like  mum 
mies. — The  larvae  of  several  large  moths  of 
the  genus  saturnia  (Schr.)  form  cocoons  from 
which  silk  is  obtained ;  among  these  are  the 
arrindi  silkworm,  8.  [Samia]  Cynthia  (Schr.), 
of  India,  and  the  S.  mylitta  (Schr.),  whose 
moths  have  an  alar  expanse  of  about  8  in.,  and 
appear  to  be  the  wild  silkworms  of  the  East. 
The  8.  mylitta  abounds  in  Bengal,  and  yields 
much  coarse  and  dark-colored  silk,  highly  prized 
by  the  Hindoos ;  it  cannot  be  domesticated ; 
the  natives  catch  the  caterpillars,  put  them  on 
the  asseem  trees,  and  guard  them  from  birds 
by  day  and  bats  by  night ;  the  natural  food  is 
the  rhamnus  jujuba.  The  8.  Cynthia,  is  do 
mesticated  in  the  interior  of  Bengal,  on  leaves 
of  the  castor  oil  plant  (ricinus  communis  or 
palma  Christi)  and  of  the  ailantus  glandulosa  ; 
the  cocoons  are  generally  about  2  in.  long  and 
3  in.  in  circumference,  whitish  or  yellowish,  of 
soft  and  delicate  texture.  There  are  eight  or 
ten  species  of  American  silkworms;  the  cal- 
losamia  Promethea  and  0.  angulifera  feed  on 
the  lilac  and  wild  cherry;  others  are  platysa- 
mia  Euryale,  P.  Columbia,  P.  Cecropia,  and 
tropcea  lima  ;  but  practically  the  larva  of  telea 
Polyphemus  is  the  only  important  one.  This 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  oak,  maple,  elm, 
willow,  and  several  other  trees.  For  descrip 
tions  and  figures  of  this  species,  in  all  its  stages, 
and  the  method  of  rearing  the  larvae,  see 
"American  Naturalist,"  vol.  i.,  1867. 

SILLIMAtf.  I.  Benjamin,  an  American  physi 
cist,  born  in  North  Stratford  (now  Trumbull), 
Conn.,  Aug.  8,  1779,  died  in  New  Haven,  Nov. 
24, 186-4.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1796, 
was  appointed  tutor  in  1799,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1802.  He  accepted  the  new  chair 
of  chemistry  at  Yale  college  in  1802,  and  passed 
a  part  of  the  next  two  years  in  Philadelphia, 
as  a  student  with  Dr.  "Woodhouse.  In  the  win 
ter  of  1805  he  gave  his  first  full  course  of  lec 
tures,  and  shortly  after  sailed  for  Europe.  He 
visited  the  mining  districts  of  England,  attended 
lectures  in  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  resumed 
the  duties  of  his  professorship  after  an  absence 
of  14  months.  He  published  in  1810  "  Journal 
of  Travels  in  England,  Holland,  and  Scotland 
in  1805-'6"  (2  vols.  8vo;  enlarged  ed.,  3  vols. 
12mo,  1820).  Not  long  after  his  return  he 
made  a  geological  survey  of  a  part  of  Connec 
ticut.  In  December,  1807,  a  meteorite  of  great 
size  and  splendor  passed  over  New  England, 
and  threw  off  large  fragments  with  loud  ex 
plosions  in  the  town  of  Western,  Conn.  Profs. 
Silliman  and  Kingsley  visited  the  town  and 


procured  some  fragments  ;  and  Silliman  made 
a  chemical  analysis  and  published  the  earliest 
and  best  authenticated  account  of  the  fall  of  a 
meteorite  in  America.  He  afterward  assisted 
Dr.  Robert  Hare  in  his  experiments  with  the 
oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  now  commonly  used  of  "  compound  blow 
pipe."  In  1813  he  published  in  the  "Me 
moirs  of  the  Connecticut  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences"  an  account  of  his  experiments  with 
this  instrument,  by  t  which  he  had  greatly  ex 
tended  the  list  of  bodies  known  to  be  fusible. 
In  1812  he  secured  to  Yale  college  the  then 
unrivalled  mineralogical  and  geological  collec 
tion  made  by  Col.  George  Gibbs  in  Europe. 
In  1822,  while  engaged  in  a  series  of  observa 
tions  on  the  action  of  a  powerful  voltaic  de- 
flagrator  on  the  model  of  Dr.  Hare,  he  first 
established  the  fact  of  the  transfer  of  particles 
of  carbon  from  the  positive  to  the  negative 
electrode  of  the  voltaic  apparatus,  with  the 
corresponding  growth  of  the  negative  electrode, 
and  the  retransfer  when  the  charcoal  points 
are  shifted.  In  1818  he  founded  the  "Ameri 
can  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  better  known 
both  in  Europe  and  America  as  "  Silliman's 
Journal,"  of  which  for  20  years  he  was  sole, 
and  for  eight  years  more  senior  editor.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  American  lecturers  on 
scientific  subjects  to  miscellaneous  audiences, 
and  delivered  courses  in  the  principal  cities. 
He  published  an  account  of  a  journey  between 
Hartford  and  Quebec  (1820),  an  edition  of 
Bakewell's  "  Geology"  (1829),  and  a  text  book 
on  "Chemistry"  (2  vols.,  1830).  In  1851  _he 
again  visited  Europe,  and  published  "A  Visit 
to  Europe  in  1851 "  (2  vols.  12mo,  New  York, 
1853).  In  1853  he  resigned  his  professorship, 
and  was  made  professor  emeritus ;  but  at  the 
request  of  his  colleagues  he  continued  to  lec 
ture  on  geology  till  June,  1855.  His  life  has 
been  written  by  Prof.  George  P.  Fisher  (2  vols., 
New  York,  1866).  II.  Benjamin,  jr.,  an  Amer 
ican  physicist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  4,  1816.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Yale  college  in  1837,  became  an  instruc 
tor  there  in  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geolo 
gy,  and  in  1846  was  appointed  professor  of 
chemistry  applied  to  the  arts  in  the  scientific 
school  of  the  college,  now  the  Sheffield  scien 
tific  school.  He  became  associate  editor  of  the 
"American  Journal  of  Science"  in  1838,  and 
since  1854  has  been  associated  with  Prof.  J.  D. 
Dana  as  editor  and  proprietor.  From  1849  to 
1854  he  was  professor  of  medical  chemistry 
and  toxicology  in  the  university  of  Louisville, 
Ky. ;  and  in  1854  he  succeeded  his  father  as 
professor  of  general  and  applied  chemistry  in 
Yale  college,  which  post  he  still  holds  (1876). 
In  connection  with  C.  R.  Goodrich  he  prepared 
the  "Illustrated  Record"  and  the  "Progress 
of  Science  and  Art"  published  in  connection 
with  the  international  exhibition  of  1853  in 
New  York.  He  was  for  several  years  secre 
tary  of  the  American  association  for  the  ad 
vancement  of  science,  and  had  charge  of  the 


SILLOWAY 


SILURIAN 


publication  of  its  "  Proceedings."  He  is  also 
a  popular  lecturer.  Besides  numerous  papers 
in  the  "American  Journal  of  Science,"  he  has 
published  "First  Principles  of  Chemistry,"  a 
popular  text  book  (Philadelphia,  1846;  revised 
ed.,  1856),  and  "Principles  of  Physics 'r  (Phila 
delphia,  1858  ;  revised  ed.,  1868).  - 

SILLOWAY,  Thomas  William,  an  American  ar 
chitect,  born  in  Newburyport,  Mass,,  Aug.  7, 
1828.  He  began  to  practise  his  profession  in 
Boston  in  1851,  and  in  the  20  years  following 
more  than  200  church  edifices  were  built  or 
remodelled  under  his  superintendence.  He  de 
signed  the  new  capitol,  Montpelier,  Vt.  (1859), 
Buchtel  college,  Akron,  O.  (1872),  &c.  While 
pursuing  his  profession  as  an  architect,  he  act 
ed  as  a  Universalist  preacher  from  1852,  and 
was  ordained  a  clergyman  in  1862.  He  has 
published  "  Theognis,  a  Lamp  in  the  Cavern  of 
Evil "  (Boston,  1856) ;  "  Text  Book  of  Modern 
Carpentry  "  (1858)  ;  "  Warming  and  Ventila 
tion"  (1860);  "Atkinson  Memorial,"  a  series 
of  18  discourses  (1861) ;  "  The  Conference  Mel 
odist"  (1863);  "The  Cantica  Sacra,"  a  book 
of  church  service  (1865)  ;  and  "  Service  of  the 
Church  of  the  Redeemer"  at  Brighton  (1867). 
With  George  M.  Harding  he  edited  an  improved 
edition  of  Shaw's  "  Civil  Architecture  "  (1852). 
SILPHIUM  (Gr.  aityiov,  the  ancient  name  of 
some  resin-bearing  plant),  a  genus  of  coarse, 
robust,  perennial  plants  of  the  composite  fami 
ly,  which  have  a  copious  resinous  juice  and 
large  heads  of  flowers,  resembling  those  of  the 
sunflower,  but  quite  different  in  structure.  In 
ailphium  the  numerous  ray  flowers  are  pistil 
late  and  fertile ;  those  of  the  disk,  though 
they  are  apparently  perfect,  are  sterile ;  the 
broad  flat  akenes  are 
winged  and  without 
pappus.  The  genus 
comprises  about  20 
species,  all  North 
American ;  some  are 
very  abundant  on 
the  western  prairies, 
while  others  are 
peculiarly  southern. 
The  best  known 
species  is  S.  lacini- 
atum,  called  rosin 
weed ;  it  has  a  large 
thick  root,  from 
which  arise  numer 
ous  radical,  long-pe- 
tioled  leaves,  from 
12  to  30  in.  long; 
they  are  very  thick, 
and  rough  with 
bristly  hairs  ;  their 
general  outline  is 
ovate,  but  they  are  deeply  pinnately  cut  and 
parted,  and  the  divisions  themselves  often 
cut-lobed;  the  stem,  usually  8  to  6  ft.  high, 
sometimes  reaches  11  ft.,  and  bears  near  its 
base  numerous  leaves  similar  to  those  from 
the  root,  and  fewer  leaves  above.  The  flower 


Rosin  Weed  (Silphium  lacinia- 
tum). 


heads,  borne  in  a  kind  of  raceme  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  stem,  are  3  to  5  in.  across,  and,  as 
in  all  the  other  species,  yellow.  The  resinous 
juice  of  this  and  others  exudes  either  sponta 
neously  or  from  the  puncturing  of  insects,  ap 
pearing  in  small  translucent  tears  upon  the 
stem  and  foliage.  This  resin  and  the  plant  it 
self  have  been  regarded  as  useful  remedies  in 
asthma  and  similar  diseases  of  horses.  A  tinc 
ture  of  the  root  and  leaves  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  domestic  tonic  and  diaphoretic.  The  erect 
leaves  of  this  plant,  when  growing  in  the  open 
prairie,  commonly  stand  with  their  edges  point 
ing  north  and  south  ;  hence  it  has  been  called 
compass  plant,  pilot  weed,  and  polar  plant. 
This  species  occurs  from  the  prairies  of  Mich 
igan  southward  and  westward.  A  closely  re 
lated  species,  found  from  Ohio  west  and  south, 
called  prairie  burdock  or  prairie  dock,  is  S. 
terebinthinaceum,  having  also  large  and  coarse 
leaves,  which  are  not  cut,  but  only  serrate  on 
the  margins,  and  rough  and  scurfy  especially 
on  the  under  surface;  the  tall  stems  are  smooth, 
and  the  heads  of  flowers  are  smaller  than  in 
the  preceding.  This  species  produces  resin 
abundantly,  the  leaves  being  often  sprinkled 
with  it.  One  of  the  most  striking  species  is 
8.  perfoliatum,  called  the  cup  plant ;  its  square 
stem  bears  opposite  leaves,  a  foot  or  more 
long ;  these  are  united  by  their  bases  around 
the  stem,  and  form  a  concave  disk,  which  after 
a  rain  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  wa 
ter.  This  has  a  similar  geographical  range  to 
the  preceding,  but  having  long  been  cultivated 
in  gardens  on  account  of  its  curious  leaves,  it 
has  been  introduced  much  further  east. 

SILURIAN,  the  name  of  one  of  the  geologic 
ages,  the  age  of  mollusks  and  other  inverte 
brates.  The  name  is  derived  from  that  of  the 
ancient  Silures,  who  inhabited  that  portion  of 
England  and  Wales  where  these  rocks  abound. 
The  formation  lies  upon  the  Cambrian  of  Sedg- 
wick,  according  to  some  classifications,  and  im 
mediately  below  the  .Devonian.  Murchison  in 
cludes  in  it  the  upper  Cambrian  of  Sedgwick. 
The  subdivisions  of  the  Silurian  age  differ  in 
Europe  and  America,  and  also  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  continent.  In  North  America  the 
transition  of  the  rocks  and  life  from  the  lower 
to  the  upper  Silurian  is  abrupt.  In  Great  Brit 
ain  the  transition  in  life  is  gradual,  although 
the  rocks  are  unconformable  in  stratification. 
In  Bohemia  there  is  no  break  in  the  rocks,  but 
there  is  marked  change  in  the  life.  Dana  has 
adopted  the  subdivision  into  periods  and  epochs 
derived  'from  the  succession  of  rocks  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  where  the  strata  are  well 
displayed,  and  have  been  carefully  studied. 
In  this  arrangement  the  lower  Silurian,  begin 
ning  from  below,  includes  the  primordial  or 
Cambrian,  the  Canadian,  and  the  Trenton  peri 
ods;  the  upper  Silurian  embraces,  in  the  same 
ascending  order,  the  Niagara,  Salina,  lower 
Helderberg,  and  Oriskany  periods.  The  Oris- 
kany  formation  was  until  recently  placed  as  the 
lowest  period  of  the  Devonian  age ;  but  from 


SILVER 


the  relations  of  its  fossils  it  has  been  trans 
ferred  to  the  Silurian.  The  Cambrian  period 
has  two  epochs,  the  Acadian  and  the  Potsdam. 
The  Canadian  period  has  the  calciferous,  the 
Quebec,  and  the  Chazy  epochs.  The  Trenton 
period  embraces  the  Trenton,  Utica,  and  Cin 
cinnati  epochs ;  the  Niagara  period,  the  Me 
dina,  Clinton,  and  Niagara  epochs;  while  the 
Salina,  lower  Helderberg,  and  Oriskany  periods 
have  each  one  epoch,  correspondingly  named. 
The  lower  Silurian  animal  fossils  are  sponges, 
radiates,  mollusks,  and  articulates ;  among  the 
last  are  numerous  trilobites,  a  species  of  which 
found  near  Braintree,  Mass.,  in  the  Acadian 
formation,  was  20  in.  long.  The  caloiferous 
and  Quebec  epochs  of  the  Canadian  period  are 
remarkably  rich  in  fossils  and  economic  pro 
ducts,  the  latter  including  copper  and  silver 
ores.  In  Newfoundland  the  Quebec  forma 
tion  reaches  a  thickness  of  6,600  ft.,  the  upper 
half  being  sandstone  and  shales  and  the  lower 
half  mostly  limestones.  The  Trenton  period, 
abounding  in  fossils  and  economic  products, 
among  which  is  petroleum,  has  its  formation 
along  the  Appalachians  and  over  a  large  part 
of  the  Mississippi  basin,  including  the  galena 
limestone  of  Wisconsin  and  other  states.  Tren 
ton  limestone  has  been  found  in  the  arctic  re 
gions,  upon  King  William's  island,  North  Som 
erset,  and  Boothia.  The  Niagara  formation  in 
North  America  covers  a  large  part  of  the  inte 
rior  of  the  continent,  and  the  arctic  and  other 
parts  of  British  America,  and  also  contains  pe 
troleum.  At  Niagara  falls  85  ft.  of  limestone 
rest  on  80  ft.  of  shale,  and  near  the  falls  the 
shale  is  covered  with  165  ft.  of  limestone.  The 
Salina  period  includes  the  rocks  which  yield 
the  salt  brines  of  central  New  York.  Through 
the  Mississippi  basin  the  Salina  formation  is 
for  the  most  part  absent.  This  formation  con 
tains  numerous  beds  of  gypsum,  which  are  not 
stratified  like  the  other  rocks,  and  have  been 
formed  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon 
limestone,  the  sulphuric  acid  being  derived  from 
sulphur  springs.  The  Oriskany  period  contains 
no  land  plants  in  New  York,  but  at  Gaspe,  prov 
ince  of  Quebec,  a  small  species  of  lycopodium 
or  ground  pine  has  been  found.  The  most  com 
mon  animal  fossils  are  bivalve  mollusks.  In 
Maryland  there  are  five  species  of  crinoids,  but 
in  New  York  they  are  rare.  The  rocks  of  both 
the  lower  and  upper  Silurian  are  widely  dis 
tributed  over  the  globe,  although  the  lower  are 
the  most  extensive.  The  upper  Silurian  in  Eu 
rope,  besides  invertebrate  fossils,  contains  the 
vestiges  of  the  earliest  fishes,  some  of  which 
are  of  the  shark  tribe ;  so  that  although  the 
Devonian  is  the  age  of  fishes,  they  really  origi 
nated  in  the  Silurian.  It  was  formerly  thought 
that  the  Silurian  formation  contained  the  ear 
liest  vestiges  of  organic  life,  but  organic  re 
mains  have  recently  been  found  in  older  for 
mations.  (See  GEOLOGY,  vol.  vii.,  p.  694,  and 
PALEONTOLOGY,  vol.  xii.,  pp.  811,  813,  816.) 

SHAKli,  one  of  the  precious  metals,  distin 
guished  by  its  whiteness,  its  brilliant  lustre 
VOL.  xv. — 4 


when  polished,  its  malleability,  and  its  indif 
ference  to  atmospheric  oxygen.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  widely  distributed  of  metals.  Since 
it  occurs  frequently  in  a  native  state  (though 
never  chemically  pure,  being  invariably  alloyed 
with  gold  or  copper,  and  sometimes  antimony, 
arsenic,  bismuth,  quicksilver,  or  iron),  and  is 
easily  fusible,  it  naturally  became  known  to 
mankind  in  the  earliest  ages.  The  alchemists 
called  it  Luna  or  Diana.  The  Greek  name 
apjvpog  is  from  apydg,  white,  and  is  the  source 
of  the  Latin  argentum.  Silver  is  one  of  the 
first  metals  named  in  the  Old  Testament,  being 
included  among  the  enumerated  riches  of  Abra 
ham.  At  that  period,  as  in  later  times,  it  was 
used  as  a  medium  of  exchange  and  as  a  mate 
rial  in  the  arts.  In  Solomon's  reign  it  is  said 
to  have  been  so  abundant  as  to  be  nothing 
accounted  of,  and  the  king  had  made  it  to  be 
as  stones  in  Jerusalem.  Among  other  ancient 
nations  it  was  also  abundant.  Polybius  says 
the  tiles  upon  the  roof  of  the  temple  at  Ecba- 
tana  were  of  solid  silver,  and  the  beams  and 
pillars  of  the  temple  were  covered  with  plates 
of  silver  and  gold.  These  metals  were  obtained 
from  Nubia,  Ethiopia,  Attica,  Epirus,  and  the 
distant  countries  of  eastern  Asia.  The  rich 
Spanish  silver  mines  were  developed  at  an  ear 
ly  day,  and  furnished  the  main  supply  of  the 
metal  for  Phoenicia,  Carthage,  and  Eome. 
Pliny  speaks  of  a  mine  opened  by  Hannibal, 
which  supplied  him  with  800  Ibs.  of  silver  daily, 
and  was  worked  by  adits  reaching  a  mile  and 
a  half  into  the  mountain.  This  was  at  Guadal 
canal,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  in  the 
modern  province  of  Seville. — Pure  silver,  in  its 
massive  state,  is  the  whitest  of  metals.  It  takes 
by  burnishing  a  brilliant  lustre,  though  inferior 
to  that  of  its  white  alloys  with  copper.  When 
granulated  by  falling  molten  into  water,  it  ac 
quires  a  rough  but  exceedingly  beautiful  sur 
face.  Reduced  from  the  chloride  in  the  hu 
mid  way,  it  appears  as  a  gray,  spongy  powder. 
It  crystallizes  in  cubes  and  octahedrons  when 
allowed  to  cool  from  the  molten  condition  or 
precipitated  from  solution — for  instance,  by 
copper  or  zinc.  Sometimes  it  is  precipitated 
black  by  the  galvanic  current  or  by  zinc.  In 
hardness  and  strength  it  is  superior  to  gold 
and  inferior  to  copper ;  a  slight  alloy  of  cop 
per  hardens  and  strengthens  it.  In  malleability 
and  ductility  it  is  inferior  to  gold  only.  (See 
METAL.)  Leaves  less  than  T^OTTO  °f  an  "lcn 
thick  can  be  obtained  by  beating,  and  wires  may 
be  drawn  out  of  extreme  tenuity.  Its  chemical 
symbol  is  Ag,  its  equivalent  108.  According 
to  G.  Rose,  the  specific  gravity  of  cast  silver  is 
10-505,  of  pressed  or  hammered  silver  10*566. 
Other  authorities  give  for  the  former  10-474, 
and  for  the  latter  10-510.  Lengsdorf  found 
the  specific  gravity  of  silver  wire  which  had 
been  repeatedly  drawn  to  be  10*47  before  heat 
ing  and  10-43  afterward.  The  specific  heat  of 
silver  is  given  by  Regnault  as  0*057.  Its  heat- 
conducting  power  is  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  metal,  as  is  also  its  power  of  reflecting 


48 


SILVER 


light  and  heat  when  highly  polished ;  but  its 
radiating  capacity  in  the  same  condition  is  very 
small.  By  virtue  of  these  properties  vessels 
of  silver  are  best  adapted  to  retain  the  heat 
of  liquids.  It  melts  at  a  full  red  heat,  about 
1000°  C.  (1832°  F.).  It  shrinks  in  cooling, 
and  hence  fills  but  imperfectly  the  moulds  in 
which  it  is  cast.  At  a  very  high  temperature 
it  is  volatile.  Melting  silver  mechanically  ab 
sorbs  20  volumes  of  oxygen,  which  in  solidify 
ing  it  expels,  sometimes  with  sufficient  force 
to  throw  off  particles  of  metal.  Alloyed  with 
1  or  2  per  cent,  of  copper  or  with  gold,  it  ap 
parently  loses  this  property.  Silver  is  oxidized 
neither  by  exposure  at  ordinary  temperature 
to  dry  or  moist  air,  nor  by  heating  in  air  ;  but 
it  burns  to  an  oxide  when  melted  upon  char 
coal  in  the  oxyhydrogen  flame,  or  when  ex 
posed  to  a  galvanic  current  of  great  intensity, 
or  to  ozone.  Chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine 
act  upon  it  at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  has 
strong  affinity  for  sulphur  (with  which  it  can 
be  easily  fused  to  a  sulphide),  and  is  hence 
readily  tarnished  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
which  is  present  in  small  quantities  in  the  or 
dinary  air  of  cities.  To  protect  silver  vessels 
not  in  use,  they  may  be  wrapped  in  paper  satu 
rated  with  wax,  which  keeps  out  the  impure 
air,  or  in  paper  painted  with  white  lead,  which 
decomposes  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Articles 
of  food,  with  the  exception  of  eggs  and  salt, 
scarcely  affect  silver,  and  it  is  therefore  a  fa 
vorite  material  for  table  ware.  The  discolora 
tion  from  eggs  is  due  to  sulphur ;  that  from 
salt,  to  chlorine,  which  forms  argentic  chloride. 
This  may  be  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  linen 
rag  moistened  with  aqua  ammonia).  The  caus 
tic  alkalies  in  solution  or  fusion  do  not  attack 
silver  as  they  do  platinum,  and  it  is  conse 
quently  employed  for  the  evaporation  of  such 
solutions,  and  for  crucibles  in  which  minerals 
are  fused  with  potassium  or  sodium  hydrate. 
Silver  foil  is  sometimes  used  in  blowpipe  anal 
yses,  for  detecting  sulphur  and  the  sulphides  of 
the  metals.  Melted  with  carbonaceous  matter, 
silver  forms  a  carburet,  white  like  the  metal. 
This  is  also  formed  when  compounds  of  silver 
oxide  are  decomposed  by  organic  acids. — Silver 
may  be  easily  alloyed  by  melting  with  most 
metals.  The  alloys  with  base  metals  are  in 
general  not  useful  enough  to  counterbalance 
the  cost  of  the  silver.  The  alloy  with  copper, 
which  in  subordinate  quantity  enhances  the 
valuable  qualities  of  the  silver,  is  an  exception. 
The  alloys  with  lead  and  zinc,  serving  an  im 
portant  purpose  in  metallurgy,  will  be  men 
tioned  further  on.  An  alloy  of  100  parts  of 
aluminum  with  5  of  silver  gives  a  handsome 
white  malleable  compound,  susceptible  of  high 
polish.  A  small  quantity  of  iron,  chromium, 
cobalt,  or  nickel  imparts  great  hardness  to 
silver.  Steel  may  be  made  to  retain  about 
•5-^  of  its  weight  of  silver,  which  is  said  to  im 
prove  its  quality;  the  alloy  is  called  silver- 
steel.  Combined  with  mercury,  silver  forms 
a  most  brilliant  amalgam  for  mirrors.  An 


alloy  of  20  to  30  parts  of  silver  with  30  of 
nickel  and  50  of  copper  is  said  to  be  equal  in 
all  respects  to  the  ordinary  standard  silver, 
which  is  9  parts  of  silver  with  1  of  copper. 
Small  coins  have  been  made  in  Switzerland  of 
an  alloy  of  silver  and  copper  with  10  per  cent, 
nickel.  Two  parts  zinc  and  one  part  silver 
give  a  ductile,  white,  fine-grained  alloy.  Three 
parts  of  silver  to  one  of  tin  give  a  hard,  and 
one  part  of  silver  to  two  of  tin  a  soft  alloy. 
Bismuth,  antimony,  and  arsenic  yield  brittle 
alloys.  The  alloys  of  silver  and  copper  are 
the  most  important  of  all,  being  used  both  in 
coinage  and  in  the  arts.  The  copper  alloy  is 
harder  than  pure  silver,  takes  a  finer  polish, 
and  wears  better;  and  the  white  color  of  sil 
ver  may  be  retained  if  the  contents  of  copper 
do  not  exceed  a  certain  proportion,  while  even 
those  alloys  containing  a  larger  proportion  of 
copper  may  be  so  treated  by  "pickling"  in 
acid  as  to  deprive  them  of  copper  on  the  sur 
face,  and  thus  restore  their  silver-white  color. 
The  standard  silver  for  coinage,  on  the  conti 
nent  of  Europe  and  in  the  United  States,  is  a 
compound  of  9  parts  of  silver  to  1  of  copper ; 
in  England,  of  37  silver  to  3  copper.  For 
plate  the  legal  fineness  varies  in  different 
countries,  or  is,  as  in  the  United  States,  left  to 
the  choice  of  the  manufacturer.  In  North 
Germany  the  usual  fineness  is  inferior  to  that 
of  coin. — Silver  does  not  dissolve  in  any  hy- 
drated  acids  by  taking  the  place  of  the  hydro 
gen  ;  on  the  contrary,  hydrogen  displaces  it 
from  the  solutions  of  its  salts  and  precipitates 
it  in  metallic  form.  Concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  oxidizes  silver  at  boiling  heat,  forming 
argentic  sulphate  and  sulphurous  acid.  Nitric 
acid,  even  when  diluted  with  an  equal  bulk  of 
water,  acts  rapidly  upon  silver,  and  at  high 
temperature  with  great  violence,  argentic  ni 
trate  and  nitric  oxide  being  formed.  A  solu 
tion  of  chromic  acid  changes  silver  to  a  red 
argentic  chromate.  Muriatic  acid,  even  at  a 
high  temperature,  has  little  effect  upon  silver. 
Argentic  oxide  combines  at  high  temperatures 
with  silicic  acid ;  hence,  silver  heated  or  melt 
ed  with  glass  or  other  silicious  compounds  be 
comes  oxidized  and  colors  the  mass  yellow. 
All  of  the  more  easily  oxidizable  metals  and 
many  compounds  susceptible  of  higher  oxida 
tion  (so-called  deoxidizing  substances),  as  well 
as  many  organic  substances,  precipitate  silver 
from  solution.  Silver  forms  three  oxides:  a 
suboxide,  Ag4O ;  argentic  oxide,  AgaO ;  and 
a  peroxide  (probably  Ag202),  which  does  not 
combine  with  acids.  The  second  of  these  is  of 
special  interest  as  the  basis  of  the  salts  of  the 
metal.  It  is  separated  from  the  nitrate,  or 
any  soluble  silver  salt,  by  adding  an  alkaline 
solution,  as  a  brown  hydrated  oxide,  which 
parts  with  its  water  at  60°  C.  (140°  F.),  and 
with  its  oxygen  at  a  red  heat.  Its  solution 
in  ammonia  deposits  on  exposure  to  the  air 
a  black  micaceous  powder  supposed  to  be 
a  compound  of  silver  oxide  and  ammonia 
(Ag2O,  H3N),  or  amidide  of  silver  (AgHaN), 


SILVER 


49 


or  nitride  of  silver  (Ag3N).  It  is  terribly  ex 
plosive,  and  is  hence  called  fulminating  silver 
(Berthollet's).  This  most  dangerous  compound 
may  also  be  unintentionally  produced  by  pre 
cipitating  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  argentic 
nitrate  by  the  addition  of  caustic  potash.  The 
chlorate  of  this  oxide  is  likewise  very  explo 
sive,  as  is  also  the  fulminate  proper  (Brugna- 
telli's).  (See  EXPLOSIVES.)  The  sulphate  is 
formed  by  treatment  of  the  metal  at  a  high 
temperature  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 
Upon  this  reaction  is  based  one  method  of 
separating  silver  and  gold.  (See  GOLD.)  The 
nitrate  (AgNO3)  is  the  most  important  salt 
of  silver.  (See  NITRATES,  vol.  xii.,  p.  463.) 
It  is  employed  in  the  preparation  of  other 
compounds  of  silver,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  the  chloride,  produced  by  adding  to 
the  nitrate  solution  chlorine  or  a  soluble  chlo 
ride,  such  as  common  salt.  It  is  a  dense  white 
flocculent  precipitate,  which  under  exposure 
to  light  turns  first  violet,  then  black,  proba 
bly  by  partial  reduction  to  subchloride.  Chlo 
rine  restores  the  white  color.  The  chloride 
is  slightly  soluble  in  boiling  concentrated  mu 
riatic  acid,  more  readily  in  strong  solutions 
of  chlorides,  ammonia,  alkaline  cyanides,  and 
hyposulphites;  insoluble  in  water  and  dilute 
acids;  scarcely  affected  by  any  oxygen  acid, 
even  concentrated  sulphuric ;  reduced  to  metal 
by  zinc,  iron,  copper,  or  any  metal  more  oxi- 
dizable  than  silver,  heated  hydrogen,  organic 
compounds  containing  hydrogen,  alkalies  and 
alkaline  earths,  and  by  heating  upon. charcoal 
before  the  blowpipe.  The  insolubility  of  the 
chloride  in  oxygen  acids  permits  the  precipita 
tion  of  silver  from  solutions  of  almost  all  its 
salts  by  the  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid  or 
of  other  chlorides,  thus  giving  a  convenient 
means  of  determining  its  presence  or  separa 
ting  it  from  other  metals.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  solubility  of  the  chloride  in  brine  or  so 
dium  hyposulphite  constitutes  an  important 
means  of  silver  extraction  by  the  humid  meth 
od  of  metallurgy  described  below.  This  salt 
occurs  in  nature  as  an  ore.  It  is  used  in  pho 
tography,  and  its  ammoniacal  solution  is  em 
ployed  to  color  mother-of-pearl.  The  bromide 
(AgBr)  and  the  iodide  (Agl)  also  occur  in  na 
ture,  the  latter  rarely.  Their  chemical  rela 
tions  are  similar  to  those  of  the  chloride,  but 
the  bromide  is  but  slightly  dissolved  in  dilute 
aqua  ammonise,  and  the  iodide  scarcely  at  all. 
They  likewise  have  the  property  of  darken 
ing  by  exposure  to  light.  (See  PHOTOGEAPHT.) 
— The  Metallurgy  of  Silver.  Silver  is  obtained 
partly  from  true  silver  ores,  partly  from  other 
ores  containing  silver  as  an  accidental  or  varia 
ble  constituent.  To  the  former  class  belongs 
the  native  metal,  which  is  usually  more  or  less 
alloyed  with  gold,  and  sometimes  with  other 
metals,  as  above  remarked.  The  occurrence 
of  gold  and  silver  in  variable  natural  alloy  is 
so  general  that  they  may  almost  be  said  to  con 
stitute  but  one  mineral  species,  ranging  from 
silver  with  a  slight  trace  of  gold  to  gold  with 


a  slight  trace  of  silver.  Native  silver  is  found 
in  masses  and  in  arborescent  and  filiform 
shapes  in  veins  of  quartz,  calcite,  &c.,  or  as 
segregations  accompanying  other  silver  ores. 
The  masses  are  sometimes  crystalline,  show 
ing  cubical  and  octahedral  forms.  Very  pure 
silver  occurs  with  the  native  copper  at  Lake 
Superior.  The  most  famous  masses  of  native 
silver,  several  of  which  exceeded  500  Ibs.,  have 
been  found  at  the  mines  of  Kongsberg  in  Nor 
way,  of  Freiberg,  Schneeberg,  and  Johann- 
Georgenstadt  in  Saxony,  and  in  the  Bohemian, 
Hungarian,  Peruvian,  and  Mexican  mines.  In 
the  silver  mines  of  Nevada,  Idaho,  and  Utah  it 
is  not  uncommon,  though  it  has  not  been  found 
in  large  masses.  Silver  amalgam  occurs  in 
small  quantities  in  some  European  mines,  and 
contains  26  to  35  per  cent,  of  silver,  the  re 
mainder  being  mercury.  The  variety  known 
as  arguerite,  from  Coquimbo  in  Chili,  is  an 
important  ore  in  that  region,  and  contains  43 
to  63  per  cent,  of  silver.  The  antimoniuret 
and  the  telluret  of  silver  are  comparatively 
rare.  The  most  important  silver  ores  are  the 
chloride,  the  sulphide,  and  the  combinations  of 
sulphide  of  silver  with  other  sulphides.  The 
chloride  of  silver,  or  horn  silver  (AgCl),  is  a 
common  ore  in  Chili,  Peru,  Mexico,  and  the 
western  regions  of  the  United  States,  particu 
larly  in  certain  districts  of  Nevada,  and  in  the 
Owyhee  district  of  Idaho.  It  has  been  met 
with  in  small  quantities  in  many  of  the  Euro 
pean  mines.  When  pure,  its  composition  is 
silver  75 '2,  chlorine  24-8.  It  has  a  waxy  ap 
pearance,  resinous  lustre,  and  pearl-gray,  green 
ish,  whitish,  or  bluish  color,  turning  brown  in 
the  air;  hardness  1  to  1'5;  sp.gr.  5'3  to  5'5. 
It  occurs  chiefly  near  the  outcrops  of  argen 
tiferous  deposits  as  a  product  of  the  decom 
position  of  other  ores.  In  Chili  and  Peru,  for 
instance,  it  is  found  in  cubical  crystals  in  the 
ferruginous  gossan  known  as  pecos  and  colo- 
rados.  The  bromide  and  iodide,  which  also 
occur  in  nature,  closely  resemble  it,  but  are  far 
more  rare.  The  sulphide  of  silver  (AgaS,  sil 
ver  glance,  vitreous  silver,  or  argentite),  con 
taining  87*1  silver  and  12'9  sulphur,  is,  next 
to  the  native  metal,  the  richest  ore.  It  has  a 
blackish  lead-gray  color,  metallic  lustre,  and 
shining  streak ;  H.  2  to  2'5  ;  sp.  gr.  T'196  to 
7'365  ;  is  easily  cut  with  a  knife,  and  readily 
melts  on  charcoal  before  the  blowpipe.  It 
forms  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ores  of  the 
silver  mines  of  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Hungary, 
Mexico,  Peru,  and  the  United  States.  It  is 
commonly  associated  with  other  argentiferous 
minerals,  and  sometimes  is  finely  disseminated 
through  the  gangue  or  the  accompanying  ores. 
The  double  sulphides  of  silver  and  antimony 
constitute  a  very  valuable  class  of  ores,  of 
which  the  chief  are:  stephanite  (Ag5SbS4), 
with  68 -5  per  cent,  of  silver  and  sometimes 
small  quantities  of  iron,  copper,  and  arsenic, 
having  metallic  lustre,  iron-gray  color,  black 
powder,  H.  2  to  2'5,  sp.  gr.  6  to  6'27,  occurring 
in  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Mexico,  and 


50 


SILVER 


Nevada,  particularly  in  the  Comstock  lode ; 
miargyrite  (AgSbS2),  with  36'9  silver,  steel- 
gray  to  iron-black,  metallic  lustre,  dark  cherry- 
red  powder,  11.  3,  sp.  gr.  5'2,  occurring  in  Sax 
ony,  Spain,  and  Mexico;  pyrargyrite  (Ag3Sb 
S3),  dark  ruby  silver  or  antimonial  silver  blende, 
with  59  silver,  sometimes  a  little  arsenic,  black 
or  by  transmitted  light  deep  red,  H.  2  to  2 '5, 
sp.  gr.  5-759,  occurring  in  Saxony,  Baden, 
Cornwall,  Norway,  Mexico,  South  America, 
and  Nevada;  and  polybasite  (Ag9SbS6),  with 
from  64  to  more  than  72  silver,  the  antimony 
being  partly  and  sometimes  wholly  replaced 
by  arsenic,  and  the  silver  partly  by  copper  or 
to  less  extent  iron  and  zinc,  color  iron-black, 
streak  black,  H.  2'5,  sp.  gr.  6'2,  occurring  in  the 
Hartz,  Saxony,  Hungary,  Mexico,  and  Nevada. 
Proustite,  or  light  ruby  silver  (Ag3AsS3),  simi 
lar  to  pyrargyrite,  except  that  the  color  is 
lighter  and  the  antimony  is  replaced  with  ar 
senic,  occurs  in  the  same  localities,  but  more 
rarely;  it  contains  65 '4  silver.  Copper  silver 
glance  or  stromeyerite  (CuAgS),  with  53  sil 
ver  and  31  copper,  iron-black,  black  shining 
powder,  II.  2 '75,  sp.  gr.  6 -2,  occurs  in  Silesia, 
Chili,  and  elsewhere.  The  foregoing  are  the 
principal  true  silver  ores.  The  chief  argentif 
erous  ores  of  other  metals  are  those  of  lead, 
copper,  and  zinc.  Iron  pyrites  and  arsenical 
pyrites,  as  well  as  bismuth,  cobalt,  and  nickel 
ores,  may  be  argentiferous,  but  it  is  usually 
by  reason  of  finely  disseminated  silver  ores 
throughout  their  mass.  Galena  is  always  more 
or  less  argentiferous.  In  the  United  States, 
the  galena  of  the  Appalachian  range  and  of 
the  Mississippi  valley  is  usually  poor  in  silver, 
while  that  of  the  Rocky  mountains  and  the 
interior  basin  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  highly 
argentiferous.  Oxidized  ores  are  usually  poor 
in  silver,  but  the  carbonate,  &c.,  occurring  in 
the  limestone  of  New  Mexico,  Utah,  and  the 
Eureka  district,  Nevada,  are  exceptions,  being 
smelted  in  large  quantities  for  lead  and  silver. 
The  peculiar  ore  known  as  stetefeldtite,  which 
occurs  abundantly  in  Nevada,  is  an  oxidized 
but  massive  mineral  containing  antimony  and 
other  base  metals,  and  often  very  rich  in  silver. 
The  variable  mineral  or  class  of  minerals 
known  as  tetrahedrite  (Fahlerz,  argentiferous 
gray  copper,  freibergite,  tennantite,  hennesite) 
seems  to  be  a ,  combination  of  metallic  sul 
phides  with  sulphides  of  antimony  and  arsenic, 
or  a  sulphide  of  antimony  and  copper,  in  which 
the  antimony  may  be  partly  replaced  by  ar 
senic,  and  the  copper  by  iron,  zinc,  silver,  and 
even,  as  in  freibergite,  lead,  or,  as  in  hermesite, 
quicksilver.  The  percentage  of  silver  varies 
from  a  mere  trace  to  32  per  cent.  Pure  zinc 
blende  is  usually  poor  in  silver,  but  is  frequent 
ly  found  in  intimate  association  with  true  sil 
ver  ores  or  native  silver,  and  particularly  with 
argentiferous  galena  ;  and  in  some  notable  in 
stances  the  blende  is  richer  than  the  galena. 
— The  mechanical  concentration  of  silver  ores 
by  water  is  attended  with  heavy  loss,  by  reason 
of  their  usual  association  with  base  ores  of 


nearly  the  same  specific  gravity,  and  their  prop 
erty  of  cleaving  when  crushed  into  fine  scales 
and  splinters  or  dust,  which  are  usually  carried 
away  by  the  current.  The  yield  of  silver  ores 
is  generally  rated  in  this  country  in  ounces 
troy  to  the  ton  of  2,000  Ibs.  avoirdupois,  or 
29,167  oz.  troy.  About  1  per  cent,  of  silver 
would  be  equivalent  to  292  oz.  to  a  ton.  A 
yield  of  a  little  less  than  3  oz.  is  represented 
by  the  decimal  '0001  or  -01  per  cent.  This 
small  proportion  will  not  pay  for  the  mining 
and  reduction  of  the  ores ;  but  where  lead  is 
produced  containing  *01  per  cent,  of  silver, 
the  latter  can  still  be  extracted  and  saved  by 
refining  processes.  (See  LEAD.)  The  pig  lead 
(variously  called  work  lead,  crude  bullion,  and 
base  bullion),  mainly  produced  from  argen 
tiferous  galena,  carries  from  20  to  200  oz.  of 
silver  to  the  ton. — The  methods  of  producing 
silver  from  ores  and  furnace  products  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes :  smelting,  amalga 
mation,  and  humid  extraction.  The  smelting 
processes  are  mostly  based  upon  the  capacity 
of  metallic  lead,  as  well  as  its  oxide  and  sul 
phate,  to  separate  silver  under  fusion  from 
its  combinations,  the  liberated  silver  alloying 
itself  with  an  excess  of  lead  and  accumulating 
in  the  metallic  bath  in  the  hearth  of  the  fur 
nace.  The  following  chemical  equations  indi 
cate  the  typical  reactions  of  the  lead  smelting 
processes  :  Ag2S  +  Pb  +  :rPb=Ag2,zPb-|-PbS ; 
Ag2S  +  PbO=AgPb  +  SO2 ;  Ag2S  +  PbSO4= 
Ag2Pb  +  2SO2.  (See  METALLLTEGY.)  From  the 
argentiferous  lead  thus  produced  the  silver  is 
obtained  directly  by  an  oxidizing  fusion  (cupel- 
lation),  transforming  the  lead  into  litharge  and 
leaving  metallic  silver  upon  the  cupel ;  or  the 
!  argentiferous  lead  is  first  submitted  to  treat: 
ment  in  a  battery  of  melting  kettles,  in  which 
at  a  low  temperature  a  portion  of  the  liquid 
mass  crystallizes,  while  another  portion,  rich 
in  silver,  remains  liquid ;  and  the  crystals  being 
ladled  from  each  kettle  to  the  next,  and  there 
submitted  to  remelting  and  recrystallization, 
while  the  liquid  is  passed  down  the  series  in  an 
opposite  direction,  the  contents  of  silver  are  at 
last  chiefly  concentrated  into  a  small  quantity 
of  so-called  rich  lead,  which  is  then  cupelled 
(the  Pattinson  process) ;  or  the  silver  is  ex 
tracted  from  the  molten  lead  by  means  of  the 
superior  affinity  between  silver  and  zinc,  me 
tallic  zinc  being  added  to  the  bath  and  the 
zinc-silver  alloy  rising  to  the  surface  and  being 
skimmed  off  and  submitted  to  further  treat 
ment  by  means  of  smelting,  liquation,  or  dis 
tillation  (the  Parkes  process,  with  the  modifi 
cations  of  Cordurie,  Flach,  and  others).  In 
smelting  argentiferous  copper  ores,  the  silver 
is  often  concentrated  in  a  copper  matte  or  black 
copper,  which  may  then  be  smelted  with  lead, 
or  treated  in  the  humid  way.  The  liquation  of 
argentiferous  copper  consists  in  alloying  it  with 
a  certain  quantity  of  lead,  and  afterward  heat 
ing  the  alloy  above  the  melting  point  of  lead, 
but  below  that  of  copper.  The  lead  "  sweats  " 
out,  carrying  the  silver  with  it,  and  leaving 


''U 


Op 


SILVER 


51 


behind  the  spongy  copper.  This  process  has 
almost  everywhere  given  way  to  humid  meth 
ods.  (See  COPPER,  LEAD,  and  METALLURGY.) 
— The  method  of  amalgamation,  invented  in 
Mexico  in  1557  by  Bartolome  de  Medina,  led  to 
the  enormous  production  of  silver  there  and 
in  South  America  during  the  next  200  years, 
and  has  remained  substantially  in  extensive  use 
ever  since.  The  Mexican,  known  as  the  patio 
process,  is  suited  to  ores  which  contain  native 
silver  or  silver  chloride  (bromide,  iodide)  and 
sulphide,  and  are  measurably  free  from  other 
sulphides  and  from  arsenides  and  antimoniu- 
rets.  The  ore  is  first  crushed  and  then  ground 
fine  in  arrastras.  If  gold  is  present,  50  or  60 
per  cent,  of  it  may  be  saved  by  introducing 
silver  or  copper  amalgam  into  the  arrastra. 
Ores  containing  pyrites,  antimony,  or  arsenic 
are  incompletely  roasted,  to  break  up  the  com 
bination  of  silver  with  these  elements.  The 
presence  of  silver  sulphide  does  not  necessitate 
roasting  as  a  preliminary  for  patio  amalgama 
tion.  The  fine  paste  from  the  arrastra  is  spread 
on  the  patio  floor  (of  stone,  calked  boards,  or 
asphaltum)  in  round  heaps  (tortas)  about  0*3 
metre  high  and  10  to  16  metres  in  diameter, 
containing  each  from  5,000  to  100,000  kilos ; 
average,  about  60  tons.  The  paste  having  stiff 
ened  by  the  evaporation  of  its  water,  from  2£ 
to  10  per  cent,  of  impure  salt  is  added,  accord 
ing  to  the  contents  of  silver  in  the  ore.  This 
is  intermixed  with  shovels  and  subsequently  by 
the  treading  of  mules  or  men,  and  occasionally 
by  means  of  kneading  machines,  with  travel 
ling  wheels,  set  up  in  the  torta.  After  one  or 
two  days  the  magistral  is  added ;  this  is  copper 
vitriol  and  salt,  or  rich  oxidized  copper  ores 
mixed  with  pyrites  which  has  been  roasted  with 
salt,  or  simply  copper  pyrites  which  has  been 
so  roasted.  The  quantity  of  magistral  required 
varies  according  to  the  season,  the  tempera 
ture,  and  the  quantity  of  the  ore ;  it  usually 
ranges  from  ^  to  1  per  cent.  Its  function  is 
to  cause  certain  reactions  with  the  salt  and  the 
sulphide  of  silver  and  promote  the  formation 
of  amalgam.  Too  much  of  it  causes  too  high 
a  temperature  in  the  mass,  particularly  in  win 
ter  ;  hence  cold  weather  and  poor  ores  require 
the  smallest  amount.  After  another  tread 
ing,  quicksilver  is  sprinkled  over  the  torta  by 
squeezing  through  a  leather  or  canvas  bag. 
The  quantity  used  is  six  to  seven  times  the 
weight  of  silver  in  the  ore,  sometimes  much 
more.  It  is  rarely  added  all  at  once  ;  the  usual 
practice  is  to  give  fresh  quicksilver  every  alter 
nate  day,  treading  the  mass  for  six  to  eight 
hours  on  each  intervening  day.  The  termina 
tion  of  amalgamation  is  observed  by  panning 
samples  (see  GOLD)  from  the  torta,  and  exam 
ining  the  amount  and  condition  of  the  quick 
silver  and  amalgam.  The  period  required  for 
the  whole  operation  down  to  this  point  varies 
from  5  to  80  days;  average,  about  19  days. 
Various  theories  have  been  proposed  concern 
ing  the  chemical  reactions  of  the  patio.  Too 
]ow  a  temperature  stops  the  reactions,  and  may 


be  remedied  by  more  frequent  treading  or  by 
additional  magistral.  The  amalgam  is  collected 
in  settlers,  which  are  circular  vats  of  wood  or 
masonry,  about  9  ft.  in  diameter  and  8  ft.  in 
depth,  in  which  the  mass,  thinned  with  water, 
is  stirred  and  allowed  to  deposit  its  heavy  amal 
gam,  while  the  lighter  portion  is  drawn  off. 
The  amalgam,  being  concentrated  still  further, 
is  at  last  collected  in  a  leather  or  canvas  bag, 
where  it  is  freed  by  squeezing  from  free  mer 
cury,  which  passes  through,  carrying  a  little 
silver  with  it,  while  the  mass  remains  in  a  co 
herent,  plastic  condition.  The  former  is  used 
again  on  the  patio  ;  the  latter  is  moulded  into 
30  Ib.  blocks,  piled  on  an  iron  plate,  covered 
with  a  large  iron  bell,  and  heated  by  means 
of  a  charcoal  fire  around  the  bell.  The  mer 
cury  is  vaporized,  and  (the  joint  at  the  edge 
of  the  bell  being  carefully  luted)  passes  down 
through  a  pipe  in  the  iron  plate  into  a  cistern 
of  water.  The  bell  furnace  is  less  economical 
of  fuel  and  mercury  than  muffle  or  retort  fur 
naces  ;  it  loses  0'8  per  cent,  of  mercury.  The 
silver,  found  in  solid  masses  when  the  bell  is 
raised,  is  cast  into  ingots  of  80  or  90  Ibs.  By 
the  patio  process  the  usual  product  of  silver  is 
50  to  66  per  cent,  of  that  contained  in  the  ore ; 
the  most  docile  ores,  under  favorable  circum 
stances,  have  yielded  90  per  cent.  The  loss  of 
quicksilver  is  given  by  Kerl  as  3  to  5  per  cent, 
of  the  quantity  used ;  earlier  accounts  make  it 
considerably  greater.  This  loss  is  due  to  the 
formation  in  the  torta  of  soluble  mercury  di- 
chloride  (calomel),  which  is  afterward  washed 
away. — The  cazo  process,  used  in  Mexico  and 
Chili,  is  a  hot  amalgamation  in  kettles.  The 
ore  (in  Mexico  chloride,  in  Chili  sulphide)  is 
placed,  in  the  form  of  a  watery  pulp,  in  a 
vat  wTith  copper  bottom  and  wooden  or  stone 
sides.  Here  it  is  heated  and  stirred  with  salt 
and  quicksilver,  copper  vitriol  being  added  in 
the  treatment  of  sulphides.  The  process  is 
rapid  and  effects  a  tolerably  complete  extrac 
tion  of  silver,  but  involves  great  loss  of  quick 
silver  (2  to  2 -5  times  the  weight  of  silver) 
when  applied  to  sulphide  ore.  Silver  ores  free 
from  sulphides  of  other  metals  are  amalgama 
ted  at  Guanajuato,  Mexico,  in  arrastras,  by  sim 
ple  grinding  and  mixing  with  quicksilver  and 
water. — Pan  amalgamation,  called  the  Washoe 
process,  consists  in  rubbing  together  in  pans 
(usually  of  cast  iron)  the  watery  mixture  of 
crushed  ore  (pulp)  with  quicksilver,  with  or 
without  the  audition  of  other  chemicals.  The 
simplest  form  of  it  may  be  thus  described  : 
The  ore  suitable  for  this  process  (usually  con 
taining  silver  sulphide  or  chloride  and  native 
silver,  with  little  antimony,  arsenic,  base  sul 
phides,  in  a  gangue  of  quartz)  is  first  crushed 
in  a  stamp  mill,  similar  in  most  respects  to 
that  employed  for  gold-bearing  quartz.  (See 
GOLD.)  The  screens  which  regulate  the  size 
of  the  crushed  particles  are  of  wire  cloth  with 
40  to  60  meshes  to  the  inch,  or  of  Eussia 
sheet  iron,  perforated  with  holes  ^  to  -^  in. 
in  diameter.  The  pulp  reduced  to  this  fineness 


SILVER 


is  ground  and  amalgamated  in  pans,  of  which 
there  are  numerous  forms.  The  charge  for  a 
pan  is  800  to  1,500  Ibs. ;  the  very  large  pans, 
treating  tailings  which  have  heen  already  ground 
fine,  can  take  3,000  to  4,500  Ibs.  To  maintain 
a  proper  temperature,  steam  is  introduced  into 
the  pulp  or  into  a  steam  chamber  under  the 
bottom,  and  a  wooden  cover  is  usually  kept  on 
the  pan.  The  pulp  is  generally  ground  for 
one  or  two  hours;  then  the  quicksilver  is 
sprinkled  in  (usually  60  to  70  Ibs.  to  a  charge 
of  1,200  or  1,500  Ibs.),  and,  the  mullers  being 
raised  to  avoid  too  much  grinding,  which  would 
"  flour  "  the  mercury,  stirring  is  continued  for 
two  or  three  hours  longer,  after  which  the 
pulp  is  diluted  and  drawn  off  into  a  settler. 
The  modification  of  the  AVashoe  process  in 
vented  by  Mr.  Henry  Janin,  consisting  in  the 
use  of  large  quantities  of  copper  vitriol  (blue 
stone)  and  salt,  has  proved  very  successful  in 
the  reduction  of  refractory  ores  not  otherwise 
amalgamable.  The  quicksilver,  charged  with 
amalgam,  is  washed,  skimmed,  and  strained 
through  a  canvas  bag,  which  retains  the  amal 
gam.  This  is  then  distilled  in  cast-iron  retorts, 
the  mercury  being  collected  under  water,  while 
the  "retort  bullion"  remains  behind.  About 
one  sixth  of  the  charge  retorted,  or  200  Ibs.  of 
bullion  from  1,200  Ibs.  of  amalgam,  is  usually 
obtained  from  the  retort,  to  be  broken  up, 
melted,  and  cast  into  ingots ;  it  loses  2  to  3  per 
cent,  in  melting.  The  ingots  are  assayed,  and 
their  fineness  in  thousandths  of  gold  and  sil 
ver  is  stamped  upon  them.  The  coin  value  of 
the  Oomstock  bullion  is  $1  Y5  to  $2,  one  third 
of  which  is  due  to  the  gold  it  contains.  The 
pulp  escaping  from  the  apparatus  in  which  the 
amalgam  is  collected  is  called  "tailings."  The 
tailiiigs  are  often  concentrated  upon  blankets 
or  otherwise,  or  are  simply  allowed  to  settle 
in  reservoirs,  for  reworking.  The  "slimes" 
or  "  slums "  comprise  that  part  of  the  ore 
which  is  crushed  under  the  stamps  to  an  im- 
palpably  fine  condition,  and  escapes  in  the  bat 
tery  water  without  ever  getting  into  the  pans. 
Since  many  silver  ores  yield  much  fine  powder 
in  crushing,  the  slimes  are  often  far  richer 
than  the  tailings,  the  value  of  the  latter  being 
largely  in  the  particles  of  quicksilver  and  amal 
gam  which  they  contain.  The  chemistry  of 
the  Washoe  process  is  summed  up  by  Mr.  Ar 
nold  Hague  as  follows :  that  the  ore  submit 
ted  to  it  consists  chiefly  of  native  gold,  native 
silver,  and  argentiferous  sulphurets,  associated 
with  varying  proportions  of  blende  and  galena; 
that  the  action  of  sodium  chloride  and  copper 
sulphate  in  the  pan  produces  copper  chloride, 
while  the  presence  of  metallic  iron  causes  the 
formation  of  copper  dichloride ;  that  both  the 
chlorides  of  copper  assist  in  the  reduction  of 
the  ore  by  chloridizing  the  sulphurets  of  sil 
ver  and  decomposing  the  sulphurets  of  lead 
and  zinc;  that  sulphate  of  copper  enhances 
the  amalgamating  energy  of  mercury,  by  caus 
ing  the  formation  of  a  small  quantity  of  copper 
amalgam,  and  also  tends  to  expel  the  lead ;  but 


that  the  quantities  of  chemical  agents  usually 
added  in  the  Washoe  process  are  too  small  to 
be  effective,  and  that  the  principal  agents  in 
the  reduction  are  in  general  mercury  and  the 
iron  of  the  pan,  aided  by  heat  and  friction. 
The  essential  condition  in  the  amalgamation  is 
the  keeping  of  the  mercury  bright  and  pure, 
that  it  may  come  into  direct  contact  with  the 
iron  and  sulphide  of  silver.  The  consump 
tion  of  mercury  in  the  Washoe  process  may  be 
considered  chiefly  a  mechanical  loss,  and  only 
to  a  limited  extent  a  chemical  one.  The  pan 
amalgamation  of  slimes  and  refractory  ores, 
with  the  addition  of  large  proportions  of  cop 
per  sulphate  and  salt,  involves  a  greater  loss 
of  mercury. — Refractory  ores,  not  suitable  for 
"raw"  amalgamation  by  the  Washoe  or  the 
patio  process,  are  treated  in  many  localities  by 
the  Freiberg  process,  consisting  in  the  chlori- 
nation  of  the  ore  by  roastipg  with  salt,  and  its 
subsequent  amalgamation.  At  Freiberg  in 
Saxony,  where  this  method  originated,  it  has 
been  abandoned,  the  ores  formerly  amalga 
mated  being  now  treated  by  smelting.  But 
in  districts  where  fuel  is  scarce  and  labor  dear, 
and  lead  ores  for  smelting  are  not  at  hand 
(which  is  the  case  in  many  parts  of  Nevada, 
for  instance),  the  Freiberg  system  is  still  suc 
cessfully  employed,  though  greatly  modified  as 
to  apparatus.  The  ore  is  crushed  in  stamp 
mills,  without  water,  and  the  fine  powder  is 
further  dried,  usually  by  spreading  on  the  top 
of  the  arch  or  the  dust  chambers  of  the  roast 
ing  furnace.  Either  in  the  battery,  during 
crushing,  or  on  the  drying  or  the  charging 
floor,  6  to  V  per  cent,  (for  rich  ores,  up  to  20 
per  cent.)  of  salt  is  mixed  with  the  ore.  The 
mixture  is  then  roasted,  to  chloridize  the  silver ; 
this  was  done  abroad  in  reverberatory  furnaces, 
which  have  been  used  in  Colorado  and  Nevada 
also,  but  are  now  generally  replaced  in  the  west 
by  Stetefeldt's  showering  furnace  or  Bruck 
ner's  cylinder.  From  the  roasting  furnace  the 
ore  is  conveyed  to  the  pans,  where  it  under 
goes  an  amalgamation  similar  to  that  of  the 
simple  Washoe  process,  except  that  less  grind 
ing  is  necessary.  The  Freiberg  amalgamation 
was  performed  in  revolving  wooden  barrels, 
which  are  still  employed  at  some  places  in 
the  United  States.  Each  apparatus  has  its  par 
tisans.  A  peculiar  method  of  amalgamation 
pursued  in  Chili  avoids  the  chloridizing  roast 
ing,  substituting  a  humid  chlorination  by  means 
of  copper  dichloride  (Kroncke's  process).  It 
is  highly  praised,  but  not  yet  widely  employed. 
The  use  for  this  purpose  of  copper  chloride, 
which  is  of  earlier  origin,  involves  a  loss  of 
quicksilver  as  calomel. — The  processes  of  hu 
mid  extraction  of  silver  are  of  two  classes. 
Either  the  silver  is  converted  into  a  soluble 
compound  and  separated  by  leaching  and  pre 
cipitation,  or  the  baser  metallic  constituents  of 
the  ore  are  rendered  soluble  and  removed  by 
leaching,  leaving  an  auriferous  and  argentif 
erous  residuum  for  further  treatment.  The 
methods  of  the  first  class  convert  the  silver 


SILVER 


53 


into  chloride  or  sulphate,  the  former  by  a 
chloridizing,  the  latter  by  an  oxidizing  roast 
ing.  The  chloridizing  roasting  is  essentially 
that  of  the  Freiberg  amalgamation  process, 
and  is  effected  by  mixing  salt  with  the  charge. 
The  silver  chloride  is  extracted  from  the  mass 
by  lixiviation  with  hot  brine  (old  Augustin 
process),  cold  brine  (Hungarian  improvement), 
sodium  hyposulphite  (Patera  process),  or  cal 
cium  hyposulphite  (Kiss  process  in  Hungary 
and  Russia,  Hofmann  in  Mexico).  The  latter 
extracts  also  gold  chloride  if  it  is  present, 
which  brine  will  not  do,  unless  it  has  been,  as 
Patera  recommends,  impregnated  with  free 
chlorine  gas.  Experiments  conducted  at  "VVy- 
andotte,  Mich.,  by  Messrs.  Courtis  and  Halm, 
indicate  the  availability  of  other  chlorides  than 
common  salt  (particularly  calcium  chloride,  or 
a  solution  obtained  by  treating  common  lime 
stone  with  muriatic  acid)  as  a  solvent  for  the 
silver  chloride.  The  novel  and  important  re 
sults  of  these  investigations  are  given  in  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Mining  Engineers."  From  its  hyposulphite 
or  chloride  solution  the  silver  is  precipitated 
with  metallic  copper,  as  cement  silver,  which 
is  washed,  pressed,  melted,  and  cast  into  bars. 
Ziervogel's  method  of  extracting  silver  by 
roasting  the  sulphuretted  ore  to  produce  sil 
ver  sulphate,  leaching  this  with  hot  acidula 
ted  water,  and  precipitating  with  copper,  is 
the  simplest  and  cheapest  of  all ;  but  it  re 
quires  very  skilful  and  delicate  roasting,  and 
ores  comparatively  free  from  lead,  antimony, 
arsenic,  and  zinc.  The  three  latter  tend  to 
cause  volatilization  of  silver ;  the  sulphide  of 
antimony  and  lead  cause  a  sintering  of  the 
roasting  charge ;  copper  dioxide,  or  too  high  a 
temperature  in  the  furnace,  leads  to  the  for 


mation  of  metallic  silver,  instead  of  the  desired 
sulphate.  Hence  the  application  of  this  pro 
cess  is  limited.  Its  best  field  is  the  treatment 
of  the  copper  mattes  of  Mansfeld,  containing 
70  to  72  per  cent,  of  copper,  and  0'33  per  cent, 
of  silver.  The  so-called  acid  extraction  is  prin 
cipally  used  upon  cupriferous  furnace  pro 
ducts,  which  contain  too  much  lead,  antimony, 
arsenic,  &c.,  to  permit  treatment  by  the  Au 
gustin  or  the  Ziervogel  method.  In  this  pro 
cess,  the  base  metals  are  dissolved  out  by 
treatment  with  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid,  and 
the  residuum,  containing  gold  and  silver,  is 
further  reduced  by  smelting,  or  in  rare  in 
stances  by  humid  methods.  For  full  discus 
sions  of  all  the  foregoing  processes,  see  Percy's 
"Metallurgy,"  and  Bruno  Keii's Metallhittten- 
Jcunde.  The  details  of  American  practice,  and 
critical  comparisons  of  different  American  and 
foreign  methods,  are  given  in  the  reports  of  R. 
W.  Raymond,  United  States  commissioner  of 
mining  statistics,  and  in  the  "Transactions  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers." 
— The  principal  uses  of  silver  have  been  men 
tioned  already  in  this  article;  see  also  COINS, 
GALVANISM  (section  on  electrotyping),  MINT, 
and  PLATED  WARE.  The  real  value  of  silver 
as  compared  to  gold  has  varied  in  different 
ages  from  one  eighth  to  less  than  one  six 
teenth  ;  but  the  mint  rates  have  often  been 
arbitrarily  established  by  government  for  the 
profit  of  the  treasury,  in  spite  of  the  market 
price  of  the  metals.  At  present  it  is  lower 
than  at  any  previous  ^  period.  The  averqge 
ratio  of  value  of  silver*  to  gold  in  the  London 
market  for  the  year  ending  Dec.  81,  1874,  was 
1  to  16-27.  The  following  table  shows  the  es 
timated  product  of  silver  at  various  periods 
in  the  present  century  : 


COUNTRIES. 

o  s  S 

ill. 
1^11 

|  2  » 

l|2 

is<2 

Its 

N< 

w^£2 

-Sgd 

IIs 
P* 

Pig 

l«s2 

3»i 

"o   S  o 

PL 

S^fis 

!L 

"5 

.g^2 
S*S 

Weight, 
Ibs.  troy. 

Value, 
£  sterling. 

Weight, 

Ibs.  troy. 

Value, 
£  sterling. 

Value, 

U.  S.  coin. 

Weight, 
Ibs.  troy. 

Value, 
U.  S.  coin. 

Russian  empire... 

58  150 

£167  S31 

60  000 

£171  817 

$928  000 

55  0QO 

$700  000 

Scandinavia  

C        32  346 

20400 

35007 

828  000 

15000 

Great  Britain  
Ilartz    .                                     ) 

109,989 

48,500 
j     31  500 

100,000 

1,120,000 
j     480^000 

eo'soo 

28  000 

Prussia  j 

138,022 

j     2lV)0 

j-      188,022 

(     480*000 

6s'oOO 

Saxony  
Other  'German  states  
Austria  

-       141,000 

193,200 
282  654 

63,600 
2,500 
87000 

198,200 
286  971 

960,000 

48,000 
1  440  000 

80.000 
2.500 
92000 

8,600,000 

France  .  . 

5000 

80000 

18000 

Italy 

7444 

7444 

25  000 

Spain.  .  .     . 

|_      227  499 

125  000 

440  210 

2  000  000 

110000 

Australia         .   .                      j 

British  America.  .  . 
Chili  
Bolivia  .  . 

18,300 
271  800 

297.029 
4(50  1()1 

10,000 

238,500 
130  000 

297,029 
460  I'll 

128,000 

4.000.000 
2  OSO  000 

9,500 

299.000 
136  000 

20,000 

] 

Peru  

401  850 

1  OOo'ofeS 

303150 

1  000^583 

4800000 

299'000 

u  0000  000 

New  Granada  
Brazil  

5,000 
1  200 

42.929 
2  003 

13,000 
675 

42,929 
2227 

208.000 
11  200 

15,000 
1  500 

Mexico 

1  440  600 

3  457'  020 

1  650  000 

6  383'333 

28  000  000 

1  700  000 

10  000  000 

United  States  
East  Indies  

'    l'864 

56  205 

17,400 

73,532 
56  205 

352,000 

1,000,000 

15,500,000 

Africa.. 

l'o5<3 

1  056 

Various  other  countries  

33,000 

33,000 

Total  

2  337  300 

£6  515995 

2  S97  425 

£8  788  416 

$47  443  200 

4,017  000 

$53  8°0  000 

Approximate  value  in  U.  8. 
coin  

$36,250,000 

$31,537,000 

$43,853,000 

$42,536,000 

$47,443,300 

$62,303,000 

$53,820,000 

SILVER 


The  following  estimate  of  the  world's  product 
of  silver  in  1873  is  based  upon  returns  for  Ger- 
.many,  Austria,  France,  Great  Britain,  Spain, 
and  the  United  States,  and  for  other  coun 
tries  upon  the  most  recent  available  accounts  : 
Great  Britain  and  colonies,  $1,000,000;  Swe 
den  and  Norway,  $250,000  ;  Russia,  $500,000  ; 
Austro-Hungarian  monarchy,  $1,600,000  ;  Ger 
man  empire,  $3,000,000;  France,  $2,000,000; 
Spain,  $2,000,000;  Italy  (Sardinia),  $500,000; 
Mexico,  $20,000,000  ;  Central  and  South  Amer 
ica,  $8,000,000;  Canada,  $900,000;  United 
States,  $36,500,000;  total,  $76,250,000.  Ac 
cording  to  Humboldt  and  Danson,  the  value 
.of  silver  produced  in  Mexico  and  Peru  from 
1492  to  1803  was  $4,152,650,000.  The  pro 
duction  in  Europe  during  the  same  period  was 
about  $200,000,000.  For  the  period  from 
1804  to  1848  Danson  gives  $1,244,380,794  as 
the  production  of  Mexico  and  South  Ameri 
ca,  that  of  Europe  and  Asiatic  Russia  for 
the  same  period  having  been  about  $325,000,- 
000.  For  the  period  from  1848  to  1868,  Prof. 
W.  P.  Blake,  in  his  "  Report  on  the  Produc 
tion  of  the  Precious  Metals,"  gives  the  fol 
lowing  estimate  of  the  silver  product:  United 
States,  $73,000,000  ;  Mexico,  $380,000,000  ; 
South  America,  $200,000,000 ;  Australia,  $20,- 
000;  Europe  and  Asiatic  Russia,  $160,380,- 
000  ;  total,  $813,400,000.  From  1868  to  1875 
the  product  of  silver,  may  be  approximately  es 
timated  at  $163,000,000  for  the  United  States, 
$140,000,000  for  Mexico,  $56,000,000  for  South 
America,  and  $63,000,000  for  the  rest  of  the 
world.  (N"one  of  these  estimates  include  the 
produce  of  Japan,  China,  and  central  Asia,  of 
which  nothing  is  known.)  We  have  then,  as 
the  grand  total  of  the  silver  product  from  the 
discovery  of  America  to  the  present  time, 
$7,150,000,000.— Mines.  The  silver  produced 
in  Great  Britain  is  extracted  from  an  argen 
tiferous  lead,  to  the  amount  of  550,000  to  700,- 
000  oz.  annually  (in  1872,  628,000  oz.).  The 
celebrated  Kongsberg  mines  in  Norway,  dis 
covered  in  1623,  have  been  worked  almost 
continually  since.  The  ore  occurs  in  parallel 
belts  of  rock,  intercalated  in  gneiss  and  crys 
talline  schists,  and  impregnated  with  sulphides 
of  iron,  copper,  zinc,  and  sometimes  lead,  co 
balt,  and  silver.  Fissure  veins  traverse  these 
belts  occasionally,  and  are  argentiferous  at 
the  intersection  only.  Beautiful  specimens 
of  native  silver  occur.  The  total  product  of 
the  Kongsberg  mines  from  1624  to  1864  was 
1,817,510  Ibs.  troy  of  silver,  of  which  1,332,- 
185  Ibs.  was  produced  before  1805  and  463,- 
498  Ibs.  after  1815,  the  intervening  period 
being  one  of  discouragement.  The  yield  for 
the  30  years  preceding  1865  averaged  $350,- 
000  annually.  The  silver  mines  of  Sweden 
are  at  present  insignificant,  and  the  total  pro 
duct  in  1871  was  officially  reported  at  but  975 
kilos.  The  silver  mines  of  the  Austro-Hun 
garian  monarchy  are  principally  comprised  in 
Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  Bohemia.  The 
Schemnitz  district  in  Hungary  (the  seat  of  a 


celebrated  school  of  mines,  founded  in  1760 
by  Maria  Theresa)  is  traversed  by  a  group  of 
veins  in  porphyry,  associated  with  syenite, 
&c.  The  ores  comprise  numerous  argentifer 
ous  minerals,  of  which  silver  glance  and  galena 
are  the  chief.  The  Schemnitz  mines  were  first 
opened  more  than  800  years  ago,  and  have 
been  worked  to  a  depth  of  more  than  1,200 
ft.  Near  Schemnitz  are  the  mining  districts 
of  Kremnitz  and  Neusohl.  The  Joachimsthal 
mines  in  Bohemia  are  very  ancient,  very  deep 
(nearly  or  quite  2,000  ft.),  and  have  been 
very  productive,  but  now  yield  an  insignifi 
cant  amount  of  silver.  This  district  belongs 
to  the  Erzgebirge,  a  chain  of  mountains  com 
posed  of  crystalline  rocks,  on  the  border  of 
Saxony,  in  which  kingdom  it  includes  the 
four  mining  districts  of  Altenberg  (tin),  Frei 
berg,  Marienberg,  and  Schwarzenberg.  The 
official  statistics  of  Saxony  show  that  the  to 
tal  product  of  silver  in  these  districts  in  1872 
was  48,753  Ibs.,  and  in  1873  43,354  Ibs.  The 
Freiberg  district  is  by  far  the  most  impor 
tant,  containing  nearly  100  mines,  many  of 
which  are  more  than  1,400  ft.  deep,  producing 
almost  the  whole  of  the  above  amounts.  Pre 
vious  to  the  10th  century  it  was  a  wilderness. 
The  lead  ores  were  discovered  in  the  tracks 
made  by  wagon  wheels,  and  in  1169  the  veins 
were  opened.  They  are  very  numerous,  but 
comparatively  small.  In  1873  only  24  mines 
were  producing  silver  ore,  and  of  these  only 
6  paid  dividends.  The  Ilimmelfahrt,  which  is 
now  the  leading  mine,  in  1873  yielded  11,912 
metric  tons  of  silver,  copper,  and  lead  ores, 
valued  at  about  $430,000.  In  1874  it  pro 
duced  about  7,100  tons  of  dressed  ores,  sold 
to  the  furnaces  for  about  $328,000.  The  total 
yield  of  this  mine  to  the  end  of  1874  had  been 
527,103  kilos  of  silver  (worth  about  $23,000,- 
000),  besides  lead,  copper,  zinc,  sulphur,  ar 
senic,  and  nickel.  The  chief  other  productive 
mines  near  Freiberg,  with  the  value  of  their 
total  product  (including  lead,  &c.),  as  paid  by 
the  smelting  works,  for  1873,  are  as  follows: 
Himmelsfurst,  $202,500  ;  VereinigtFeld,  $114,- 
750  ;  Churprinz,  $74,000  ;  Alte  Hoffnung, 
$61,000 ;  Gesegnete  Bergmannshoffnung,  $60,- 
750;  Alte  Hoffnung  Gottes,  $52,750;  Junge 
hohe  Birke,  $45,450;  and  Beschert  Gluck, 
$34,600.  The  principal  silver  mines  of  Prus 
sia  are  in  the  Hartz,  formerly  belonging  to 
Hanover.  The  product  of  Prussian  smelting 
works  in  1872  was  162,553  Ibs.  of  silver, 
worth  about  $3,600,000;  in  1873,  231,920  Ibs., 
worth  about  $5,000,000.  The  total  product  of 
silver  from  the  smelting  works  of  all  Germany 
was  as  follows  in  the  years  named : 


YEARS. 

Centner. 

Value  in  round  numbers. 

1850 

101,443 
124.103 

185,847 

$2,234,000 
2,7(54,000 
4,162,000 

I860  

1870  

A  considerable  portion  of  this  increase  is  due- 
to  the  importation  of  rich  silver   ores  from 

SILVER 


55 


North  and  South  America  for  metallurgical 
treatment,  and  another  portion  to  the  im 
proved  processes  of  extraction.  The  product 
from  German  ores  is  probably  not  more  'than 
$3,^00,000.  France  is  not  a  silver-ore  pro 
ducing  country ;  but  the  separation  of  silver 
from  argentiferous  lead  ores  is  carried  on  to 
a  considerable  extent.  In  1865  it  produced 
31,997  kilos  of  silver,  worth  $1,414,000;  in 
1869  (the  year  before  the  war),  46,299  kilos, 
worth  $2,020,000.  No  Spanish  silver  mines 
were  specially  important  after  the  middle  ages 
down  to  1825,  except  those  of  Guadalcanal  and 
Gazalla,  N.  E.  of  Seville,  which  were  profit 
ably  worked  by  the  government  in  the  16th 
century,  producing  altogether  400,223  marks 
of  silver ;  afterward  they  passed  into  private 
hands,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  centu 
ry  are  said  to  have  produced  170  marks  daily. 
They  were  finally  abandoned,  and  allowed  to 
fill  with  water.  In  1825  mining  was  revived 
in  Spain;  in  1839  the  famous  silver  mines  of 
the  Sierra  Almagrera  (N.  and  S.  veins  in  slate, 
carrying  argentiferous  galena,  with  some  sil 
ver  chloride),  in  the  province  of  Almeria, 
were  discovered,  and  in  1843  those  of  Hien- 
delaencina  (narrow  E.  and  W.  veins  of  silver 
sulphide  and  chloride,  without  lead),  in  the 
province  of  Guadalajara.  The  Herminia  mine, 
in  the  Sierra  Almagrera,  in  1874  produced 
18,940  quintals  of  ore,  containing  342,325 
Ibs.  of  lead  and  41,670  Spanish  oz.  (3,205  Ibs. 
troy)  of  silver.  The  product  of  the  mine  in 
the  early  part  of  1875  was  at  the  rate  of  about 
10,000  Ibs.  troy  per  annum.  The  average 
value  of  the  work  lead  is  about  20  oz.  troy  per 
ton  avoirdupois.  The  product  of  the  mines 
of  Hiendelaencina  from  January,  1847,  to  July, 
1866,  was  7,578,536  oz.  troy.  They  have  de 
clined  in  yield  since  1858.  By  tho  application 
of  the  Pattinson  process  to  the  argentiferous 
galenas  of  the  numerous  lead  mines  of  Spain, 
the  production  of  silver  has  been  increased. 
The  export  of  lead  in  1874  was  86,802,271 
kilos,  valued  at  47,034,022  pesetas.  This  in 
dicates  a  value  of  about  $1,700,000  for  the 
silver  in  the  lead.  The  product  of  Russia  in 
1871,  from  21  mines  of  argentiferous  galena, 
was  1,740  tons  of  lead  and  29,000  Ibs.  of  silver. 
— The  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Cortes  in  1519-'21 
was  soon  followed  by  the  development  of  the 
wonderfully  rich  silver  mines  of  that  country. 
The  metal  was  known  to  the  ancient  Aztecs, 
and  was  worked  by  them  into  numerous  orna 
mental  and  useful  articles ;  but  among  the 
treasures  of  Montezuma  the  quantity  of  silver 
was  small  compared  with  that  of  gold,  and 
gave  little  promise  of  the  unbounded  resources 
of  the  argentiferous  mines  of  his  territories. 
During  the  16th  century  these  were  opened 
and  extensively  worked  by  the  Spaniards  in 
Guanajuato,  Zacatecas,  and  other  neighboring 
districts;  and  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries 
their  production  was  greatly  increased  by  rea 
son  of  the  greater  abundance  of  quicksilver  and 
its  more  general  employment  in  separating  the 


|  metal  from  its  ores.  At  the  time  of  the  visit 
I  of  Humboldt  operations  were  carried  on  in 
|  from  4,000  to  5,000  localities,  which  might  all 
be  included  in  about  3,000  distinct  mines. 
These  were  scattered  along  the  range  of  the 
Cordilleras  in  eight  groups,  the  principal  of 
which,  known  as  the  central  group,  contained 
the  famous  mining  districts  of  Guanajuato, 
Catorce,  Zacatecas,  and  Sombrerete,  and  fur 
nished  more  than  half  of  all  the  silver  pro 
duced  in  Mexico.  The  mines  of  Guanajuato, 
opened  in  1558,  are  all  upon  the  great  vein, 
known  as  the  veta  madre,  in  the  range  of  por- 
phyritic  hills  the  summits  of  which  are  from 
9,000  to  9,500  ft.  above  the  sea,  but  only  about 
3,000  ft.  above  the  high  plateau  of  central 
Mexico  upon  which  they  stand.  The  great 
vein  is  contained  chiefly  in  clay  shite,  and 
crosses  the  southern  slope  of  the  hills  in  a 
N.  W.  and  S.  E.  direction,  dipping  with  the 
slates  (the  range  of  which  it  follows)  from  45° 
to  48°  toward  the  S.  W.  It  is  of  extraordinary 
thickness,  often  more  than  150  ft.  across,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  traced  for  about  12m.; 
but  the  productive  portions  are  chiefly  upon  a 
length  of  about  1 J  m.  The  vein  is  made  up  of 
quartz,  carbonate  of  lime,  fragments  of  clay 
slate,  together  with  large  quantities  of  iron 
pyrites,  and  sulphurets  of  lead  and  zinc  with 
some  native  silver,  sulphuret  of  silver,  and  red 
silver.  Near  the  surface  they  are  partially  de 
composed  and  colored  red,  whence  they  are 
termed  colorados.  In  their  unchanged  condi 
tion  below  they  are  designated  negros  or  black 
ores.  These  are  the  main  dependence  of  the 
mines.  The  vein  has  been  penetrated  to  the 
depth  of  about  2,000  ft,,  but  not  much  below 
the  level  of  the  plateau.  For  the  two  years 
ending  in  July,  1873,  115  mines  in  this  district 
produced  202,125  kilos  of  silver  ($8,045,425), 
36  haciendas  and  zangerros  being  employed 
in  reduction.  In  1873  the  number  of  miners 
and  laborers  was  8,979,  and  the  amount  of  ore 
raised  was  1,815  tons  weekly;  average  con 
tents  of  silver,  about  34  oz.  troy  to  the  ton 
avoirdupois.  The  mine  of  Valenciana,  opened 
in  1760,  upon  a  rich  portion  of  the  vein,  aver 
aged  for  many  years  a  product  of  $1,600,000, 
or  about  TV  of  the  total  product  of  the  3,000 
mines  of  Mexico,  and  a  quarter  of  that  of  the 
whole  of  the  veta  madre.  It  declined  in  pro 
ductiveness  at  the  beginning  of  this  century, 
was  suspended  in  1810  on  account  of  the  war 
of  independence,  reopened  in  1822  by  the  An 
glo-Mexican  company,  and  abandoned  after 
much  expenditure  to  the  Mexican  owners.  It 
is  the  deepest  mine  in  the  country,  and  the 
lower  workings  are  now  flooded.  In  1873  it 
employed  1,950  laborers,  and  yielded  about 
195  tons  of  ore  weekly.  The  mines  of  Zaca 
tecas,  opened  in  1548,  are  also  upon  a  single 
vein  called  the  vetagrande,  averaging  in  thick 
ness  about  30  ft.  The  formation  is  of  green 
stone  and  clay  slate,  the  former  the  most  pro 
ductive.  The  veins  of  Catorce  are  in  limestone 
supposed  to  be  of  carboniferous  age.  The 


56 


SILVER 


greatest  proportion  of  silver  in  every  mining 
district  of  Mexico  is  obtained  from  the  sul- 
phuret  of  silver,  an  ore  of  gray  color  dissem 
inated  through  the  quartz  matrix  in  minute 
particles,  and  more  or  less  combined  with  oth 
er  metals.  The  other  varieties  of  argentiferous 
ores  are  numerous,  but  comparatively  small  in 
quantity ;  they  are  the  chloride  of  silver,  ruby 
silver,  native  silver,  argentiferous  pyrites,  and 
argentiferous  galena.  The  comparative  quan 
tities  of  these  at  the  different  mines  are  very 
variable.  Until  the  present  century  the  ores 
were  extracted  altogether  by  the  rude  meth 
ods  of  the  native  Indians.  They  brought  them 
upon  their  backs  up  the  long  flights  of  thou 
sands  of  roughly  formed  steps,  in  loads  of 
240  to  380  Ibs.  each,  while  exposed  all  the 
time  to  the  great  heat  of  the  mine.  In  1821 
the  Mexican  government  offered  facilities  for 
foreigners  to  become  interested  with  the  na 
tives  in  the  mines.  English  mining  compa 
nies  were  formed,  and  operations  were  un 
dertaken  with  powerful  machinery ;  but  the 
adventures  were  almost  universally  unsuccess 
ful,  the  nature  of  the  country  being  extreme 
ly  unfavorable  for  the  introduction  of  heavy 
machines,  as  well  as  for  keeping  them  in  op 
eration  and  repair.  From  the  opening  of  the 
Mexican  mines  in  the  16th  century  their  pro 
duction  of  silver  has  exceeded  that  of  all  other 
countries.  A  great  stimulus  was  given  to  it  by 
the  amalgamating  process  devised  by  Medina 
at  that  early  period  in  Mexico,  and  it  soon  at 
tained  an  annual  rate  of  from  $2,000,000  to 
$3,000,000.  This  continued  to  increase  till  in 
the  18th  century  it  rose  to  $23,000,000,  which 
was  about  the  production  for  the  first  ten 
years  of  the  present  century.  After  1850  it 
increased,  till  for  some  years  it  exceeded  the 
yield  of  all  past  periods.  The  total  product, 
from  the  first  working  of  the  mines  by  the 
Spaniards  to  their  expulsion  by  the  Mexicans 
m  1821,  was  $2,308,952,000.  A  very  prom 
ising  field  for  silver  mining  is  found  in  the 
state  of  Sinaloa  and  along  the  western  slope 
of  the  Sierra  Madre  of  Durango  and  Chihua 
hua.  The  port  of  Mazatlan  is  the  base  of  sup 
plies.  Sinaloa  is  well  wooded  and  watered; 
the  ores  are  largely  true  silver  ores,  which  can 
be  treated  by  the  Freiberg  or  the  modified 
Washoe  process.  Some  of  the  mines  in  the 
interior  are  exporting  rich  silver  ores  to  Eu 
rope  ;  others  are  reported  to  be  earning  good 
profits  with  stamp  mills.  Central  America  has 
no  silver  mines  that  are  worked  to  much  ex 
tent  ;  but  rich  ores  are  known  to  exist  in  Hon 
duras,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica. — The  famous 
mines  of  Potosi  in  Peru  (now  in  Bolivia)  were 
discovered  in  1545  by  an  Indian  hunter,  Diego 
Hualca,  who,  according  to  Acosta,  accidentally 
exposed  native  lumps  of  the  precious  metal  in 
the  roots  of  a  bush  which  he  pulled  from  the 
ground.  For  20  years  succeeding  1557  the 
annual  production  of  the  mines  of  this  region 
was  about  $2,200,000,  and  the  total  product 
up  to  the  present  time  is  rated  at  aver  $1,300,- 


000,000.  The  mines,  like  so  many  others  in 
Mexico  and  South  America,  are  now  reported 
to  be  flooded  in  their  depths.  In  the  Cerro 
de  Fernando  at  Hualgayoc,  near  MicuipambaN 
rich  ores  were  discovered  in  1771,  and  now, 
it  is  said,  about  1,400  pits  are  opened  in  the 
hill.  Other  mining  districts  in  Peru  are  Gua- 
lanca  in  the  province  of  Huamalies,  Pasco, 
Lucanas,  and  Huantajaya.  Cerro  de  Pasco 
has  been  especially  famous  for  its  large  pro 
duction.  A  town  is  built  upon  the  site  of 
the  mines,  and  the  openings  to  many  of  them 
are  through  the  houses  of  the  miners.  The 
production  of  Peru  until  within  a  few  years 
was  very  small,  probably  not  more  than  $2,- 
500,000  annually,  and  it  is  a  very  difficult 
field  for  mining.  Roads,  mules,  labor,  and 
fuel  are  all  wanting.  The  ores  (except  the 
pacos  or  ferruginous  earths  of  Cerro  de  Pas 
co),  being  complex  sulphurets,  are  exceeding 
ly  refractory.  In  the  absence  of  better  fuel, 
llama  dung  is  employed  for  roasting  at  sev 
eral  establishments.  But  the  country  is  full 
of  undeveloped  veins,  and  coal  has  been  dis 
covered  in  abundance,  while  railroads  are  rap 
idly  extending  into  the  interior.  In  Bolivia, 
besides  the  mines  of  Potosi,  are  those  of  Por- 
tugalete  in  the  province  of  Chichas,  celebrated 
for  the  richness  of  their  ores,  which  produce 
six  to  eight  times  as  much  silver  to  the  ton 
as  those  of  Potosi.  Other  mines  are  worked 
in  the  same  district.  The  mines  of  Lipes  have 
been  very  productive,  and  those  also  of  La 
Plata,  Porco,  Carangas,  and  Oruro.  The  earlier 
silver  mines  worked  in  Chili  were  in  the  prov 
ince  of  Santiago  and  in  the  mineral  district  of 
Arqueros,  about  17  leagues  from  Coquimbo. 
The  production  was  not  large,  and  almost 
ceased  upon  the  opening  of  the  rich  mines  near 
Copiapo  in  the  province  of  Atacama.  Within 
a  circuit  of  25  leagues  from  this  city  there  are 
19  silver-mining  districts,  of  which  those  of 
Chaiiarcillo  and  Tres  Puntas  are  the  most  im 
portant.  The  metal  is  found  in  a  variety  of 
combinations,  as  a  sulphuret,  chloride,  chloro- 
bromide,  and  iodide ;  it  is  also  associated  with 
arsenic,  antimony,  and  mercury,  and  is  some 
times  abundant  in  a  native  state.  The  mines 
are  in  a  country  difficult  of  access,  quite  un 
productive  even  in  the  timber  and  fuel  re 
quired  for  mining,  almost  entirely  destitute 
of  water,  and  cold  and  dreary.  A  new  and 
rich  district  has  been  developed  at  Caracoles, 
where  the  ores,  like  most  of  those  of  Co 
piapo,  are  chlorides,  and  easy  to  reduce. — 
Silver  mining  in  the  western  United  States, 
apart  from  the  early  operations  of  the  Span 
iards  in  New  Mexico  and  perhaps  Arizona, 
dates  from  the  discovery  in  1859,  on  the  E. 
flank  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  in  the  present 
state  of  Nevada,  of  the  now  famous  Comstock 
lode.  (See  NEVADA.)  No  equally  important 
argentiferous  deposit  has  since  been  discov 
ered  ;  and,  in  view  of  the  most  recent  expo 
sures  of  vast  bodies  of  ore  at  great  depth  on 
the  Comstock,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  its 


SILVER 


SIMBIRSK 


57 


equal  was  ever  known  before.  There  is  no 
other  authentic  record  of  the  extraction  in  a 
single  year  of  more  than  $23,000,000  in  gold 
and  silver  from  one  vein,  which  was  the  pro 
duct  of  the  Comstock  in  1874.  And  the  total 
estimated  product  of  this  lode  from  1861  to 
1874  inclusive  was  more  than  $169,000,000, 
or  about  the  same  as  the  yield  of  the  score  of 
veins  at  Potosi  for  the  first  15  years  after  their 
discovery  in  1545.  The  bullion  from  the  Coin- 
stock  lode  has  averaged  about  one  third  gold 
in  value,  or  say  0-02  in  weight.  As  a  conse 
quence  of  the  excitement  (almost  equal  to  that 
attending  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California) 
which  followed  the  success  of  the  Comstock 
mines,  the  districts  of  Nevada,  Idaho,  Mon 
tana,  Arizona,  and  finally  Utah  and  Colorado, 
were  overrun  with  prospectors.  The  mining 
districts  of  Owyhee  in  Idaho,  and  Unionville, 
Reese  River,  Belmont,  Pioche,  White  Pine, 
and  Eureka  in  Nevada,  have  been  the  scenes 
of  successive  excitements,  and  are  still  produc 
tive.  In  Eureka  district,  as  in  the  principal 
districts  of  Utah,  and  some  of  those  in  Mon 
tana,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  and  California, 
argentiferous  cerussite  and  galena  are  smelted, 
to  produce  work  lead  containing  silver.  This 
industry  has  suddenly  grown  to  large  dimen 
sions  in  the  west,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  fol 
lowing  table  of  the  product  of  work  lead : 


The  "Washoe  (Comstock)  ores  and  those  of 
Pioche  and  Owyhee,  as  well  as  of  many  minor 
districts,  are  treated  by  the  Washoe  process ; 
those  of  Reese  river,  Belmont,  and  Union 
ville,  in  Nevada,  and  of  Georgetown,  Colo 
rado,  receive  a  preliminary  chlorinating  roast 
ing.  From  Colorado  and  Utah  considerable 
quantities  of  rich  ore  are  shipped  to  American 
and  foreign  smelting  works.  Silver  mining 
in  Arizona,  near  the  Gila  vein,  has  been  ren 
dered  unprofitable  hitherto  by  Indian  warfare, 
now  apparently  ended.  The  total  product  of 
the  United  States  since  1848  is  estimated  by 
R.  W.  Raymond,  commissioner  of  mining  sta 
tistics,  as  follows : 

1848-1 858,  inclusive, 
$50,000  per  ann..,    $550.000 


1859 100,000 

1860 150.000 

1861 2,000.000 

1862 4.500.000 

1863 8.500.000 

1364 11,000,000 

1865 11.250,000 

1866 10,000,000 


1867 $13,500.000 

1868 12,000,000 

1869 13.000,000 

1870 16.000.000 

ls71 22.000,000 

1872 25,750,000 

1873 36.500,000 

1874 38,200,000 

Total $225,000,000 


native  copper  of  Lake  Superior  is  not  con 
siderable ;  but  over  $2,000,000  has  been  ob 
tained  at  the  smelting  works  in  Wyandotte, 
Mich.,  from  the  ores  of  the  Silver  Islet  mine, 
on  the  island  of  that  name,  on  the  N.  side  of 
Lake  Superior.  The  galena  of  the  Mississippi 
valley  is  usually  poor  in  silver,  and  that  of  the 
Atlantic  slope  is  but  moderately  argentiferous, 
with  an  occasional  exception,  as  in  the  recently 
discovered  deposits  near  Newburyport,  Mass. 

SILVERSIDE,  or  Silver  Fish,  the  common  name 
of  the  small  marine  spiny-rayed  fishes  of  the 
family  atherinidcv,  characterized  by  a  protrac 
tile  mouth,  without  notch  in  upper  jaw  or 
tubercle  in  lower,  small  crowded  teeth  on  the 
pharyngeals,  the  first  branchial  arch  with  long 
pectinations,  two  dorsals  most  commonly  dis 
tant,  and  ventrals  behind  pectorals ;  the  eyes 
are  very  large.  In  the  genus  atfterina  (Linn.) 
the  body  is  elongated,  and  a  broad  silvery 
band  runs  along  each  side.  The  dotted  silver- 
side  (A.  notata,  Mitch.)  is  from  3  to  5  in.  long, 
greenish  brown  with  black  points  on  the  edges 
of  the  scales,  and  the  fins  translucent ;  the 
dorsals  are  contiguous,  the  second  reaching  as 
far  back  as  the  anal ;  it  is  found  from  New 
England  to  South  Carolina.  It  accompanies 
the  smelt  in  spring  and  autumn  into  our  riv- 


WHERE 
PRODUCED. 

1873. 
Tons. 

Gold,  silver, 
and  lead, 
value. 

1874. 

Tons. 

Gold,  silver, 
and  lead, 
value. 

Nevada  
Utah  

12,512 

9,506 

$5.043.285 
2,901,191 

11,516 

15,474 

$3,865,419 
4.332  720 

California  
Montana,  Colorado, 
&c.  (estimated).. 

4,000 
300 

920,000 
144,000 

5,095 
875 

1,630,000 
180,000 

Total  

26678 

$9  008  4°6 

%o  460 

$10  058  139 

The  Atlantic  and  Mississippi  states  produce 
little  silver.      The  amount    found  with    the  | 


Dotted  Silverside  (Atherina  notata). 

ers,  and  is  popularly  called  capelin.  Several 
other  species,  about  4  in.  long,  are  found  in 
the  waters  of  the  southern  states  and  West 
Indies.  More  than  20  other  species  are  de 
scribed  by  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes  in  vol.  x. 
of  the  Histoire  naturelle  des  poissons  (1835); 
they  are  much  valued  as  articles  of  food  ;  they 
swim  in  shoals,  and  are  easily  taken  in  nets ; 
the  flesh  resembles  that  of  the  smelt,  whence 
the  A.  presbyter  (Cuv.)  is  often  called  sand 
smelt;  many  species,  salted,  are  sold  as  sar 
dines,  and  some  are  called  anchovy. 

SIMBIRSK.  I.  An  E.  government  of  Euro 
pean  Russia,  bordering  on  Kazan,  Samara, 
Saratov,  Penza,  and  Nizhegorod;  area,  19,108 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,205,881.  The  surface 
consists  generally  of  a  plain,  with  hills  toward 
the  east.  The  government  is  drained  in  the 
east  by  the  Volga,  and  in  the  west  by  its  tribu 
tary  the  Sura.  Gypsum,  alabaster,  limestone, 
sulphur,  and  naphtha  are  found.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  producing  grain,  hemp,  flax,  hay,  and 
tobacco.  Leather,  woollen  and  linen  cloth, 
tallow,  potash,  and  glass  are  manufactured. 
The  inhabitants  belong  chiefly  to  the  Greek 
church,  but  there  are  a  few  other  Christians, 
and  a  large  number  of  Mohammedans.  II.  A 
city,  the  capital  of  the  government,  on  the 


58 


SIMCOE 


SIMMS 


right  bank  of  the  Volga,  105  m.  S.  S.  "W.  of 
Kazan,  and  435  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Moscow;  pop. 
in  1867,  24,607.  It  stands  in  the  midst  of  a 
wide  and  fertile  plain,  and  contains  16  church 
es,  two  convents,  and  a  monument  to  the 
historian  Karamsin.  It  has  manufactories  of 
soap  and  candles,  and  an  important  trade  in 
grain  and  fish. 

SIMCOE,  Lake.  See  ONTARIO,  vol.  xii.,  p. 
635. 

SIMCOE,  a  W.  county  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
bounded  1ST.  E.  by  the  Severn  river,  N.  W.  by 
Georgian  bay,  and  S.  E.  by  Lake  Simcoe ; 
area,  1,846  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  64,247,  of 
whom  31,642  were  of  Irish,  15,020  of  English, 
11,585  of  Scotch,  3,031  of  French,  and  1,754 
of  German  origin  or  descent.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Northern  railway.  Capital,  Barrie. 

SIMEON,  the  second  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah. 
He  and  his  brother  Levi  were  guilty  of  gross 
deception  and  ferocity  in  their  murder  of  the 
Shechemites,  for  which  they  received  their  fa 
ther's  curse.  Simeon's  inheritance  as  a  tribe 
was  not  a  compact  territory,  but  a  small  dis 
trict  within  the  limits  of  that  of  Judah,  and 
some  tracts  in  Mount  Seir  and  the  district  of 
Gedor.  The  descendants  of  Simeon  amount 
ed  at  the  exodus  to  59,300  ;  but  only  22,200 
entered  the  promised  land. 

SIMEOIV,  Charles,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Reading,  Sept.  24,  1759,  died  Nov.  13,  1836. 
He  was  educated  at  King's  college,  Cambridge, 
and  was  presented  in  1783  to  the  living  of 
Trinity  church,  Cambridge,  which  he  held  till 
his  death,  and  was  eminently  distinguished 
for  devotion  to  pastoral  duty.  He  published 
several  series  of  skeleton  sermons,  forming 
a  commentary  upon  the  whole  Bible.  They 
were  edited,  with  his  other  works,  by  the 
Rev.  T.  IT.  Home  (21  vols.,  1832-'3,  and  many 
later  editions),  and  his  life  has  been  written 
by  the  Rev.  William  Carus  (1847). 

SIMEON  STYLITES.     See  STYLITES. 

SIMFEROPOL,  or  SIMPHEKOPOL  (Turk.  Ak- 
metctiet),  a  town  of  European  Russia,  capital 
of  the  government  of  Taurida,  in  the  Crimea, 
on  the  Salghir,  192  m.  S.  E.  of  Odessa,  and  37 
m.  N.  E.  of  Sebastopol;  pop.  in  1867,  17,797. 
It  stands  on  a  plateau  at  the  foot  of  lofty  hills. 
The  old  part  of  the  town,  built  by  the  Tartars, 
is  very  irregularly  laid  out,  and  has  a  miserable 
appearance ;  the  new,  built  by  the  Russians, 
has  wide  straight  streets  and  a  spacious  square. 

SIMLA,  a  town  and  the  summer  capital  of 
British  India,  in  a  Himalayan  district  of  the 
same  name  belonging  to  the  Ambala  division 
of  the  Punjaub,  170  m.  N.  of  Delhi;  lat.  31° 
7'  N.,  Ion.  77°  8'  E. ;  pop.  in  the  height  of  the 
season,  about  15,000  natives  and  1,500  Euro 
peans.  It  stands  on  a  long  and  lofty  ridge 
7,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  amid  grand  forest  and 
mountain  scenery,  a  few  miles  S.  of  the  Sutlej. 
The  British  government  purchased  the  station 
from  the  native  state  of  Keonthal  about  1822, 
and  founded  Simla  as  a  sanitarium.  The  cli 
mate  is  for  the  most  part  cool,  exhilarating, 


and  healthful,  though  there  is  a  heavy  rain 
fall  at  the  time  of  the  S.  W.  monsoon,  and  the 
difficulties  of  drainage  are  considerable.  Since 
1866  the  supreme  government  of  India  has 
been  administered  during  the  summer  months 
from  Simla,  whither  the  viceroy  and  all  the 
chief  officials  retire  from  Calcutta  early  in  the 
hot  season.  It  is  about  60  m.  N.  E.  of  the 
Punjaub  and  Delhi  railway.  The  town  is  an 
organized  municipality,  governed  by  a  com 
mittee  of  native  and  foreign  residents. 

SHIMS,  William,  'Gitaore,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  0.,  April  17,  1806,  died 
there,  June  11,  1870.  For  some  years  he  was 
a  clerk  in  a  drug  store,  but  at  18  he  began  the 
study  of  law,  and  in  1827  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  From  1828  to  1832  he  was  editor  and 
part  proprietor  of  the  "  Charleston  City  Ga 
zette,"  in  which  he  opposed  nullification,  there 
by  reducing  himself  to  poverty.  He  then  de 
voted  himself  entirely  to  literature,  living  for 
a  time  at  Hingham,  Mass.,  and  afterward  prin 
cipally  on  a  plantation  at  Midway,  S.  C.,  and 
occasionally  holding  public  offices.  His  po 
etical  works  are:  a  "Monody  on  the  Death  of 
Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney  "  (1825) ;  "Lyri 
cal  and  other  Poems  "  and  "Early  Lays  "  (1827) ; 
"The  Vision  of  Cortes,  Cain,  and  other  Po 
ems  "  (1829)  ;  "  The  Tricolor,  or  Three  Days 
of  Blood  in  Paris  "  (1830) ;  "  Atalantis,  a  Story 
of  the  Sea"  (1833);  "Southern  Passages  and 
Pictures"  (1839);  "Donna  Anna"  (1843); 
"  Grouped  Thoughts  and  Scattered  Fancies  " 
(1845);  "Lays  of  the  Palmetto"  (1848);  "Po 
ems,  Descriptive,  Dramatic,  Legendary,  and 
Contemplative"  (2  vols.,  1854);  and  "  Arey- 
tos,  or  Songs  and  Ballads  of  the  South  "  (1860). 
A  collective  edition  appeared  in  1864.-  He 
also  edited  a  volume  of  "War  Poetry  of  the 
South"  (1867).  He  produced  two  dramas, 
"  Norman  Maurice,  or  the  Man  of  the  People," 
and  "Michael  Bonham,  or  the  Fall  of  Alamo," 
and  adapted  Shakespeare's  "  Timon  of  Athens  " 
for  the  stage,  with  numerous  additions  of  his 
own.  His  works  of  imaginative  fiction  com 
prise  "The  Book  of  my  Lady"  (1833);  "Carl 
Werner"  (1838);  "Confession,  or  the  Blind 
Heart "  (1842) ;  "  Castle  Dismal "  (1845) ;  "  The 
Wigwam  and  the  Cabin"  (1845-'6) ;  "Marie 
de  Bernier"  (1853);  and  "Ghost  of  my  Hus 
band"  (18mo,  1867).  His  historical  romances 
are  :  "  The  Yemassee  "  (1835)  ;  "  Pelayo  " 
(1838);  "Count  Julian"  (1845);  "The  Dam 
sel  of  Darien"  (1845);  "The  Lily  and  the 
Totem,  or  the  Huguenots  in  Florida;"  "The 
Maroon  and  other  Tales"  (1855);  "Vascon- 
celos"  (1857);  "The  Cazique  of  Kiawah  " 
(1860);  and  "Swamp  Robbers"  (1870).  The 
following  are  founded  on  revolutionary  events : 
"  The  Partisan  "  (1835) ;  "Mellichampe1"  (1836)  ; 
"The  Scout,"  originally  published  as  "The 
Kinsmen,  or  the  Black  Riders  of  the  Congaree  " 
(1841);  "Katharine  Walton"  (1851);  "Wood 
craft,"  originally  entitled  "  The  Sword  and  the 
Distaff;"  "The  Forayers,  a  Raid  of  the  Dog 
Days"  (1855),  and  its  sequel  "Eutaw"  (1856). 


SIMON 


SIMONIN 


Romances  of  backwoods  life:  "Guy  Rivers" 
(1834);  "Richard  Hurdis"  (1838);  ''Border 
Beagles"  (1840);  "  Beauchampe,  or  the  Ken 
tucky  Tragedy  "  (1842)  ;  "  Helen  Halsey  " 
(1845);  "The  Golden  Christmas,  a  Chronicle 
of  St.  John's,  Berkeley"  (1852)  ;  and  "  Charle- 
mont,  or  the  Pride  of  the  Village  "  (1850).  A 
selected  edition  of  his  novels  appeared  in  1 865 
(17  vols.,  New  York).  To  history  and  biog 
raphy  he  contributed  a  "  History  of  South 
Carolina,"  "  South  Carolina  in  the  Revolu 
tion  "  (1854),  and  lives  of  Gen.  Marion,  Capt. 
John  Smith,  the  chevalier  Bayard,  and  Gen. 
Greene.  Under  this  head  may  also  be  inclu-' 
ded  a  "Geography  of  South  Carolina."  His 
remaining  works  include  "  Views  and  Reviews 
in  American  Literature;"  "Egeria,  or  Voices 
of  Thought  and  Counsel  for  the  Woods  and 
Wayside,"  a  collection  of  aphorisms  in  prose 
and  verse ;  "  Father  Abbot,  or  the  Home  Tour 
ist,  a  Medley;"  "Southward  Ho !  "  (1854); 
"The  Morals  of  Slavery,"  &c.  He  also  edited 
with  notes  the  seven  dramas  ascribed  to  Shake 
speare,  but  not  published  among  his  works, 
under  the  title  of  "A  Supplement  to  Shake 
speare's  Plays." 

SIMON,  Jules  (JULES  FEAXQOIS  SUISSE-SIMOX), 
a  French  statesman,  born  in  Lorient,  Dec.  31, 
1814.  After  teaching  in  various  places,  he 
lectured  in  1838  at  the  normal  school  in  Paris. 
In  1839  he  succeeded  Victor  Cousin  as  profes 
sor  of  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne,  from  which 
post  he  was  removed  in  1851  on  account  of  his 
opposition  to  the  coup  d'etat.  In  1848  he  en 
tered  the  constituent  assembly,  which  early  in 
1849  elected  him  to  the  council  of  state;  but 
not  being  confirmed  by  the  legislative  assem 
bly,  he  retired  in  1850.  In  1855  and  subse 
quently  he  lectured  in  Belgium  on  philosophy. 
He  was  elected  to  the  legislative  body  in  1863, 
and  reflected  in  1869  in  two  departments.  He 
advocated  popular  education,  free  trade,  the 
abolition  of  capital  punishment,  and  the  in 
terests  of  the  working  classes;  and  in  1870 
he  opposed  the  plebiscitum  in  favor  of  Louis 
Napoleon  and  the  declaration  of  war  against 
Prussia.  After  the  establishment  of  the  re 
public  (Sept.  4),  he  became  a  member  of  the 
government  for  the  national  defence,  as  min 
ister  of  education,  religion,  and  fine  arts,  and 
instituted  many  reforms,  the  most  prominent 
of  which  was  the  obligatory  school  law.  Af 
ter  the  capitulation  of  Paris  he  went  to  Bor 
deaux  to  put  an  end  to  Gambetta's  arbitrary 
proceedings.  On  Feb.  19,  1871,  he  became 
minister  of  education  and  religion  under  Thiers, 
with  whom  he  retired,  May  24,  1873.  He  re 
tained  his  seat  in  the  national  assembly,  and 
in  1875  received  from  the  government  a  pen 
sion  of  6,000  francs.  His  works  include  His- 
toire  de  Vecole  d?  Alexandrie  (2  vols.,  1844-'5)  ; 
Le  devoir  (1854;  6th  ed.,  1859);  La  religion 
naturelle  (1856  ;  5th  ed.,  1859 ;  English  transla 
tion  by  I.  W.  Cole,  London,  1857) ;  La  liberte 
de  conscience  (3d  ed.,  1859) ;  La  liberte  (2  vols., 
1859) ;  L'JEcole  (1864) ;  Le  travail  (1866)  ;  La 


politique  radicale  (1868) ;  Le  libre-ecliange 
(1870);  and  Souvenirs  du  4  Septembre  (1874; 
new  ed.,  1875). 

SDION,  Richard,  a  French  Biblical  critic,  born 
in  Dieppe,  May  13,  1638,  died  there,  April  11, 
1712.  He  entered  the  congregation  of  the  Ora 
tory  in  1.662,  was  professor  of  philosophy  suc 
cessively  in  the  college  of  Juilly  and  in  that  of 
the  Oratory  in  Paris,  and  in  1671  became  in 
volved  in  a  controversy  with  the  Port  Royal 
ists  by  a  publication  entitled  Fides  Ecclesia*, 
Orientals.  In  1678  appeared  his  Histoire 
critique  du  Vieux  Testament,  in  which  he  at 
tributes  the  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  to 
scribes  of  the  time  of  Ezra.  It  was  violently 
assailed  by  Bossuet  and  suppressed,  and  the 
author  excluded  from  the  Oratory.  The  opin 
ions  of  Simon  have  since  been  adopted  by 
many  rationalistic  theologians.  Among  his 
other  works  are :  Histoire  critique  de  la  cre- 
ance  et  des  coutumes  des  nations  du  Levant 
(Amsterdam,  1684) ;  Histoire  critique  du  texte 
du  Nouveau  Testament  (Rotterdam,  1689) ; 
Histoires  critiques  des  principaux,  commenta- 
teurs  du  Nouveau  Testament  (Rotterdam,  1692 ) ; 
and  Nouvelles  observations  sur  le  texte  et  les 
versions  du  Nouveau  Testament  (Paris,  1695). 

SIMOSE  DI  MARTINO.     See  MEMMI. 

SIMOMDES,  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  at  lulls, 
in  the  island  of  Ceos,  about  556  B.  C.,  died  in 
Syracuse  about  467.  His  family  is  said  to 
have  held  some  hereditary  office  in  connection 
with  the  worship  of  Bacchus.  After  reaching 
manhood  he  was  invited  by  Hipparchus  to 
Athens,  where,  with  an  interval  of  a  few  years, 
he  lived  until  his  80th  year,  when  he  was 
crowned  for  his  victory  in  the  dithyrambic 
chorus.  His  elegies  on  those  who  fell  at  Mara 
thon  and  Platssa,  his  epigram  on  the  tombs  of 
the  Spartans  slain  at  Thermopylae,  and  his  odes 
on  the  sea  fights  at  Artemisium  and  Salami s, 
were  celebrated.  His  latter  years  were  passed 
in  Sicily,  at  the  court  of  Iliero  of  Syracuse. 
He  is  reproached  by  Pindar  with  avarice,  hav 
ing  been  the  first  poet  on  record  who  wrote 
for  money.  He  was  the  most  prolific  and  prob 
ably  the  most  popular  lyric  poet  that  Greece 
ever  produced.  A  few  fragments  are  all  that 
remain  of  his  writings,  the  "  Lament  of  Danae  " 
being  the  most  celebrated.  The  best  edition 
is  that  of  Schneidewin,  Simonidis  Cei  Car- 
minum  Reliquiae  (8vo,  Brunswick,  1835). — A 
writer  considered  by  some  his  grandson,  and 
known  as  SIMOXIDES  THE  YOUXGEE,  was  the 
author  of  a  genealogical  work  in  three  books, 
and  of  a  treatise  "  On  Inventions."— A  few 
fragments  remain,  including  a  satire  on  wo 
men,  Of  SlMOXIDES  THE  ELDEE,  of  AlllOrgOS, 

who  flourished  about  650  B.  0. 

SDIOMN,  Louis  Laurent,  a  French  author,  born 
in  Marseilles  in  1830.  He  completed  his  studies 
at  the  mining  school  of  St.  Etienne,  and  was 
employed  by  the  government  in  mineralogical 
explorations  in  the  island  of  Reunion  and  in 
Madagascar.  He  has  several  times  visited  the 
United  States,  sketches  of  which  he  has  writ- 


60 


SIMON  MAGUS 


SIMPSON 


ten  for  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  and  has 
been  since  1865  professor  of  geology  at  the 
central  school  of  architecture.  Among  his 
works  are:  La  ricJiesse  minerale  de  la  France 
(1865) ;  L'Etrurie  et  les  Etrusques  (1866)  ;  La 
me  souterraine  (1867) ;  and  L'llistoire  de  la 
terre  (1867). 

SIMON  MAGUS,  a  magician  of  the  time  of  the 
apostles,  who  by  his  skill  had  attained  such 
influence  as  to  be  called  "the  great  power  of 
God."  "While  Philip  the  Evangelist  preached 
in  Samaria,  in  A.  D.  36,  Simon's  followers 
were  converted,  and  he  himself  believed  and 
was  baptized.  Soon  after,  when  Peter  and 
John  came  to  Samaria,  to  impart  to  the  new 
converts  by  means  of  prayer  and  the  imposi 
tion  of  hands  the  gifts  of  the  Spirit,  Simon, 
seeing  that  through  the  laying  on  of  hands 
the  Holy  Ghost  was  given,  offered  money  to 
the  apostles  to  impart  to  him  this  power.  He 
was  sternly  rebuked  by  Peter,  and  appears  no 
longer  in  connection  with  the  rising  Christian 
church.  The  statements  of  the  ecclesiastical 
writers  respecting  his  further  life  are  contra 
dictory  ;  but  it  seems  certain  that  he  travelled 
through  many  countries  to  give  exhibitions  of 
his  magic  power,  and  that  finally  he  settled  at 
Eome,  where,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Eusebius  (with  which  a  statement  of  Suetonius 
agrees),  he  met  his  death  in  an  aeronautic  at 
tempt.  About  the  middle  of  the  2d  century 
his  followers  were  still  very  numerous,  and 
Eusebius  in  the  4th  century  represents  the  Si- 
monians  as  a  powerful  sect.  They  early  split 
into  several  parties,  of  which  the  Meriandrians 
and  the  Dositheans  were  the  most  important. 
(See  DOSITIIEANS.)  Simon  wrote  several  works, 
the  remaining  fragments  of  which  are  con 
tained  in  Grabe's  Spicttegium,  vol.  i. 

SIMONOSEKI.     See  SIIIMOXOSEKI. 

SIMOOM  (Arabic,  from  samma,  to  poison),  or 
Samicl  (Turkish,  sam,  poison,  and  yel,  wind),  a 
hot,  dry  wind  common  in  Syria,  Arabia,  and 
India,  It  comes  from  the  deserts,  and  is  char 
acterized  by  its  excessive  heat  and  suffocating 
effects,  which  are  sometimes  fatal  to  animal 
life.  It  never  lasts  over  an  hour,  though  it 
sometimes  returns  for  several  successive  days. 
During  its  prevalence  the  inhabitants  of  towns 
and  villages  shut  themselves  up  in  their  houses, 
and  those  in  the  deserts  in  their  tents  or  in 
pits.  The  parching  heat  is  derived  from  the 
sands,  which  are  whirled  up  from  the  earth 
by  the  advancing  wind,  and  the  whole  air  is 
filled  with  an  extremely  subtle  and  penetra 
ting  dust.  When  the  wind  blows  in  squalls, 
death  is  often  very  suddenly  produced  by  ac 
tual  suffocation,  and  is  followed  by  haemor 
rhage  at  the  nose  and  mouth.  Persons  ex 
posed  to  it  protect  themselves  by  stopping  the 
mouth -and  nose  with  handkerchiefs,  and  the 
camels  instinctively  bury  their  noses  in  the 
sand.  The  Tchamsin  of  Egypt  and  the  Jiar- 
mattan  of  Guinea  and  Senegambia  are  winds 
similar  to  the  simoom  in  their  effects,  but  are 
of  longer  duration  and  more  regular  in  the 


periods  of  their  prevalence.  In  India  the  si 
moom  of  the  deserts  of  Cutchee  and  Upper 
Sinde  is  sudden  and  mysterious  in  its  appear 
ance,  invisible  and  singularly  fatal.  It  usually 
occurs  in  June  and  July,  by  night  as  well  as 
by  day,  sometimes  preceded  by  a  cold  current 
of  air.  Its  course  is  straight  and  well  defined 
on  a  narrow  path.  It  is  not  accompanied  by 
dust,  thunder,  or  lightning,  but  has  a  decided 
sulphurous  odor. 

SIMPLON.     See  ALPS,  vol.  i.,  p.  354. 

SIMPSON.  I.  A  S.  county  of  Mississippi, 
bounded  W.  by  Pearl  river,  and  intersected  by 
Strong  river ;  area,  about  625  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  5,718,  of  whom  1,711  were  colored.  The 
soil  is  sandy,  and  there  are  extensive  pine 
woods.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
72,832  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  15,420  of  oats, 
29,520  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,134  bales  of  cotton, 
8,240  Ibs.  of  rice,  5,797  of  wool,  and  28,860  of 
butter.  There  were  871  horses,  1,  631  milch 
cows,  1,237  working  oxen,  2,713  other  cattle, 
4,211  sheep,  and  7,793  swine.  Capital,  Westville. 
II.  A  S.  county  of  Kentucky,  bordering  on 
Tennessee  and  drained  by  tributaries  of  Big 
Barren  river  and  by  Red  river ;  area,  375  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,573,  of  whom  2,167  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  very 
fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
107,242  bushels  of  wheat,  402,379  of  Indian 
corn,  73,682  of  oats,  1,072,401  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
14,572  of  wool,  72,004  of  butter,  and  8,806  gal 
lons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  2,091 
horses,  1,311  milch  cows,  1,928  other  cattle, 
7,410  sheep,  and  13,951  swine.  The  Louis 
ville,  Nashville,  and  Great  Southern  railroad 
passes  through  the  capital,  Franklin. 

SIMPSON,  Sir  James  Young,  a  Scottish  physi 
cian,  born  at  Bathgate,  Linlithgowshire,  June 
7,  1811,  died  in  Edinburgh,  May  6,  1870.  He 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
where  in  1832  he  received  his  degree  of  M.  D. 
In  1836,  as  assistant  to  Prof.  Thomson,  he  de 
livered  a  course  of  pathological  lectures ;  and 
in  1840  he  was  elected  professor  of  midwife 
ry  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  He  was 
the  first  to  apply  the  new  discovery  of  an 
aesthesia  to  midwifery  practice,  which  he  did 
Jan.  19,  1847.  He  subsequently  discovered  the 
ansesthetical  properties  of  chloroform,  which 
in  midwifery  practice  he  regarded  as  more 
manageable  and  powerful,  more  agreeable  to 
inhale,  and  less  exciting  than  ether,  and  as 
giving  greater  control  over  the  superinduc- 
tion  of  the  anaesthetic  state.  (See  ANAESTHET 
ICS,  and  CIILOKOFORM.)  In  1849  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Edinburgh  royal  college  of 
physicians,  in  1852  president  of  the  medico- 
chirurgical  society,  and  in  1853  foreign  associ 
ate  of  the  French  academy  of  medicine ;  and 
in  1856  he  received  from  the  French  academy 
of  sciences  the  Monty  on  prize  of  2,000  francs 
"in  consideration  of  his  services  to  humanity 
by  the  introduction  of  anaesthesia  into  the 
practice  of  midwifery,  and  the  discovery  of 
the  anaesthetic  properties  of  chloroform."  He 


SIMPSON 


SINAI 


61 


was  very  celebrated  as  a  practitioner.  Among 
his  works  are  :  "  Homoeopathy  "  (3d  ed.,  Ed 
inburgh,  1853  ;  Philadelphia,  1854)  ;  "  Obstet 
ric  Memoirs  and  Contributions,"  including  his 
writings  on  anaesthesia  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh 
and  Philadelphia,  1855-' 6);  "Acupressure" 
(1864);  and  essays  on  ancient  rock  sculptur- 
ings  in  Great  Britain  and  other  archaeological 
subjects.  In  1871  appeared  new  editions  and 
collections  of  his  writings  under  the  titles 
"  Selected  Obstetrical  Works,"  "  Anesthesia 
and  Hospitalism,"  and  "  Clinical  Lectures  on 
the  Diseases  of  Women;"  and  in  1872,  "Ar- 
chasological  Essays."  He  was  created  a  baro 
net  in  I860.— See  "  Memoir,"  by  J.  Duns,  D.  D. 
(Edinburgh,  1873). 

SIMPSON,  Mathew,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Ohio,  June  10,  1810.  He  graduated 
at  Alleghany  college,  Meadville,  Pa.,  in  1832, 
and  received  the  degree  of  M.  D.  in  1833,  but 
in  the  same  year  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church.  In  1837  he  was 
elected  professor  of  natural  sciences  in  Alle 
ghany  college,  and  two  years  later  president 
of  Indiana  Asbury  university,  at  Greencastle, 
Ind.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  editor  of  the 
"  Western  Christian  Advocate,"  Cincinnati, 
and  in  1852  was  elected  bishop.  He  has  been 
especially  active  in  the  promotion  of  educa 
tional  and  missionary  enterprises.  During  the 
civil  war  he  was  employed  on  important  com 
missions,  and  delivered  many  addresses  in  sup 
port  of  the  Union.  In  1863-'4  he  made  an 
extended  tour,  studying  the  missionary  status 
and  wants  of  his  church  in  Syria,  European 
Turkey,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Scandina 
via.  He  has  been  three  times  a  member  of 
general  conference,  and  a  fraternal  delegate  to 
the  British  Wesleyan  conference  and  to  vari 
ous  ecclesiastical  bodies.  In  1875  he  was  ap 
pointed  to  visit  again  the  mission  conferences 
in  Europe.  His  present  residence  (1876)  is 
Philadelphia. 

SIMPSON,  Thomas,  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  Market-Bosworth,  Leicestershire,  Aug. 
20,  1710,  died  there,  "May  14,  1761.  He  was  a 
weaver,  and  while  young  married  a  widow  50 
years  of  age,  having  two  children,  both  older 
than  himself ;  but  the  family  lived  in  harmony, 
and  Simpson  employed  his  evenings  in  study, 
especially  of  mathematics,  and  in  keeping  a 
school.  In  1733  he  went  to  Derby,  and  in 
1735  or  1736  to  London,  where  he  soon  estab 
lished  himself  as  a  teacher  of  mathematics, 
while  employing  his  leisure  hours  in  researches 
into  the  higher  branches  of 'science.  In  1743 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  royal  military  academy  at  Woolwich,  a  post 
which  he  filled  until  the  beginning  of  1761, 
when  with  impaired  mental  faculties  and  dis 
ordered  health  he  retired  to  his  native  town. 
In  1746  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  royal 
society.  He  published  works  on  fluxions,  the 
laws  of  chance,  annuities  and  reversions,  alge 
bra,  geometry,  trigonometry,  logarithms,  &c. ; 
but  his  most  valuable  publication  was  a  volume 


of  "Miscellaneous  Tracts"  (1754),  consisting 
of  four  papers  on  pure  mathematics  and  four 
on  physical  astronomy. 

SIMROCK,  Karl,  a  German  author,  born  in 
Bonn,  Aug.  28,  1802.  He  qualified  himself  at 
Bonn  and  Berlin  for  the  judicial  service,  in 
which  he  was  employed  from  1823  to  1830, 
when  he  was  removed  on  account  of  his  poem 
on  the  July  revolution  in  France.  In  1850  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  ancient  German 
literature  at  Bonn.  He  became  famous  by  his 
translations  of  the  Nibelungen  (1827;  latest 
ed.,  1874)  and  many  other  early  German  and 
Scandinavian  poems,  including  the  Edda  (1851 ; 
4th  ed.,  1871),  and  a  modernized  German  ver 
sion  of  Hartmann  von  der  Aue's  Der  arme 
HeinricJi  (2d  enlarged  ed.,  1875).  One  of  his 
most  celebrated  original  poems  is  Wieland  der 
Schmied  (1835;  3d  ed.,  1851).  In  1867  ap 
peared  his  translation  of  Shakespeare's  poems, 
and  among  his  other  works  are :  Die  Quellen 
des  Shakespeare  in  Novellen,  MarcJien  und 
Sage  (1831;  new  ed.,  1872);  Das  malerische 
und  romantische  Rheinland  (4th  ed.,  1865); 
Handbuch  der  deutschen  Mythologie  (new  ed., 
1869);  and  Faust  (new  ed.,  1873). 

SIMS,  James  Marion,  an  American  surgeon, 
born  in  Lancaster  district,  S.  C.,  Jan.  25,  1813. 
£Ie  graduated  at  the  South  Carolina  college  in 
1832,  and  studied  medicine  in  Charleston  and 
at  the  Jefferson  medical  college,  Philadelphia. 
In  1836  he  settled  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  and 
soon  became  widely  known  as  a  skilful  opera 
tor  in  general  surgery.  About  1845  his  at 
tention  was  directed  to  the  treatment  of  vesi- 
co-vaginal  fistula,  hitherto  deemed  incurable, 
and  he  established  for  the  diseases  peculiar  to 
women  a  private  hospital,  which  he  supported 
for  four  years  at  his  own  expense.  A  pro 
tracted  series  of  experiments  were  crowned 
with  success  by  the  substitution  of  sutures 
of  silver  wire  for  silken  and  other  sutures, 
and  he  afterward  extended  the  use  of  metal 
lic  sutures  into  every  department  of  general 
surgery.  In  1853  he  removed  to  New  York, 
where  through  his  efforts  a  temporary  and 
afterward  a  permanent  woman's  hospital  was 
established  under  his  charge.  In  1861  and 
1864  Dr.  Sims  visited  Europe,  and  in  1870  he 
organized  in  Paris  the  Anglo-American  ambu 
lance  corps.  He  has  published  "  Silver  Su 
tures  in  Surgery"  (8vo,  New  York,  1858)  and 
"  Clinical  Notes  on  Uterine  Surgery"  (London 
and  New  York,  1866 ;  translated  into  French 
and  German). 

SINAI,  a  group  of  mountains  in  Arabia  Pe- 
trsea,  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  peninsula 
of  the  same  name,  which  projects  between  the 
two  forks  of  the  Red  sea,  the  gulf  of  Suez  sep 
arating  it  from  Egypt  on  the  west,  and  the  gulf 
of  Akabah  from  Arabia  on  the  east.  The  pen 
insula  of  Sinai  is  triangular,  about  140  m.  in 
length  from  N.  to  S.,  and  nearly  the  same  in 
breadth  at  its  widest  portion.  The  northern 
portion  is  an  arid  and  desert  plain,  with  sand 
hills  and  mountains  of  small  elevation;  S.  of 


SINAI 


lat.  29°  20'  N.  it  rises  into  several  ranges  of 
mountains.  There  are  numerous  peaks,  vary 
ing  from  1,000  to  over  9,000  ft.  above  the 
sea,  divided  by  deep  wadys  or  narrow  sand 
valleys,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Wady  er- 
Rahah  and  the  Wady  esh-Sheikh,  two  wide  val 
leys,  the  former  separating  the  Jebel  Ghub- 
sheh  from  the  Jebel  el-Fureiah,  the  latter  the 
Jebel  ed-Deir  from  the  same  mountain  sum 
mit,  and  the  two  uniting  in  a  wide  plain  in 
front  of  the  Eas  Sufsafeh,  the  abrupt  northern 
termination  of  the  Jebel  Musa  or  Mount  of 
Moses,  the  traditional  Sinai.  The  summits  of 
most  historic  and  Biblical  interest,  beginning 
at  the  S.  point  of  the  peninsula,  are  the  Jebel 
et-Turfa,  a  long  low  mountain  sloping  on  either 
side  to  the  sea  and  terminating  in  the  low  pro 
montory  of  Has  Mohammed ;  the  Jebel  et-Tur, 
a  series  of  summits  of  somewhat  greater  height 
surrounding  the  Jebel  Musa,  and  separated  from 
it  by  narrow  steep  wadys ;  the  Jebel  Katherin 
or  Catarina,  S.  S.  W.  of  the  Jebel  Musa,  and 
forming  the  termination  of  the  range  known 
as  the  Jebel  Humr ;  and  the  Jebel  Musa,  an 
isolated  summit,  with  a  plateau  about  3£  m. 
long  and  nearly  1  m.  in  width,  gradually  de 
scending  toward  the  north.  The  S.  point, 
from  which  until  recently  it  was  supposed  that 
Israel  received  the  law,  is  9,274  ft.  high,  but  is 
still  overlooked  by  the  higher  peaks  of  Jebel 
Katherin  and  the  Tinieh  ridges,  and  the  wadys 
in  front  of  it  are  so  narrow  that  the  immense 
congregation  could  not  have  seen  the  summit 
of  the  mountain.  To  avoid  this  difficulty, 
Burckhardt,  and  after  him  Lepsius  and  some 
others,  have  attempted  to  demonstrate  that 
the  Jebel  Serbal,  which  was  sometimes  called 
"the  mount  of  God,"  lying  some  distance  W. 
of  the  Jebel  Musa,  and  having  a  valley  of  con 
siderable  extent,  the  Wady  Feiran,  at  its  N. 
face,  is  the  true  Sinai,  with  which  Horeb,  the 
Scriptural  "mount  of  God,1'  is  so  closely  con 
nected  as  to  appear  identical.  But  it  seems 
that  tradition  rather  points  to  that  mountain 
as  the  site  of  Rephidirn.  The  N.  extremity 
of  the  Jebel  Musa,  called  by  the  monks  Ho 
reb,  and  at  its  highest  point  Ras  Sufsafeh,  or 
"the  mountain  of  the  Willow,"  is  supposed 
by  Robinson  and  others  to  be  the  Sinai  from 
which  the  law  was  dispensed.  It  is  divided 
from  the  Jebel  ed-Deir  on  the  east  by  a  nar 
row  valley,  on  one  of  the  slopes  of  which  the 
convent  of  St.  Catharine  is  situated ;  but  from 
the  termination  of  the  Ras  Sufsafeh  there  open 
out  the  two  wide  valleys  already  mentioned, 
the  Wady  er-Rahah  and  the  Wady  esh-Sheikh, 
the  only  ones  in  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  capable 
of  containing  the  vast  host  of  Israel.  Oppo 
site,  in  a  succession  of  terraces,  rises  the  Je 
bel  Sona,  the  termination  of  the  Fureiah  ridge. 
The  Ras  Sufsafeh  is  6,541  ft.  high,  and  about 
800  ft.  lower  than  Jebel  Musa,  but  it  is  the 
commanding  point  of  the  amphitheatre  upon 
which  it  opens.  There  are  three  churches 
and  three  chapels  on  this  mountain,  all  small 
and  in  a  ruinous  condition ;  and  on  the  W. 


side,  2,000  ft  below  the  summit,  is  the  mon 
astery,  celebrated  alike  for  its  antiquity,  its 
manuscript  treasures,  and  the  hospitality  of 
its  monks.  The  Arabs  point  out  in  the  Wady 
er-Rahah  the  "hill  of  Aaron,"  the  "pit  of 
Korah,"  and  the  place  where  the  molten  calf 
was  made.  Carl  Ritter  suggested  that  Ser 
bal  was  known  before  the  giving  of  the  law 
as  "  the  mount  of  God,"  and  that  Pharaoh 
probably  understood  it  as  the  mount  to  which 
they  were  going  to  sacrifice.  Its  distance  and 
location  well  agree  with  this  theory,  for  which 
early  traditions  give  much  ground.  Dr.  Beke 
supposed  the  ancient  Mt.  Sinai  to  be  a  moun 
tain  E.  of  the  meridian  of  the  gulf  of  Akabah 
and  valley  of  the  Jordan.  He  was  sent  in 
1874  on  an  expedition  to  establish  his  hypothe 
sis.  Advancing  N.  from  the  town  of  Akabah, 
by  the  route  E.  of  the  Jebel  esh-Sherah,  through 
the  Wady  el-Ithm,  he  found  what  answered  his 
expectations  in  Mt.  Baghir,  also  called  Jebel 
en-Nur,  or  "  mountain  of  Light."  He  bases 
his  identification  on  an  argument  that,  accord 
ing  to  Scripture,  the  land  of  Midian,  to  which 
Moses  fled,  formed  part  of  the  east  country, 
i.  e.,  E.  of  the  Jordan,  and  that  he  conduct 
ed  the  children  of  Israel  there ;  and  hence 
it  follows  that  he  crossed  with  them  the  gulf 
of  Akabah,  and  not  the  present  gulf  of  Suez. 
Dr.  Brugsch  also  has  recently  advanced  a  the 
ory  which  takes  the  Scriptural  Mt.  Sinai  out 
of  the  so-called  Sinaitic  peninsula.  He  is  of 
opinion  that  the  Israelites  marched  along  the 
Mediterranean  coast,  and  that  the  disaster  of 
the  Egyptians  occurred  on  the  narrow  strip  of 
land  which  separates  the  sea  from  the  Serbo- 
nian  lake.  There  are  many  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  harmonizing  these  views  with  the  de 
tails  of  the  Biblical  narrative.  As  to  Horeb 
in  Scriptures,  it  seems  probable  that  the  whole 
desert  of  Sinai  was  so  called  (Heb.  'hared, 
parched),  and  that  the  name  was  also  special 
ly  applied  to  Sinai  itself.  From  a  period  cer 
tainly  not  later  than  the  first  half  of  the  3d  cen 
tury,  the  caves  of  Jebel  Musa,  the  traditional 
Mt.  Sinai,  were  a  refuge- of  persecuted  Chris 
tians  ;  in  the  4th  century  they  were  the  resort 
of  anchorites  and  ascetics,  and  these  were  re 
peatedly  attacked  and  murdered  by  the  Arabs. 
In  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  the  monks  of 
Mt.  Sinai  were  represented  in  the  great  coun 
cils  of  the  eastern  church.  During  the  period 
in  which  the  Mohammedan  power  was  at  its 
height,  the  monks  lived  in  fear  and  disquiet, 
often  threatened  and  occasionally  attacked. 
From  the  crusades  onward  they  have  held 
more  peaceful  possession,  but  with  greatly 
diminished  numbers  and  influence. — See  Rob 
inson,  "Biblical  Researches"  (3  vols.,  Boston, 
1856);  Stanley,  "Sinai  and  Palestine"  (Lon 
don,  1858);  Wilson  and  Palmer,  "Ordnance 
Survey  of  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai "  (London, 
1872);  Palmer,  "The  Desert  of  the  Exodus" 
(London  and  New  York,  1872) ;  Ebers,  Durch 
Gosen  zum  Sinai  (Leipsic,  1872) ;  and  Maughan, 
"The  Alps  of  Arabia"  (London,  1874). 


SINALOA 


SINDE 


G3 


SINALOA.  I.  A  N.  TV.  state  of  Mexico,  bound 
ed  N.  by  Sonora,  E.  by  Chihuahua  and  Duran- 
go,  S.  by  Jalisco,  and  TV.  by  the  Pacitic  and  the 
gulf  of  California;  area,  25,927  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1869,  16:3,095.  The  entire  eastern  portion 
is  mountainous,  being  traversed  by  a  branch 
of  the  Sierra  Madre ;  while  the  western  com 
prises  extensive  plains  gradually  declining  to 
ward  the  coast,  which  is  generally  low.  The 
coast  is  indented  by  bays,  the  largest  of  which 
is  that  of  Navachiste,  and  presents  several  har 
bors,  such  as  Mazatlan,  Angeles,  Altata,  Tama- 
zulla,  Popolobampo,  and  Navachiste,  none  of 
which  arc  very  commodious.  The  chief  riv 
ers  are  the  Fuerte  and  Cafias,  forming  respec 
tively  the  northern  and  southern  boundaries, 
Sinaloa,  and  Culiacan ;  some  of  these,  with 
their  affluents,  periodically  overflow  their 
banks,  fertilizing  the  surrounding  country. 
The  mineral  productions  include  gold,  silver, 
platinum,  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  sulphur  ;  but 
mines  of  the  first  two  only  are  worked,  the 
average  annual  yield  being  $500,000,  of  which 
seven  eighths  is  silver.  The  climate  is  exces 
sively  hot,  and  in  many  parts  unhealthful,  par 
ticularly  in  the  south  and  in  the  coast  region. 
The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  fertile  ;  the  prin 
cipal  agricultural  products  are  coffee,  rice,  and 
sugar  cane.  Many  of  the  tropical  fruits,  par 
ticularly  guavas  and  bananas,  are  very  abun 
dant,  though  the  last  are  so  extensively  con 
sumed  as  to  be  imported  in  immense  quanti 
ties.  The  chief  occupations  are  agriculture 
and  mining,  the  manufacture  of  castor  oil  and 
the  liquor  called  mezcal,  and  pearl  and  tor 
toise  fisheries  along  the  coasts.  Brazil  wood, 
pearls,  gold,  and  silver  are  exported  in  large 
quantities.  Sinaloa  is  divided  into  the  dis 
tricts  of  Rosario,  Concordia,  Mazatlan,  San 
Ignacio,  Cosala,  Culiacan,  Mocorito,  Sinaloa 
and  Fuerte.  The  capital  is  Culiacan,  and  the 
chief  port  Mazatlan.  II.  An  inland  town  of 
the  preceding  state,  on  the  right  bank  of  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  in  the  midst  of  a 
gold-mining  district,  220  m.  N".  K  TV.  of  Ma 
zatlan;  pop.  about  9,000.  It  has  good  houses, 
a  church,  and  a  school ;  and  the  inhabitants 
are  chiefly  engaged  in  mining.  It  was  the 
capital  of  the  old  province  of  Sinaloa. 

SINCLAIR.  I.  Sir  John,  a  Scottish  agricul 
turist,  born  at  Tlmrso  castle,  Caithness,  May 
10,  1754,  died  Dec.  21,  1835.  From  1780  to 
1810  he  was  a  member  of  parliament.  He  had 
an  estate  of  100,000  acres  in  Caithness,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  development  of  agri 
culture,  the  improvement  of  wool,  and  the  re 
vival  of  coast  fisheries ;  and  he  built  up  the 
village  of  Thurso  into  a  flourishing  port.  In 
1786  he  was  created  a  baronet.  The  board  of 
agriculture  was  established  by  act  of  parlia 
ment  in  1793  mainly  through  his  efforts,  and 
he  was  its  first  president.  He  was  the  author  of  1 
numerous  volumes  and  pamphlets  on  agricul 
ture,  finances,  and  other  subjects,  and  also  pub 
lished  "  Observations  on  the  Scottish  Dialect " 
(1782) ;  "  History  of  the  Public  Revenue  of  ' 

VOL.    XV. — 5 


the  British  Empire"  (3  vols.,  1785-'9) ;  '-Sta 
tistical  Account  of  Scotland"  (21  vols.,  1791- 
'9)  ;  and  "  Code  of  Health  and  Longevity  " 
(4  vols.,  1807).  II.  Sir  George,  a  Scottish  au 
thor,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
Oct.  23,  1790,  died  Oct.  9,  1868.  For  several 
years  he  represented  Caithness  in  parliament. 
He  published  "  Selections  from  the  Corre 
spondence  on  the  Scottish  Church  Question  " 
(1842);  "Letters  to  the  Protestants  of  Scot 
land"  (1852);  "Miscellaneous  Thoughts  on 
Popery,  Prelacy,  and  Presbyterianism  "  (1853) ; 
"Two  Hundred  Years  of  Popery  in  France, 
1515-1715  "  (1853);  and  "Popery  in  the  First 
Century  "  (1855).  His  life  has  been  written 
by  James  Grant  (London,  1869).  III.  John, 
a  Scottish  clergyman,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  Aug.  20,  1797,  died  in  London,  May  22, 
1875.  After  graduating  at  Pembroke  college, 
Oxford,  he  took  orders,  and  in  1843  was  made 
archdeacon  of  Middlesex.  In  1853  he  visited 
the  United  States  in  behalf  of  the  society  for 
the  propagation  of  the  gospel.  He  published 
a  life  of  his  father  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1837), 
and  "Sketches  of  Old  Times  and  Distant 
Places"  (London,  1875).  IV.  Catharine,  a  Scot 
tish  authoress,  sister  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Edinburgh,  April  17,  1800,  died  in  Lon 
don,  Aug.  6,  1864.  She  was  her  father's  sec 
retary  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  Besides 
numerous  books  for  children  and  miscellaneous 
works,  she  published  several  novels,  including 
"Modern  Accomplishments"  (1885);  "Holi 
day  House"  (1839);  "Modern  Flirtations" 
(1841);  "Jane  Bouverie"  (1845);  "Lord  and 
Lady  Harcourt "  (1850);  "Beatrice"  (1852); 
and  " Torchester  Abbey,  or  Cross  Purposes" 
(1855). 

SIRBE,  Sdnde,  or  Sindh,  an  administrative  di 
vision  or  commissionership  of  the  province  of 
Bombay  in  British  India,  bounded  N.  by  Be- 
loochistan  and  the  Punjaub,  E.  by  Rajpoota- 
na,  S.  by  the  great  western  Runn  of  Cutch  and 
the  Indian  ocean,  and  TV.  by  the  Indian  ocean 
and  Beloochistan ;  area,  54,403  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  1,730,323.  The  sea  coast,  150  m.  in 
length,  is  IOWT  and  swampy,  except  at  its  N.  ex 
tremity,  and  at  high  water  the  shore  is  over 
flowed  for  a  considerable  distance  inland.  The 
interior  is  a  vast  and  arid  plain  of  sand  and 
shingle,  traversed  throughout  its  entire  length 
by  the  river  Indus,  with  a  belt  of  fertility  on 
each  side.  Sinde  and  the  Indus  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  Egypt  and  the  Kile.  (See  IN 
DUS.)  The  Ilala  hills  extend  along  the  TV.  fron 
tier,  but  the  most  elevated  points  do  not  exceed 
1,500  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  E.  part  of  Sinde 
is  to  a  great  extent  desert,  and  covered  with 
shifting  sand  hills,  but  affords  some  pasturage, 
more  particularly  for  camels.  In  the  north 
there  are  extensive  tracts  of  jungle,  now  util 
ized  as  government  fuel  reserves.  Upper  Sinde 
and  Lower  Sinde  are  the  respective  designa 
tions  of  the  northern  and  southern  portions  of 
the  division,  which  comprises  politically  the 
collectorates  of  Kurrachee  and  Shikarpoor  on 


SINDE 


the  "W.  side  of  the  Indus,  the  collectorate  of 
Hydrabad  and  the  frontier  district  of  Upper 
Sinde,  bordering  the  river  on  the  east,  the  na 
tive  state  of  Khyerpoor  between  them,  and  the 
political  superintendency  of  Thur  and  Parkur 
in  the  S.  E.  corner.  The  chief  towns  are  Kur- 
rachee,  the  seaport  of  the  Indus,  Hydrabad, 
the  capital,  Sukkur,  Shikarpoor,  and  Larkha- 
na,  all  organized  municipalities  except  the  first. 
The  climate  is  hot,  subject  to  sudden  and  great 
changes  of  temperature,  and  remarkably  dry. 
Its  aridity  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  S.  W. 
monsoon  does  not  blow  over  Sinde,  where  the 
normal  yearly  rainfall  is  less  than  15  inches, 
although  the  dews  are  exceedingly  heavy.  At 
Hydrabad  the  mean  temperature  of  the  six 
hottest  months  is  98°,  but  in  winter  frost 
is  not  unknown.  In  December,  January,  and 
February,  a  temperature  of  32°  F.  at  dawn  is 
not  unfrequently  followed  by  a  midday  tem 
perature  of  from  75°  to  86°  in  the  shade,  at 
Kurrachee.  Upper  Sinde  is  tolerably  health 
ful,  and  many  of  the  natives  attain  a  great  age ; 
but  in  the  lower  country,  particularly  toward 
the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  there  is  much  malaria 
and  fever.  Salt  is  the  chief  mineral  product 
of  the  country,  and  alum,  which  is  used  to 
clarify  the  water  of  the  Indus  for  drinking, 
occurs  in  considerable  quantities.  The  soil  of 
the  delta  of  the  Indus  is  a  light  clay  mixed  with 
sand,  and  the  whole  valley  is  fertilized  by  the 
annual  inundation  of  the  river;  but  away  from 
the  streams  the  surface  is  for  the  most  part  a 
sandy  desert,  or  consists  of  vast  tracts  over 
spread  with  acacia-like  trees,  salvadora,  and 
a  leafless  caper  shrub.  The  forests  of  Sinde 
comprise  the  babul  (acacia  Artibicti),  the  tama 
risk,  and  the  Euphrates  poplar,  and  border  the 
Indus  at  various  points,  having  formerly  been 
the  favorite  hunting  grounds  of  the  ameers ; 
they  cover  an  area  of  350,000  acres.  Irriga 
tion  is  essential  to  cultivation,  and  the  canals 
for  that  purpose  are  kept  up  at  great  expense, 
owing  to  the  accumulation  of  silt.  The  only 
perennial  canal  in  the  division  is  above  Suk 
kur,  and  is  24  m..long;  all  the  others  are  in 
undation  canals.  Cotton  is  now  grown  exper 
imentally,  and  sugar  cane  and  tobacco  succeed 
well,  besides  rice,  wheat,  barley,  mustard,  and 
the  other  common  crops  of  such  a  climate; 
but  the  methods  of  agriculture  are  inferior 
and  carelessly  applied.  The  zemindari  land 
revenue  system  prevails,  under  which  the  land 
is  cultivated  on  shares.  The  fauna  of  Sinde 
is  remarkable  for  number  and  variety.  Tigers 
and  leopards,  hyamas  and  jackals,  buffaloes, 
hog-deer,  antelopes,  and  wild  boars  are  prom 
inent  among  the  mammals.  Among  the  very 
numerous  species  of  birds  are  two  eagles, 
bustards,  falcons,  partridges,  quails,  snipe,  cor 
morants,  herons,  flamingoes,  pelicans,  and  wild 
ducks  of  many  sorts.  '  The  fresh  waters  yield 
the  gavial,  a  so-called  river  porpoise  which 
weighs  upward  of  200  Ibs.,  and  many  varieties 
of  fish ;  while  pearl  oysters  are  abundant  along 
the  coast.  The  common  insects  are  locusts, 


ants,  mosquitoes,  and  black  flies.— The  Sindi- 
ans  are  tall,  well  made,  and  handsome,  and  the 
women  are  remarkably  good-looking.  They 
are  made  up  of  mixed  races,  principally  Jats 
and  Beloochees,  the  proportion  of  Mohamme 
dans  to  other  sects  in  the  population  being  as 
four  to  one.  The  people  are  described  as  idle, 
exceedingly  immoral,  ignorant,  and  bigoted. 
Wool  raising  is  an  important  industry.  Some 
manufactures  are  carried  on  in  the  principal 
towns,  and  the  people  are  very  ingenious  work 
men.  Coarse  silk  goods  are  made  from  ma 
terials  imported  from  Persia  and  China,  and 
a  peculiarly  soft  and  durable  leather,  several 
different  kinds  of  cloth,  earthenware,  and  cut 
lery  are  manufactured.  The  foreign  trade  in 
1872-'3  was  worth  nearly  £1,000,000,  com 
prising  exports  valued  at  £657,094,  and  im 
ports  worth  £324,250 ;  and  the  coast  trade 
was  valued  at  £2,040,561.  Some  traffic  is 
carried  on  with  Cabool  through  the  Bolan 
pass,  but  in  Lower  Sinde  there  are  no  regular 
highways,  as  the  constantly  shifting  sand  ren 
ders  it  difficult  to  maintain  them.  A  railroad 
connects  Kurrachee  and  Ilydrabad,  and  the 
Indus  valley  line,  which  is  to  unite  it  with  the 
railway  system  of  India,  is  in  process  of  con 
struction.  The  government  of  Sinde  is  ad 
ministered  by  a  special  commissioner. — Khyer 
poor,  the  only  native  state  in  the  division, 
extends  120  in.  in  length  and  70  m.  in  width, 
between  the  Indus  on  the  west  and  the  Raj 
poot  state  of  Jessulmeer  on  the  east,  and  is 
a  great  alluvial  plain  watered  by  six  canals 
and  having  an  area  of  6,109  sq.  in. — When 
Alexander  the  Great  invaded  India,  Sinde  was 
ruled  by  Hindoo  princes,  who  had  extended 
their  conquests  over  all  the  countries  lying 
between  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges.  Little  is 
known  of  Sinde  from  that  time  till  about  A. 
D.  715,  when  it  was  conquered  by  a  Moham 
medan  army  sent  from  Bassorah ;  but  these 
invaders  did  not  long  hold  it.  It  was  subse 
quently  governed  by  a  Rajpoot  tribe  for  near 
ly  three  centuries,  and  was  then  conquered  by 
Mahmoud  of  Ghuzni,  whose  successors  held  it 
until  they  were  overthrown  by  the  house  of 
Ghore.  About  1225  it  fell  under  the  domin 
ion  of  the  rulers  of  Delhi,  who  held  it  for  up 
ward  of  a  century.  They  were  succeeded  by 
native  princes,  and  about  1520  the  country 
became  subject  to  Shah  Beg  Argoon  of  Can- 
dahar.  In  1592  it  was  incorporated  with  the 
Mogul  empire  under  Akbar,  in  1739  with  the 
Persian  under  Nadir  Shah,  after  whose  death 
it  reverted  to  the  former,  and  in  1756  passed 
by  dowry  to  the  ruler  of  Cabool,  remaining 
a  nominal  dependency  of  Afghanistan,  though 
governed  by  native  princes,  till  1786,  when  a 
Belooche  chief  named  Meer  Futteh  Ali  ob 
tained  supremacy  and  divided  the  country  into 
three  independent  states,  each  under  several 
rulers  known  as  ameers.  Under  these  chiefs 
the  government  was  a  military  despotism,  and 
the  relations  between  them  and  the  English 
East  India  company  were  never  very  friendly. 


SINDIA 


SINGAPORE 


65 


About  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
the  company's  agent  was  violently  expelled, 
and  a  large  amount  of  property  in  his  custo 
dy  confiscated.  Subsequently  several  treaties 
were  made ;  and  in  1838,  to  facilitate  the  op 
erations  of  its  armv  in  the  contemplated  Af 
ghan  war,  the  company  extorted  concessions 
from  the  ameers  by  which  Sinde  was  made 
virtually  one  of  its  dependencies.  The  disas 
ters  of  the  British  in  Afghanistan  having  en 
couraged  the  ameers  to  commit  hostile  acts, 
a  military  force  was  sent  thither  under  Sir 
Charles  Napier,  who,  after  concluding  a  treaty 
with  the  ameers  of  Lower  Sinde,  found  himself 
compelled  to  take  the  field  ;  the  result  was  the 
brilliant  victory  of  Meeanee  (Feb.  17,  1843), 
the  rapid  conquest  of  the  country,  and  the 
establishment  of  British  authority.  (See  XA- 
PIEE,  Sir  CHARLES  JAMES.)  The  rajah  of 
Khyerpoor  was  allowed  to  retain  his  posses 
sions,  on  account  of  his  fidelity  to  the  English. 
Sinde  was  constituted 
a  commissionership  in 
1843. 

SLXDIA,  Family  of. 
See  GWALIOR. 

SINGAPORE.  I.  A 
province  of  the  British 
colony  of  the  Straits 
Settlements,  consisting 
of  the  island  of  Sin 
gapore,  and  about  50 
islets  S.  and  E.  of  it 
in  the  strait  of  Singa 
pore,  lying  between 
lat.l°8'andl°32AK, 
and  Ion.  103°  30'  and 
104°  1C7  E. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  97,111.  The  isl 
and  of  Singapore  lies 
off  the  S.  extremity  of 
the  Malay  peninsula, 
from  which  it  is  sepa 
rated  by  a  strait  about 
40  m.  long  and  £  to  2 

m.  wide ;  it  is  about  25  m.  long  from  E.  to 
"W.,  and  12  m.  wide ;  area,  224  sq!  m.  On  the 
coast  are  swampy  tracts  covered  with  man 
grove  trees,  but  inland  are  many  small  hills, 
from  100  to  500  ft.  high.  Iron  ore  abounds. 
Much  of  the  soil  is  sterile,  but  in  the  lowlands 
it  is  richer.  There  are  a  few  rivulets.  Nutmegs, 
cloves,  ginger,  pepper,  gambir,  tapioca,  and 
sugar  cane  are  raised.  The  thermometer  ranges 
from  71°  to  89°,  and  the  climate  is  healthful. 
Showers  are  frequent,  and  in  1871  the  total 
rainfall  was  120'4  inches.  Tigers  cross  the 
strait  to  the  island,  and  are  said  to  carry  off,  on 
the  average,  a  Chinaman  every  day.  Of  the 
inhabitants  of  Singapore  in  1871,  74,351  were 
males  and  22,763  females;  54,098  Chinese, 
19,250  Malays,  9,297  Klings,  1,329  Europeans, 
2,164  Eurasians,  and  the  remainder  natives 
of  other  parts  of  the  East  Indies.  Malay  is 
the  prevailing  language.  II.  A  city,  capital 
of  the  Straits  Settlements,  on  the  S.  side  of 


the  island  of  Singapore,  in  lat.  1°  16'  13"  X., 
Ion.  103°  53'  15"  E. ;  pop.  about  90,000.  It 
is  on  a  low  plain  fronting  the  harbor,  with 
hills  in  the  rear,  and  is  intersected  by  a  salt 
water  creek  called  the  Singapore  river.  On 
the  AV.  side  is  the  Chinese  quarter,  which 
contains  also  the  great  mercantile  warehouses 
and  counting  houses.  On  the  E.  side  are  the 
ofiicial  buildings,  churches,  hotels,  and  many 
of  the  European  residences ;  and  still  further 
E.  is  the  Malay  quarter.  Behind  the  Chinese 
quarter,  on  Pearl  hill,  is  a  fortress  which  com 
mands  it,  and  on  another  elevation,  back  of 
the  European  quarter,  is  the  government  house, 
a  fine  building  of  cut  stone.  Many  neigh 
boring  hills  are  occupied  by  country  houses. 
Near  the  shore  are  ample  parade  grounds  and 
drives.  The  botanical  garden  has  a  splendid 
collection  of  tropical  plants.  Among  the  pub 
lic  buildings  are  the  Singapore  institution  for 
the  study  of  the  languages  of  the  East,  which 


Singapore. 

contains  a  museum,  library,  and  reading  room ; 
a  prison,  in  which  are  generally  confined  about 
2,000  criminals,  mostly  Hindoos,  who  are  em 
ployed  on  government  works  ;  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  splendid  Chinese 
temple,  and  a  Mohammedan  mosque.  There 
are  two  mission  schools,  attended  chiefly  by 
Chinese,  Malays,  and  Eurasians.  The  Chinese 
have  also  private  schools.  The  port  of  Singa 
pore,  which  is  divided  into  two  by  a  tongue  of 
land,  is  capacious,  and  the  water  is  deep  enough 
for  the  largest  vessels.  The  harbors  are  pro 
vided  with  every  facility  for  an  extensive  com 
merce,  and  for  fitting  out  and  repairing  ships. 
Singapore  is  a  free  port.  Vessels  pay  three 
cents  a  ton  light  dues  on  entering  and  leaving. 
In  consequence  of  its  geographical  position,  it 
is  the  entrepot  of  the  commerce  of  S.  Asia 
and  the  Indian  archipelago,  and  is  resorted  to 
by  vessels  of  all  nations.  The  entrances  in 
1872  were  1,665,  tonnage  918,652;  729  were 


66 


SING  SING 


SIOUX 


steamers,  tonnage  G12,929.  The  total  value  of 
imports  was  $43,415,383  ;  exports,  $39,020,- 
121.  During  the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1874, 
29  United  States  vessels  entered ;  the  total 
value  of  the  exports  to  the  United  States  for 
the  same  period  was  $3,750,831.  The  exports 
are  tin,  gambir,  pepper,  rattans  and  Malacca 
canes,  coffee,  nutmegs,  tapioca,  sago,  caou 
tchouc,  guttapercha,  sapan  wood,  buffalo  hides, 
and  gums. — The  city  of  Singapura  ("lion's 
town"),  capital  of  a  Malayan  kingdom,  occu 
pied  the  site  of  Singapore  in  the  12th  century. 
In  the  13th  century  it  was  captured  by  a  king 
of  Java,  when  the  royal  residence  was  removed 
to  Malacca,  and  it  gradually  fell  into  decay ; 
and  in  1819,  when  the  British  built  a  factory 
on  the  site,  the  whole  island  had  only  150 
inhabitants.  In  1824  the  sultan  of  Johore,  in 
consideration  of  $60,000  and  a  life  annuity  of 
$24,000,  transferred  the  sovereignty  and  fee 
simple  of  the  island,  and  all  the  seas  and 
islands  within  10  geographical  miles,  to  the 
British.  (See  STEAITS  SETTLEMENTS.) 

SING  SING,  a  village  in  the  township  of  Os- 
sining,  Westchester  co.,  New  York,  beautifully 
situated  on  high  ground  on  the  E.  bank  of  the 
Hudson  river,  at  its  widest  part,  called  Tappan 
bay,  30  in.  above  New  York;  pop.  in  1875, 
6,500.  There  arc  several  manufactories,  the 
principal  being  two  of  files,  one  of  lawn  mow 
ers,  two  of  carriages,  one  of  Brandreth  pills, 
and  one  of  porous  plasters.  The  village  con 
tains  a  national  bank,  a  savings  bank,  a  pub 
lic  school,  a  Roman  Catholic  school,  a  female 
seminary,  a  school  for  preparing  boys  for  West 
Point,  three  military  schools,  12  private  schools, 
two  weekly  newspapers,  and  six  churches.  It 
is  the  S3at  of  one  of  the  state  prisons.  The 
male  division  was  erected  by  convicts,  the  first 
draft  of  whom,  from  Auburn  state  prison, 
began  work  in  May,  1825.  It  contains  1,200 
cells,  is  484  ft.  long  by  44  ft.  wide,  and  six 
stories  high,  with  ranges  of  workshops  run 
ning  at  right  angles,  40  ft.  wide  and  two  and 
three  stories  high.  The  female  division,  with 
120  cells,  is  on  the  E.  side  of  the  male  divi 
sion,  and  under  separate  management;  it  was 
begun  in  1835.  Both  buildings  are  of  white 
marble.  (See  NEW  YOKK,  vol.  xii.,  p.  367.) 

SLMGAGLIA  (anc.  Sena  Gallica),  a  town  of 
central  Italy,  in  the  province  and  18  m.  N.  W. 
of  the  city  of  Ancona,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Misa  in  the  Adriatic;  pop.  in  1872,  22,197. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  beautiful 
cathedral.  The  ramparts  are  protected  by  a 
citadel.  The  port  admits  only  small  craft. 
The  annual  fair,  July  20  to  Aug.  8,  at  which 
large  transactions  are  made  in  silk,  is  of  great 
antiquity.  The  town  was  plundered  by  the 
troops  of  Pompey  in  82  B.  C.  Under  the  ex 
archs  of  Ravenna  it  was  for  some  time  one  of 
the  cities  of  the  Pentapolis,  but  afterward  fell 
into  decay.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  Pius  IX. 

SINOPE  (Turk.  Sinub\  a  fortified  seaport 
town  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  Turkish  vilayet  of 
Kastamuni,  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  Black  sea, 


325  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Constantinople;  pop.  about 
10,000.  It  stands  on  an  isthmus  which  con 
nects  the  mainland  with  a  high  rocky  penin 
sula  called  Cape  Sinope,  forming  on  its  S.  E. 
side  a  roadstead,  which  is  the  best  anchorage 
on  that  shore.  The  town  has  an  arsenal  and 
the  only  ship  yard  in  Turkey  except  that  at 
Constantinople,  and  many  Turkish  war  ves 
sels  are  built  there.  There  is  a  massive  castle 
erected  in  the  time  of  the  Greek  emperors,  and 
new  fortifications  are  nearly  completed  (1876). 
It  is  a  coal  depot  for  steamers  between  Con 
stantinople  and  Trebizond.  Oak  timber  is 
largely  exported. — Sinope  became  important 
after  its  second  colonization  from  Miletus, 
about  630  B.  C.,  and  continued  independent 
till  183,  when  it  was  captured  by  Pharnaces, 
king  of  Pontus,  of  which  country  it  became 
the  capital.  It  was  much  ornamented  and 
improved  by  Mithridates  the  Great.  Having 
been  conquered  by  the  Eomans,  it  was  made 
a  colony  by  Caesar.  It  was  taken  by  tho  Turks 
in  1401.  In  the  Crimean  war  the  Turkish 
fleet,  with  the  exception  of  one  steamer  which 
escaped,  was  destroyed  here  by  the  Russian 
fleet  under  Nakhimoff,  with  a  loss  of  about 
4,000  men,  Nov.  30,  1853.  The  town  .was 
bombarded  and  suffered  very  severely. 

SINTO,  or  Sliioto.  See  JAPAX,  vol.  ix.,  pp. 
537  and  562. 

SIOOT,  or  Osioot  (anc.  Lycopolis),  a  city  of 
Egypt,  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
and  residence  of  the  governor  of  Upper  Egypt, 
near  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  about  250 
m.  above  Cairo,  under  a  hilly  ridge  of  sand 
cliffs,  which  have  been  extensively  excavated ; 
pop.  about  25,000.  A  magnificent  embank 
ment  studded  with  trees  leads  to  the  town, 
which  has  several  beautiful  mosques  and  good 
bazaars ;  but  the  streets  are  narrow  and  un- 
paved,  and  most  of  the  houses  are  mere  hov 
els.  There  are  successful  schools  under  the 
care  of  American  missionaries,  and  British 
and  American  consular  agents.  Sioot  was 
formerly  much  frequented  by  caravans  from 
the  interior.  The  most  important  manufac 
ture  is  that  of  pipe  bowls.  There  are  ruins 
here  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre,  vast  rock 
tombs  of  the  12th  dynasty,  and  ancient  ala 
baster  quarries  in  the  opposite  range  of  hills. 
The  city  was  once  devoted  to  the  worship  of 
the  wolf,  or  of  the  deity  to  which  that  ani 
mal  was  sacred,  from  which  its  ancient  Greek 
name  is  derived. 

SIOUX,  or  Dakotas.  a  tribe  of  American  In 
dians,  dwelling  near  the  head  waters  of  the 
Mississippi  when  first  known  by  the  whites. 
In  1640  the  Algon quins  informed  the  French 
of  them  as  the  Nadowessioux,  whence  they 
came  to  oe  called  Sioux.  In  1660,  or  soon 
after,  the  Chippewas  and  Hurons  began  a  war 
with  them,  which  continued  into  this  century. 
In  1680  Duluth  set  up  the  French  standard  in 
their  country  at  Izatys  near  the  St.  Peters. 
In  the  next  year  he  rescued  Ilennepin  from 
them.  Nicolas  Perrot,  having  entered  their 


SIOUX 


domain  in  1685,  took  formal  possession  for 
France  in  1689,  erecting  a  breastwork  near 
Lake  Pepin.  In  1689-'99  Le  Sueur  visited  the 
Dakotas,  and  describes  them  as  divided  into 
seven  eastern  and  nine  western  tribes.  They 
joined  the  Foxes  against  the  French,  and  in 
war  with  the  Chippewas  many  were  forced 
down  the  Mississippi,  and,  driving  other  Indi 
ans  from  the  buffalo  plains,  took  possession  of 
them.  Several  bands  wandered  into  the  plains 
of  the  Missouri.  Some  remained  at  or  near 
the  St.  Peter's.  The  English  agents  secured 
the  services  of  the  Sioux  in  the  war  of  1812  ; 
but  most  of  the  bands  soon  made  peace.  The 
treaties  then  made  were  renewed  in  1825  by 
the  Tetons,  Yanktons,  and  Yanktonais,  Si- 
oune,  Ogallalas,  and  Oncpapas.  The  nation, 
estimated  in  1822  at  5,000  on  the  St.  Peter's 
and  7,750  on  the  Missouri,  comprised  the  Alde- 
wakantonwans,  or  Spirit  Lake  village ;  the 
Wahpetonwans,  or  village  in  the  Leaves ;  the 
Sisitowans,  or  village  of  the  Marsh,  called  also 
Isantis;  the  Yanktonwans,  or  End  villages; 
and  the  Tetonwans,  or  Prairie  village,  which  in 
cludes  the  Ogallala  and  Oncpapa  bands.  Their 
territory  extended  from  the  Mississippi  to  the 
Black  hills,  and  from  Devil's  lake  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Big  Sioux.  On  Sept.  29,  1837,  the  Da 
kotas  ceded  to  the  United  States,  for  $300,000 
and  some  minor  payments,  all  their  lands  east 
of  the  Mississippi.  The  American  board  be 
gan  missions  among  the  Wahpetonwans  near 
Fort  Snelling  in  1835,  and  the  Methodists  in 
1836.  Schools  were  introduced,  and  elemen 
tary  books  printed  in  the  language.  In  1851 
the  nation  ceded  to  the  United  States  all  their 
land  east  of  a  line  from  Otter  Tail  lake  through 
Lake  Traverse  to  the  junction  of  the  Big  Sioux 
and  the  Missouri,  retaining  a  reservation  20  by 
140  m. ;  35,000,000  acres  were  thus  acquired 
for  $3,000,000.  The  government's  neglect  to 
carry  out  the  provisions  of  these  treaties  caused 
bitter  feelings,  and  in  1854  Lieut.  Grattan,  in 
the  attempt  to  arrest  a  Dakota,  attacked  a  vil 
lage  and  was  cut  off  with  his  whole  party. 
A  series  of  hostilities  by  some  of  the  Sioux 
ensued ;  but  Gen.  Ilarney  defeated  them  on 
Little  Blue  Water,  Sept.  3,  1855,  and  a  general 
council  at  Fort  Pierce  consented  to  a  treaty  of 
peace.  But  in  July,  1857,  the  band  of  Inkpa- 
dutas  massacred  47  whites  near  Spirit  lake, 
Minnesota,  and  murders  elsewhere  followed. 
Five  whites  were  killed  at  Acton,  Minnesota, 
Aug.  17,  1862.  Enraged  by  the  failure  of  an 
nuities  and  the  frauds  practised  on  them,  the 
Sioux  then  made  a  general  uprising  and  killed 
nearly  1,000  settlers.  New  Ulm,  a  town  of 
1,500  people,  was  abandoned  and  almost  de 
stroyed.  Fort  Ridgely  was  besieged,  and  was 
saved  with  difficulty.  The  Sioux  of  the  Mis 
souri  and  the  plains  also  became  hostile,  and 
were  reduced  by  Gen.  Sibley  of  Minnesota  and 
Gen.  Sully  of  the  United  States  army.  After 
a  severe  struggle  a  number  of  captive  white 
women  and  children  were  rescued,  and  many 
Indians  captured  and  sent  to  Davenport.  Of 


more  than  1,000  Indians  held  captive,  many 
were  tried  and  condemned,  but  only  39,  con 
victed  of  specific  acts,  were  executed  ;  the 
others  were  finally  released.  Many  bands  fled 
into  Dakota  territory,  and  the  war,  disease, 
and  want  largely  reduced  the  nation.  In  1863 
the  Minnesota  Sioux  were  removed  to  Crow 
creek.  About  1866  treaties  were  made  with 
nine  bands,  promising  them  certain  annuities, 
to  be  enlarged  as  they  should  give  increased 
attention  to  agriculture.  An  act  of  Feb.  11, 
1863,  annulled  all  previous  treaties  with  the 
Sioux  ;  but  to  the  innocent  bands  a  part  of  the 
amount  pledged  was  restored,  the  government 
reserving  compensation  for  damages.  The 
most  guilty  bands  fled  north,  and  are  still  in 
the  British  territory.  A  few  bands  continued 
longer  in  hostility,  cutting  off  Lieut.  Fetter- 
man  and  his  party  in  December,  1866,  and 
besieging  for  a  time  Fort  Phil  Kearny.  In 
1874  the  Dakotas  comprised  the  Santee  Sioux 
in  the  reservation  at  the  mouth  of  the  Niobra- 
ra,  Nebraska,  numbering  791,  with  five  schools 
under  the  care  of  the  Episcopalians  and  the 
American  board ;  the  Yankton  Sioux  on  the 
Missouri,  with  the  same  missionaries;  the  Sis- 
setons  and  the  Wahpetons  at  Lake  Traverse 
and  Devil's  lake  ;  the  Oncpapas,  Blackfeet 
Sioux,  Lower  and  Upper  Yanktonais,  Sans 
Arcs,  Upper  and  Lower  Ernie's,  Two-Kettle, 
Minneconjous,  and  Ogallalas  in  the  Crow  creek, 
Grand  river,  Whetstone,  Cheyenne  river,  and 
Red  Cloud  agencies,  46,342  in  all,  in  Dakota ; 
Santee,  Yanktonais,  Oncpapa,  and  Cuthead 
Sioux  at  Milk  river  agency,  Montana,  5,309. 
In  1873  the  government  liabilities  to  the  Da 
kota  tribes,  including  payments  not  yet  due, 
were  estimated  at  $10,387,800,  with  annual 
payments  for  their  benefit  of  $27,400.  A 
treaty  hastily  made  by  Gen.  Sherman,  April 
29,  1868,  was  unsatisfactory  on  both  sides; 
and  as  gold  had  been  discovered  in  the  Black 
hills,  the  United  States  wished  to  purchase 
the  tract,  and  induce  the  Sioux  to  abandon 
their  hunting  grounds  south  of  the  Niobrara, 
or  even  to  emigrate  to  the  Indian  territory. 
The  Sioux  showed  great  reluctance  to  treat. 
Sitting  Bull,  Red  Cloud,  and  Spotted  Tail,  with 
other  chiefs,  visited  Washington  in  May,  1875, 
but  President  Grant  could  not  induce  them  to 
sign  a  treaty.  Commissioners  deputed  by  him 
met  an  immense  gathering  of  the  Sioux  at  the 
Red  Cloud  agency  in  September;  but  as  the 
Sioux  set  an  exorbitant  price  on  their  lands, 
the  negotiation  failed.  Hostile  feelings  have 
been  excited  by  alleged  frauds  at  the  Sioux 
agencies,  which  have  been  investigated,  but 
as  yet  (1876)  without  result. — Much  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  Dakota  language.  A 
very  good  grammar  and  dictionary  by  Riggs 
have  been  issued  by  the  Smithsonian  insti 
tution.  The  missionaries  have  also  supplied 
portions  of  Scripture,  hymns,  catechisms,  and 
|  educational  works  in  it,  and  newspapers  issue 
lighter  reading.  It  lacks  the  sounds  f,  r,  i>, 
but  has  peculiar  sounds  of  its  own. 


68 


SIOUX 


SIRHIKD 


SIOUX,  a  N.  TV.  county  of  Iowa,  bounded 
TV.  by  the  Big  Sioux  river  and  intersected  by 
Eock  river  and  affluents  of  Floyd's  river ;  area, 
about  750  sq.  m. :  pop.  in  1870,  576.  The 
surface  is  nearly  level  and  the  soil  productive. 
The  Sioux  City  and  St.  Paul  railroad  passes 
through  it.  Capital,  Calliope. 

SIOUX  CITY,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Woodbury  co.,  Iowa,  on  the  Missouri  river,  be 
tween  Perry  and  Floyd's  creeks,  at  the  inter 
section  of  the  Sioux  City  and  Pacific,  Sioux 
City  and  St.  Paul,  Illinois  Central,  and  Dako 
ta  Southern  railroads,  156  m.  N.  TV.  of  Des 
Moines;  pop.  in  1870,  3,401;  in  1875,  about 
5,500.  The  business  portion  of  the  city  is 
built  upon  a  dry,  well  drained  bench,  which 
almost  imperceptibly  slopes  N.  from  the  river. 
N.  and  TV.  of  the  thickly  settled  part  of  the  city 
rise  low  ranges  of  bluffs,  upon  whose  sides  are 
built  some  of  the  finest  residences.  The  streets 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  the  prin 
cipal  ones  are  graded  and  furnished  with  side 
walks.  The  city  is  lighted  with  gas  and  has  a 
fire  department.  It  has  an  extensive  trade 
with  N.  TV.  Iowa,  N.  E.  Nebraska,  and  S.  Da 
kota.  There  are  four  grain  elevators,  a  pork- 
packing  establishment,  a  national  bank,  a  pri 
vate  bank,  a  savings  institution,  three  saw 
mills,  two  flouring  mills,  a  foundery  and  ma 
chine  shop,  three  breweries,  a  gun  factory,  mar 
ble  works,  &c.  The  workshops  of  the  Sioux 
City  and  St.  Paul  railroad  employ  about  75 
men.  The  city  has  two  fine  graded  school 
buildings  and  three  or  four  ward  school  houses,, 
attended  by  about  1,000  pupils ;  one  daily  and 
three  weekly  (one  German)  newspapers;  a  pub 
lic  hall,  seating  1,000  persons;  a  library  asso- 
'ciation ;  and  six  churches. — Sioux  City  was 
laid  out  in  1854  and  incorporated  in  1857. 

SIR  DARYA,     See  JAXAETES. 

SIREDON.     See  AXOLOTL. 

SIREN,  a  North  American  long-tailed  batra- 
chian,  with  stout  eel-like  body,  naked  skin, 
persistent  branchiae,  and  only  the  two  anterior 
legs.  The  best  known  species,  the  S.  lacertina 
(Linn.),  or  mud  eel,  has  a  small  and  short  head, 
with  elevated  forehead  and  depressed  and  trun 
cated  snout,  three  branchial  tufts,  and  three 
spiracles  on  each  side ;  the  mouth  is  small,  with 
distinct  lips,  and  arrow-shaped  tongue  free  at 
the  tip  and  sides ;  no  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
but  a  broad  band  of  very  minute  ones  along 
the  outer  border  of  the  palate  bones ;  nostrils 
and  eyes  small,  the  latter  black  ;  the  tail  late 
rally  compressed,  with  a  rayless  fin  above  and 
below ;  limbs  with  four  short  and  small  fingers 
with  horny  tips.  It  attains  a  length  of  from 
2  to  3  ft.,  and  is  dusky  above  with  numerous 
whitish  spots,  and  purplish  below ;  it  lives 
chiefly  in  the  mud  and  muddy  water  of  the 
Carolina  rice  fields,  and  occasionally  comes 
on  land.  Its  food  consists  of  worms,  insects, 
and  the  eggs  of  fish  and  frogs;  it  is  found 
from  lat.  3.5°  N.  to  E.  Florida.  In  this  group 
there  are  about  90  vertebras,  connected  by  coni 
cal  cavities  filled  with  a  gelatinous  substance, 


as  in  fishes ;  eight  pairs  of  short  ribs,  of  which 
the  first  pair  is  attached  to  the  second  verte 
bra;  no  trace  of  pelvis;  three  cartilaginous 
branchial  arches  attached  to  an  osseous  tongue 
bone ;  the  lungs  two  long  sacs,  accessory  to  the 
gills,  but,  as  in  the  menobranchus,  insufficient 
for  respiration. 

SIREN,  in  acoustics.  See  LIGHTHOUSE,  vol. 
x.,  p.  458,  and  SOUND. 

SIREJVIA,  an  order  of  placental  mammals 
containing  the  dugong  and  manatee,  formerly 
called  herbivorous  cetaceans.  They  are  whale- 
like  in  the  swimming  paddles  of  the  anterior 
limbs,  the  absence  of  the  posterior,  and  in  the 
transverse  tail  fin ;  they  differ  from  cetaceans 
in  having  the  nostrils  at  the  anterior  part  of 
the  muzzle,  molar  teeth  with  flat  crowns  adapt 
ed  for  a  vegetable  diet,  a  head  not  dispropor 
tionately  large,  a  tolerably  distinct  neck,  more 
fleshy  and  bristly  lips,  and  more  hairy  body. 

SIRENS  (Gr.  asipijves,  from  aapdeiv,  to  draw, 
to  entice),  mythical  female  beings  who  en 
chanted  the  listeners  to  their  song,  and  after 
getting  them  into  their  power  destroyed  them. 
In  the  legends  of  the  Argonauts  they  are  said 
to  have  endeavored  to  entice  those  wanderers, 
but  Orpheus  surpassed  them  in  singing ;  there 
upon  they  threw  themselves  into  the  sea,  and 
were  changed  into  rocks,  as  it  had  been  f atecl 
that  they  were  not  to  live  after  any  one  passed 
by  them  unaffected.  In  Homer  the  sirens  are 
connected  with  the  voyage  of  Ulysses,  who, 
preparatory  to  sailing  by  the  islands  on  which 
they  were  sitting,  by  the  advice  of  Circe  plug 
ged  the  ears  of  his  companions  with  wax  and 
fastened  himself  to  the  mast  of  the  vessel, 
until  he  was  out  of  the  sound  of  their  voices. 
The  island  in  Homer's  account  was  between 
^Eaoa  and  the  rock  of  Scylla,  in  the  strait,  of 
Messina ;  but  the  Roman  poets  place  them  near 
the  shore  of  Campania,  in  the  island  of  Capreaa 
(Capri)  or  in  the  Sirenusian  islands  near  Pass- 
turn.  They  were  called  daughters  of  Phorcus, 
of  Achelous  and  Sterope,  of  Terpsichore,  of 
Melpomene,  of  Calliope,  or  of  Gaaa.  While 
Homer  mentions  only  two  sirens,  the  later 
traditions  assume  that  there  were  three,  and 
sometimes  four.  In  later  times  they  were  re 
presented  as  birds  with  the  face  of  a  woman. 
— See  Schrader,  Die  Sirenen  im  Alterthum 
(Berlin,  1868). 

'  SIRHIND.  I.  A  geographical  designation  ap 
plied  to  that  part  of  India  lying  between  the 
upper  courses  of  the  Sutlej  and  the  Jumna, 
but  not  now  coterminous  with  any  political 
division,  being  for  the  most  part  a  plain  sloping 
from  1ST.  E.  to  S.  TV.,  and  having  an  area  of 
about  17,000  sq.  m.  In  the  extreme  north 
east  a  spur  of  the  Himalaya,  which  divides  the 
head  waters  of  the  Sutlej  from  those  of  the 
Jurnna,  projects  into  the  territory,  which  is 
bounded  N.  and  S.  by  certain  outlying  dis 
tricts  of  the  Punjaub,  E.  by  the  Northwest 
Provinces,  and  TV.  by  Bhawalpoor.  It  com 
prises  the  Punjaub  districts  of  Ambala,  Loo- 
diana,  Ferozepoor,  Sirsa,  Hissar,  and  Kurnal, 


SIKIUS 


SISMONDI 


69 


as  well  as  nine  independent  native  Cis-Sutlej 
states  in  subsidiary  alliance  with  the  British 
government,  as  follows:  Patiala,  area  5,412 
sq.  m.,  pop.  1,650,000  ;  Jhind,  8G3  sq.  m., 
pop.  189,475;  Nabha,  863  sq.  m.,  pop.  227,- 
155  ;  Kalsia,  155  sq.  m.,  pop.  62,000 ;  Maler- 
Kotla,  165  sq.  in.,  pop.  46,200 ;  Furidkot,  643 
sq.  m.,  pop.  68,000  ;  Dyalgurh,  Mumdot,  and 
Raikot.  Separate  from  the  group,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Beas,  but  usually  classed  with  the 
Sikh  states  of  Sirhind,  is  the  state  of  Kapur- 
thala,  with  an  area  of  598  sq.  m. ;  pop.  253,- 
293.  The  Sikhs  predominate,  except  in  Maler- 
Kotla,  which  is  Mohammedan,  and  Furidkot, 
where  the  ruler  is  a  Jat.  Sirhind  is  traversed 
by  the  Saraswati,  Ghaggar,  and  other  affluents 
of  the  Sutlej,  but,  although  fertile,  requires 
additional  irrigation,  which  will  be  supplied  by 
the  canal  system  now  in  process  of  construc 
tion  by  the  government,  to  have  a  total  length 
of  554  m.  The  Feroze  canal,  in  the  S.  part  of 
Sirhind,  was  originally  constructed  from  the 
Jumna  to  Hissar  by  Feroze  Shah  (1351-'87),  in 
order  to  water  his  hunting  grounds,  and  has 
been  restored  by  the  British.  The  railway 
from  Delhi  to  Lahore  crosses  Sirhind.  Those 
portions  of  the  Punjaub  directly  subject  to  the 
government  of  India  were  mainly  acquired  du 
ring  the  Sil^i  wars.  The  sovereign  states  were 
guaranteed  their  independence,  under  British 
protection,  by  treaty  with  Runjeet  Singh  in 
1809.  II.  A  town  in  the  Sirhind  state  of  Pa 
tiala,  lat.  30°  36'  K,  Ion.  76°  25'  E.,'  founded 
by  Feroze  Shah  in  1357,  and  once  an  impor 
tant  city,  but  subjected  to  repeated  captures 
during  the  Sikh  wars,  and  now  largely  in  ruins. 
It  is  on  the  line  of  the  Delhi  railway. 

SIRIUS.     See  DOG  STAR. 

SIRM01VD,  Jacques,  a  French  scholar,  born  in 
Eiom  in  October,  1559,  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  7, 
1651.  He  was  a  Jesuit,  and  in  1590  became 
secretary  to  the  general  of  the  order,  Claudio 
Acquaviva.  In  1608  he  went  to  Paris  to  edit 
a  collection  of  the  histories  of  the  French 
church  councils.  In  1637,  to  prevent  his  re 
turning  to  Rome,  he  was  chosen  by  Louis  XIII. 
as  his  confessor.  He  was  involved  in  contro 
versies  with  Salmasius,  Saint-Cyran,  and  oth 
ers.  His  principal  original  works  are :  Notce 
Stigmaticce  (4to,  Frankfort,  1612),  directed 
against  Richer's  work  on  the  temporal  and 
spiritual  powers ;  Concilia  antiqua  Gallice  (3 
vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1629);  and  Historia  Pceniten- 
tice  PuUicce  (1651).  A  collected  edition  of 
his  works  appeared  in  1696  (5  vols.  fol.),  with 
a  life  of  the  author  by  Labaune.  He  published 
many  editions  of  ancient  authors. 

SIROC€0,  or  Scirocco,  a  S.  E.  wind  of  a  suffo 
cating  and  parching  heat,  which  at  certain  in 
tervals,  especially  in  spring  and  autumn,  blows 
with  great  violence  in  the  islands  of  the  Medi 
terranean  and  on  the  S.  coasts  of  Italy,  for  36 
or  48  hours  together,  and  sometimes  even  for 
a  week  or  more,  and  which  exerts  a  most  per 
nicious  influence  on  animal  and  vegetable  life. 
It  is  regarded  as  similar  in  character  to  the 


simoom,  though  of  longer  duration,  and  tem 
pered  while  passing  over  the  Mediterranean. 
It  is  hottest  in  Malta  and  Sicily,  but  of  short 
continuance.  In  the  Ionian  isles  it  blows  for 
a  longer  period,  but  usually  not  so  fiercely. 
The  inhabitants  of  these  isles  speak  of  the 
black  and  the  ordinary  sirocco.  It  produces 
very  little  change  either  in  the  thermometer 
or  the  barometer,  but  causes  a  sensation  of 
terrible  heat  and  suffocation,  great  prostration, 
and  copious  perspiration. 

SISKIN.     See  ABERDEVINE. 

SISRIWIT.     See  TROUT. 

SISRIYOr,  a  N".  county  of  California,  bor 
dering  on  Oregon;  pop.  in  18*(0,  6,848,  of 
whom  1,440  were  Chinese.  It  formerly  had 
an  area  of  8,740  sq.  m.,  extending  from  Ne 
vada  to  TV.  of  the  Coast  mountains ;  but  in 
1874  the  E.  portion  was  set  off  to  form  Modoc 
co.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Klamath  river, 
and  watered  by  several  of  its  tributaries.  The 
surface  is  elevated.  Mt.  Shasta  in  the  S.  part, 
in  the  transverse  range  joining  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Coast  mountains,  is  an  extinct 
volcano,  14,442  ft.  high,  and  covered  with  per 
petual  snow.  The  principal  agricultural  dis 
trict  is  Scott's  valley,  40  m.  long  by  7  m.  wide. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  116,107 
bushels  of  wheat,  131,383  of  oats,  55,138  of 
barley,  17,066  of  potatoes,  43,858  Ibs.  of  wool, 
95,800  of  butter,  and  12,392  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  4,654  horses,  24,254  cattle,  12,844 
sheep,  and  7,499  swine;  8  flour  mills,  and  8 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Yreka. 

SISMOJVDI,  Jean  Charles  Leonard  Sirnomie  de,  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Geneva,  May  9, 1773, 
died  there,  June  25,  1842.  He  Avas  the  son  of 
a  Protestant  clergyman,  and  of  remote  Italian 
descent.  After  completing  his  classical  studies, 
he  was  placed  in  a  commercial  house  at  Lyons. 
He  subsequently  resided  with  his  family  in 
England  for  some  time,  and  having  returned  to 
Geneva  about  1794,  he  and  his  father  were 
driven  into  exile  for  assisting  a  political  refu 
gee.  He  returned  to  Geneva  in  1800,  became 
a  secretary  of  the  chamber  of  commerce,  and 
published  in  1803  Traite  de  larichesse  commer 
cials^  ou  principes  d"1  economic  politique  (2  vols. 
8vo).  In  this  work  he  supported  the  principles 
of  Adam  Smith,  but  his  views  afterward  un 
derwent  a  radical  change.  The  influence  of 
Mme.  de  Stael,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Ger 
many  and  Italy,  and  of  her  friends,  turned  his 
attention  to  historical  labors,  in  which  he  re 
vealed  his  ardent  love  of  humanity.  In  1819 
he  married  Miss  Allen,  a  sister  of  Sir  James 
Mackintosh's  second  wife,  and  declined  chairs 
at  the  Sorbonne  and  the  college  de  France,  to 
spend  the  rest  of  his  life  at  Geneva.  His  prin 
cipal  works  are :  Histoire  des  republiques  ita~ 
liennes  du  moyen  age  (16  vols.,  Zurich,  1807- 
'18 ;  new  ed.,  10  vols.,  Paris,  1840) ;  La  littera- 
ture  du  midi  de  V Europe  (4  vols.,  1813 ;  4th 
ed.,  1840  ;  English  translation  by  Thomas  Ros- 
coe,  \vith  notes,  4  vols.,  1823) ;  Nouveaux  prin 
cipes  d"1  economic  politique  (2  vols.,  1819)  ;  His- 


SISTERHOODS 


toire  des  Francais  (31  vols.,  1821-'44 ;  vols. 
xxx.  and  xxxi.  by  Amedee  Renee,  the  last 
forming  a  general  index)  ;  Julia  Severn,  ou  Van 
492,  a  picture  of  Gaul  during  the  5th  century 
(3  vols.  12mo,  1822);  "  History  of  the  Italian 
Republics,"  an  eloquent  summary  of  his  great 
work  on  the  same  subject,  and  "  The  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,"  both  originally  written 
in  English  for  Lardner's  "  Cabinet  Cyclopae 
dia"  (1832  and  1834),  and  translated  by  him 
self  into  French;  Etudes  sur  la  constitution 
des  peuples  libres  (1836  ;  enlarged  ed.,  entitled 
Etudes  des  sciences  sociales,  3  vols.,  ISSG-'S); 
and  Precis  de  Vhistoire  des  Francais  (2  vols., 
1839),  a  summary  of  his  larger  work,  bring 
ing  it  do\vn;to  the  death  of  Henry  IV. — See 
"  Political  Economy  and  the  Philosophy  of 
Government,"  selected  from  his  works,  with  a 
notice  of  his  life  and  writings  by  Mignet  (Lon 
don,  1847)  ;  Sismondi,  fragments  de  son  journal 
et  de  sa  correspondance  avec  Mile,  de  Sainte- 
Aulaire  (Paris,  1863) ;  and  his  Lettres  inedites 
d  Madame  $  Albany  (1864). 

SISTERHOODS.  I.  Roman  Catholic,  associations 
o"f  women  bound  together  by  religious  vo\vs, 
and  devoted  to  works  of  charity.  In  this  arti 
cle  only  those  sisterhoods  are  mentioned  which 
profess  to  embrace  exclusively  or  in  a  very 
special  manner  hospital  work,  and  the  care  of 
the  aged  or  infirm  poor,  orphans,  and  penitent 
women.  The  history  of  religious  orders  of 
women  whose  principal  object  is  the  pursuit 
of  ascetic  perfection,  forms  a  part  of  the  his 
tory  of  the  great  contemplative  orders  on  which 
they  depend  for  their  origin,  name,  and  spirit 
ual  guidance.  (See  MONACHISM,  RELIGIOUS  OR 
DERS,  and  special  articles  on  the  several  orders.) 
Female  congregations  whose  sole  purpose  is  the 
instruction  of  youth,  or  who  embrace  at  the 
same  time  works  of  public  charity,  are  treated 
under  SCHOOL  BROTHERS  ASTD  SCHOOL  SISTERS. 
— In  the  5th  century  mention  is  made  by  ec 
clesiastical  writers  of  associations  of  women 
at  Rome,  Milan,  and  other  chief  cities  of  the 
Roman  empire,  who  gave  up  their  wealth  and 
time  to  the  relief  of  the  suffering  poor.  Congre 
gations  of  female  hospitallers  existed  through 
out  western  Europe,  dependent  on  the  com 
munities  of  canons  regular,  professing  like  these 
the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and  subject  to  the 
same  changes  and  reforms.  The  earliest  known 
sisterhoods  of  extensive  influence,  devoted  sole 
ly  to  hospitality  or  hospital  work,  are  the  sis 
ters  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  and  the  sisters  of 
St.  Lazarus.  The  former  had  a  utility  coex 
tensive  with  that  of  the  knightly  brotherhood 
of  the  same  name ;  the  latter  especially  pro 
fessed  to  care  for  lepers,  incurables,  the  plague- 
stricken,  and  persons  afflicted  with  every  form 
of  loathsome  disease.  The  order  of  St.  Laza 
rus  is  contemporaneous  with  the  hospitallers 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  A  guild  of  men 
and  women  were  in  charge  of  several  leprosy 
hospitals  in  that  city  when  it  was  conquered 
by  the  crusaders ;  they  were  organized  soon 
afterward  into  a  religious  order  under  the  rule 


of  St.  Augustine,  and  their  establishments  mul 
tiplied  rapidly  both  in  the  East  and  the  West. 
The  first  female  leprosy  hospital  in  France  was 
founded  at  St.  Denis,  near  Paris,  in  1109,  by 
Louis  VI.,  who  also  opened  several  others  in 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  among  them  one 
at  La  Saussaie,  near  Villejuif,  and  another  at 
Etampes,  besides  founding  many  in  the  East. 
The  sisterhood  was  recruited  from  among  the 
nobility ;  and  Henry  II.  of  England,  in  found 
ing  a  hospital  for  female  lepers  at  Rouvray, 
near  Rouen,  stipulated  that  none  but  noble 
ladies  of  the  sisterhood  of  St.  Lazarus  should 
belong  to  the  community  in  charge  of  the 
lepers.  The  sisterhood  also  found  protectors 
in  Richard  I.  of  England,  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hun 
gary,  Louis  VII.,  Louis  VIII.,  and  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  all  of  whom  encouraged  the  daughters 
of  the  nobility  to  enter  it.  The  popes  bestowed 
many  privileges  on  the  sisters,  and  they  soon 
spread  throughout  England,  Germany,  Poland, 
Italy,  and  Spain.  Among  the  most  noted  Au- 
gustinian  sisterhoods  in  France  is  that  of  the 
hospitallers  of  the  Hotel-Dieu  in  Paris,  which 
existed  at  least  as  a  guild  before  Charlemagne, 
and  was  formally  organized  as  a  religious  com 
munity  under  Louis  le  Debonnaire  in  814. 
Their  numbers  had  to  be  repeatedly  recruit 
ed  during  the  "  black  plague  "  in  1^48.  Simi 
lar  sisterhoods,  all  governed  by  the  rule  of 
St.  Augustine,  had  charge  from  the  beginning 
of  the  other  Parisian  hospitals,  and  of  those 
founded  since  that  period  in  French  cities  and 
in  all  the  French  colonies.  Other  nurseries 
of  hospitallers  in  the  13th  century  were  the  ab 
bey  of  Longchamp  near  Paris,  the  community 
of  "Quinze  Vingts"  founded  by  St.  Louis,  as 
well  as  the  Maison  Dieu,  and  the  hostelleries  des 
pastes  for  strangers  and  travellers,  all  in  Paris, 
besides  similar  foundations  by  the  same  king 
in  other  parts  of  France.  From  these  Augus- 
tinian  communities  came  tlie  hospitallers  of  the 
Hotel-Dieu  (1639)  and  general  hospital  (1693) 
in  Quebec,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Hotel-Dieu 
of  Montreal,  founded  in  1659  by  a  colony  of 
nuns  from  La  Fleche.  Four  sisterhoods  devo 
ted  to  hospital  work  and  the  care  of  the  poor 
under  the  title  of  the  "  Presentation  "  have  ex 
isted:  one  founded  in  1627  by  Nicolas  San- 
guins,  bishop  of  Senlis,  approved  by  LTrban 
VIII.,  but  which  only  possessed  a  few  establish 
ments  ;  a  second  in  Paris,  with  the  mitigated 
rule  of  St.  Benedict;  a  third  and  more  im 
portant  order,  founded  by  Cardinal  Federigo 
Borromeo  (died  1631)  at  Morbegno  in  the  Val- 
tellina,  living  under  the  Augustinian  rule,  and 
very  popular  in  the  north  of  Italy ;  and  a  fourth 
founded  in  Ireland  and  described  in  the  article 
SCHOOL  BROTHERS  AND  SCHOOL  SISTERS.  In 
England,  the  Gilbertine  nuns,  founded  about 
1170  by  St.  Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  embraced 
hospital  work  with  every  other  form  of  pub 
lic  charity.  They  numbered  1,200  in  1189. — 
In  the  year  1100  arose  in  France  the  order 
of  Fontevrault,  which  united  the  care  of  lep 
rosy  hospitals  with  that  of  asylums  for  fallen 


SISTERHOODS 


71 


women.  These  were  all  placed  under  the  pro 
tection  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  and,  spreading 
rapidly  with  the  order  itself,  effected  a  great 
moral  reform  in  France  and  elsewhere.  The 
"  Sisters  of  Penitence  "  originated  at  Marseilles 
in  1278,  and  were  specially  devoted  to  the  same 
purpose.  A  host  of  similar  sisterhoods  arose 
afterward,  among  which  were  the  "Sisters  of 
Charity  "  established  at  Marseilles  in  1290,  who 
soon  opened  houses  in  the  chief  cities  of  south 
ern  France ;  the  Jesuates  of  St.  Jerome,  founded 
in  1358  at  Siena,  approved  by  Pope  Martin  V., 
and  suppressed  by  Clement  IX.;  the  "Con 
gregation  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity "  in  Paris ; 
and  the  numerous  communities  of  noble  ladies 
popularly  known  as  Magdelonettes,  but  united 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  es 
tablished  at  Metz  in  1452,  at  Paris  in  1492,  at 
Naples  in  1524,  and  at  Rouen  and  Bordeaux  in 
1618.  In  the  Magdelonette  establishments,  the 
women  under  care  of  the  nuns  were  classed  in 
three  categories :  the  congregation  of  St.  Mar 
tha,  formed  of  persons  supposed  to  be  thor 
oughly  reformed,  and  permitted  to  bind  them 
selves  by  religious  vows;  the  daughters  of  St. 
Martha,  who,  though  penitent,  are  not  per 
mitted  to  make  vows;  and  the  daughters  of 
St.  Lazarus,  who  are  either  unwilling  to  re 
form  or  are  placed  in  the  establishment  by  the 
public  magistrates.  Similar  sisterhoods  were 
organized  at  Rome  by  Leo  X.,  and  confirmed 
and  endowed  by  Clement  VIII.  The  congre 
gation  of  the  "Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Provi 
dence,"  founded  in  1830  for  the  same  purpose 
in  the  south  of  France  by  Mile.  Lamouroux, 
has  several  large  establishments,  one  of  which 
is  at  Laval. — Of  the  communities  whose  sole 
care  is  that  of  the  aged  and  homeless  poor, 
two  deserve  special  mention.  The  "  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor"  were  founded  in  1840  at 
St.  Servan  in  Brittany,  by  Abbe  Le  Pailleur, 
with  the  aid  of  two  poor  girls.  They  give  a 
home  to  the  aged  of  both  sexes,  depending 
solely  on  the  alms  collected  from  door  to  door 
and  on  the  labor  of  the  sisterhood.  They  were 
much  opposed  at  first,  but  were  soon  called  to 
open  houses  in  all  the  cities  of  France.  They 
were  approved  by  Pius  IX.,  July  9,  1854,  and 
recognized  by  the  French  government  in  1856. 
A  house  was  given  to  them  in  London  in  1860, 
and  their  labors  were  warmly  recommended  by 
Charles  Dickens  and  other  public  men,  and 
from  London  they  spread  all  over  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  In  1868  they  came  to  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  Cincinnati,  and  New  Orleans,  in  1869 
to  Baltimore  and  St.  Louis,  and  afterward  to 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Louisville,  and  Bos 
ton.  They  also  have  establishments  in  Alge 
ria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Constantinople.  The  oth 
er  community  is  that  of  the  "  Sisters  of  the 
Poor  of  St.  Francis,"  a  congregation* which 
originated  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  the  pres 
ent  century,  and  came  to  the  United  States 
(in  1857.  Besides  the  care  of  the  aged  poor, 
they  take  charge  of  hospitals,  into  which  they 
bind  themselves  to  receive  at  all  times  and 


without  distinction  the  sick  and  wounded  of 
every  creed  and  nationality.  They  have  many 
establishments  in  most  of  the  large  cities  of 
the  United  States. — Among  the  communities 
devoted  to  the  care  of  the  insane  are  the  "  Sis 
ters  of  the  Good  Saviour "  at  Caen  in  Nor 
mandy.  The  community  was  founded  in  1720 
by  two  poor  girls,  who-  taught  little  outcast 
children,  visited  the  poor,  nursed  the  sick,  and 
in  1730  opened  asylums  for  homeless  children, 
female  penitents,  and  insane  persons.  They 
were  suppressed  in  1789,  but  continued  to  labor 
among  the  needy  till  May  22,  1805,  when  15 
sisters  once  more  met  in  community  under 
Abbe  Jamet,  their  former  chaplain.  In  1817 
and  1818  they  were  first  charged  by  govern 
ment  with  the  care  of  insane  women,  and  soon 
afterward  with  that  of  insane  men.  Besides, 
Abbe  Jamet  having  invented  a  new  method  of 
instruction  for  deaf  and  dumb  orphans,  his 
school  gradually  became  a  normal  school  to 
which  pupil  teachers  of  the  deaf  and  dumb 
resort  from  France,  Belgium,  and  the  British 
isles.  In  1874  the  mother  house  at  Caen  num 
bered  300  sisters  and  upward  of  1,000  insane 
patients.  There  are  three  associated  estab 
lishments  of  equal  importance  at  Albi,  Pont- 
1'Abbe,  and  Brucourt.  In  Canada,  the  care  of 
the  insane  at  Quebec  devolved  on  the  sisters  of 
the  general  hospital  till  1844 ;  and  the  sisters  of 
Providence  founded  at  Montreal  in  1828,  and 
canonically  approved  in  1844,  have  charge  of 
the  insane  asylum  near  that  city.  II.  Protes 
tant.  In  the  church  of  England  several  com 
munities  of  charitable  women  have  been  organ 
ized  in  the  present  century.  A  community  of 
"  Sisters  of  Mercy  "  was  founded  at  Devonport 
about  1845  by  Miss  Lydia  Sel]on,  who  began 
with  the  establishment  of  industrial,  infant, 
and  ragged  schools.  Several  ladies  joined  her 
in  her  work,  and  they  took  a  house  and  formed 
a  community  under  Miss  Sellon,  at  first  subject 
to  the  visitorial  control  of  the  bishop  of  .Ex 
eter.  The  society  was  composed  of  three  or 
ders,  viz. :  those  living  in  community,  working 
among  the  poor,  and  leading  an  active  labori 
ous  life ;  those  who  were  unable  to  undertake 
this  work,  but  who  wished  to  live  a  calm  life, 
engaged  in  prayer,  reading,  and  quiet  occu 
pations  ;  and  married  and  single  women  who 
lived  in  the  world,  but  maintained  a  certain 
connection  with  the  community,  and  assisted 
its  work  in  various  ways.  The  sisters  were 
bound  by  no  vows  except  a  promise  of  obe 
dience  to  their  superior.  They  were  free  to 
abandon  their  vocation  at  will,  but  while  con 
nected  with  it  adopted  a  peculiar  garb,  and 
shared  their  property  in  common.  The  sisters 
also  undertook  the  entire  charge  and  support 
of  a  large  number  of  orphan  children.  At  East 
Grinstead  a  sisterhood  was  founded  in  1855  by 
the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Mason  Neale,  with  the  ob 
ject  of  nursing  the  sick,  poor  and  rich,  in  their 
own  homes,  and  in  hospitals  or  infirmaries, 
in  town  or  country.  In  1874  the  society  had 
branch  houses  in  London,  Aberdeen,  "Wigan, 


SISTOVA 


SIYOEI 


and  Frome-Selwood. — The  parent  house  of 
the  "  Sisterhood  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  "  was 
founded  at  Olewer  in  1849.  The  sisters  have 
there  a  house  of  mercy,  St.  John's  orphanage, 
St.  Andrew's  convalescent  hospital,  St.  An 
drew's  college  for  accommodating  women  re 
covering  from  illness  or  requiring  change  of  air 
and  nourishing  food,  and  St.  Stephen's  mission, 
embracing  an  upper  class  boarding  school,  a 
middle  class  school  for  girls  and  boys,  and  an 
infant  school.  The  sisterhood  has  established 
branches  at  London,  Oxford,  Torquay,  Glou 
cester,  and  other  places.  This  organization 
embraces:  1,  choir  and  lay  sisters  living  in 
community  ;  2,  a  second  order  formed  in  1860 
of  ladies  who  enter  on  the  sisters'  life  for  pe 
riods  of  three  years  at  a  time,  to  be  renewed 
continuously  at  their  own  desire  and  with  the 
consent  of  the  sisters ;  3,  associates,  who  live  in 
their  own  houses  and  give  such  assistance  to 
the  work  as  their  circumstances  may  permit. 
The  "  Sisterhood  of  St.  Mary,"  Wangate,  was 
established  in  1850,  and  has  branches  at  Bed- 
minster,  Plymouth,  and  other  places.  The 
"  Sisterhood  of  St.  Mary  the  Virgin  "  estab 
lished  its  parent  house  at  Wymering  in  1859. 
The  society  consists  of  sisters  of  charity,  who, 
being  resident  and  under  a  religious  rule,  con 
stitute  the  sisterhood,  and  ladies  of  charity  or 
associates,  who  undertake  to  promote  the  in 
terests  of  the  society  in  their  several  spheres  of 
private  life.  The  sisterhood  lias  established 
branches  at  Manchester  and  Aldershott.  The 
"  Sisterhood  of  St.  Thomas  the  Martyr,"  which 
has  its  parent  house  at  Oxford,  has  branches  at 
Liverpool  and  Plymouth.  The  society  of  the 
"  Sisters  of  the  Poor,"  founded  in  1851,  has  its 
parent  house  in  London  and  branches  at  Edin 
burgh,  Clifton,  Eastbourne,  and  West  Chester. 
— In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  of  the 
United  States,  an  organization  of  women  for 
voluntary  service  as  nurses  in  hospitals,  infir 
maries,  &c.,  called  "  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Com 
munion,"  was  founded  in  1845  by  the  exertions 
of  the  Eev.  W.  A.  Muhlenberg,  D.  D.,  in  con 
nection  with  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church 
of  the  Holy  Communion  in  New  York.  They 
are  bound  by  no  vows,  and  though  it  is  desira 
ble  that  they  should  remain  in  their  work  for 
life,  they  are  free  to  leave  whenever  they  are 
so  minded.  They  are  usually  received  between 
the  ages  of  25  and  40  years ;  if  under  25,  the 
written  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  must 
be  obtained.  Candidates  for  the  sisterhood 
are  required  to  spend  one  year  of  probation  be 
fore  entering  upon  their  vocation.  They  have 
no  marked  uniform,  though  the  dress  is  gen 
erally  black,  with  a  white  muslin  collar  and 
head  dress.  The  sisters  managed  for  several 
years  the  infirmary  of  the  Holy  Communion, 
and  since  1858  have  had  charge  of  St.  Luke's 
hospital,  New  York,  under  Dr.  Muhlenberg's 
superintendence.  (See  DEACONESS.) 

SISTOVA,  or  Shistov,  a  fortified  town  of  Bul 
garia,  on  a  height  overlooking  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube,  which  is  here  navigable  for 


vessels  of  500  tons,  35  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Rustchuk 
and  23  in.  E.  by  S.  of  Mcopoli;  pop.  about 
15,000.  It  is  defended  by  a  citadel  or  cas 
tle,  now  much  dilapidated.  The  houses  are 
ill  built,  but  the  mosques  are  of  considerable 
beauty.  A  treaty  of  peace  between  Turkey 
and  Austria  was  concluded  here  Aug.  4,  1*791. 

SISYPHUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of  ./Eolus 
and  Enarete,  and  married  to  Merope,  by  whom 
he  became  the  father  of  Glaucus  and  others. 
Some  later  accounts  make  him  the  son  of  Au- 
tolycus  and  the  father  of  Ulysses.  To  him  are 
attributed  the  foundation  of  Corinth  (Ephyra) 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Isthmian  games. 
He  and  his  family  were  considered  the  most 
deceitful  of  men,  and  he  was  punished  in  the 
lower  world  by  being  set  to  the  task  of  rolling 
a  huge  marble  block  up  hill,  which  as  soon  as 
it  reached  the  top  always  rolled  back  again. 
The  crimes  which  induced  this  penalty  are,  ac 
cording  to  different  legends,  that  he  betrayed 
the  plans  of  the  gods,  killed  travellers,  and  re 
vealed  the  abduction  of  ./Egina  by  Jupiter. 

SITKA.     See  ALASKA,  vol.  i.,  p.  239. 

SIVA.     See  INDIA,  RELIGIONS  OF. 

SIVAS.  I.  A  vilayet  of  Turkey,  in  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  N".  by  Trebizond,  E.  by  Trebizond, 
Erzerum,  and  Diarbekir,  S.  by  Marash,  Adana, 
and  Konieh,  and  W.  by  Angora  and  Kasta- 
muni;  area,  about  25,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  esti 
mated  at  about  600,000.  The  most  important 
town,  besides  the  capital,  is  Tokat,  and  its  prin 
cipal  seaport  is  Samsun.  It  is  traversed  by 
several  branches  of  the  Anti-Taurus  mountains. 
It  is  drained  by  the  Kizil  Irmak  (anc.  Halys), 
the  Yeshil  Irmak  (Iris),  and  their  affluents,  and 
several  smaller  streams  which  flow  into  the 
Euphrates.  Among  the  minerals  are  iron,  cop 
per,  lead,  alabaster,  marble,  slate,  and  especial 
ly  salt.  Most  of  the  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile, 
but  not  thoroughly  cultivated.  The  pastures 
are  extensive.  In  ancient  times  the  province 
formed  parts  of  Pontus  and  Cappadocia.  II. 
A  city  (anc.  Sebastia),  capital  of  the  prov 
ince,  in  an  extensive  plain  on  the  Kizil  Irmak, 
440  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Constantinople ;  pop.  about 
25,000.  The  town  is  defended  by  two  old 
castles,  and  contains  fine  mosques  and  many 
ruins.  Access  from  the  Black  sea  is  easy,  and 
the  trade  is  active  in  the  large  bazaars. 

SIVORI,  Ernesto  Camillo,  an  Italian  violinist, 
born  in  Genoa,  June  6,  1817.  At  the  age  of 
four  years  he  was  able  to  perform  whatever  he 
heard  his  sisters  play  or  sing.  He  received 
lessons  successively  from  Restano,  Dellepiane, 
Costa,  and  Paganini,  but  modelled  his  playing 
chiefly  upon  that  of  the  last  named.  His  first 
concerts  were  given  at  Paris  and  in  England 
when  he  was  but  ten  years  old.  He  then  stu 
died  counterpoint  for  eight  years  under  Ser- 
ra,  and  afterward  gave  concerts  throughout 
Europe.  In  1846  he  visited  the  United  States 
in  company  with  the  pianist  Herz,  and  went 
also  to  Mexico  and  South  America.  Next  en 
gaging  in  a  mercantile  enterprise  in  Italy,  he 
lost  all  his  earnings  and  was  obliged  to  resume 


SIWAH 


SIXTUS 


73 


his  artistic  career.  He  has  composed  a  num 
ber  of  concertos,  fantasias,  and  other  pieces. 

SIWAH  (anc.  Ammon  or  Ammonium),  an 
oasis  in  N.  W.  Egypt,  near  the  boundary  of 
the  disputed  territory  between  Egypt  and  Tri 
poli,  about  330  m.  W.  S.  "VV.  of  Cairo,  and 
about  100  m.  from  the  coast  of  the  Mediter 
ranean  sea;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  consists' of 
several  detached  tracts,  the  principal  of  which 
is  about  8  m.  long  and  3  in.  broad.  Its  surface 
is  undulating,  rising  on  the  north  into  high 
limestone  hills.  There  are  numerous  ponds 
and  springs,  salt  and  fresh.  The  soil  of  the  E. 
part  is  exceedingly  fertile,  its  chief  product 
being  dates.  The  climate  is  delightful.  The 
inhabitants  are  Berbers  and  negroes,  all  Mo 
hammedans,  governed  by  sheikhs  or  elders, 
some  of  whom  hold  office  for  life,  others  for 
ten  years.  The  people  understand  Arabic, 
but  have  a  mixed  idiom  of  their  own.  Their 
principal  town,  Siwah  (according  to  Eohlfs, 
who  last  visited  it  in  February,  1874,  in  lat. 
29°  12'  X.,  Ion.  25°  30'  E.),  is  defended  by  a 
citadel  on  a  rock,  and  by  strong  walls.  The 
streets  are  irregular,  narrow,  and  dark.  It  is 
divided  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  town.  No 
stranger  is  admitted  to  the  former,  nor  are  na 
tive  bachelors  permitted  to  live  there.  About 
3  m.  S.  E.  of  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  now  called 
Om  Baydah,  sculptures  of  Ammon,  with  the 
attributes  of  the  ram-headed  goat,  being  among 
the  remains.  Near  the  temple  is  what  is  sup 
posed  to  be  the  fountain  of  the  sun,  a  pool  80 
ft.  long  and  55  ft.  wide,  formed  by  springs, 
whose  water  appears  to  be  warmer  by  night 
than  by  day,  and  is  heavier  than  that  of  the 
Nile.  In  the  vicinity  are  other  ruins  and  in 
scriptions  of  Greek,  Roman,  and  Roman-Egyp 
tian  character.  In  the  "W.  part  of  the  oasis 
is  a  lake,  called  Birket  Arashiah,  containing 
an  island  from  which  strangers  were  till  late 
ly  excluded. — In  ancient  times  this  oasis  was 
celebrated  as  the  seat  of  the  oracle  of  Am 
mon.  Besides  the  temple,  with  its  images  of 
Jupiter  Arnmon  set  in  precious  stones,  it  con 
tained  a  royal  castle  surrounded  by  three  walls, 
and  a  remarkable  spring  called  the  "fountain 
of  the  sun,"  the  water  of  which  was  quite 
cold  at  noon  and  boiling  hot  at  midnight. 
Cambyses  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
take  the  temple.  In  331  B.  0.  Alexander  the 
Great  marched  through  the  desert  to  visit  it, 
and  the  priest  addressed  him  as  the  son  of 
the  god.  The  emperor  Justinian  built  here  a 
Christian  church. — See  Eeise  zu  clem  Tempel 
des  Jupiter  Ammon  und  nacJi  Oberagypten,  by 
Minutoli  (Berlin,  1824) ;  "  Adventures  in  the 
Libyan  Desert,"  by  Bayle  Saint  John  (Lon 
don,  1849);  and  Das  Orakel  und  die  Oase  des 
Ammon,  by  Parthey  (Berlin,  1862). 

SIX  NATIONS.     See  IKOQTJOIS. 

SIX  PRINCIPLE  BAPTISTS,  a  small  religious 
sect  which  first  appeared  in  this  country  as  a 
separate  organization  in  Rhode  Island  in  1639. 
Their  church  polity  and  views  on  baptism  are 


the  same  as  those  of  the  Baptists.  In  doctrine 
they  are  Arminian.  They  oppose  the  pay 
ment  of  any  regular  salary  to  their  preachers, 
and  have  never  connected  themselves  with 
any  missionary  efforts,  or  benevolent  or  re 
formatory  societies.  They  hold  as  their  dis 
tinguishing  doctrines  the  six  principles  laid 
down  in  Ileb.  vi.  1,  2,  viz. :  repentance  from 
dead  works ;  faith  toward  God ;  the  doctrine 
of  baptisms,  of  which  they  distinguish  four 
kinds,  viz. :  John's  baptism,  the  baptism  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  the 
baptism  of  Christ's  sufferings,  and  apostolic  or 
Christian  baptism,  which  alone  remains  since 
the  resurrection  of  Christ;  laying  on  of  hands, 
which  they  regard  as  equally  necessary  with 
baptism ;  the  resurrection  of  the  dead ;  and 
eternal  judgment.  In  1874  they  had  20  church 
es,  12  ordained  ministers,  and  2,000  members, 
mainly  in  Rhode  Island. 

SIXTIS,  the  name  of  five  popes,  of  whom 
the  following  are  the  most  important.  I.  Six- 
tns  IV.  (FKANCESCO  D'ALBESCOLA  BELLA  Ro- 
VEEE),  born  at  Celle,  near  Savona,  July  21, 
1414,  died  in  Rome,  Aug.  13,  1484.  He  was 
a  Franciscan  monk  and  a  protege  of  Cardinal 
Bessarion,  taught  philosophy  and  theology  in 
the  principal  schools  of  Italy,  and  was  chosen 
general  of  his  order  in  1464.  He  was  created 
cardinal  Sept.  18,  1467,  and  was  elected  pope 
Aug.  9,  1471.  The  efforts  which  he  immedi 
ately  made  to  reform  the  religious  orders  and 
general  church  discipline  were  thwarted  by 
his  endeavor  to  unite  all  Christian  princes  in 
a  crusade  against  the  Turks,  for  which  pur 
pose  he  vainly  tried  to  reconcile  Louis  XI.  of 
France  and  Duke  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgun 
dy.  He  levied  tithes  on  all  church  property  in 
Christendom  to  equip  a  fleet,  which,  with  con 
tingents  from  Venice  and  Naples,  only  succeed 
ed  in  capturing  Smyrna.  Louis  XI.  promised 
assistance  in  return  for  an  extension  of  the 
royal  power  over  benefices  and  all  church  rev 
enues,  and  the  abolition  of  ecclesiastical  courts 
and  immunities ;  but  on  these  points  Sixtus  re 
fused  to  yield.  He  has  been  justly  reproached, 
however,  with  a  too  great  facility  in  granting 
favors,  and  an  excessive  nepotism.  To  secure 
the  cooperation  of  the  Spanish  and  Austrian 
princes  against  the  Turks,  he  sanctioned  the 
nomination  to  the  see  of  Saragossa  of  a  child 
six  years  old,  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  house 
of  Aragon ;  and  he  raised  successively  to  the 
cardinalate  five  of  his  own  nephews.  Two  of 
these  cardinals,  Riario  and  San  Giorgio,  were 
implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  the  Pazzi  in 
1478,  which  caused  the  pope  to  be  solemnly 
arraigned  by  the  Florentine  clergy  as  privy  to 
the  intended  murder  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and 
the  death  of  his  brother  Giuliano.  The  Flor 
entine  magistrates  having  hanged  Archbishop 
Salviati  of  Pisa,  one  of  the  conspirators,  they 
were  excommunicated,  and  the  city  was  laid 
under  interdict.  The  republic  was  sustained 
by  France,  Venice,  and  the  duke  of  Milan ;  the 
other  Italian  sovereigns  sided  with  the  pope, 


SIXTHS 


SKATE 


and  the  quarrel  ended  in  1480.  About  the 
same  time  Sixtus  became  involved  in  a  war 
with  Ercole  d'Este,  duke  of  Ferrara,  whom  he 
wished  to  dispossess  in  favor  of  one  of  his  own 
nephews.  He  was  backed  by  the  Venetians  ; 
but  the  duke  of  Ferrara  being  supported  by  the 
king  of  Naples  and  the  emperor,  Sixtus  was 
forced  to  yield  in  1484.  During  these  troubles 
the  Turks  besieged  Rhodes  and  ravaged  the 
southern  coast  of  Italy,  capturing  the  city  of 
Otranto  and  massacring  12,000  of  the  inhabi 
tants.  The  pope  once  more  attempted  in  vain 
to  organize  a  crusade,  but  succeeded  in  driving 
off  the  invaders.  Among  the  other  acts  of  his 
pontificate  were  the  confirmation  of  the  reli 
gious  order  of  Minims,  May  23,  1474 ;  the  bull 
sanctioning  the  Spanish  inquisition,  1478  ;  the 
canonization  of  St.  Bonaventura,  April  14, 1482 ; 
the  construction,  among  many  other  splendid 
public  works,  of  the  Sistine  chapel  in  the  Vati 
can  ;  large  additions  to  the  Vatican  library ;  and 
the  sending  of  the  first  missionaries  to  the  Cana 
ry  islands.  The  Regular  Gancellarm  Romance, 
are  attributed  to  this  pope,  lie  also  left  several 
Latin  treatises,  among  which  are  De  Sanguine 
Christi  (fol,  Rome,  1473),  De  Potentia  Dei 
(fol.),  and  several  letters.  II.  Sixtns  \,  (FELICE 
PERRETTI),  born  at  Grotte-a-Mare,  nearMontal- 
to,  Dec.  15,  1521,  died  in  Rome,  Aug.  27,  1590. 
He  was  a  Franciscan,  and  distinguished  him 
self  as  a  lecturer  on  ecclesiastical  law  at  Ri 
mini  in  1544  and  Siena  in  1546,  as  a  popular 
preacher,  and  as  an  author  by  works  on  mysti 
cal  theology  and  on  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle. 
In  1557  he  became  inquisitor  general  at  Venice, 
and  in  1570  he  was  created  cardinal,  when  he 
assumed  the  name  Montalto.  He  was  elected 
pope  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote,  April  24, 
1585.  Both  as  pope  and  as  secular  prince  he 
was  distinguished  for  prudence,  severity,  and 
energy.  He  destroyed  the  power  of  the  ban 
ditti  and  restored  order  and  safety  through 
out  his  territory,  administered  law  with  the  ut 
most  impartiality  and  with  an  appalling  rigor, 
built  a  great  aqueduct,  enlarged  the  library  of 
the  Vatican,  and  in  many  other  ways  encour 
aged  industry.  He  fixed  the  number  of  cardi 
nals  at  70,  required  the  Catholic  bishops  of  all 
countries  to  visit  Rome  at  certain  intervals, 
and  reorganized  the  entire  administration  of 
ecclesiastical  affairs  by  the  appointment  of  15 
congregations  of  cardinals  and  other  officers. 
He  founded  a  new  university  at  Fermo,  and 
new  colleges  at  Rome  and  Bologna.  From  the 
printing  press  of  the  Vatican  he  published  the 
revised  edition  of  the  Vulgate,  which  had  been 
ordered  by  the  council  of  Trent.  He  avoided 
war  with  the  Christian  princes  as  much  as 
possible,  though  he  encouraged  and  supported 
Henry  III.  against  the  Huguenots,  Philip  II. 
against  England,  and  Archduke  Maximilian 
when  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  crown  of 
Poland.  He  hurled  his  anathemas  against  the 
young  king  of  Navarre,  and  against  "Elizabeth 
of  England  for  putting  to  death  Mary  Stuart ; 
and  he  summoned  Henry  III.  to  Rome  for  or 


dering  the  assassination  of  the  duke  of  Guise. 
He  left  a  vast  treasure  in  the  castle  of  Sant' 
Angelo,  to  be  used  by  his  successors  only  in 
circumstances  strictly  defined.  His  biography 
by  Leti  (Vit'a  di  Sisto  V.,  Lausanne,  1069)  is 
considered  untrustworthy,  and  that  by  Tempest! 
(Storia  dclla  vita  e  geste  di  Sisto  V.,  Rome, 
1754)  too  partisan. — See  J.  A.  von  Hubner, 
Sixte  Quint,  sa  me  et  son  siecle  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1871 ;  English  translation  by  Jerningham,  Lon 
don,  1872  ;  German,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1874). 

SKAGER  RACK  ("the  crooked  strait  of  Ska- 
gen  "),  an  arm  of  the  North  sea  or  German 
ocean,  lying  between  the  Danish  peninsula  of 
Jutland  and  the  coast  of  Norway,  and  connect 
ing  the  Cattegat  with  the  North  sea.  It  ex 
tends  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.;  length  about  160 
m.,  breadth  nearly  80  m.  It  is  much  deeper 
on  the  Norwegian  than  on  the  Danish  coast, 
ranging  on  the  former  from  150  to  200  fath 
oms,  and  on  the  latter  from  30  to  40.  It  is 
subject  to  severe  storms.  The  harbors  are  all 
on  the  Norwegian  coast. 

SKiMANIA,  a  S.  county  of  Washington  terri 
tory,  bordering  on  Oregon,  bounded  S.  by  Co 
lumbia  river  and  drained  by  several  streams ; 
area,  1,800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  133.  The 
surface  is  generally  mountainous,  with  fertile 
valleys.  The  Cascade  mountains  traverse  it 
from  N.  to  S.  Mt.  St.  Helens,  in  the  N.  W. 
part,  is  9,750  ft.  high.  Capital,  Cascades. 

SKATE  (Dutch,  scltaats),  a  shoe  or  sandal 
with  a  steel  runner  for  travelling  over  ice.  It 
probably  originated  in  Scandinavia.  The  ear 
liest  skates  were  made  of  bone,  fastened  to 
the  foot  with  cords.  Such  skates  have  been 
discovered  in  England,  Holland,  Sweden,  and 
Iceland,  and  there  are  accounts  of  their  use  in 
London  in  the  time  of  Henry  II.  The  intro 
duction  of  iron  skates  was  doubtless  due  to 
the  Dutch,  who  for  an  unknown  period  have 
used  them  for  travel  on  their  canals  and  rivers. 
The  best  facilities  for  skating  are  afforded  by 
the  countries  of  N.  W.  Europe,  where  the  ice 
is  little  covered  with  snow ;  but  as  a  pastime 
it  has  become  widely  popular,  and  is  practised 
with  great  skill  by  both  men  and  women.  The 
form  of  the  skate  has  been  much  improved. 
Until  within  a  few  years  it  was  a  block  of 
wood  with  a  runner  or  keel  of  iron  or  steel 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  channelled 
at  the  bottom  so  that  two  sharp  edges  cut  into 
the  ice,  ending  in  a  sharp  angle  at  the  heel, 
and  turning  up  at  the  toe.  It  was  secured  to 
the  foot  by  a  peg  or  screw  entering  the  heel 
of  the  boot,  and  by  straps  passing  through  the 
block,  crossing  the  front  part  of  the  foot,  and 
connecting  with  a  broad  strap  around  the  heel. 
In  improved  skates  the  runner  is  of  steel, 
thicker,  and  flat  instead  of  channelled  at  the 
bottom,  the  cutting  edge  forming  a  little  less 
than  a  right  angle.  It  is  generally  curved 
slightly  from  front  to  back,  and  rounded  up 
at  both  heel  and  toe.  There  have  been  many 
changes  in  the  form  of  the  body  of  the  skate 
and  the  fastenings,  the  straps  sometimes  giv- 


SKATE 


SKELETON 


75 


ing  place  to  what  is  almost  a  complete  shoe, 
while  one  of  the  favorite  skates  is  made  wholly 
of  iron  or  steel,  without  straps,  and  fastened 
to  the  boot  by  metal  clamps.  Motion  on  skates 
is  very  rapid.  It  is  said  that  the  Frieslanders  > 
will  go  for  a  long  time  at  the  rate  of  15  m. 
an  hour,  and  for  short  distances  this  rate  has 
been  greatly  exceeded. — "Parlor"  skates,  hav 
ing  in  place  of  runners  rollers  of  wood,  metal, 
papier  mache,  or  India  rubber,  arranged  in  a 
line,  or  like  the  wheels  of  a  carriage,  are  used 
on  floors  and  pavements.  With  these  skates 
experts  can  execute  the  ordinary  curves,  and 
even  many  intricate  figures. 

SKATE,  a  fish.     See  RAY. 

SKEAT,  Walter  William,  an  English  philologist, 
born  in  London,  Nov.  21,  1835.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Christ's  college,  Cambridge,  in  1858, 
became  a  fellow  there  in  1860,  mathematical 
lecturer  in  1864,  and  afterward  English  lec 
turer.  In  1873  he  helped  to  found  the  English 
dialect  society,  and  he  has  edited  most  of  its 
publications.  Besides  continuing  for  the  Cam 
bridge  press  the  Anglo-Saxon  Gospels  begun 
by  J.  M.  Kemble,  and  editing  several  publica 
tions  for  the  Oxford  press,  the  philological 
society,  and  the  early  English  text  society, 
he  has  published  "  The  Songs  and  Ballads  of 
Uhland,"  translated  from  the  German  (1864); 
"A  Tale  of  Ludlow  Castle"  (1866)  ;  "A  Mceso- 
Gothic  Glossary  "  (1868) ;  "Hand  List  of  some  | 
Cognate  Words  in  English,  Latin,  and  Greek" 
(1871) ;  "  Questions  for  Examination  in  English 
Literature"  (1873) ;  "  The  Gospels  of  St.  Mark 
and  St.  Luke,  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  Northum 
berland  Versions  synoptieally  arranged,  with 
Collations  exhibiting  all  the  Readings  of  all  the 
Manuscripts"  (2  vols.,  1875) ;  and  "Plutarch- 
Shakespeare,"  biographies  (vol.  i.,  1875). 

SKELETON  (Gr.,  a  dried  body,  from  an&- 
faiv,  to  desiccate),  the  bony  and  cartilaginous 
framework  of  animals,  and  the  ligneous  struc 
ture  of  the  leaves  of  plants.  In  the  higher 
animals  the  skeleton  is  internal  (endo-skele- 
ton) ;  in  many  of  the  lower  it  is  external  (exo- 
skejeton).  When  the  bones  are  joined  by  nat 
ural  ligaments,  they  form  a  natural  skeleton ; 
when  they  are  joined  by  wires  and  straps,  the 
skeleton  is  said  to  be  artificial.  The  study  of 
the  skeletons  of  different  animals  belongs  to  the 
subject  of  comparative  anatomy;  the  human 
skeleton  only  will  be  described  here.  Bones  | 
maybe  classified  as  long,  round,  flat,  and  short. 
(See  BOXE.)  The  human  skeleton  consists  of 
208  bones,  exclusive  of  the  teeth,  which  are  in 
reality  parts  of  the  digestive  apparatus,  and 
are  developed  from  the  mucous  membrane. 
For  convenience  the  skeleton  may  be  divided 
into  four  regions:  1,  the  skull;  2,  the  trunk; 
3,  the  upper  extremities;  4,  the  lower  extrem 
ities.  The  skull  contains  30  bones,  in  three 
divisions,  cranium,  ears,  and'  face.  There  are 
8  cranial  bones,  viz. :  1  frontal,  2  parietal,  2 
temporal,  1  occipital,  1  sphenoid,  and  1  eth 
moid.  The  frontal  bone  forms  the  forehead, 
upper  part  of  the  eye  sockets,  and  front  part 


of  the  floor  of  the  cranial  cavity.  Just  above 
the  inner  angles  of  the  eyebrows  are  two 
marked  prominences  called  the  superciliary 
ridges,  at  which  points  the  two  tables  of  the 
bone  separate  considerably,  enclosing  cavities 
called  the  frontal  sinuses  which  communicate 
with  the  nasal  passages.  The  parietal  bones, 
occupying  the  upper  part  and  sides  of  the  skull, 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  sagittal 
suture,  and  from  the  frontal  bone  by  the  coro 
nal  suture.  A  curved  ridge  traverses  both 
frontal  and  parietal  bones  at  each  side,  which 
marks  the  origin  of  the  fibres  of  the  temporal 
muscle,  lying  in  a  depression  behind  and  below 
the  ridge,  called  the  temporal  fossa3.  The 
temporal  bones,  situated  at  the  sides  and  base 
of  the  skull,  consist  each  of  three  portions :  an 
upright  or  squamous  portion,  a  posterior  or 
mastoid  portion,  and  an  internal  or  petrous 
portion.  The  upright  portion  articulates  with 
the  parietal  bone  by  the  squamous  suture.  The 
mastoid  portion  has  a  projection,  felt  behind 
the  ear,  called  the  mastoid  process,  which  has 
a  cellular  structure,  communicating  with  the 
middle  ear  or  tympanum ;  the  cells  are  not 
developed  till  after  puberty.  The  petrous 
(hard,  stony)  portion  is  in  the  form  of  a  trian 
gular  pyramid,  and  lies  upon  one  of  its  sides 
in  the  base  of  the  skull,  its  apex  pointing  for 
ward  and  inward.  One  of  the  openings  into  it, 
the  internal  auditory  canal,  transmits  the  audi 
tory  and  facial  nerves,  and  it  also  contains  the 
tympanum.  The  temporal  bones  are  pierced  ex 
ternally  by  the  external  auditory  canal,  which 
transmits  the  sonorous  pulsations  to  the  mem 
brane  of  the  tympanum.  The  under  surface 
of  the  bone  articulates  with  the  lower  jaw 
bone  to  form  the  joint.  Just  in  front  of  this, 
and  a  little  above,  a  process  called  the  zygo- 
matic  springs  forward  to  meet  another  of  the 
same  name  from  the  cheek  bone,  forming  a 
horizontal  arch,  the  zygomatic,  under  which 
the  tendon  of  the  temporal  muscle  passes. 
The  occipital  bone  consists  of  an  upright  and 
a  basilar  portion  ;  the  latter  contains  a  large 
orifice,  the  foramen  magnum,  through  which 
the  brain  connects  with  the  spinal  cord.  On 
each  side  of  the  foramen  magnum  there  is  a 
condyle  having  an  articular  surface  which  rests 
upon  a  corresponding  condyle  of  the  atlas,  the 
upper  bone  of  the  vertebral  column.  The  ba 
silar  portion  articulates  in  front  with  the  body 
of  the  sphenoid  bone,  fig.  4,  which  in  turn 
articulates  with  the  ethmoid,  fig.  5,  the  latter 
being  situated  at  the  root  of  the  nose  and  held 
in  position  by  the  frontal  and  several  bones  of 
the  face.  There  are  8  ear  bones,  4  in  each  ear, 
situated  in  the  tympanum ;  they  are  described 
in  the  article  EAR.  .The  14  bones  of  the  face 
arc  2  nasal.  2  upper  jaw  or  superior  maxillary, 
2  lachrymal,  2  cheek  or  malar  bones,  2  palate 
bones,  2  inferior  turbinated  (in  the  nose),  1 
vomer  (septum  of  the  nose),  and  1  lower  jaw, 
or  inferior  maxillary  bone.  (See  illustrations.) 
Each  upper  jaw  bone  contains  a  large  cavity 
called  the  maxillary  antrum,  which  communi- 


Y6 


SKELETON 


FIG.  1. — Front  View  of  Skeleton.  1.  Frontal  bone.  2.  Parietal.  3.  Temporal;  4,  its  mastoid  process.  5.  Malar  or  cheek 
bone.  6.  Upper  maxillary.  7.  Orbit  of  the  eye.  8.  Lower  maxillary;  I),  its  ramus.  12.  The  cervical  vertebrae.  13. 
Clavicle.  14.  Scapula.  15.  Sternum.  16.  First  rib.  IT.  Seventh  rib.  18.  Twelfth  rib.  19.  First  lumbar  vertebra.- 
20.  Last  lumbar  vertebra.  21.  Sacrum.  22.  Ilium.  (See  PELVIS.)  24.  Humerus;  25,  its  head;  26,  its  outer  condyle ; 
27,  its  inner  condyle.  28.  Radius :  2!>,  its  head  ;  30,  its  lower  extremity.  81.  Ulna ;  32.  its  head ;  33.  its  lower  extremity. 
34.  Carpus  or  wrist.  35.  Metacarpus.  36.  Phalanges.  37.  Femur  or  thigh  bone;  33,  its  head;  39,  its  neck;  40,  its 
greater  troehanter;  41.  its  lesser  trochanter;  42,  its  outer  condyle  ;  43,  its  inner  condyle.  44.  Patella  or  knee  pan.  45, 
Tibia;  4G,  its  head;  47,  its  lower  extremity;  48,  inner  malleohis.  49.,  Fibuki;  50.  its  head;  51,  its  lower  extremity, 
forming  outer  malleolus.  52.  Tarsal  bones'  (7).  55.  Metatarsal  bones  (T>).  •  5G.  Phalanges. 

Fro.  2. — Back  View  of  Skull,  Trunk,  and  Left  Arm.  1.  Frontal  bone.  2.  Parietal.  3.  Occipital.  4.  Temporal.  5.  Lower 
maxillary.  18.  Head  of  scapula  at  junction  of  clavicle.  19.  Supra-spinous  fossa.  20.  Infra-spinous  fossa.  21.  Anterior 
border.  22.  Posterior  border.  23.  Inferior  angle.  24.  Olecranon  process  of  ulna. 

FIG.  3.— Floor  of  Skull.  1,  1.  Orbital  plate  of  frontal  bone,  forming  most  of  anterior  fossa?.  2.  Cribriform  plate  of  ethmoid 
bone.  8.  Crista  galli  process.  4.  4.  Lesser  wings  of  sphenoid  bone.  5,  5.  Middle  fossa?  of  base  of  cranium.  G,  G.  Greater 
wings  of  sphenoid.  7.  Olivary  process.  Immediately  in  front  of  this  process  there  is  a  transverse  furrow  called  the 
optic  groove,  in  which  lies  the  commissure  or  crossing  of  the  optic  nerves.  This  groove  terminates  in  the  optic 
foramina.  4,  4,  fig.  4.  (See  BRAIN,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  193.  194.)  S.  Sella  turcica.  upon  which  rests  the  pituitary  gland. 
(See  BRAIN,  p.  191.)  9.  9.  Petrous  portion  of  temporal  bone.  10,  10.  Eound  foramina  for  superior  maxillary  nerve. 
11,  11.  Oval  foramina  for  inferior  maxillary  nerve.  Interior  to  these  two  holes  is  a  large  slit-like  opening  on  each 
side,  giving  passage  to  the  internal  carotid  artery  and  some  important  nerves.  13,  13.  Posterior  fossas  of  the  floor  of 
cranium.  14.  Foramen  magnum,  for  the  spinal  cord.  15.  Basilar  process  of  occipital  bone.  16.  16.  Grooved  channel  for 
the  lateral  sinus.  (See  BRAIN,  p.  188.)  17,  17.  Internal  auditory  meatus,  transmitting  the  auditory  and  facial  nerves. 

FIG.  4.— Sphenoid  Bone,  seen  from  above.  1,  1,  Its  greater  wings.  2,  2.  Its  lesser  wings.  3.  Sella  turcica,  4,  4.  Foramina 
,for  the  optic  nerves.  5.  5.  Sphenoidal  fissures,  for  third,  fourth,  sixth,  and  part  of  fifth  pairs  of  cranial  nerves.  6,  6. 
Hound  foramina.  7,  7.  Oval  foramina.  8.  Part  of  basilar  process  of  occipital  bone.  9,  9.  Internal  pterygoid  plates,  ter 
minating  in  muscular  or  hook-like  processes,  over  which  pass  the  tendons  of  the  tensor  muscles  of  the  palate.  10,10. 
External  pterygoid  plates. 


SKELETON 


77 


FIG.  5.— Ethmoid  Bone,  seen  from  behind.  1.  Central  lamella.  2.  Cribriform  plate.  3.  Crista  galli.  5,  6.  7.  Lateral  mass 
of  left  side. 

FIG.  6.— Hyoid  or  Tongue  Bone,  seen  in  front.    1.  Body.    2,  2.  Greater  cornua.    3,  3.  Lesser  cornua. 

FIG.  7. — Palmar  Surface  of  Eight  Carpus  and  Metacarpus.  1.  Scaphoid  bone.  2.  Lunar.  3.  Cuneiform.  4.  Pisiform.  5. 
Trapezium.  0.  Trapezoid.  7.  Magnum.  8.  Unciform.  a,  &,  c,  d,  e.  The  five  metacarpal  bones. 

FIG.  S. — Tarsus  and  Metatarsus,  forming  Instep.  1.  Astragalus.  2.  Os  calcis.  3.  Boat-shaped  or  scaphoid  bone.  4.  Cu 
boid.  5.  Internal  cuneiform.  6.  Middle  cuneiform.  7.  External  cuneiform.  «,  &,  c,  d,  e.  The  five  metatarsal  bones. 


cates  with  the  nasal  passage.  The  lachrymal 
bones  are  small  oval  plates  situated  at  the  in 
ner  angles  of  the  orbits  of  the  eyes.  The  palate 
bones  are  situated  at  the  posterior  part  of  the 
nasal  passages,  and  enter  into  the  formation 
of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  or  palate  and  the 
back  part  of  the  floor  of  the  orbits  of  the  eyes. 
The  lower  jaw  bone  consists  of  a  horizontal 
semicircular  portion,  having  an  alveolar  process 
into  which  the  lower  teeth  are  set,  and  of  a 
perpendicular  portion,  the  ramus,  divided  into 
two  branches,  one  of  which  terminates  in  the 
condyle  to  form  the  joint,  and  the  other  is  the 
coronoid  process,  into  which  are  inserted  the 
fibres  of  the  temporal  muscle  and  a  portion  of 
those  of  the  masseter,  the  two  principal  mus 
cles  of  the  jaw.  The  floor  of  the  skull  is  di 
vided  into  anterior,  middle,  and  posterior  f  OSSJB, 
the  two  first  lodging  the  anterior  and  middle 
lobes  of  the  cerebrum,  and  the  posterior  fossaa 
lodging  the  cerebellum.  (See  BKAIX.)  The 
bones  of  the  trunk  are  54  in  number,  viz. : 
the  24  bones  called  vertebrae,  constituting,  with 
the  sacrum  upon  which  they  rest,  the  spinal 
column,  24  ribs,  4  pelvic  bones,  1  sternum  or 
breast  bone,  and  1  tongue  bone.  The  two  hip 
bones  are  naturally  classified  with  the  lower 
extremities,  but  as  they  are  joined  to  the  sa 
crum  by  immovable  sutures,  and  form  with  it 
an  important  piece  of  animal  mechanism,  the 
pelvis,  they  are  here  included  in  the  bones  of 
the  trunk.  (See  PELVIS.)  The  spinal  or  ver 
tebral  column,  or  backbone,  forms  the  axis  of 
the  trunk,  supporting  it  and  the  skull.  All 
of  the  vertebra  but  one  have  their  principal 
features  in  common;  i.  e.,  they  have  a  body, 
a  spinous  process,  a  spinal  foramen  for  trans 
mitting  the  spinal  cord,  and  four  articular 
processes,  two  superior  and  two  inferior  for 
articulating  with  each  other.  The  spinous  pro 
cesses  which  project  posteriorly  together  form 
the  "  spine,"  which  marks  the  course  of  the 
spinal  column.  The  uppermost  vertebra,  called 
the  atlas,  has  no  body,  but  its  place  is  occupied 
by  a  tooth-like  process  of  the  bone  next  below, 
called  the  axis,  around  which  the  atlas  turns. 
There  are  7  cervical,  12  dorsal,  and  5  lumbar 
vertebrae.  The  seventh  cervical  is  peculiar 
from  having  a  longer  and  more  prominent 
spinous  process  than  the  others,  which  may 
be  felt  at  the  base  of  the  neck.  Between  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  placed  the  elastic 
intervertebral  cartilages,  which  permit  flexion 
of  the  spinal  column  and  prevent  concussion 
of  the  spinal  cord  in  walking  and  leaping.  The 
ribs,  24  in  number,  are  long  flat  bones  of  a 
semicircular  form,  and  have  an  oblique  posi 
tion,  their  posterior  extremities  being  higher 
than  their  anterior.  The  middle  part  of  the 


curve  is  also  depressed,  so  that  the  contrac 
tion  of  the  respiratory  muscles  expands  the 
cavity  of  the  chest.  There  are  7  true  and  5 
false  ribs  on  each  side,  the  true  ribs  articula 
ting  with  the  sternum,  while  the  false  ribs  lap 
on  to  each  other,  except  the  last  two,  which 
are  free,  and  are  called  floating  ribs.  The 
sternum  is  a  kind  of  breastplate,  composed  of 
three  pieces,  to  which  the  collar  bones  and  the 
ribs  are  attached.  The  tongue  bone  supports 
the  root  of  the  tongue  and  gives  attachment  to 
muscles  for  moving  it.  The  upper  extremities 
contain  64  bones,  32  on  each  side,  in  six  divi 
sions:  1,  the  shoulder;  2,  the  arm;  3,  the 
forearm ;  4,  the  wrist  or  carpus ;  5,  the  palm 
or  metacarpus ;  6,  the  fingers  or  phalanges. 
The  shoulder  contains  two  bones,  the  scapula 
and  clavicle.  The  scapula  is  a  flat  triangular 
bone  situated  at  the  upper  and  back  part  of 
the  chest  on  each  side.  It  is  traversed  on  its 
posterior  surface  by  a  spine  which  terminates 
in  the  acromion  process,  the  prominent  point 
of  the  shoulder.  Below  the  acromion  process 
is  the  head  of  the  scapula,  containing  a  shallow 
cup  called  the  gienoid  cavity,  which  receives 
the  head  of  the  arm  bone  or  humerus.  The 
outer  extremity  of  the  collar  bone  or  clavicle 
(Lat.  clavis,  a  key)  articulates  with  the  acro 
mion  process,  forming  a  kind  of  brace.  The 
scapula  is  held  to  the  trunk  by  powerful  mus 
cles,  which  allow  of  sufficient  motion  to  give  a 
variety  of  positions  to  the  shoulder  joint.  The 
arm  contains  one  bone,  the  humerus,  the  lower 
end  of  which  by  its  expanded  articular  surface 
forms  with  the  two  bones  of  the  forearm,  the 
radius  and  ulna,  the  elbow  joint.  The  wrist 
or  carpus  contains  8  bones  (see  fig.  6),  the 
palm  or  metacarpus  5,  and  the  fingers  or  pha 
langes  14,  the  first  and  second  phalanx  con 
taining  5  each  and  the  third  4.  The  apparatus 
of  the  forearm  is  a  marvel  of  animal  mecha 
nism.  The  upper  extremity  of  the  ulna  forms 
with  the  articular  surface  of  the  humerus  a 
firm  hinge  joint,  but  the  head  of  the  radius 
forms  with  it  a  rotatory  joint  by  which  prona- 
tion  and  supination  of  the  forearm  and  hand 
are  effected  with  grace  and  facility.  The  lower 
extremities  contain  60  bones,  30  in  each  limb, 
in  six  divisions:  1,  the  thigh  bone  or  femur; 
2,  the  knee  pan  or  patella ;  3,  the  two  bones 
of  the  leg,  the  tibia  and  fibula ;  4,  the  7  bones 
of  the  ankle  or  tarsus ;  5,  the  5  bones  of  the 
metatarsus ;  and  6,  the  14  bones  of  the  toes  or 
phalanges.  The  femur  is  the  longest,  largest, 
and  strongest  bone  in  the  skeleton.  Its  upper 
extremity  contains  the  head,  which  fits  into 
the  socket  of  the  hip  bone,  and  the  neck,  which 
joins  the  shaft  of  the  bone  at  an  angle  of  near 
ly  45°,  the  union  being  marked  by  two  strong 


SKELTON 


SKIN 


processes  called  the  greater  and  lesser  trochan- 
ters,  to  which  are  attached  strong  muscles,  the 
chief  office  of  which  is  to  rotate  the  thigh,  and 
also  to  move  it  outward  and  inward.  Its  low 
er  extremity  is  expanded  like  that  of  the  1m- 
merus,  and  articulates  with  the  head  of  the 
tibia,  the  principal  hone  of  the  leg.  The  tibia 
articulates  at  its  lower  extremity  with  the  as 
tragalus,  the  bone  occupying  the  summit  of  the 
arch  of  the  foot,  and  the  latter  rests  upon  the 
calcis  or  heel  bone,  into  which  the  tendo  Achil- 
lis,  the  tendon  of  the  strong  extensor  muscles 
of  the  calf,  is  inserted. 

SKELTOX,  John,  an  English  poet,  born  prob 
ably  in  Norfolk  about  1400,  died  in  "Westmin 
ster,  June  21,  1529.  He  graduated  at  Cam 
bridge,  entered  holy  orders,  was  tutor  to  the 
duke  of  York,  afterward  Henry  VIII.,  became 
rector  of  Diss  and  curate  of  Trompington  in 
1504,  and  was  appointed  orator  regius  to  Henry 
VIII.  Anthony  a  Wood  deemed  him  "fitter 
for  tlie  stage  than  for  the  pew  or  pulpit."  lie 
concealed  the  fact  of  his  marriage,  and  was  ac 
cused  of  keeping  a  concubine,  and  suspended 
by  the  bishop  of  Norwich.  Among  his  writings 
are  the  drama  "  Magnyfycence,"  "  The  Bowge 
of  Courte,"  "  Collyn  Clout,"  and  a  dirge  on 
"Phyllyp  Sparowe."  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  by  the  Rev.  Alexander  Dyce,  with  an 
account  of  his  life  (2  vols.,  London,  1843). 

SKERRYYORE.  See  LIGHTHOUSE,  vol.  x.,  p. 
460. 

SKIDDAW,  a  mountain  near  the  centre  of 
Cumberland,  England,  3,022  ft.  in  height.  It 
has  the  lake  of  Bassenthwaite  Water  on  its 
west.  Though  there  are  some  mountains  in  the 
same  county  of  greater  elevation,  Skiddaw  is 
the  most  imposing,  as  it  stands  so  as  to  be 
seen  at  one  view  from  the  base  to  the  summit. 

SKDDIER  (rliyncliop»,  Linn.),  a  genus  of  web- 
footed  birds  of  the  gull  family,  and  subfamily 
rliyncliopsincc.  The  bill  is  of  singular  shape, 
broad  at  the  base,  from  which  it  is  suddenly 


Black  Skimmer  (Ehynchops  nigra). 

compressed  laterally  to  the  end;  the  upper 
mandible  is  considerably  the  shorter,  curving 
gradually  to  the  tip,  which  is  pointed  and 
grooved  underneath;  the  lower  mandible  is 


straight  and  truncated,  more  compressed,  with 
a  sharp  cutting  edge  received  into  the  groove 
of  the  upper ;  nostrils  basal ;  wings  very  long 
and  narrow,  with  the  first  quill  the  longest ; 
tail  moderate  and  forked;  tarsi  longer  than 
middle  toe ;  feet  very  small,  toes  short  with 
indented  web,  hind  toe  elevated,  and  claws 
curved  and  sharp.  Three  or  four  species  are 
described ;  they  are  most  abundant  in  the  trop 
ics,  where  they  frequent  quiet  bays  and  inlets ; 
they  feed  chiefly  at  night  on  fish  and  crusta 
ceans,  which  they  catch  as  they  skim  along 
close  to  the  water,  dipping  the  under  mandible 
beneath  the  surface  and  closing  the  upper  sud 
denly  upon  it  when  prey  is  encountered ;  the 
flight  is  swift,  graceful,  and  undulating,  and 
the  gait  awkward  ;  they  rarely  if  ever  swim  or 
rest  upon  the  water.  The  best  known  species 
is  the  black  skimmer  (R.  nigra,  Linn.),  found 
on  the  Atlantic  and  gulf  coasts  of  North  Amer 
ica  from  New  Jersey  to  Texas,  on  the  E.  coast 
of  South  America  as  far  as  the  tropic  of  Capri 
corn,  and,  according  to  Lesson,  on  the  W.  coast. 
The  length  is  about  19  in.  and  the  alar  extent  48 
in. ;  the  general  color  above  is  deep  brownish 
black ;  the  front  to  the  eyes,  throat,  and  under 
parts  white;  inner  tips  of  four  inner  primaries 
white,  and  secondaries  broadly  tipped  with  the 
same  ;  the  central  tail  feathers  dark  brown,  the 
others  mostly  w.hite ;  the  bill  carmine  for  the 
basal  half,  thence  black  to  the  end,  the  upper 
mandible  about  3£  in.  and  the  lower  4| ;  tarsi  and 
feet  red,  and  iris"  hazel ;  the  female  is  smaller. 
They  are  nocturnal,  resting  by  day  on  the  sand 
bars,  in  large  flocks.  The  nest  is  a  slight  hol 
low  in  the  sand,  and  the  eggs  are  usually  three, 
If  by  If  in.,  white  with  large  black  or  dark 
patches  ;  the  female  sits  only  at  night  or  in  wet 
and  cold  weather  ;  the  young  closely  resemble 
in  color  the  sand  upon  which  the  nest  is  made ; 
they  migrate  to  the  south  when  the  young  are 
able  to  fly  ;  their  eggs  are  as  good  as  those  of 
the  gulls.  This  species  is  sometimes  called  ra 
zor-billed  shearwater,  and  scissors-bill.  Other 
species  are  found  on  the  "W.  coast  of  Africa. 

SKIN,  the  external  covering  of  the  animal 
body,  protecting  the  internal  parts  from  exter 
nal  violence,  and  adapting  itself  by  its  elasticity 
to  the  various  movements  and  changes  of  po 
sition  ;  it  also  acts  as  the  organ  of  touch,  and 
as  an  excretory  and  absorbing  surface.  In  the 
human  skin,  which  may  be  taken  as  the  type 
of  that  of  the  higher  animals,  the  deepest  por 
tion  is  the  corium,  dermis,  or  cutis  vcra,  as  dis 
tinguished  from  the  deciduous  cuticle  which 
overlies  it,  described  under  EPIDERMIS.  This 
true  skin  is  dense  and  tough,  somewhat  elastic, 
composed  of  fibres  interlaced  in  all  directions, 
in  whose  interstices  are  masses  of  fat;  the 
whole  rests  upon  a  layer  of  subcutaneous  areo- 
lar  tissue ;  within  and  below  it  are  the  sudorip 
arous  or  sweat  glands  (see  PERSPIRATION),  the 
hair  follicles  (see  HAIR),  and  the  sebaceous 
glands.  From  its  upper  surface  rise  the  sensi 
tive  papillae,  which  are  minute  conical  eleva 
tions,  most  numerous  on  the  palmar  surface  of 


SKIN 


79 


the  hands  and  fingers,  feet  and  toes,  where 
they  are  arranged  in  double  rows  in  parallel 
curved  lines ;  the  average  length  of  the  papillae, 
including  the  height  of  the  ridge  upon  which 


I 

®\-  '  c  -  r-  ; 


Compound  Papillae  of  the  Skin  from  the  surface  of  the  Hand, 
showing-  double,  triple,  and  quadruple  divisions. 

a.  Base  of  a  compound  papilla.  6,  &,  b.  Its  upper  extremi 
ties,  c,  c,  c.  Points  of  other  papillae,  the  base  of  which  is 
not  visible. 

they  are  placed,  is  about  -^  of  an  inch,  and 
the  diameter  at  the  base  -^ ;  they  are  abun 
dantly  supplied  with  blood,  which  explains 
their  erectile  turgescence  under  stimuli ;  they 
adhere  more  or  less  firmly  to  the  cuticle.  The 
sebaceous  or  oil  glands  of  the  skin  are  formed 
on  the  same  plan  as  the  sudoriparous,  and  can 


a  ffl 


Vertical  Section  of  the  Skin,  magnified. 
a.  Epidermis,  b.  Inferior  layer  of  epidermis,  or  rete  Mnlpi- 
ghianum.  c.  Papilla*  of  the  skin.  d.  Corinm,  or  derrnis. 
«,/.  Lobules  of  adipose  tissue,  g.  Perspiratory  glands. 
h.  Ducts  of  the  perspiratory  glands.  *.  Their  external 
orifices,  k.  Hair  follicle.  /.  Hairs  projecting  from  the 
skin.  m.  Hair  papilla.  TO.  Hair  bulb.  o.  Shaft  of  hair  in 
the  hair  follicle,  p.  Openings  of  the  sebaceous  glands. 

often  be  distinguished  from  them  only  by  the 
nature  of  their  oily  secreted  product ;  they 
are  distributed  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
body,  being  least  abundant  where  the  perspi 
ratory  glandulse  are  most  numerous,  and  vice 
VOL.  xv. — 6 


versa;  they  are  absent  on  the  palms  and  soles, 
but  abundant  on  the  face  and  scalp  ;  they  vary 
considerably  in  size,  but  the  tubes  are  general 
ly  wider  and  straighter  than  those  of  the  sweat 
glands;  the  structure  is  sometimes  complicated. 
In  the  parts  of  the  skin  covered  with  hair,  there 
is  usually  a  pair  of  sebaceous  ducts  opening  into 
the  follicle  of  each  hair.  The  object  of  their 
secretion  is  doubtless  to  prevent  drying  and 
cracking  of  the  hair  by  the  sun  and  air ;  this 
secretion  is  most  abundant  in  tropical  nations, 
and  in  some  dark  races  has  a  characteristic 
odor,  as  in  the  case  of  the  negro  ;  its  protective 
action  in  the  tropics  is  often  assisted  by  vege 
table  oils  applied  externally.  The  Meibomian 
glands  on  the  edges  of  the  eyelids  are  a  double 
row  of  sebaceous  follicles  set  along  a  straight 
duct ;  they  secrete  an  oily  matter  for  the  lu 
brication  of  these  parts,  which  in  diseased  con 
ditions  frequently  sticks  them  together.  An 
other  modification  of  sebaceous  glands  is  to 
be  found  in  the  external  ear  passage,  where  is 
secreted  the  cerumen  or  waxy  matter ;  they 
consist  here  of  long,  highly  contorted  tubes, 
well  supplied  with  blood  vessels.  The  color 
of  the  skin  depends  on  pigment  cells  mixed 
with  the  inferior  epidermic  ones,  in  what  is 
called  the  rete  mucosum,  or  mucous  layer,  and 
considered  by  Flourens  and  other  authors  as  a 
distinct  membrane ;  all  the  hues  of  the  races 
of  man  depend  on  the  relative  abundance  of 
these  cells  and  the  tint  of  the  contained  pig 
ment.  The  folds  of  the  skin  are  for  the  most 
part  produced  by  the  contractions  of  the  su 
perficial  muscles.  The  skin  is  pierced  at  the 
eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  mouth,  rectum,  and  genito 
urinary  opening;  it  is  continuous  internally 
with  the  mucous  membrane,  consisting  of  the 
same  elements  modified  according  to  the  va 
riety  of  functions  to  be  performed ;  it  is  very 
vascular,  and  freely  supplied  with  nerves  and 
lymphatics.  The  skin  is  the  seat  of  the  sense 
of  touch  in  man,  though  in  most  animals  hairs, 
scales,  bony  or  horny  plates  and  envelopes,  and 
shells,  render  it  nearly  insensible  to  external 
influences,  this  sense  in  them  being  confined 
to  particular  portions  or  projecting  organs ; 
even  in  man  the  sensibility  varies  much  in 
different  parts,  being  most  acute  at  the  ends 
of  the  fingers  and  on  the  lips,  and  dullest  on 
the  back  and  limbs.  Aeration  of  the  blood 
takes  place  to  a  certain  extent  through  the 
skin,  and  in  some  naked-skinned  fishes  and 
batrachians  this  is  a  very  important  part  of 
the  respiratory  process.  It  has  been  shown  by 
experiment  that  in  a  frog,  after  the  removal  of 
the  lungs,  one  fourth  of  a  cubic  inch  of  car 
bonic  acid  is  exhaled  from  the  skin  in  eight 
hours ;  in  the  human  subject  the  amount  of 
this  gas  given  off  by  the  skin  varies  from  -^  to 
^  of  that  exhaled  from  the  lungs  during  the 
same  time  ;  where  the  lungs  perform  their  of 
fice  imperfectly,  the  temperature  of  the  skin  is 
often  elevated;  in  all  febrile  diseases  the  skin 
should  be  kept  moist.  The  absorbent  powers 
of  the  skin  are  noticed  under  ABSOEPTION. 


80 


SEINE 


SKIPJACK 


SKI1VR,  the  common  name  of  the  scincidce, 
a  family  of  lepidosaurian,  slender-tongued  liz 
ards,  with  elongated  cylindrical  body,  covered 
above  and  below  by  imbricated  fish-like  scales, 
arranged  in  quincunx  and  held  in  membranous 
sacs ;  they  have  no  lateral  folds.  The  family, 
by  such  forms  as  the  seps  and  orvet,  consti 
tutes  a  connecting  link  between  the  saurians 
and  ophidians.  The  head  is  covered  with 
large  angular  plates,  joined  by  their  borders ; 
the  neck  is  of  the  same  size  as  the  chest ;  the 
tongue  free,  without  sheath,  slightly  notched 
in  front,  with  the  surface  mostly  covered  with 
papilla? ;  the  scales  are  smooth.  They  creep 
with  a  lateral  sinuous  motion  like  serpents ; 
they  have  no  crests  nor  fringes  on  the  neck, 
back,  sides,  or  tail,  the  last  being  conical,  and 
generally  long  and  without  spines;  the  feet 
(absent  in  some)  are  short  and  clumsy,  with 
well  developed  digits  and  claws.  The  jaws 
are  short  and  united  at  the  symphysis,  so  that 
the  opening  of  the  mouth  is  always  the  same ; 
the  teeth  are  sharp  and  slender,  suited  for 
seizing  insects  and  worms ;  in  the  snake-like 
forms  only  one  lung  is  largely  developed  ;  the 
ears  are  exposed.  They  are  generally  small, 
and  live  in  holes  and  under  stones  in  dry  sandy 
places ;  they  are  usually  of  an  earthy  gray 
color.  They  inhabit  the  torrid  zone  and  the 
driest  portions  of  temperate  regions.  Dume- 
ril  makes  three  great  divisions  according  to 
the  differences  in  the  covering  of  the  eyes : 
1,  saurophthalmes,  with  lizard-like  eyes,  pro 
tected  by  two  lids  moving  vertically ;  2,  ophi- 
oplithalmes,  with  a  rudimentary  lid,  as  in  ser 
pents  ;  and  3,  typhloplitlialmcs,  in  which  the 
eyes  are  concealed  under  the  skin.  Most  of 
the  more  than  30  genera,  comprising  more 
than  100  species,  belong  to  the  first  division, 
the  only  one  that  need  be  treated  here  ;  some 
of  them  have  four  limbs,  others  two,  others 
none.  Dr.  Gray  divides  them  into  scintilla, 
with  smooth  scales,  and  tropidophorince,  with 


Common  Skink  (Scincus  officinalis). 

keeled  scales. — In  the  genus  scincus  (Fitz.)  the 
snout  is  wedge-shaped,  the  upper  jaw  the 
longer,  the  teeth  simple,  conical,  and  obtuse, 
with  a  row  on  the  palate  ;  the  limbs  are  four, 


with  five  nearly  equal  digits,  flattened,  and 
with  serrated  borders ;  the  tail  is  conical  and 
pointed.  The  common  skink  (S.  officinalis, 
Laur.)  is  8  or  9  in.  long,  with  stout  body,  short 
thick  limbs,  and  a  proportionally  short  tail, 
very  thick  at  the  base ;  the  eyes  are  small, 
high  up  and  far  back.  The  colors  vary  consid 
erably,  from  silvery  yellow  to  brownish,  with 
seven  or  eight  black  transverse  bands.  It  is 
a  native  of  Egypt,  Nubia,  Arabia,  and  N.  and 
W.  Africa. — There  are  several  American  spe 
cies  of  this  family,  most  of  which  are  popular 
ly  called  "  galliwasps,"  one  of  the  best  known 
of  which  belongs  to  the  genus  diploglossus 
(Wieg.),  characterized  by  a  tongue  with  scaly 
papillas  in  front  and  filiform  behind,  toothless 
palate,  flat  head,  obtuse  muzzle,  and  flattened 
body;  the  feet  have  five  unequal  toes,  com 
pressed,  without  lateral  edgings,  and  with  tuber- 
culose  palms  and  soles  ;  the  scales  are  striated, 
and  ridged  in  the  middle ;  the  tail  is  round 
ed,  long  and  pointed,  with  a  very  large  anal 
operculuin.  The  great  galliwasp  (D.  occidu- 
vs,  Wieg.)  is  about  21  in.  long,  of  which  the 
tail  is  one  half ;  it  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
skinks.  The  color  above  is  generally  light 
brown,  with  a  dozen  or  more  transverse  bands, 
sometimes  darker  and  sometimes  lighter,  and 
yellowish  white  below  with  brownish  tints. 
It  is  found  in  Jamaica,  where  it  is  very  much 
dreaded,  though  it  is  perfectly  harmless  ;  it 
forms  the  type  of  Gray's  genus  celestus.  The 
five-lined  skink  (enprepes  quinquelineatiis, 
Wagl.)  is  10  to  11  in.  long,  the  head  pale  red 
with  six  obscure  white  lines,  the  two  internal 
confluent  at  the  back  part ;  the  body  above  is 
olive  brown,  with  five  pale  white  longitudinal 
lines  and  a  black  lateral  band ;  the  tail  brown, 
tinged  with  blue,  and  the  lowrer  surface  white. 
There  are  no  teeth  on  the  palate,  otherwise 
the  characters  are  as  in  the  last  genus.  It 
lives  in  the  stumps  of  aid  trees  in  thick  woods, 
not  far  from  the  ground,  and  is  found  from 
lat.  35°  N.  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  west  to 
the  Mississippi  river. 

SKINNER,  Thomas  Harvey,  an  American  cler 
gyman,  born  at  Harvey's  Neck,  N.  C.,  March 
7,  1791,  died  in  New  York,  Feb.  1,  1871.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1809,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  December,  1812,  and  was 
a  pastor  in  Philadelphia  from  1813  to  1832, 
when  he  became  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric 
in  Andover  theological  seminary.  In  1835  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Mercer  street  Presby 
terian  church,  New  York,  and  in  1848  profes 
sor  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral  theology  in 
the  Union  theological  seminary  there.  He 
published  "Religion  of  the  Bible"  (1839); 
"Aids  in  Preaching  and  Hearing"  (1839); 
"Hints  to  Christians"  (1841);  "Thoughts  on 
Evangelizing  the  World;"  "Religious  Life  of 
Francis  Markoe;"  "Vinet's  Pastoral  Theolo 
gy,"  and  "  Vinet's  Homiletics,"  translated  from 
the  French  (1854)  ;  and  "Discussions  in  The 
ology"  (1868). 

SKIPJACK.     See  BLUEFISII,  and  BONITO. 


SKRZYNECKI 


SKULLCAP 


81 


SKRZYNECKI,  Jan  Boncza,  a  Polish  soldier, 
born  in  Galicia  in  February,  1786,  died  in  Cra 
cow,  Jan.  12,  1860.  His  military  career  began 
in  1806,  and  he  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  and  after  the  Polish  revolu 
tion  of  1830  as  brigadier  general,  especially 
at  Dobre,  "Wawer,  and  Grochow  (February 
and  March,  1831).  He  then  succeeded  Rad- 
ziwill  as  commander-in-chief ;  but  waiting  in 
vain  for  assistance  from  foreign  powers,  he 
failed  to  follow  up  his  great  advantages,  and 
lost  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka,  May  26.  On 
Aug.  10  he  was  deposed,  and  after  the  fall  of 
Warsaw  (Sept.  8)  he  fled  to  Austria  and  next 
to  Belgium.  In  the  latter  country  he  was 
appointed  to  a  high  command  in  the  army, 
which  however,  owing  to  the  protests  of  the 
eastern  powers  and  the  peace  of  1839  with 
Holland,  was  of  short  duration.  He  remained 
in  Brussels  until  shortly  before  his  death, 
when  he  was  permitted  to  return  to  Poland. 

SKUA,  the  common  name  of  the  web-footed 
birds  of  the  gull  family,  subfamily  lestridina, 
and  genus  stercorarius  (Briss.).  The  bill  is 
strong,  the  basal  half  with  a  membranous  or 
corneous  cere  distinct  from  the  tip,  the  nostrils 
opening  under  it  in  advance  of  the  middle  of 
the  bill;  the  tip  is  abruptly  and  strongly 
curved;  the  wings  very  long,  the  first  quill 
the  longest;  the  tail  wedge-shaped,  the  two 
central  feathers  projecting;  tarsi  strong,  with 
prominent  scales  ;  claws  sharp  and  curved,  and 
feet  fully  webbed,  with  the  hind  toe  short  and 
but  little  elevated ;  body  full  and  stout.  They 
inhabit  the  high  latitudes  of  both  the  north 
ern  and  southern  hemispheres;  they  chase 
gulls  and  other  marine  birds,  even  the  alba 
tross,  forcing  them  to  disgorge  a  part  of  their 
food,  and  are  hence  called  jagers  or  yagers; 
they  feed  also  on  the  carcasses  of  cetaceans, 
the  eggs  and  young  of  sea  birds,  and  the 
smaller  petrels.  Their  flight  is  elevated,  rapid, 
long  sustained,  and  generally  in  circles,  as  in 
birds  of  prey,  which  they  represent  among  the 
natatores  ;  the  nests  are  made  in  company,  of 
coarse  grass,  and  are  placed  on  rocks  or  sand, 
or  in  desolate  heaths ;  the  eggs  are  one  or  two. 
— The  common  skua  (S.  catarractes,  Temm.), 
the  largest  species,  is  about  2  ft.  long,  with  an 
alar  extent  of  about  4|-  ft. ;  the  bill  is  2£  in. ; 
the  color  above  is  dark  brown,  the  feathers 
tipped  with  gray;  wings  chocolate  brown  with 
the  shafts  and  basal  parts  white ;  tail  dark 
brown,  white  at  the  base;  lower  parts  dark 
grayish  brown  ;  legs,  feet,  and  bill  black,  the 
latter  with  a  tinge  of  bluish ;  the  central  tail 
feathers  project  only  an  inch  beyond  the 
others.  The  favorite  haunts  of  this  species 
are  the  seas  of  northern  Europe,  especially 
about  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands,  where 
great  numbers  are  killed  for  their  feathers; 
it  has  been  obtained  on  the  California  coast, 
and  either  this  or  a  nearly  allied  species  occurs 
about  Cape  Horn,  the  cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  in  the  antarctic  seas.  The  arctic  skua 
(S.  [lestris]  parasiticus,  Temm.)  is  21  in.  long 


and  44  in.  in  extent  of  wings;  the  central 
tail  feathers  extend  about  3  in.  beyond  the 
others,  and  are  pointed  at  the  end.  This  spe 
cies  breeds  in  arctic  America,  coming  down  as 


Common  Skua  (Stercorarius  catarractes). 

far  as  New  York  in  summer  and  to  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  in  winter ;  it  breeds  also  in  the  Ork 
ney  and  Shetland  islands. 

SKULL.      See  COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY,  and 
SKELETON. 

SKULLCAP,  the  common  name  for  plants  of 
the  labiate  family  of  the  genus  scutellaria,  the 
botanical  name  being  derived  from  Lat.  scu- 
tella,  a  dish,  as  the  fruiting  calyx  has  an  ap 
pendage  which  closes  it ;  this  appendage  has 
also  suggested  the  popular  name  skullcap.  The 
skullcaps  are  perennial  herbs,  destitute  of 
the  aromatic  qualities  usually  found  in  the 
order ;  they  are  widely  distributed  over  the 
temperate  and  subtropical  countries,  and  some 
of  the  Mexi 
can  and  South 
American  spe 
cies  are  some 
times  met  with 
as  greenhouse 
plants.  Eight 
or  ten  species 
are  found  in  our 
northern  states. 
The  common 
skullcap  (S.gale- 
riculata),  com 
mon  also  in 
Europe,  is  very 
frequent  in  wet 
and  shady  pla 
ces,  and  is  quite 
showy ;  it  has 
had  a  medicinal 
reputation,  as 

has   a  Still  mpre  Common    Skullcap  (Scutellaria 

common  species,  galericulata). 

S.      lateriflora, 

which  under  the  name  of  mad-dog  skullcap 
was  some  years  ago  used  as  a  pretended  reme 
dy  for  hydrophobia.  The  plants  are  of  inter 
est  to  the  botanist,  but  of  no  medicinal  value. 


SKUNK 


SKUNK  CABBAGE 


SKUNK,  an  American  carnivorous  mammal 
of  the  weasel  family,  badger  subfamily,  and 
genus  mephitis  (Cuv.).  It  may  be  distinguished 
from  its  congeners  by  a  more  slender  and 
elongated  body,  pointed  nose,  feet  adapted  for 
digging,  with,  the  anterior  claws  the  longest 
and  the  soles  usually  naked,  and  a  long  bushy 
tail.  The  cheek  teeth  are  |c|,  the  upper  pos 
terior  being  very  large  and  nearly  square ;  the 
head  is  small,  with  a  projecting  naked  nose, 
small  and  piercing  eyes,  and  short  and  round 
ed  ears ;  the  feet  are  short,  with  live  closely 
united  toes ;  the  palms  naked  and  the  soles 
mostly  so ;  they  are  essentially  plantigrade, 
and  walk  with  the  back  much  arched  and  the 
tail  erect ;  they  are  nocturnal,  and  feed  on  ani 
mal  substances.  Though  weak,  timid,  and  slow 
in  their  motions,  they  are  effectually  armed 
against  the  most  ferocious  enemies  in  an  acrid 
and  exceedingly  offensive  fluid  secreted  by 
glands  whose  ducts  open  near  the  anus;  these 
glands  are  surrounded  by  a  thick  muscular 
covering,  the  contractions  of  which  are  suffi 
cient  to  eject  the  fluid  to  a  distance  of  14  ft. 
— The  common  skunk  (M.  mephitica,  Shaw  ; 
M.  chinga,  Tiedm.)  is  from  16^  to  20  in.  long, 
the  tail  being  13  or  14  in.  additional;  the  pre 
vailing  color  is  black,  with  a  narrow  line  on 
the  forehead,  broad  triangular  patch  on  nape 
continuous  with  a  narrow  line  on  each  side 
of  the  back,  and  tail  tuft,  white;  the  varia 
tion  is  considerable,  the  white  markings  being 
wider  in  some  specimens,  and  in  others  want 
ing;  the  posterior  third  of  the  soles  is  hairy. 
When  about  to  use  its  natural  means  of  de 
fence,  it  raises  its  tail  over  the  back,  and  ejects 
the  secretion  in  two  thread-like  streams  with 
great  force  and  accuracy ;  it  can  also  diffuse 
it  in  a  fine  spray  on  near  objects ;  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  remove  the  odor  from  clothes 
impregnated  with  it,  and  a  dog  which  has 
been  touched  by  it  is  a  nuisance  for  months ;  it 
is  said  to  be  phosphorescent  at  night.  It  is  a 
very  cleanly  animal,  and  never  allows  its  own 


Common  Skunk  (Mephitis  mephitica). 

fur  to  be  soiled  with  its  secretion.  It  some 
times  commits  havoc  am'ong  hens,  chickens, 
and  eggs,  but  is  far  less  injurious  than  the 
mink  and  weasels,  and  from  its  clumsiness  is 


more  easily  detected;  it  feeds  on  small  quad 
rupeds  and  birds,  reptiles,  insects,  nuts,  and 
fruits.  It  has  from  six  to  nine  young  at  a 
time,  and  would  prove  exceedingly  annoying 
were  not  great  numbers  killed  by  dogs  and 
carnivorous  mammals  and  birds,  and  caught 
in  traps  at  the  mouths  of  their  burrows,  which 
are  generally  near  the  surface,  in  level  ground, 
and  6  to  8  ft.  in  extent.  They  remain  in  their 
burrows  in  the  northern  states  from  December 
to  the  middle  of  February,  laying  up  no  win 
ter  stores,  but  retiring  in  a  very  fat  condition, 
and  remaining  dull  and  inactive,  though  not 
properly  hibernating.  This  species  is  abun 
dant  in  the  northern  and  middle  states,  and 
found  from  lat.  57°  N.  to  Florida  and  Louisi 
ana,  and  west  to  the  Mississippi  river.  Its 
flesh  is  white  and  fat,  and  if  properly  skinned 
in  no  way  tainted  by  its  secretion  ;  it  is  highly 
esteemed  by  the  Indians,  and  is  eaten  by  the 
whites  in  various  parts  of  the  country;  the 
oil,  nearly  pure  oleine,  is  excellent  for  leather, 
but  is  of  no  special  use  in  medicine  ;  the  fur  is 
rather  coarse,  but  is  sometimes  used  for  com 
mon  purposes,  and  of  late  years  thousands  of 
skins  have  been  annually  carried  to  Europe, 
where  they  make  their  appearance  in  various 
disguises.  The  secretion  has  been  successful 
ly  employed  in  some  forms  of  asthma,  in  the 
dose  of  a  drop  three  times  a  day,  though  it  so 
taints  the  patient's  excretions  that  the  remedy 
is  generally  considered  worse  than  the  disease ; 
it  has  also  been  used  as  a  powerful  antispas- 
modic  in  asthma,  hysteria,  and  other  nervous 
disorders,  applied  to  the  nostrils. — There  are 
several  other  species  in  the  United  States,  espe 
cially  in  Texas  and  California.  In  an  article  in 
the  u  American  Journal  of  Science  "  for  May, 
1874,  Mr.  Hovey  says  that  this  animal  is  very 
dangerous  in  the  western  states.  It  is  often 
affected  by  a  disease  winch  renders  its  saliva 
so  poisonous  that  its  bite  is  more  to  be  feared 
than  that  of  the  rattlesnake.  He  gives  many 
instances  in  which  persons  sleeping  on  the 
ground  have  been  bitten,  generally  with  fatal, 
and  always  with  dangerous  consequences. 

SKUNK'  CABBAGE,  a  plant  the  peculiar  odor 
and  the  large  clusters  of  luxuriant  leaves  of 
which  readily  suggested  the  common  name. 
Botanically  it  has  received  the  names  potlws, 
ictodes,  dracontium,  and  others,  but  botanists 
have  finally  settled  upon  symplocarpits  (Gr. 
ovfiTrXoKq,  connection,  and  Kap-nd^^  fruit,  in  ref 
erence  to  the  manner  in  which  the  ovaries  form 
a  connected  or  compound  fruit).  In  all  the 
different  genera  in  which  it  has  been  placed,  it 
retained  the  descriptive  specific  name  fixtidus. 
It  belongs  to  the  arum  family,  which  is  well 
known  through  its  handsome  exotic  represen 
tative  Richardia,  the  calla  lily,  or  lily  of  the 
Nile.  The  skunk  cabbage  is  one  of  our  very 
earliest  spring  flowers,  and  appears  in  wet 
places  from  New  England  to  North  Carolina ; 
the  flowers  come  long  before  the  leaves  in  the 
latitude  of  New  York,  often  as  early  as  Febru 
ary,  and  they  are  very  abundant  in  March  and 


SKYE 


SLANDER 


83 


April.  The  plant  is  an  endogen,  and  its  perfect 
flowers  have  four  petals  each,  with  as  many 
opposite  stamens,  and  a  simple  pistil  with  a 
one-ovuled  ovary,  which  has  a  four-angled  style. 


Skunk  Cabbage  (Symplocarpus  foetidus). 

These  flowers  are  crowded  in  a  dense  globular 
cluster  upon  a  short  stem  or  spadix,  and  the 
cluster  is  surrounded  by  a  peculiar,  shell-formed 
hood  or  spathe,  with  an  incurved  point  and  of 
the  shape  shown  in  the  engraving;  this  hood 
is  sometimes  of  a  dark  lurid  purple  color,  but 
is  more  frequently  striped  and  spotted  with 
yellow  and  purple,  and  sometimes  varied  with 
blotches  of  green  and  red.  The  hoods  may  be 
found  long  before  the  leaves  appear,  as  these 
seem  to  require  warm  weather  for  their  lux 
uriant  growth  ;  but  they  grow  very  rapidly 
when  they  start,  and  are  heart-shaped,  on  short 
petioles  and  1  to  2  ft.  long ;  they  form  large 
clusters,  which  disappear  very  suddenly  after 
midsummer,  the  spathe  around  the  flowers  hav 
ing  decayed  much  earlier.  The  fruit  is  a  large 
oval  fleshy  mass,  consisting  of  the  purplish  and 
green,  berry-like  seeds  immersed  in  the  en 
larged  spadix.  All  parts  of  the  plant  have  a 
strong  and  strikingly  skunk-like  odor,  which 
has  been  likened  to  a  combination  of  garlic 
and  asafoetida;  the  seeds  are  odorless  when 
whole,  but  very  strong  when  bruised.  The 
root  has  been  used  as  a  stimulant  and  expec 
torant,  but  it  rapidly  deteriorates  when  dried. 
The  leaves  are  sometimes  used  to  dress  blisters 
to  keep  up  the  discharge. 

SK1E,  the  largest  island  of  the  inner  Heb 
rides,  off  the  W.  coast  of  Scotland,  forming 
part  of  Inverness-shire,  from  the  mainland  of 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  narrow  strait  of 
Loch  Alsh;  area,  535  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
17,330.  The  surface  is  mountainous.  In  the 
centre  of  the  island  the  Cuchullin  or  Coolin 
hills  and  other  summits  rise  to  the  height  of 
2,000  and  3,000  ft,  above  the  sea.  The  shores, 
especially  in  the  north,  are  very  bold  and  pic 


turesque,  and  are  indented  by  many  inlets  or 
lochs.  In  the  northeast  are  basaltic  columns 
equal  to  those  at  Staffa,  and  caves,  some  of 
which  abound  with  stalactites  of  great  beauty. 
Soapstone,  manganese,  jet,  and  some  coal  are 
found,  but  none  of  them  are  productively 
worked.  White  and  variegated  marble  is  quar 
ried.  The  climate  is  variable ;  on  the  higher 
portions  the  snow  lies  long,  and  when  it  melts 
there  are  heavy  rains.  The  soil  is  poor  and 
the  productions  scanty.  The  greater  part  of 
it  is  in  pasture,  and  devoted  to  the  rearing  of 
cattle  and  sheep.  Large  plantations  of  trees 
have  lately  been  made.  Red  deer  and  game 
are  abundant.  The  well  known  Skye  terrier 
is  raised  here.  The  fisheries,  especially  in  the 
sounds  between  the  island  and  the  mainland, 
furnish  employment  and  subsistence  to  a  large 
proportion  of  the  inhabitants.  The  manufac 
ture  of  kelp,  once  extensive,  is  now  nearly  ex 
tinct;  there  are  no  other  manufactures,  and 
very  little  trade.  The  people  are  of  Gaelic 
origin ;  they  are  peaceable  and  moral,  but  in 
dolent  and  generally  poor.  The  island  con 
tains  many  Danish  antiquities.  The  greater 
part  of  the  land  belongs  to  Lord  Macdonald 
and  the  Macleod  family.  Skye  was  the  home 
of  Flora  Macdonald,  wTho  died  here  in  1790. 
The  principal  port  is  Portree,  which  has  an 
excellent  harbor. 

SKYLARK.     See  LARK. 

SLMDER,  in  law,  defamatory  words  falsely 
and  maliciously  spoken,  and  injurious  either 
in  fact  or  in  legal  presumption.  It  is  action 
able  slander:  1,  to  speak  of  one  thus  falsely 
and  maliciously  words  importing  his  guiltiness 
of  an  offence  involving  moral  turpitude  or  pun 
ishable  by  law ;  2,  to  charge  him  with  having 
such  an  infectious,  or  perhaps  disgusting  dis 
ease  as,  if  known,  would  probably  cause  his  ex 
clusion  from  society ;  3,  to  use  in  regard  to  one 
in  office,  or  of  a  person  in  reference  to  his  pro 
fession,  trade,  or  business,  such  language  as  has 
a  natural  tendency  to  cause  him  damage  or  loss, 
either  because  the  language  implies  the  lack  of 
some  requisite  qualification  for  the  occupation 
or  profession,  or  because  it  implies  insolven 
cy  or  some  positive  misconduct  or  dishonest 
practice  in  the  business  or  calling;  4,  to  speak 
words  which,  though  not  naturally  or  presump 
tively  productive  of  loss,  have  nevertheless 
caused  actual  damage  to  the  person  slandered. 
Of  these  four  classes  of  slanderous  words,  the 
first,  second,  and  third  include  those  that  are 
actionable  per  se,  or  of  themselves  ;  that  is  to 
say,  if  the  plaintiff  proves  that  the  words  were 
spoken,  he  recovers  damages  without  proving 
any  particular  loss.  An  action  lies  for  words 
of  the  fourth  class  only  when  the  plaintiff  can 
prove  express  and  special  damage. — Of  the  form 
of  slander  which  imputes  guiltiness  of  crime, 
it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  immediate  ground 
on  which  the  law  founds  the  action  is  that 
injury  to  the  party's  reputation  and  his  conse 
quent  degradation  in  society  which  is  the  natu 
ral  and  immediate  incident  of  criminal  guilt. 


SLANDER 


The  words  must  therefore  suggest  an  offence 
which  subjects  the  party  to  a  criminal  prose 
cution  and  to  infamous  punishment.  If  the 
penalty  for  an  offence  is  merely  pecuniary, 
it  does  not  appear  that  an  action  will  lie  for 
charging  it,  even  though  in  default  of  payment 
imprisonment  should  be  prescribed  by  the  stat 
ute,  the  imprisonment  not  being  the  prima 
ry  and  immediate  punishment  of  the  offence. 
But  the  words  will  be  actionable  in  themselves 
in  case  the  charge,  if  true,  will  make  the  party 
charged  liable  to  an  indictment  for  a  crime  in 
volving  moral  turpitude  or  subjecting  him  to 
an  infamous  punishment.  Thus,  to  charge  for 
gery  or  counterfeiting,  keeping  a  bawdy  house, 
bribery  at  an  election,  and  the  soliciting  one 
to  commit  murder,  are  all  actionable  slanders 
per  se,  for  they  suggest  both  moral  turpitude 
and  an  indictable  offence.  For  the  same  rea 
son  it  is  actionable  per  se  not  only  to  say  that 
one  has  done  enough  to  send  him  to  the  peni 
tentiary,  but  to  say  that  he  has  already  been 
there.  But  to  allege  that  one  lives  by  impos 
ture  imputes  indeed  moral  turpitude,  but  not 
an  mdictable  offence,  and  is  consequently  not 
slanderous  per  se,  or  without  proof  of  actual 
damage.  Words  alleging  perjury  are  action 
able  of  themselves.  The  language  must  of 
course  either  express  or  imply  all  that  is  essen 
tial  to  constitute  the  crime,  to  wit,  a  judicial 
proceeding,  material  testimony,  and  the  other 
essential  elements  of  perjury.  A  charge  of 
false  swearing  which  does  not  expressly  or  im- 
pliedly  comprehend  all  these  points  is  not  slan 
derous.  Theft  is  an  indictable  and  infamous 
offence,  and  the  false  and  malicious  imputation 
of  it  is  actionable  without  proof  of  damage. 
One  may  sometimes  call  another  a  thief,  just 
as  he  calls  him  scoundrel,  liar,  or  cheat,  by  way 
of  general  abuse,  and  without  any  intention  of 
charging  the  crime  of  larceny  to  him.  If  the 
defendant  can  show  this  clearly,  he  may  de 
feat  the  presumption  which  the  law  always 
makes  of  a  slanderous  quality  and  intent  in 
the  word.  Where  fornication  is  made  punish 
able  by  statute,  as  in  most  of  the  states,  it  is 
slanderous  per  se  to  charge  unchastity.  It  was 
not  so  at  the  common  law,  but  the  hardship, 
and  indeed  the  absurdity  of  this  rule,  when 
the  consequences  to  a  woman  are  considered, 
are  so  manifest  that  it  has  quite  generally 
been  changed  by  statutes  in  the  several  states. 
Words  charging  disease  are  actionable  only 
when  they  imply  that  the  disease  now  exists. — 
The  third  class  of  slanderous  words  includes 
those  imputations  which  affect  one's  official, 
professional,  or  business  character.  To  be 
actionable  of  themselves,  the  words  must  im 
mediately  contemplate  and  touch  these  rela 
tions  ;  for  it  is  invariably  held  that  where  the 
words  complained  of,  though  calculated  in 
every  respect  to  cause  the  forfeiture  of  an 
office  or  the  loss  of  the  income  of  a  profession 
or  business,  are  nevertheless  not  in  fact  applied 
to  the  conduct  of  the  plaintiff  in  his  office  or 
business,  the  action  for  slander  fails.  But 


words  which  necessarily,  even  if  not  in  terms, 
refer  to  and  affect  one's  business  relations,  may 
be  held  slanderous ;  as  to  say,  for  example,  in 
reply  to  an  inquiry  about  failures,  "  I  under 
stand  there  is  trouble  with  the  Smiths,"  or  UB 
owes  more  money  than  he  is  worth,  and  is 
broken."  So  it  is  slanderous  per  se  to  say 
that  a  trader  is  insolvent,  that  X  keeps  none 
but  rotten  goods,  that  Y  uses  filthy  water  in 
making  his  beer,  or  that  Z  keeps  false  books, 
where  keeping  books  is  a  necessary  incident  to 
the  business.  It  is  slander  to  charge  an  attor 
ney  or  physician  with  general  ignorance  or  un- 
skilfulness  in  his  prof ession  ;  and  words  which 
of  themselves  allege  ignorance  or  unskilf  ulness 
in  a  particular  case  may  be  actionable  if  they 
fairly  imply  general  disqualification  in  these  re 
spects. — The  fourth  class  includes  those  words 
for  which  an  action  lies  if  special  damage  be 
proved.  Thus,  to  say  of  another  that  he  is  a 
knave,  a  blackleg,  a  liar,  a  cheat,  or  a  scoun 
drel,  is  generally  not  actionable.  If,  however, 
the  speaking  of  these  or  the  like  defamatory 
words  has  wrought  the  plaintiff  particular  pe 
cuniary  loss,  he  can  recover  damages. — In  all 
cases  in  which  an  action  for  slander  lies,  an 
essential  principle  on  which  the  action  rests  is 
that  the  speaking  of  words  false  in  fact  and  in 
jurious  to  the  reputation  of  another  is  malicious. 
By  malice  in  this  place  is  to  be  understood, 
not  that  disposition  of  ill  will,  spite,  or  revenge 
which  in  common  parlance  the  word  implies, 
but  that  legal  malice  which  is  the  presumption 
and  conclusion  of  the  law  from  the  fact  of  the 
deliberate  'and  unqualified  statement  of  false 
and  defamatory  matter,  without  cause  or  justi 
fication.  Where  these  elements  coincide,  the 
law  implies  the  malice,  and  the  slander  is  com 
plete.  It  is  the  corollary  of  this  conception 
of  slander  that  a  defendant  cannot  justify  the 
speaking  of  the  slanderous  words  by  the  plea 
that  he  merely  repeated  the  language  of  another. 
Formerly,  indeed,  it  was  held,  on  the  authority 
of  an  old  case  in  Coke,  that  if  the  defendant, 
at  the  time  of  uttering  the  words  complained 
of,  named  his  informant  and  gave  his  precise 
language,  so  as  to  furnish  the  plaintiff  with  a 
good  cause  of  action  against  him,  these  facts 
might  be  pleaded  as  presumptive  proof  that  the 
defendant  did  not  utter  the  slanderous  words 
maliciously.  But  the  latest  English  cases  hold 
that  the  defendant's  plea  must  go  further,  and 
must  show  in  addition  to  the  facts  just  men 
tioned  that  he  believed  the  charge  to  be  true, 
and  repeated  it  with  a  justifiable  intent  and 
on  a  justifiable  occasion.  The  American  rule 
is  at  least  equally  strict,  and  until  the  legal 
presumption  of  malice  is  rebutted  by  shoAving 
a  justifiable  intent  and  justifiable  occasion, 
the  uttering  or  repeating  of  slanderous  words 
is  actionable.  To  refrain  altogether  from  the 
repetition  of  such  words  is  the  only  way  to  be 
entirely  safe.  The  presumption  of  legal  malice 
is  defeated  when  the  otherwise  slanderous  lan 
guage  is  employed  upon  a  just  occasion,  in  the 
discharge  of  a  duty  or  in  the  protection  of  an 


SLANG 


85 


interest.  Such  communications  as  these  are 
said  to  be  privileged,  and  the  hurden  of  show 
ing  express  malice  is  thrown  upon  the  plain 
tiff.  In  a  leading  case  upon  this  subject  in  the 
supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  privileged 
communications  Were  divided  into  four  classes, 
viz. :  1,  publications  duly  made  in  the  ordinary' 
mode  of  parliamentary  proceedings ;  2,  words 
used  in  the  course  of  legal  or  judicial  proceed 
ings  ;  3,  anything  said  or  written  by  a  master 
in  giving  the  character  of  a  servant  who  has 
been  in  his  employment ;  4,  words  used  by  any 
one  in  good  faith  in  the  discharge  of  any  pub 
lic  or  private  duty,  legal  or  moral,  or  in  the 
prosecution  of  his  own  rights  or  interests. 
With  reference  to  the  first  of  these  classes,  the 
exemption  from  liability  for  any  words  spoken 
in  debate  is  expressly  provided  by  the  consti 
tution  of  the  United  States,  and  is  probably 
repeated  in  the  declaration  of  rights  in  the 
constitution  of  every  state  in  the  Union.  The 
exemption  extends  to  everything  said  or  done 
by  a  representative  in  the  discharge  of  his 
office,  whether  in  debate  in  open  session  of 
the  house,  or  more  privately  out  of  the  house 
in  committee,  or  even  during  the  ordinary  ad 
journment  of  the  sessions.  On  the  same  prin 
ciple,  namely,  the  public  interest  in  the  prompt, 
unembarrassed,  and  efficient  administration  of 
the  laws,  all  language  spoken  in  good  faith  in 
the  course  of  legal  proceedings  before  a  compe 
tent  jurisdiction,  pertinent  in  any  wise  to  the 
matter  in  question,  enjoys  perfect  immunity. 
The  benefit  of  the  privilege  is  secured  alike 
to  the  parties,  the  counsel,  the  witnesses,  the 
judges,  and  the  jury.  As  to  statements  made 
by  masters  in  reference  to  the  character  of 
their  servants,  good  faith  will  be  presumed, 
and  it  is  for  the  servant  to  negative  the  pre 
sumption.  Malice  will  be  implied  if  he  shows 
the  falsehood  of  the  charge ;  and  there  may  be 
a  prima  facie  presumption  of  malice  if  a  mas 
ter  volunteered  the  unfavorable  statement  re 
specting  his  discarded  servant. — In  a  civil  ac 
tion  for  slander,  the  truth  of  the  facts  imputed 
may  be  pleaded  by  the  defendant  in  justifica 
tion.  If  the  plea  is  maintained  by  proof,  the 
action  is  defeated ;  for  the  principle  is,  that 
if  the  plaintiff  is  guilty  of  the  whole  matter 
charged  to  him,  he  has  sustained  no  injury 
and  has  therefore  no  valid  claim  for  damages. 
The  amount  of  the  damages  lies  almost  entire 
ly  within  the  discretion  of  the  jury.  They 
may  give  punitory  or  vindictive  damages  in 
cases  of  wanton  and  unqualified  malice ;  and 
even  though  the  amount  may  seem  excessive, 
yet  the  court  will  not  generally  set  the  verdict 
aside,  unless  it  shall  be  plain  that  the  jury  was 
influenced  by  improper  motives  or  was  misled 
by  some  gross  error. 

SLANG,  a  burlesque  or  colloquial  form  of  ex 
pression,  the  language  of  low  humor,  or  the 
jargon  of  thieves  and  vagrants.  Slang  is  prob 
ably  as  old  as  human  speech.  We  find  traces 
of  it  in  many  of  the  early  writers,  particularly 
the  Greek  and  Roman  dramatists;  and  the 


works  of  Aristophanes,  Plautus,  Terence,  and 
Martial  abound  with  words  which  the  pu 
rists  of  their  day  would  not  have  recognized. 
All  modern  European  languages  have  their 
vulgar  or  slang  dialects,  and  some  of  them 
more  than  one ;  and  in  several  countries  the 
thieves'  jargon  has  been  reduced  to  grammati 
cal  rules  and  has  a  literature  of  its  own.  The 
language  used  by  the  English  criminal  classes 
is  called  more  properly  cant,  but  slang  and 
cant  have  borrowed  so  many  terms  from  each 
other  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  distin 
guish  them.  It  is  equally  difficult  to  draw 
the  line  between  slang  and  pure  language, 
for  very  many  words,  illegitimate  in  origin, 
have  become  classical  by  prescription.  The 
word  slang  is  supposed  to  be  of  gypsy  origin, 
and  to  have  been  used  as  a  synonyme  of  Ro 
many  or  Bohemian,  the  Zingari  or  gypsy 
tongue.  Gibberish  was  used  in  nearly  the 
same  sense.  The  gypsies  probably  entered 
England  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 
They  came  as  conjurers  and  jugglers,  profess 
ing  the  gifts  of  palmistry  and  second  sight,  and 
speaking  a  secret  language.  They  met  with 
favor  among  the  lower  classes,  and  speedily 
found  many  imitators,  who  adopted  their  habits 
and  many  words  of  their  language,  while  the 
gypsies  added  to  their  own  vocabulary  numer 
ous  terms  and  phrases  of  English  vagabondage. 
Thus  between  them  was  formed  a  kind  of  slang' 
compromise,  out  of  which  eventually  grew  the 
conglomerate  jargon  called  variously  the  cant 
ing  language,  peddlers'  Erench,  thieves'  Latin, 
and  St.  Giles's  Greek.  The  earliest  collection 
of  English  cant  words  is  contained  in  "A 
Caueat  for  commen  Cvrsetors  vulgarely  called 
Vagaboncs,"  by  Thomas  Harman  (4to,  London, 
1567).  Ilarman  fell  into  such  disrepute  with 
thieves  and  vagrants  for  his  exposure  of  their 
secret  tricks,  words,  and  signs,  that  his  name 
became  the  cant  synonyme  for  a  constable  and 
the  stocks.  "The  Belman  of  London,  bring 
ing  to  Light  the  most  notorious  Villanies  now 
practised  in  the  Kingdome,"  by  Thomas  Deck 
er  (4to,  London,  1608),  professes  to  give  an 
account  of  the  cant  of  thieves  and  vagabonds, 
and  contains  much  curious  information.  The 
civil  wars  brought  into  common  use  many 
slang  and  cant  terms,  but  it  was  reserved  for 
the  court  of  Charles  II. ,  in  which  coarse  wit 
was  the  fashion,  to  bring  slang  to  a  perfection 
before  unknown.  Lords  and  ladies  talked 
slang,  and  much  of  the  literature  of  the  time  is 
filled  with  it.  Butler's  "Hudibras,"  according 
to  a  contemporary  writer,  was  the  chief  enter 
tainment  of  Charles  II.,  who  often  quoted  it. 
In  the  time  of  George  III.  and  the  regency, 
the  current  slang  was  known  as  "flash,"  and 
sometimes  as  the  language  of  "  gig."  The 
most  important  of  the  early  collections  of  slang 
and  cant  words,  and  that  on  which  almost  all 
later  works  have  been  founded,  is  Francis 
Grose's  "  Classical  Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar 
Tongue"  (8vo,  London,  1785),  containing  all 
the  cant  and  slang  of  the  earlier  glossaries,  and 


86 


SLANG 


all  the  vulgar,  flash,  and  indecent  terms  of  the 
author's  time.  It  has  been  several  times  re 
printed  ;  the  hest  edition  is  by  Pierce  Egan, 
with  additions  (8vo,  1823).  A  "Slang  Dic 
tionary"  was  published  in  London  in  1860,  and 
a  revised  edition  of  it  in  1875.  The  earliest 
work  on  American  vulgarisms  is  the  Rev.  Dr. 
John  Witherspoon's  "Essays  on  Americanisms, 
Perversions  of  Language  in  the  United  States, 
Cant  Phrases,"  &c.  (Philadelphia,  1801),  ori 
ginally  published  in  a  periodical  called  "The 
Druid"  in  1701.  —  Slang,  considered  as  the 
generic  term  for  all  illegitimate  words  and 
phrases,  consists  partly  of  words  derived  di 
rectly  from  thieves'  cant  and  foreign  languages, 
partly  of  old  words  with  new  adaptations,  and 
partly  of  new  words  and  expressions  coined  to 
meet  new  conditions.  Many  of  the  most  com 
mon  slang  words  were  originally  thieves'  cant, 
and  have  been  in  use  for  Centuries.  Among 
these  are  "cove"  or  "covey,"  a  boy  or  man; 
"darbies,"  handcuffs;  "doxy,"  a  strumpet,  a 
tramp's  female  companion;  "duds,"  clothes; 
"fence,"  a  receiver  of  stolen  goods;  "glim," 
a  light;  "mug,"  the  mouth  or  face;  "nob," 
the  head ;  "  swag,"  booty  or  property ;  "  tog," 
a  coat ;  and  "  wipe,"  a  pocket  handkerchief. 
Of  words  derived  from  the  gypsies  are  "  bosh," 
nonsense;  "cheese,"  anything  good  or  genu 
ine;  "pal,"  a  friend  or  accomplice;  "rum," 
good  (man  or  thing);  and  "snack,"  a  share 
of  plunder.  Besides  what  English  slang  has 
drawn  from  the  Celtic,  Gaelic,  Saxon,  and 
Norman  French,  it  derives  many  words  from 
other  European  tongues,  including  the  ancient 
Greek  and  Latin,  and  from  several  of  the  east 
ern  languages,  notably  the  various  East  Indian 
dialects,  the  Persian,  and  the  Chinese.  Among 
the  words  borrowed  from  the  French  are: 
" cahoot "  (cohorte),  to  keep  company ;  "spree " 
(esprit),  a  carousal ;  and  "  feele  "  (fille),  a  girl ; 
from  the  Spanish  :  "  savvey  "  (sale),  to  know ; 
"  vamose  "  and  "  mosey  "  (camos),  to  go  ;  and 
"cavort"  (cavar),  to  caper;  from  the  Ger 
man  :  "  loafer "  (Ldufer),  an  idle  fellow ; 
"frow  "  (Frau),  a  wife;  and  "bower"  (Bauer), 
used  in  right  and  left  bower  in  cards;  and 
from  the  Dutch:  "boosey"  (t)uizen},  drunk; 
"logy"  (log},  dull,  heavy;  "boss"  (baas'),  a 
master  or  head;  and  "landlubber"  (landloo- 
per),  a  vagabond.  The  East  Indian  tongues 
contribute  "tiffin,"  breakfast  or  lunch;  "dun 
garee,"  poor,  motley  ;  and  "  chit,"  a  letter ; 
and  the  Chinese,  "chop,"  used  in  such  expres 
sions  as  "first  chop,"  "second  chop";  "koo- 
too"  or  "kotow,"  to  cringe  to,  to  flatter;  and 
"pigeon,"  the  Chinese  pronunciation  of  busi 
ness,  used  in  the  expression  "pigeon  English." 
The  lingua  Franca,  or  bastard  Italian,  spoken 
in  the  Mediterranean  seaports,  which  is  a  bar 
barous  compound  of  most  of  the  languages  used 
ftlong  the  shores  of  that  sea,  has  also  contrib 
uted  largely  to  English  slang.  Of  old  words 
invested  with  new  meanings,  some  of  the  most 
common  are:  "bleed,"  to  pay  or  lose  money; 
" blow,"  to  vaunt  or  boast;  "bolt,"  to  leave, 


to  run  away;  "do,"  to  cheat,  as  "to  do  one 
out  of  his  money,"  &c.  The  verb  "to  go" 
furnishes  numerous  slang  phrases,  as  "  go  it 
strong,"  "go  back  on,"  "go  ahead,"  "go  for 


one,"  "go  through,"  "go 


go  ane 
by,"  " 


go  the  whole 


hog,"  "great  go,"  "little  go,"  "rum  go," 
"  pretty  go,"  a  "  go  "  of  liquor,  &c. ;  and  "  let " 
almost  as  many,  as  "let  slide,"  "let  rip,"  "let 
up,"  "let  on,"  "let  out,"  "let  in,"  "let  drive," 
"let  alone,"  "let  the  cat  out,"  &c.  Many  of 
these,  although  properly  slang,  have  acquired 
through  constant  use  a  right  to  a  place  in  the 
language,  and  may  be  regarded  as  good  "  dia 
lect  "  English.  To  this  class  also  belong  many 
of  the  words  usually  called  Americanisms, 
which  had  their  origin  in  this  country  and 
have  a  flavor  of  our  institutions,  such  as  "log 
rolling,"  "wire-pulling,"  "  axe  -  grinding," 
"  pipe  -  laying,"  "  filibustering,"  "  mudsill," 
"  mean  white,"  "  doughface,"  "  jayhawker," 
"bushwhacker,"  "copperhead,"  "carpet-bag 
ger,"  " shinplaster,"  "stamp,"  "greenback," 
"copper,"  " nickel, "&c.  The  fashionable  af 
fectation  too  of  using  French  words,  with 
meanings  which  would  not  be  recognized  in 
Paris,  as  "  on  the  tapis,'1''  "  to  chaperon,"  "  beau 
monde,"  "  the  dansant,"  may  be  relegated  to 
this  department  of  slang.  America  is  respon 
sible  also  for  very  many  of  the  new  words 
coined  to  meet  new  conditions,  such  as  "ca 
boodle,"  "calithumps,"  "contraptions,"  "high- 
falutin,"  "hunkydory,"  "shenanigan,"  "spon 
dulicks,"  "skedaddle,"  "scalawag,"  and  such 
corruptions  as  "slantindicular,"  "rambump- 
tious,"  and  "  splendiferous."  (See  AMEEIOAN- 
ISMS.)  Every  business,  vocation,  and  profes 
sion  has  its  slang,  and  every  notable  civil 
event  and  political  convulsion  furnishes  new 
phrases  and  words,  most  of  which  are  ephem 
eral.  The  press  and  the  theatre  are  prolific 
coiners,  and  the  university,  the  army,  the  ex 
change  (see  STOCK  EXCHANGE),  politics,  fash 
ion,  the  prize  ring  (see  PUGILISM),  and  the 
turf  are  all  responsible  for  a  large  share  of 
the  current  slang  of  the  day.  The  sea  too  is 
no  less  profuse  in  illegitimate  expressions  than 
the  land,  and  sailors'  slang  is  proverbial. — In 
France  the  jargon  of  the  thieves  and  vagrants, 
which  is  called  argot,  is  a  comprehensive  lan 
guage,  with  a  grammar  and  literature  of  its 
own.  Argot  has  been  traced  as  far  back  as 
the  14th  century  according  to  some  authors, 
but  others  believe  that  it  originated  with  the 
gypsies,  who  appeared  in  Paris  in  the  first  half 
of  the  loth  century.  One  of  the  earliest  works 
on  it  is  Le  jargon,  ou  langage  de  V argot  re- 
forme,  &c.  (Troves,  1660).  In  1827  a  diction 
ary  of  argot  was  published  in  Paris ;  but  the 
prosperity  of  argot  literature  dates  rather  from 
the  publication  in  1837  of  Vidocq's  work  on 
thieves,  containing  the  argot  dictionary,  which 
he  began  in  1819.  Since  then  many  other 
works  have  appeared,  of  jwhich  one  of  the 
most  valuable  is  Michel's  Etudes  de  pltilologie 
comparee  sur  V argot,  &c.  (Paris,  1856).  Argot 
has  found  a  conspicuous  place  in  modern 


SLANG 


SLATE 


French  novels,  especially  in  Sue's  Mysteres  de 
Paris;  indeed,  the  language  of  some  of  the 
characters  in  that  work  was  so  difficult  to  un 
derstand  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  pub 
lish  a  Dictionnaire  complet  de  Vargot  employe 
dans  les  Mysteres  de  Paris.  Some  of  the  argot 
words  are  very  expressive:  thus,  God  is  Mec 
des  mecs  (Maitre  des  mattres,  Master  of  mas 
ters)  ;  the  devil,  boulanger  (baker) ;  prison, 
college  or  abbayede  sots  (college,  fools'  abbey) ; 
the  gibbet,  veuve  (widow) ;  to  suffer  capital 
punishment,  epouser  la  veuve  (to  marry  the 
widow);  a  cafe,  bocard  (stamping  mill);  to 
eat,joucr  des  dominos  (to  play  dominoes);  an 
omnibus,  four  banal  or  face  d  face  (parish 
oven,  face  to  face) ;  the  sea,  la  grande  tasse 
(the  big  cup) ;  rain,  bouillon  de  cliien  (dog 
soup) ;  the  moon,  moucJiarde  or  cafarde  (fe 
male  spy,  hypocrite) ;  an  Englishman,  goddem, 
rosbif,  &c. — In  Spain  the  slang  language  is 
called  germania  (Lat.  germanus,  a  full  brother, 
hence  faithful,  true),  from  the  brotherhoods 
or  associations  of  thieves  who  make  use  of  it. 
Some,  with  less  probability,  refer  the  name  to 
the  German  origin  of  the  earliest  associations 
in  Spain.  Cervantes  used  some  of  its  terms  in 
"  Don  Quixote  "  and  others  of  his  works,  and 
some  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of 
Quevedo.  In  1609  Juan  Hidalgo  compiled  a 
book  on  the  subject  entitled  Romances  de  ger 
mania  de  varios  autorcs,  con  su  vocabulario, 
&c.  In  germania  a  highway  robber  is  called 
picturesquely  ermitano  de  camino  (hermit  of 
the  road) ;  death,  cierta  (the  certain) ;  suspi 
cion,  espino  (a  thorn) ;  a  person  hanged,  ra- 
cimo  (bunch  of  grapes).  In  Portugal  thieves' 
slang  is  called  calao,  perhaps  from  calar,  to 
conceal.  The  slang  of  the  Italian  vagrants 
and  thieves  is  called  furbesco  (from  furbo,  a 
quack,  knave,  rogue),  and  sometimes  gergo, 
jargon.  Some  of  its  expressions  are  very  sug 
gestive  :  thus,  hell  is  calda  casa  (hot  house) ; 
a  stone,  artone  di  calcosa  (earth  bread) ;  the 
mouth,  caverna  (cavern) ;  the  nose,  flauto 
(flute) ;  the  tongue,  ingegnosa  (cunning) ;  the 
stomach,  fagiana  (bean  box) ;  the  beard,  bosco 
di  berlo  (face  forest). — The  thieves'  slang  of 
Germany  is  called  Rothicdlsch,  from  roth,  a 
cant  term  for  vagrant,  and  waUch,  foreign.  It 
is  called  also  Kokamloschen,  from  the  Hebrew 
'hakham,  adroit,  ingenious,  and  lashon,  lan 
guage.  It  is  composed  of  Low,  High,  Jew, 
and  gypsy  German,  has  a  grammar  and  almost 
a  literature  of  its  own,  and  two  dialects,  one 
in  North  and  one  in  South  Germany.  Among 
its  words  are :  custom  house  officer,  Amkdt- 
scher  (one  who  rummages  everything) ;  law 
yer,  Diftler  (one  who  finesses) ;  night,  sclmarz 
(black) ;  priest,  Schwarzfarbcr  (black  dyer) ; 

§)ld,  Fuchs  (fox) ;  sword,  Kehritm  (face  about), 
ne  of  the  earliest  and  most  curious  books  on 
Rotliwalsch,  entitled  Von  denfalschenBettlern 
und  ihrer  Buberey  (Wittenberg,  1528),  has  a 
preface  by  Martin  Luther.  A  vocabulary  of 
it  was  published  in  1661,  and  since  that  time 
many  other  works  have  appeared. — In  Jutland  j 


a  slang  allied  to  German  cant  is  much  spoken. 
The  Czech  thieves'  cant  is  called  Tiantyrlca. 
The  slang  language  of  Holland  is  the  bargoens 
or  dieventael.  In  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Den 
mark,  besides  the  fantasprog,  spoken  of  in 
Sund's  work,  Om  Fante  eller  Landstrygcrfolket 
y  Norge  (Christiania,  1850),  are  used  the  tater- 
sproget,  or  gypsy  gibberish,  and  the  skdier- 
sproget,  the  jargon  of  thieves  and  vagabonds. 
Russian  thieves  make  use  of  different  slang 
dialects,  and  several  of  the  dissenting  religious 
sects  have  languages  peculiar  to  themselves. 
In  Albania  a  slang  language  made  up  of  a  mix 
ture  of  modern  Greek,  "Wallachian,  Italian,  and 
Latin,  with  a  few  words  of  oriental  invention, 
is  spoken  chiefly  by  quack  doctors.  In  it  the 
verbs  signifying  to  practise  medicine  and  to 
cheat  are  synonymous.  Asiatic  criminals  speak 
the  balaibalan,  an  artificial  language  made 
from  the  Arab,  Persian,  and  Turkish  vocabu 
laries.  The  Indian  Thugs  speak  the  rama- 
seena  language,  a  vocabulary  and  history  of 
which  appeared  in  Calcutta  in  1836. 

SLATE,  a  rock  of  no  definite  composition, 
distinguished  by  its  structure,  which  is  of  par 
allel  sheets  or  laminas,  easily  separated.  The 
term  is  in  common  use  also  applied  to  various 
rocks  which  do  not  possess  the  fissile  charac 
ter  in  so  eminent  a  degree,  and  which  are 
sometimes  distinguished  from  the  true  slates 
by  the  name  of  schists;  such  are  the  mica,  tal- 
cose,  hornblende,  and  chlorite  schists  or  slates. 
Shale  differs  from  slate  in  its  more  earthy  tex 
ture  and  less  tenacity,  as  well  as  want  of  the 
perfect  slaty  structure.  But  its  composition  is 
like  that  of  the  argillaceous  or  clay  slate,  which 
is  the  well  known  roofing  and  writing  slate. 
This  variety,  which  is  the  only  slate  of  eco 
nomical  importance,  is  found  among  the  met- 
amorphic  rocks  passing  into  mica  slate,  and 
with  the  strata  of  the  Silurian  period,  and 
sometimes  with  those  of  still  later  origin.  It 
is  eminently  characterized  by  splitting  with 
ease  into  large  smooth  plates,  which  have  a 
uniform  degree  of  hardness,  possess  a  dull  or 
feeble  lustre,  and  are  blackish  gray,  bluish 
black,  bluish  or  reddish  brown,  purplish,  or 
greenish.  The  rock  is  often  traversed  by  thin 
seams  of  quartz,  but  the  prepared  slates  should 
be  entirely  free  from  foreign  minerals,  and  es 
pecially  from  iron  pyrites,  which  are  too  often 
seen  in  yellow  cubical  crystals  scattered  over 
the  surface  of  what  would  otherwise  be  excel 
lent  roofing  slates.  Such  are  unfit  for  writing 
or  school  slates;  and  for  roofing  slates  they 
are  objectionable  on  account  of  the  pyrites 
weakening  the  slates,  and  also  being  liable  to 
decompose  after  exposure  for  some  time,  and 
cause  unsightly  stains  of  oxide  of  iron.  Car 
bonate  of  lime  is  also  sometimes  'present,  and 
is  likewise  injurious.  The  best  slates  are  dis 
tinguished  by  an  appearance  of  compactness 
and  solidity  in  the  blocks,  with  nothing  to  sug 
gest  their  fissile  character ;  and  yet  this  should 
be  so  perfect,  that  when  fresh  from  the  quarry 
these  blocks  may  be  split  with  greater  ease  than 


88 


SLATE 


SLATER 


pine  timber,  and  into  sheets  of  any  desired  thin 
ness.  The  faces  should  be  perfectly  smooth  and 
parallel,  without  any  curvatures  or  irregulari 
ties.  There  should  be  no  lines  of  cross  fracture 
that  should  prevent  their  breaking  in  any  one 
direction  more  than  another.  When  one  is  bal 
anced  on  the  finger  and  struck  with  a  hammer, 
it  should  give  a  clear  ringing  sound ;  and  after 
being  dried  in  an  oven  and  immersed  in  water, 
it  should  absorb  but  little,  as  may  be  ascer 
tained  by  weighing  it  before  and  after  immer 
sion.  This  is  an  excellent  test  of  the  compar 
ative  values  of  different  slates.  The  powder 
of  slates  is  light  gray,  and  when  a  pointed 
piece  is  rubbed  upon  a  smooth  slate  surface 
a  portion  of  the  powder  remains  behind,  leav 
ing  a  plain  mark  that  is  easily  wiped  or  washed 
off.  It  is  this  property  which  renders  the  slates 
serviceable  for  drawing  and  writing  upon.  Ar 
gillaceous  slates,  like  the  clays  which  they  ori 
ginally  were,  are  essentially  composed  of  silex 
and  alumina,  and  the  following  is  the  result  of 
the  analysis  of  a  common  Scotch  variety :  silex, 
50  parts  in  100;  alumina,  27;  oxide  and  sul 
phate  of  iron,  11;  potash,  4;  magnesia,  1; 
water,  7 ;  carbon,  a  trace.  The  slates  are 
found  often  in  beds  of  great  extent,  associated 
with  other  beds  of  similar  character ;  and  this 
singular  feature  is  observed  in  the  structure 
of  the  rocks,  that  the  cleavage,  or  lines  along 
which  the  slates  naturally  separate,  has  no 
relation  to  the  lines  of  stratification.  However 
much  the  beds  themselves  may  be  contorted 
and  follow  irregular  waving  planes,  each  sys 
tem  of  cleavage  lines,  in  case  there  are  more 
than  one,  as  sometimes  occurs,  maintains  its 
own  direction  and  rarely  coincides  with  the 
plane  of  dip.  It  is  evident  that  the  cleavage 
seams  must  have  been  produced  subsequently 
to  the  time  when  the  beds  acquired  their  final 
position.  This  structure  is  what  is  known  as 
slaty  cleavage  ;  and  sometimes  when  the  strata 
are  themselves  thinly  bedded  and  the  stratifi 
cation  is  regular  over  extended  areas,  it  is  not 
easy  to  distinguish  immediately  the  two  sets 
of  planes  one  from  the  other. — Slates  are  quar 
ried  either  by  blasting  out  large  slabs,  or,  when 
practicable,  splitting  them  off  with  gads  and 
large  wedges.  The  slabs  from  a  foot  to  a  foot 
and  a  half  thick,  and  it  may  be  8  or  10  ft.  long 
and  1  or  2  ft.  wide,  are  set  on  edge,  and  grooves 
are  cut  across  the  top  and  down  the  sides  to 
determine  the  lines  of  fracture  for  separating 
them  into  rectangular  blocks,  which  is  done 
by  blows  from  a  wooden  beetle  directed  upon 
the  top  near  the  furrow.  The  splitting  is 
effected  by  driving  wide,  thin  chisels  between 
the  lamince,  and  the  sizes  of  the  slates  are 
reduced  whenever  desirable  by  cutting  cross 
grooves  and' then  breaking  the  pieces  with  the 
chisel.  When  reduced  to  the  required  thinness, 
the  slates  are  roughly  dressed  over  the  edge  of 
a  block  of  wood  by  the  blows  of  a  sort  of  chop 
ping  knife  called  a  sack,  sax,  or  zax.  On  the 
back  of  this  tool  is  a  sharp  tapering  steel  point, 
with  which  the  workman  when  preparing  roof 


ing  slates  pecks  two  holes  through  the  slates 
near  what  is  to  be  the  head  or  upper  edge,  for 
the  nails  which  are  to  hold  it  down  to  the  roof. 
In  Vermont  machines  have  been  applied  to 
cutting  grooves  in  the  slate  in  the  ledge  to  fa 
cilitate  the  quarrying,  and  the  cutting  and  trim 
ming  are  also  done  by  machinery.  It  is  impor 
tant  that  all  this  work  should  be  done  while 
the  blocks  are  fresh  from  the  quarry,  as  in  dry 
ing  they  are  apt  to  lose  their  property  of  split 
ting  freely,  though  freezing  may  restore  this  ; 
but  a  succession  of  frosts  and  thaws  has  the 
effect  of  thorough  seasoning.  Slabs  for  inter 
nal  decoration,  as  mantelpieces,  and  for  articles 
of  furniture,  as  table  tops,  billiard  tables,  sinks, 
&c.,  are  cut  by  circular  saws  which  are  made 
to  revolve  slowly.  The  sheets  when  thus 
squared  to  suitable  sizes  are  planed  in  machines 
similar  to  those  used  for  planing  metals ;  and 
pieces  for  mouldings  are  shaped  by  tools  of 
the  desired  figure.  Various  ornamental  arti 
cles  are  prepared  of  slate  in  imitation  of  mar 
bles,  granites,  and  other  stones,  by  the  appli 
cation  of  colors,  which  are  baked  in,  varnished, 
and  polished,  the  applications  being  several 
times  repeated.  (See  ENAMELLING,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
591.) — SLATE  PENCILS  are  made  from  argilla 
ceous  slate  rock,  sometimes  from  talcose  slate, 
and  sometimes  from  various  materials  ground 
together  and  compressed.  Near  the  town  of 
Castleton,  and  near  one  extremity  of  the  west 
ern  Vermont  slate  belt,  is  found  an  argillaceous 
slate  from  which  the  finest  pencils  are  made. 
The  stone  is  sawed  into  blocks  7  in.  long  by 
6  in.  wide,  and  split  into  slabs  a  little  more 
than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  These  are 
then  planed  and  placed  in  a  machine,  in  which 
a  series  of  grooved  knives  cut  through  one  half 
the  thickness  of  the  slab,  when  it  is  placed  in 
a  second  machine  having  a  bed  with  grooves 
corresponding  to  the  sides  of  the  pencils  cut, 
and  a  cutter  like  the  one  in  the  first  machine 
completes  the'  operation.  The  pencils  are  then 
counted  and  put  up  in  boxes  of  100  each,  and 
packed  in  cases  of  10,000.  There  are  three 
sizes,  6,  5,  and  4  in.  in  length.  The  waste  of 
this  slate  has  been  utilized  by  grinding  it  into 
flour  and  making  it  into  artificial  pencils. 

SLATER,  Samuel,  an  American  manufacturer, 
born  at  Belper,  Derbyshire,  England,  June  9, 
1768,  died  at  Webster,  Mass.,  April  21,  1835. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  cotton  spinning  under 
Jedidiah  Strutt,  partner  of  Arkwright,  and  was 
a  favorite  with  his  master.  He  aided  Mr.  Strutt 
in  making  improvements  in  his  mills,  and  gain 
ed  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  theory  and  prac 
tice  of  the  new  manufacture.  In  1789  con 
gress  passed  its  first  act  for  the  encouragement 
of  manufactures,  and  the  Pennsylvania  legis 
lature  offered  a  bounty  for  the  introduction 
of  the  Arkwright  patents.  These  laws  met 
the  eye  of  young  Slater  in  an  English  journal, 
and  he  believed  himself  able  to  carry  the  Ark 
wright  cotton  manufacture  across  the  Atlantic 
without  drawings  or  models,  the  export  being 
forbidden  under  severe  penalties.  lie  arrived 


SLAVE   COAST 


SLAVERY 


89 


in  New  York  in  November,  1789,  and  learned 
accidentally  that  Moses  Brown  had  made  some 
attempts  at  cotton  spinning  by  machinery  in 
Ehode  Island.  He  wrote  to  Mr.  Brown  inform 
ing  him  of  what  he  could  do,  and  received  a 
reply  stating  that  these  attempts  had  not  been 
successful,  and  adding :  "If  thou  canst  do 
this  thing,  I  invite  thee  to  come  to  Rhode  Isl 
and  and  have  the  credit  and  the  profit  of  in 
troducing  cotton  manufacture  into  America." 
Slater  proceeded  thither,  and  immediately  en 
tered  into  articles  of  agreement  with  William 
Almy  and  Smith  Brown  to  construct  and  oper 
ate  the  new  cotton-spinning  machinery.  On 
Dec.  21,  1790,  he  started  at  Pawtucket  three 
18-inch  carding  machines,  the  necessary  draw 
ing  heads  with  two  rolls  and  four  processes, 
the  roving  cases  and  winders  for  the  same,  and 
throstle  spinning  frames  of  72  spindles.  Reels 
were  soon  after  made  for  putting  the  yarn  into 
skeins,  in  which  form  it  was  then  exclusively 
marketed.  The  first  yarns  made  on  this  ma 
chinery  were  equal  in  quality  to  the  best  made 
at  that  time  in  England.  The  growth  of  cot 
ton  manufacture  was  for  some  time  necessarily 
slow,  as  the  cotton  was  picked  by  hand  in  fam 
ilies.  Further  progress  was  made  some  years 
later  when  yarn  was  dyed  and  distributed  in 
families  for  weaving.  In  1812  Slater  began 
the  erection  of  mills  in  Oxford  (now  Webster), 
Mass.,  adding  in  1815-'16  the  manufacture  of 
woollen  cloths ;  and  here  has  grown  up  the 
large  establishment  which  still  bears  his  name. 
He  established  in  1796,  for  the  improvement 
of  his  workpeople,  a  Sunday  school,  which  was 
the  first  or  among  the  first  in  the  United  States. 

SLAVE  COAST,  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Upper 
Guinea,  W.  Africa,  between  the  rivers  Volta 
and  Oameroons,  comprising  a  small  part  of  the 
British  Gold  Coast  protectorate,  the  coast  of 
Dahomey,  the  British  colony  of  Lagos,  and 
the  coast  of  Benin  and  Calabar.  It  derived  its 
name  from  the  trade  in  slaves,  formerly  the 
chief  traffic  of  the  coast.  (See  GUINEA.) 

SLAVERY,  the  condition  of  absolute  bondage, 
in  which  one  person  is  the  unconditional  prop 
erty  or  chattel  of  another,  and  obliged  to  labor 
for  his  master's  benefit,  without  his  own  con 
sent.  It  has  existed  in  some  form  in  all  na 
tions,  and  still  exists  in  many  countries,  though 
modern  slavery  differs  in  several  respects  from 
ancient  slavery.  It  was  in  perfect  existence 
at  the  dawn  of  history,  and  allusions  to  it 
are  found  in  some  of  the  earliest  extant  wri 
tings.  Kidnapping  was  a  common  mode  of 
obtaining  slaves  for  commerce,  and  it  was  ex 
tensively  followed  by  the  Phoenicians  as  much 
as  3,000  years  ago,  and  the  slave  trade  was 
then  in  full  vigor.  Slavery  first  appears  in 
Chinese  records  about  13  centuries  B.  C.  In 
India  the  number  of  slaves  was  small,  and  it 
has  even  been  asserted  that  slavery  was  there 
prohibited  by  positive  law ;  but  the  lower 
castes  could  be  enslaved  for  debt.  Slavery 
existed  among  the  Assyrians,  the  Babylonians, 
and  the  Persians  after  they  had  become  con 


querors.  The  conquering  races  who  estab 
lished  their  rule,  in  succession,  in  that  quar 
ter  of  the  globe,  found  slavery  there  existing, 
and  in  some  instances  they  increased  its  ex 
tent ;  but  the  general  tendency  of  extensive 
conquests  was  to  lessen  the  number  of  slaves, 
for  when  different  races  became  subject  to  the 
same  royal  line,  and  peace  prevailed,  as  in  the 
Persian  empire,  which  extended  from  the  bor 
ders  of  Ethiopia  to  India,  the  supplies  of  slaves 
were  largely  cut  off,  as  those  supplies  were 
principally  obtained  through  war.  The  He 
brews  had  some  form  of  slavery  from  the  time 
of  Abraham.  The  Mosaic  legislation  concern 
ing  servitude  was  very  mild,  and  contained  nu 
merous  important  limitations  of  the  rights  of 
masters.  In  Phoenicia  slaves  were  very  numer 
ous,  and  were  extensively  employed  in  all  the 
branches  of  industry  that  were  pursued  by 
that  enterprising  people.  They  formed  much 
the  larger  part  of  the  populations  of  such  cities 
as  Tyre  and  Sidon. — Slavery  was  a  firmly  es 
tablished  institution  of  the  Hellenic  heroic  age. 
It  was  the  consequence  of  invasion  and  con 
quest,  and  it  led  to  further  wars  that  were 
waged  in  order  to  procure  more  slaves.  Piracy 
and  kidnapping  were  resorted  to  for  the  same 
object,  and  no  degree  of  life  was  exempt  from 
the  effects  of  this  state  of  things.  Yet  in  the 
heroic  age  Grecian  slavery  was  mild.  "In 
Homer,"  it  has  been  truly  said,  "the  condition 
of  the  slave  seems  everywhere  tempered  by 
the  kindness  and  indulgence  Of  the  master." 
The  condition  of  women,  however,  was  worse 
than  that  of  men.  The  female  slaves  per 
formed  the  principal  work  in  the  interior  of 
the  house.  Not  only  do  they  seem  to  have 
been  more  harshly  treated  than  the  males,  but 
they  were  charged  with  the  hardest  and  most 
exhausting  labor  which  the  establishment  of  a 
Greek  chief  required.  The  treatment  of  slaves 
was  very  different  by  the  different  Greek 
communities.  The  Athenians  were  very  kind 
toward  them,  and  throughout  Attica  prevailed 
the  mildest  form  of  servitude  known  to  the 
world  of  antiquity.  Athenian  legislation  pro 
tected  the  personal  rights  of  the  slave,  and 
promoted  his  efforts  to  obtain  freedom.  There 
were  both  public  and  private  slaves  at  Athens, 
the  former  being  the  property  of  the  state, 
some  of  whom  were  educated  and  filled  impor 
tant  offices,  such  as  those  of  secretaries  of  the 
commanders  and  treasurers  of  the  armies. 
Sparta  was  regarded  by  Greece  as  furnishing 
the  practical  antithesis  to  Athens  in  the  treat 
ment  of  slaves.  The  helots  of  Sparta  furnish 
the  type  of  all  that  is  calamitous  among  the 
oppressed,  and  there  is  much  in  Spartan  his 
tory  that  justifies  this  view  of  their  condition. 
They  were  slaves  of  the  state,  and  those  by 
whom  they  were  held  could  neither  liberate 
them  nor  sell  them  out  of  Laconia.  They  ap 
pear  to  have  occupied  some  such  position  as 
the  serfs  of  the  middle  ages,  but  the  central 
authority  had  more  power  over  them.  (See 
HELOTS.)  The  supplies  of  slaves  were  obtained 


90 


SLAVERY 


in  most  parts  of  Greece  through  war,  com 
merce,  piracy,  and  kidnapping.  There  were 
regular  markets  for  their  sale,  the  principal  of 
which  were  held  at  Athens,  Samos,  and  Chios. 
Negroes  were  among  the  slaves  imported, 
Egypt  furnishing  the  larger  number  of  them ; 
and  they  were  valued  for  their  complexion, 
and  considered  as  luxuries.  Most  of  the  do 
mestic  and  personal  slaves  were  barbarians, 
that  is,  persons  who  were  not  of  Greek  blood, 
for  it  was  the  Grecian  custom  to  allow  prison 
ers  of  their  own  race  to  be  ransomed.  The 
number  of  slaves  in  Greece  was  very  large, 
and  it  is  even  estimated  to  have  been  three 
or  four  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  free  pop 
ulation.  Unlike  the  Romans,  the  Greeks  did 
not  seek  to  possess  many  slaves  from  mo 
tives  of  luxury  and  ostentation,  but  of  profit. 
Fifty  slaves  were  a  large  number  for  a  wealthy 
Athenian  to  own,  while  some  Romans  owned 
20,000  each.  There  were  many  slaves  em 
ployed  in  the  mines,  but  they  were  of  the 
least  valuable  kind,  and  their  labor  was  de 
structive  of  life.  Most  of  the  slave  insurrec 
tions  in  Attica  were  brought  about  by  the 
mining  slaves,  and  on  one  occasion  they  took 
possession  of  Sunium,  and  held  it  for  some 
time.  The  Athenian  slaves  were  not,  save 
on  extraordinary  occasions,  employed  as  sol 
diers,  like  those  of  the  Dorian  Greeks.  They 
fought  at  Marathon  and  at  the  Arginusre,  but 
these  were  remarkable  exceptions.  Manumit 
ted  slaves  in  Greece  could  not  become  citi 
zens,  but  became  metics,  and  were  still  under 
certain  obligations  to  their  former  masters, 
neglect  of  which  made  them  liable  to  be  sold 
into  slavery  again. — In  Italy  slavery  prevailed 
even  more  extensively  than  in  Greece,  though 
in  the  early  times,  it  has  been  contended,  and 
before  the  foundation  of  the  Roman  dominion, 
the  number  of  slaves  was  so  small,  and  they 
were  so  well  treated,  as  hardly  to  deserve  the 
name  ;  but  as  there  is  evidence  that  the  Etrus 
cans  had  negro  slaves,  the  slave  trade  must 
have  been  extensively  carried  on  between  Italy 
and  Africa  at  a  remote  period.  The  Romans 
had  slaves  at  the  earliest  dates  of  their  annals, 
and  far  earlier  than  that  time  which  is  recog 
nized  as  the  beginning  of  their  authentic  his 
tory  ;  but  there  was  a  great  difference  between 
the  institution  as  it  existed  in  the  opening 
years  of  the  republic  and  as  it  became  several 
generations  before  the  establishment  of  the 
imperial  rule.  As  the  kingdom  of  Rome  is 
believed  to  have  been  far  more  powerful  than 
was  the  Roman  republic  during  the  first  two 
centuries  of  its  existence,  and  had  commercial 
relations  with  the  Carthaginians,  the  principal 
slave  traders  of  the  time,  the  just  conclusion 
is  that  slavery  was  more  extensive  under  the 
later  kings  than  it  was  under  the  praetors  and 
early  consuls.  In  the  early  times  nearly  all  the 
domestics  of  the  Romans  were  slaves,  and  so 
were  the  majority  of  the  operatives  in  town  ; 
but  that  excess  of  agricultural  slaves  which  in 
later  times  became  a  marked  feature  of  Ro 


man  industrial  life  was  then  unknown.  Agri 
culture  was  considered  an  honorable  pursuit, 
and  the  haughtiest  of  the  patricians  often  cul 
tivated  their  fields  with  their  own  hands  ;  for 
they  were  not  all  rich,  as  the  story  of  Cincin- 
natus  shows.  The  first  slaves  of  the  Romans 
were  exclusively  prisoners  of  war  made  from 
the  peoples  in  their  immediate  vicinity,  and 
sold  at  auction  by  the  state  as  booty;  they 
strongly  resembled  their  masters,  so  that  their 
condition  was  probably  not  hard;  but  there 
was  a  constant  change  for  the  worse  as  the 
circle  of  Roman  conquest  extended.  So  long 
as  the  wars  of  the  Romans  were  confined  to 
their  own  immediate  part  of  the  world,  the 
numbers  obtained  by  war  could  not  have  been 
very  large ;  but  when  their  armies  began  to 
contend  with  distant  peoples,  and  to  conquer 
them,  they  were  counted  by  myriads.  They 
acted  on  the  principle  of  sparing  the  humble 
and  subduing  the  proud,  granting  both  life  and 
liberty  to  those  who  surrendered,  but  taking 
captive  all  those  who  resisted  their  arms,  and 
consigning  such  of  them  to  slavery  as  were 
not  reserved  for  a  fate  more  immediately  se 
vere.  The  Romans  were  not  sparing  in  the 
infliction  of  this  rule  of  war,  and  the  conse 
quence  was,  not  only  that  the  slave  popula 
tion  was  rapidly  increased,  but  that  it  was 
made  to  include  the  most  cultivated  classes  of 
the  most  cultivated  period  of  antiquity,  as  the 
Roman  conquests  did  not  begin  until  after  the 
highest  of  ancient  races  had  completed  their 
development.  Roman  slavery  began  to  assume 
its  great  proportions  in  the  same  age  that  saw 
the  beginning  of  its  long  quarrel  with  Car 
thage,  which  opened  in  264  B.  C.  "When  the 
Romans  made  their  first  invasion  of  Africa, 
256  B.  C.,  under  Regains,  they  landed  in  a 
portion  of  the  Carthaginian  territory  lying 
between  the  Ilerinrean  headland  and  the  Less 
er  Syrtis.  This  fine  country  was  given  up 
to  all  the  horrors  of  ancient  warfare,  "  and 
20,000  persons,  many  of  them  doubtless  of 
the  highest  condition,  and  bred  up  in  all  the 
enjoyments  of  domestic  peace  and  affluence, 
were  carried  away  as  slaves."  Most  of  the 
captives  taken  at  the  conquest  of  Carthage, 
who  had  surrendered,  were  sold  into  slavery. 
This  treatment  of  the  Carthaginians,  a  high 
bred  and  refined  people,  shows  the  character 
of  Roman  slavery,  which  was  not  confined  to 
the  barbarous  races,  or  to  any  peculiar  people, 
but  swept  all  within  its  nets  who  could  be 
conquered  or  purchased.  Corinth,  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  luxurious  cities  of  Greece, 
was  destroyed  at  the  same  time  with  Carthage, 
and  the  Corinthians  were  all  sold  into  slavery; 
and  nothing  but  the  influence  of  Polybius  with 
the  younger  Scipio  Africanus  prevented  the 
entire  population  of  the  Peloponnesus  from 
sharing  their  fate.  Two  generations  earlier, 
Capua,  a  city  not  inferior  to  Carthage  or  Cor 
inth  in  culture,  the  wealth  and  magnificence 
of  which  were  proverbial,  had  many  of  its 
best  citizens  sold  into  slavery,  their  wives  and 


SLAVERY 


91 


children  being  also  thus  sold ;  "  and  it  was 
especially  ordered  that  they  should  be  sold 
at  Rome,  lest  some  of  their  countrymen  or 
neighbors  should  purchase  them  for  the  pur 
pose  of  restoring  their  liberty."  After  the 
close  of  the  second  Punic  war,  the  conquests 
of  Rome  went  on  with  great  rapidity,  and  the 
numbers  of  the  slave  population  increased  at 
the  same  rate,  so  that  in  70  years  even  the 
free  agricultural  population  of  Italy  had  most 
ly  disappeared.  The  absorption  of  small  free 
holds  in  large  estates,  along  with  war,  led  to 
the  decrease  of  that  population,  and  the  places 
thus  made  vacant  were  filled  by  the  purchase 
of  slaves,  the  latter  being  taken  in  war  to  a 
considerable  extent,  though  the  slave  traders 
were  by  no  means  idle.  One  of  the  conse 
quences  of  the  successes  of  ^Emilius  Paulus 
in  Macedonia  was  the  sale  of  150,000  Epirotes, 
who  had  been  seized  because  their  country 
was  friendly  to  Perseus.  The  demand  for 
slaves  became  very  great  full  two  centuries  B. 
0.  in  Sicily,  which  had  then  fallen  complete 
ly  under  the  Roman  dominion,  and  because 
corn  was  much  wanted  in  Italy,  then  beginning 
to  recover  from  the  effect  of  the  Carthaginian 
invasion  and  occupation;  and  the  state  of 
things  in  Sicily  was  so  favorable  to  the  aggre 
gation  of  wealth,  that  it  soon  extended  to  Italy, 
where  the  land  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
few.  Great  estates  succeeding  to  the  many 
small  farms  that  had  been  known  in  the  pre 
ceding  generations,  the  soil  was  now  culti 
vated  or  attended  to  by  great  masses  of  slaves, 
the  property  chiefly  of  the  leading  members  of 
the  optimates,  or  the  high  aristocratical  party. 
The  wars  in  Spain,  Illyria,  Greece,  Syria,  and 
Macedonia  furnished  large  numbers  of  slaves, 
the  common  sorts  of  whom  were  sold  at  low 
rates,  and  were  employed  in  the  country.  The 
invasion  of  the  Roman  territories  by  the  Teu- 
tones  and  Cimbri,  which  ended  in  the  total 
defeat  of  those  barbarians  by  Marius,  added 
considerably  to  the  number  of  slaves,  60,000 
of  the  Cimbri  alone  being  taken  captive  in  the 
last  great  battle  of  the  war.  The  conquest  of 
Sulla,  Lucullus,  and  Pompey  in  Greece  and 
the  East,  actually  flooded  the  slave  markets,  so 
that  in  the  camp  of  Lucullus,  in  Pontus,  men 
were  sold  for  four  drachma)  each,  or  about  62 
cents  of  our  money.  Cicero  sold  about  10,000 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Cilician  town  of 
Pindenissus.  The  Gallic  wars  of  Julius  Caesar 
furnished  almost  half  a  million  slaves;  and 
Augustus  sold  36,000  of  the  Salasi-i,  nearly  a 
fourth  of  whom  were  men  of  military  age. 
In  the  Jewish  war  which  ended  in  the  de 
struction  of  Jerusalem,  90,000  persons  were 
made  captives.  But  Roman  slavery  would 
not  have  been  so  comprehensive  if  the  Ro 
mans  had  been  compelled  to  rely  solely  upon 
war  for  slaves.  Commerce  has  been  a  chief 
means  of  feeding  slavery  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world.  Before  the  Romans  had  ob 
tained  dominion  over  Italy,  they  were  slave 
purchasers  from  the  Carthaginians,  who  drew 


their  principal  supplies  of  men  from  the  inte 
rior  of  Africa,  the  slave  trade  of  that  region, 
like  that  of  Asia  and  Greece,  being  much  older 
than  history.  Many  slaves  were  obtained  by 
commerce  from  the  East,  and  the  cities  on  the 
shores  of  the  Euxine  were  among  the  chief 
slave  marts  of  antiquity  far  down  into  the 
days  of  the  empire.  Barbarians  of  whom  the 
Romans  otherwise  knew  nothing  found  their 
way  to  the  imperial  city  as  slaves.  At  the 
height  of  her  power  Rome  had  slaves  from 
Britain,  Gaul,  Scandinavia,  Germany,  Sarma- 
tia,  Dacia,  Spain,  the  different  countries  of  Af 
rica,  from  Egypt  to  the  Troglodytes  of  Ethio 
pia,  the  western  Mediterranean  islands,  Sicily, 
Greece,  Illyria,  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Bithynia, 
Phrygia,  Cappadocia,  Syria,  Media,  and  almost 
every  other  country  to  which  ambition  or  ava 
rice  could  lead  the  soldier  or  the  trader  to 
penetrate.  All  races  furnished  their  contribu 
tions  to  the  greatest  population  of  slaves  that 
ever  existed  under  one  dominion.  Unlike  the 
Greeks,  the  Romans  "  acknowledged  the  gen 
eral  equality  of  the  human  species,  and  con 
fessed  the  dominion  of  masters  to  flow  entire 
ly  from  the  will  of  society;"  but  this  did  not 
prevent  them  from  enslaving  all  men  upon 
whom  they  could  lay  their  hands,  while  they 
were  -much  harsher  toward  their  slaves  than 
the  Greeks  were.  Not  a  few  slaves  were  pro 
cured  by  kidnapping  persons,  and  it  was  no 
torious  that  even  Roman  freemen  were  seized 
and  shut  up  in  the  ergastula  of  the  great  pro 
prietors,  which  invasion  of  personal  rights  the 
whole  power  of  the  government  was  unable  to 
prevent.  Children  were  sometimes  -sold  into 
slavery  by  their  parents,  either  from  love  of 
gain  or  to  save  them  from  starvation  ;  and  the 
number  of  these  sales  was  large  in  times  of 
general  distress.  Men  were  also  sold  for  debts 
due  to  the  imperial  treasury.  Under  a  variety 
of  circumstances  poor  people  could  sell  them 
selves  into  slavery,  but  such  sales  were  not  ir 
revocable  until  the  second  century  of  the  em 
pire,  and  then  the  law  was  somewhat  limited, 
the  object  being  to  punish  those  who  had  sold 
themselves  with  the  intention  of  reclaiming 
their  freedom,  the  purchaser  in  such  cases  hav 
ing  no  redress.  Romans  who  had  committed 
crimes  that  were  ignominiously  punished  be 
came  slaves  through  that  fact,  and  were  known 
as  servi  pcencc,  or  slaves  of  punishment,  and 
were  public  property.  They  remained  slaves 
even  if  pardoned,  unless  specially  restored  to 
citizenship  ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of 
Justinian  that  this  form  of  slavery  was  abol 
ished.  In  early  times,  persons  who  did  not 
give  in  their  names  for  enrolment  in  the  pub 
lic  force  were  sold  into  slavery,  after  being 
beaten;  and  incorrect  returns  to  the  censors 
led  to  the  same  punishment.  Poor  thieves, 
who  could  not  make  a  fourfold  return  of  the 
amount  of  their  booty,  became  slaves  to  the 
party  stolen  from ;  and  a  father  could  give 
up  a  child  who  had  stolen  to  the  prosecutor. 
Poor  debtors  were  sold  as  slaves. — The  em- 


92 


SLAVERY 


ployments  of  Roman  slaves,  both  public  and 
private,  were  very  various,  and  were  minutely 
subdivided.  Besides  filling  all  the  more  menial 
offices,  many  of  them  occupied  the  positions  of 
librarians,  readers,  reciters,  story  tellers,  jour 
nal  keepers,  amanuenses,  physicians  and  sur 
geons,  architects,  diviners,  grammarians,  pen 
men,  musicians  and  singers,  players,  builders, 
engravers,  antiquaries,  illuminators,  painters, 
silversmiths,  gladiators,  charioteers  of  the  cir 
cus,  &c.  Before  a  slave  could  become  a  sol 
dier  he  was  emancipated,  and  into  the  Ro 
man  armies  of  the  early  republic  not  even 
freed  men  were  allowed  to  enter ;  but  the  de 
mand  for  soldiers  did  away  with  this  delicacy, 
and  slaves  were  regularly  enlisted  in  the  sec 
ond  Punic  war,  and  did  good  service  to  the 
state.  Many  of  the  Roman  slaves  were  on  the 
most  intimate  terms  with  their  masters,  and 
must  have  been  well  treated,  or  the  state  of 
society  would  have  been  intolerable ;  and  we 
read  of  not  a  few  instances  in  which  the  lives 
of  masters  were  saved  by  their  slaves,  in  the 
times  of  the  proscriptions  and  massacres  of 
Marius  and  Sulla,  and  of  the  triumvirs,  and  on 
other  occasions.  But  the  masses  of  the  slaves 
were  treated  harshly,  and  the  la\vs  and  regula 
tions  affecting  them  were  mostly  severe.  The 
Romans  were  generally  hard  masters ;  and 
"the  original  condition  of  slaves,  in  relation 
to  freemen,  was  as  low  as  can  be  conceived. 
They  were  not  considered  members  of  the 
community,  in  which  they  had  no  station  nor 
place.  They  possessed  no  rights,  and  were 
not  deemed  persons  in  law;  so  that  they  could 
neither  sue  nor  be  sued  in  any  court  of  civil 
judicature,  and  they  could  not  invoke  the  pro 
tection  of  the  tribunes.  So  far  were  these 
notions  carried,  that  when  an  alleged  slave 
claimed  his  freedom  on  the  ground  of  unjust 
detention  in  servitude,  he  was  under  the  ne 
cessity  of  having  a  free  protector  to  sue  for 
him,  till  Justinian  dispensed  with  that  formal 
ity."  Slaves  were  allowed  only  a  special  kind 
of  marriage  (contulerniuiri),  and  they  had  no 
power  over  their  children.  Few  of  the  ties  of 
blood  were  recognized  among  them  ;  and  they 
could  hold  property  only  by  the  sanction  or 
tolerance  of  their  masters.  The  criminal  law 
was  equally  harsh,  slaves  being  treated  under 
it  as  things,  but  it  was  gradually  meliorated. 
The  severest  and  most  ignominious  punish 
ments  were  shared  by  slaves  with  the  vilest 
malefactors,  as  crucifixion  and  hanging,  and 
later  they  were  burned  alive.  Under  the  em 
pire  the  condition  of  the  slaves  was  better  than 
it  had  been  under  the  republic.  The  emperors 
were,  however,  far  from  pursuing  a  uniform 
policy  toward  the  servile  class,  and  some  of 
them  even  restored  cruel  laws  that  had  been 
abolished.  In  theory  Roman  slavery  was  per 
petual,  and  to  this  theory  the  practice  con 
formed,  inasmuch  as  by  no  act  of  his  own 
could  the  slave  become  free.  Freedom  could 
proceed  only  from  the  action  of  the  master. 
Manumission  was  not  uncommon,  and  there 


were  numerous  freedmen  who  exercised  much 
influence,  as  well  in  public  life  as  in  families. 
Freedom  was  the  reward  of  good  conduct, 
and  the  ease  with  which  the  places  of  freed 
slaves  could  be  filled  up  by  new  purchases 
made  manumission  much  more  frequent  than 
it  would  have  been  under  other  circumstances. 
Dying  masters  freed  slaves  by  the  hundred,  in 
order  that  they  might  swell  their  funeral  pro 
cessions.  On  joyful  occasions  a  wealthy  mas 
ter  would  manumit  many  of  his  slaves.  Some 
times  slaves  were  liberated  in  the  article  of 
death,  in  order  that  they  might  die  in  free 
dom.  Manumission  was  often  the  result  of 
agreement  between  masters  and  slaves,  the  lat 
ter  either  purchasing  freedom  with  money,  or 
binding  themselves  to  pursue  certain  courses 
that  should  be  for  their  former  owner's  inter 
est.  The  republican  period  was  favorable  to 
emancipation,  and  freedmen  were  so  numer 
ous  at  the  formation  of  the  empire  that  some 
of  the  early  emperors  sought  to  restrict  manu 
mission,  less  however  to  promote  the  interest 
of  slaveholders,  or  to  increase  the  number 
of  slaves,  than  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
the  numbers  of  the  ingenuous  class,  an  ob 
ject  much  thought  of  and  aimed  at  by  several 
generations  of  Roman  statesmen,  but  always 
without  success.  The  later  emperors  favored 
emancipation,  particularly  after  they  had  be 
come  Christian ;  and  Justinian  removed  nearly 
every  obstacle  to  it.  Augustus  labored  strenu 
ously  to  limit  emancipation,  but  even  he  had 
recourse  to  the  society  of  freedmen,  in  accord 
ance  with  a  custom  of  the  great  men  of  his 
country ;  and  in  30  years  after  his  death  the 
Roman  world  was  governed  by  members  of 
that  class  of  persons.  Julius  Caesar  employed 
no  freedmen,  and  Tiberius  employed  but  few, 
and  gave  them  none  of  his  confidence,  thus 
imitating  Ca3sar  rather  than  Augustus ;  and 
even  Caligula  used  them  but  little.  Claudius 
they  ruled,  and  through  him  the  empire. — It 
is  impossible  to  estimate  with  an  approach  to 
accuracy  the  number  of  Roman  slaves.  Gib 
bon  thought  it  was  equal  to  that  of  the  free 
population,  which  Zumpt  pronounces  a  "gross 
error;"  and  Blair  estimates  that  during  the 
14  generations  that  followed  the  conquest  of 
Greece,  there  were  three  slaves  to  one  free 
man.  Gibbon's  estimate,  which  applies  to  the 
reign  of  Claudius,  would  give  60,000,000,  and 
probably  it  is  not  far  from  the  truth,  though 
we  may  agree  with  Blair  that  it  seems  much 
too  low  for  those  places  which  were  inhabit 
ed  by  Romans  properly  so  called.  Many  indi 
viduals  owned  immense  numbers,  though  the 
figures  in  some  of  these  cases  are  perhaps 
exaggerated,  or  the  results  of  the  mistakes  of 
copyists.  The  prices  of  slaves  were  not  fixed. 
Good  doctors,  actors,  cooks,  beautiful  women, 
and  skilled  artists  brought  heavy  sums,  and 
"ruled  high;"  and  so  did  handsome  boys, 
eunuchs,  and  fools.  Learned  men,  gramma 
rians,  and  rhetoricians  also  sold  at  high  rates. 
Some  descriptions  of  artisans  and  laborers 


SLAVERY 


93 


would  sell  at  good  prices,  upward  of  $300  of 
our  money  each ;  but  $100  was  a  fair  average 
price  for  a  common  slave,  and  when  a  slave 
could  be  bought  for  about  half  that  sum  the 
price  was  held  to  be  low.  Insurrections  and 
servile  wars  were  not  uncommon.  Two  such 
wars  broke  out  in  Sicily  after  the  conquest  of 
that  island  by  the  Romans,  and  were  extin 
guished  only  in  the  blood  of  myriads  of  men, 
and  through  the  exertions  of  consular  armies. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  Yth  century  of  Rome 
the  war  of  the  gladiators,  waged  on  the  one 
side  by  slaves  alone,  from  general  to  camp 
servants,  brought  the  republic  to  the  verge  of 
ruin.  The  war  was  commenced  by  a  few 
gladiators  from  the  schools  of  Capua,  under 
the  lead  of  Spartacus,  a  Thracian,  73  B.  C., 
and  lasted  for  more  than  two  years.  Several 
Roman  armies,  commanded  by  praetors  and 
consuls,  were  defeated,  and  for  a  time  the  re 
volted  slaves  had  the  peninsula  more  at  their 
command  than  it  was  at  the  command  of  the 
Romans.  The  country  was  horribly  ravaged, 
and  it  was  not  until  Crassus  took  the  field,  and 
200,000  men  were  employed,  that  the  insur 
rection  was  subdued;  and  the  final  battle  was 
won  by  the  Romans  more  as  the  consequence 
of  the  death  of  Spartacus  before  it  was  half 
fought  than  from  their  superior  generalship. 
Six  thousand  of  the  slaves  were  hanged  or  cru 
cified  after  their  defeat.  The  punishment  of 
rebellious  slaves  was  always  very  severe.  Many 
slaves  had  enlisted  under  Sextus  Pompey,  and 
thousands  of  them  who  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Octavius  were  sent  to  the  horrible  death  of 
the  cross,  with  the  general  approbation  of  the 
citizens.  They  were  crucified  solely  as  fugi 
tives,  as  all  whose  masters  could  be  found  were 
restored  to  them ;  and  the  cruel  act  was  per 
petrated  in  violation  of  plighted  faith.  It  more 
than  once  happened  that  Roman  leaders  in  the 
civil  wars  either  called  upon  slaves  to  rebel,  or 
availed  themselves  of  the  services  of  slaves. 
Marius,  on  his  return  from  Africa  to  Italy,  and 
just  before  his  death,  proclaimed  liberty  to  all 
slaves  who  would  join  him,  and  at  least  4,000 
enlisted  under  his  banner.  Before  his  exile  he 
had  tried  the  same  plan,  but  without  success. 
The  Cornelians  of  Sulla  were  10,000  freed 
slaves,  who  had  belonged  to  members  of  the 
Marian  party  that  had  been  proscribed  by  the 
conqueror,  and  who  took  their  appellation 
from  the  gentile  name  of  their  patron. — The 
slave  trade  of  antiquity  comprehended  the 
whole  hemisphere  in  its  circle.  Its  origin  is 
unknown,  for  it  was  practised  in  all  its  parts 
at  the  earliest  period  of  which  any  knowledge 
}s  to  be  obtained.  The  Phoenician  slave  trade 
was  very  extensive,  and  supplied  in  part  by 
piracy.  They  stole  Greeks  and  sold  them  12 
centuries  before  Christ,  and  they  also  sold 
stolen  people  to  the  Greeks.  They  had  a  land 
traffic  in  slaves,  obtaining  them  in  the  coun 
tries  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas ;  and 
they  exchanged  Hebrew  slaves  for  the  produc 
tions  of  Arabia  with  the  Sabseans  and  Edom- 


ites.  The  Greeks  were  also  great  slave  tra 
ders,  and  were  as  skilful  in  kidnapping  persons 
as  were  the  Phoenicians.  Their  slave  traffic 
extended  to  Egypt,  Thrace,  Phrygia,  Lydia, 
Syria,  and  other  countries.  From  Egypt  they 
obtained  blacks,  then  regarded  as  slaves  of 
luxury.  Their  slaves  came  mostly  from  the 
north  and  the  east.  The  chief  Grecian  slave 
marts  were  Athens,  Samos,  Chios,  Ephesus, 
Cyprus,  and  Corinth.  The  Carthaginians, 
who  were  the  Phoenicians  of  the  west,  rival 
led  their  progenitors  in  the  extent  and  com 
prehensiveness  of  their  slave  traffic.  They  had 
an  immense  traffic  with  the  interior  of  Africa, 
a  caravan  trade,  like  that  of  the  Egyptians  and 
of  the  Cyrenaaans.  "Women  were  preferred 
to  men  in  the  trade  with  the  African  slave 
dealers,  as  they  sold  for  much  higher  prices  in 
some  northern  countries.  There  was  a  large 
demand  for  negroes  in  the  Balearic  islands,  and 
especially  for  women.  Corsica  also  furnished 
many  valuable  slaves  to  the  Carthaginians. 
The  Roman  slave  trade  as  much  exceeded  that 
of  any  other  country  of  antiquity  as  the  institu 
tion  of  Roman  slavery  exceeded  slavery  in  other 
countries.  In  remoter  times  the  Romans  were 
no  better  than  robbers  in  their  treatment  of 
foreigners,  imitating  the  Etruscans  in  this  re 
spect,  who  were  the  worst  pirates  of  antiquity. 
Corinth  had  been  the  chief  slave  mart  of  Greece 
toward  the  close  of  its  independence,  before 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  and  at 
the  time  when  slavery  was  beginning  to  in 
crease  rapidly  in  Italy ;  and  it  is  supposed,  its 
situation  being  favorable  to  trade  of  the  kind, 
that  many  slaves  were  sent  thence  from  the 
East  to  the  cities  on  the  eastern  Italian  coast. 
But  the  destruction  of  Corinth  by  the  Romans, 
146  B.  C.,  transferred  the  slave  trade  to  Delos, 
which  became  the  most  noted  slave  market  of 
that  age,  though  the  trade  in  slaves  was  but 
one  branch  of  the  immense  commerce  that 
centred  there.  The  importance  of  the  slave 
trade  in  that  island  was  owing  to  the  Roman 
demand,  as  it  was  most  favorably  situated  to 
minister  to  the  desire  for  slaves  from  eastern 
countries — Greeks,  Syrians,  Phrygians,  Bithyn- 
ians,  and  others.  According  to  Strabo,  it  was 
possible,  so  complete  were  the  arrangements,  to 
import  10,000  slaves  in  one  day,  and  to  export 
them  on  the  same  day.  But  all  this  prosperity 
came  to  an  end  when  the  forces  of  Mithridates 
entered  Greece.  They  landed  on  Delos,  and 
devastated  the  island,  so  that  it  never  recov 
ered  from  their  ravages.  The  Mediterranean 
pirates  had  supplied  Delos  with  many  slaves ; 
and  at  Side,  in  Pamphylia,  they  had  a  great 
market  of  their  own,  at  which  they  disposed 
of  their  captives,  many  of  whom  were  cap 
tured  far  inland,  even  Italy  itself  not  being 
safe  from  their  ravages,  and  its  villas  and  high 
roads  furnishing  victims  to  the  marauders,  who 
became  very  powerful  during  that  disturbed 
period  of  Roman  history  in  which  occurred  the 
social  war  and  the  contest  between  Marius  and 
Sulla.  From  Alexandria  the  Romans  obtained 


SLAVERY 


slaves,  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians,  that  city  hav 
ing  a  great  trade  in  men.  Others  were  drawn 
from  Thrace,  which  continued  to  be  a  slave- 
breeding  country  long  after  the  fall  of  Greece. 
After  the  devastation  of  Delos,  the  slave  trade 
fell  back  nearer  to  its  sources,  and  the  Ro 
mans  obtained  slaves  direct  from  the  marts  on 
the  Euxine,  where  the  trade  had  existed  from 
time  immemorial,  being  fed  by  the  constant 
warfare  that  was  waged  by  the  neighboring 
tribes.  Many  came  from  Scythia,  and  Scyth 
ian  and  slave  were  all  but  convertible  terms. 
The  Galatians  carried  on  an  extensive  slave 
trade ;  and  between  Italy  and  Illyria  this  com 
merce  was  considerable  in  the  first  days  of  the 
empire.  The  Roman  wars  fed  the  slave  trade, 
and  enabled  those  who  carried  it  on  to  accu 
mulate  immense  fortunes.  So  long  as  those 
wars  were  fought  near  home,  the  victors  could 
sell  their  captives  easily,  without  much  aid 
from  traders ;  but  as  soon  as  they  extended  to 
any  distance  from  Italy,  the  trader's  aid  became 
necessary.  The  trader  followed  the  camp,  and 
in  the  camp  the  human  booty  was  sold,  and 
often  at  prices  so  low  as  to  appear  incredible. 
The  Romans  neither  encouraged  nor  discour 
aged  the  slave  trade.  They  held  the  slave  tra 
der  in  contempt,  and  deemed  his  business  ut 
terly  unworthy  of  merchants.  Special  names 
were  given  to  sucli  traders,  implying  that  they 
were  necessarily  cheats ;  but  their  enormous 
wealth  made  them  powerful. — Slavery  is  re 
garded  as  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  decline 
of  Rome.  The  institution  existed  in  all  parts 
of  the  Roman  empire,  and  prevailed  in  the 
countries  which  were  formed  from  its  frag 
ments,  though  essentially  modified  by  a  variety 
of  circumstances.  The  influence  of  Christian 
ity  upon  it  was  very  great.  It  had  indeed  ex 
isted  before  the  extension  of  the  Roman  do 
minion,  and  was  known  to  most  of  the  peoples 
who  invaded  and  overthrew  the  empire,  and 
on  its  ruins  established  the  feudal  system  and 
serfdom.  (See  SERF.)  The  rise  of  the  Saracens 
tended  to  increase  the  number  of  slaves,  and 
to  feed  the  trade  in  them,  as  Christians  felt  no 
scruples  about  enslaving  Mussulmans,  and  the 
Mussulmans  were  quite  as  unscrupulous  toward 
Christians.  The  wars  between  the  Germans 
and  Slavs  furnished  so  many  of  the  latter  race 
for  the  market,  that  the  word  slave  is  derived 
from  them.  The  great  commercial  republics  of 
Italy  were  much  engaged  in  slave  trading.  The 
Venetians  had  many  slaves,  and  the  history  of 
their  commerce  shows  that  they  pursued  the 
slave  trade  with  vigor  and  profit.  In  spite  of 
the  efforts  of  the  popes,  they  sold  Christians 
to  Moslems.  Slavery  also  existed  in  Florence, 
though  the  slaves  were  almost  exclusively  Mos 
lems  and  other  unransomed  prisoners  of  war. 
In  England,  under  the  Saxons,  the  slave  trade 
flourished,  Bristol  being  the  chief  mart,  whence 
many  slaves  were  exported  to  Ireland.  But  in 
this  island  slaveholding  was  never  very  popu 
lar,  and  the  Irish  early  emancipated  their  bond 
men. — At  the  close  of  the  middle  ages  two 


peculiar  forms  of  slavery  and  the  slave  trade 
began  to  be  known,  one  of  which  has  but  re 
cently  ceased  to  exist,  while  the  other  is  not 
yet  entirely  extinguished.  The  new  phase  of 
Mohammedanism  that  came  up  with  the  rapid 
development  of  the  power  of  the  Turks,  in  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries,  nearly  synchronizes 
with  the  origin  and  progress  of  what  is  known 
specifically  as  negro  slavery.  The  Turks  com 
pleted  the  establishment  of  their  power  in 
Europe  by  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  in 
1453  ;  and  not  quite  40  years  later  the  last 
Mussulman  state  in  Spain,  Granada,  was  con 
quered  by  the  Christians.  These  two  events 
had  a  remarkable  effect  on  slavery.  The  fears 
of  Christendom  were  excited  by  the  rapid 
and  sweeping  successes  of  the  Turks,  and  the 
anger  of  the  Mussulmans  was  roused  by  the 
overthrow  and  enslavement  of  their  brethren 
in  Spain ;  and  from  these  feelings  the  system 
of  slavery  received  an  impetus  and  acquired 
forms  that  under  other  conditions  it  never 
could  have  known.  We  have  seen  that  the 
church,  at  a  much  earlier  period,  did  not  ob 
ject  so  much  to  the  traffic  in  men  as  to  the 
traffic  in  Christians,  and  that  lay  legislators 
took  the  same  view  of  human  duties ;  and  it 
was  also  the  case  that  the  selling  of  Chris 
tians  to  Moslems  was  more  strictly  forbidden 
than  was  the  selling  of  Christians  to  other 
Christians.  The  sentiment  that  prevailed 
while  the  Saracens  were  so  strong  as  to  ex 
cite  fears  throughout  all  Christendom  for  its 
safety,  was  revived  in  the  15th  century,  and 
did  not  become  altogether  extinct  until  after 
the  middle  of  the  17th.  In  the  East,  and  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  time  in  most  of  N". 
Africa,  the  Mohammedans  were  in  the  ascen 
dant,  they  having  become  masters  01  Barbary 
and  lords  of  the  Levant.  Between  the  Turks 
on  the  one  side  and  the  Italians  and  Spaniards 
on  the  other  the  long  struggle  was  principally 
carried  on  in  the  south,  the  English  being  too 
remote  from  the  scene  to  take  much  part  in  it, 
while  the  French,  though  occasionally  furnish 
ing  some  gallant  volunteers,  were  as  a  nation 
the  friends  and  sometimes  the  allies  of  the  in 
fidels.  The  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem, 
first  in  Palestine,  then  at  Rhodes,  and  after 
ward  at  Malta,  carried  on  perpetual  warfare 
with  the  Mussulmans.  The  contending  parties 
divided  between  them  the  whole  of  the  sea 
dominion  of  the  Romans,  and  the  compound 
rivalry  of  religion  and  race  doomed  multitudes 
of  civilized  people  to  slavery.  Men  who  were 
taken  in  war  did  not  alone  compose  these  slaves, 
but  among  them  were  many  women  and  chil 
dren,  the  victims  of  razzias  that  were  undertaken 
by  the  parties  to  the  bitter  and  prolonged  con 
test.  The  light,  low  vessels  of  the  Mussulmans 
often  ran  into  the  ports  of  the  Spaniards  and 
Italians  by  night,  and  plundered  and  burned 
them,  while  the  inhabitants  were  either  mur 
dered  or  carried  into  captivity.  Watch  towers 
wore  built  along  the  coasts,  that  the  approach 
of  the  corsairs  might  be  detected.  So  marked 


SLAVERY 


95 


a  feature  of  the  war  then  waged  was  this 
form  of  slavery,  that  it  furnished  much  mat 
ter  for  the  romantic  literature  of  southern  Eu 
rope,  in  which  nothing  is  more  common  than 
incidents  connected  with  bondage  in  Barbary. 
Cervantes  himself  was  for  five  years  an  Alge- 
rine  captive,  and  he.  formed  a  project  for  a 
slave  insurrection,  there  being  25,000  enslaved 
Christians  at  that  time  in  Algiers  alone.  Enor 
mous  numbers  of  captives  were  employed  as 
rowers  of  galleys,  Christians  on  board  those  of 
the  Mussulmans  and  Mussulmans  on  board 
Christian  vessels.  "When  the  Turks  lost  the 
battle  of  Lepanto,  in  1571,  12,000  Christian 
captives,  galley  slaves,  were  released  from  the 
prizes  made  by  the  allied  fleet.  When  Charles 
V.  took  Tunis,  in  1535,  20',000  Christians  were 
released  from  slavery.  Great  numbers  of  wo 
men  were  taken  as  slaves,  and  sold  in  the  mar 
kets  of  Turkey  and  Barbary.  The  corsairs 
passed  out  of  the  Mediterranean,  sailed  far  to 
the  north,  and  seized  people  on  the  coast  of 
Ireland.  This  brought  upon  them  punishment 
from  the  English,  but  that  did  not  put  an  end 
to  their  Atlantic  cruising.  There  were  some 
places  in  Barbary  on  the  Atlantic  from  which 
corsairs  sailed,  and  those  of  Sale  were  among 
the  most  famous  of  the  brotherhood.  The  Eu 
ropean  powers  made  frequent  war  on  the  Bar 
bary  states ;  and  of  the  early  contests  in  which 
the  American  Union  was  engaged  none  were 
more  brilliant  than  those  which  it  carried  on 
with  some  of  those  states,  in  defence  of  the 
liberty  and  commerce  of  its  citizens.  But  the 
jealousies  of  the  European  powers  prevented 
them  from  putting  an  end  to  the  piracy  and 
slavery  of  Barbary  long  after  the  Turks  had 
ceased  to  be  able  to  protect  the  corsairs,  and 
tribute  was  paid  to  the  petty  powers  down  to 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  The  suc 
cessful  bombardment  of  Algiers  in  1816,  by  an 
English  fleet  commanded  by  Lord  Exmouth, 
put  an  end  to  white  slavery  in  Barbary,  it 
having  previously  ceased  to  exist  in  the  other 
countries  of  N.  Africa,  to  which  the  exploits 
of  the  American  navy  had  much  contributed, 
though  at  first  the  government  of  the  L^nited 
States  had  paid  tribute  to  the  pirate  chiefs. — 
At  the  same  time  that  slavery  was  acquiring 
its  peculiar  form  in  the  countries  on  the  Med 
iterranean,  negro  or  African  slavery  came  into 
existence.  This  form  of  slavery  belongs  en- 
tirely  to  modern  times.  As  we  know,  the  slave 
trade  in  negroes  existed  3,000  years  ago  at 
least,  and  the  Carthaginians  brought  numbers 
of  black  slaves  from  central  and  southern  Af 
rica,  by  means  of  their  caravan  commerce,  a 
mode  of  traffic  that  was  common  long  before 
the  Carthaginians  had  a  political  existence ; 
but  in  trading  in  negroes,  the  slave  traders  of 
antiquity  only  did  that  which  they  did  with 
all  other  descriptions  of  men,  and  as  the  slave 
traders  of  the  East  have  always  done  until 
now.  The  fact  that  the  ancients  regarded 
black  slaves  as  luxuries,  proves  that  their  num 
ber  could  not  have  been  large  in  the  European 
VOL.  xv.—  7 


countries  to  which  they  were  taken,  either  by 
the  way  of  Egypt  or  that  of  Carthage.  Such 
details  as  we  have  concerning  the  black  slaves 
of  antiquity  all  serve  to  show  that  they  were 
not  numerous,  fa.r  less  so  indeed  than  were 
slaves  belonging  to  some  of  the  highest  of  the 
white  races.  They  were  probably  more  numer 
ous  in  the  East  than  in  Greece  and  Italy,  and 
most  numerous  of  all  in  Egypt  and  other  parts 
of  N.  Africa,  because  of  the  comparative  ease 
of  acquiring  them  in  those  countries.  The 
Venetians,  who  carried  on  a  large  trade  with 
Africa,  no  doubt  distributed  some  negro  slaves 
over  the  various  European  nations  which  they 
visited.  In  the  Mohammedan  countries  there 
have  been  black  slaves  from  the  time  of  the 
prophet,  and  they  have  often  risen  very  high, 
as  well  in  the  state  as  in  the  household.  But 
in  all  these  cases  the  negro  has  but  shared  the 
common  lot,  and  might  have  been  sold  on  the 
same  day  with  the  Greek  or  the  Arab,  and  by 
the  same  trader.  The  negro  was  then  sold, 
not  because  he  was  a  negro,  but  because  he 
was  a  man  whose  services  could  be  turned  to 
profitable  account.  Kegro  slavery,  in  its  spe 
cial  form,  is  one  of  the  consequences  of  that 
grand  movement  in  behalf  of  maritime  dis 
covery  and  commerce  which  began  in  the  15th 
century.  Portugal  took  the  lead  in  tbis  move 
ment,  which  Avas  already  prominent  more  than 
four  centuries  ago  ;  and  it  was  headed  in  that 
country  by  Prince  Henry,  son  of  John  I.  In 
1441  two  of  Prince  Henry's  captains  seized 
some  Moors,  who  were  taken  to  Portugal.  The 
next  year  these  Moors  were  allowed  to  ran 
som  themselves,  and  among  the  goods  given 
in  exchange  for  them  were  ten  black  slaves, 
whose  appearance  in  Portugal  excited  general 
astonishment,  and  who  led  the  van  of  the 
African  slave  trade.  This  was  openly  com 
menced  in  1444,  by  a  company  formed  at  La 
gos  ;  and  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  that 
company  was  formed  expressly  to  trade  in  men, 
and  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  200 
persons  whom  its  agents  seized  and  brought 
to  Europe  were  negroes,  it  is  from  that  time 
that  the  negro  trade  is  generally  dated.  The 
first  negroes  taken  by  the  Portuguese  in  the 
negro  country  were  but  four  in  number,  in 
1445,  and  they  were  rather  taken  accidentally 
than  of  set  purpose  to  make  them  slaves ;  but 
the  trade  in  negroes  as  slaves  was  quickly 
regulated,  and  a  Portuguese  factory  was  estab 
lished  in  one  of  the  Arguin  islands,  where 
the  slave  trade  had  been  commenced.  Every 
year  TOO  or  800  black  slaves  were  sent  from 
this  factory  to  Portugal,  while  other  slaves  of 
the  same  description  from  the  countries  that 
furnished  those  sent  to  Portugal  were  sold  to 
other  traders,  who  took  them  to  Tunis  and  to 
Sicily.  But  Prince  Henry  and  those  who  fol 
lowed  in  his  path  did  not  regard  the  trade  in 
slaves  as  a  thing  to  be  encouraged.  They 
thought  rather  of  the  conversion  of  the  Afri 
cans  to  Christianity,  both  the  Portuguese  and 
Spanish  discoverers  being  enthusiastic  propa- 


96 


SLAVERY 


gandists.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  discovery 
of  America  in  1492,  it  is  altogether  probable 
that  the  African  slave  trade  would  never  have 
exceeded  the  dimensions  it  had  known  in  an 
tiquity  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  between  1455 
and  1492  that  trade  had  fallen  off  considerably, 
and  that  the  number  of  negroes  taken  by  the 
Portuguese  for  exportation  did  not  exceed  300 
or  400  a  year.  In  fact,  Europe  presented  no 
field  for  the  labor  of  black  slaves,  the  employ 
ment  of  which  must  have  been  confined  to  the 
houses  of  the  great,  as  in  the  classic  times,  with 
rare  exceptions.  The  negro  trade  was  verging 
to  extinction,  when  the  success  of  the  great 
enterprise  of  Columbus  imparted  to  it  new 
life,  and  made  it  one  of  the  most  lucrative 
branches  of  commerce. — Soon  after  the  dis 
covery  of  America  the  Spaniards  began  to  en 
slave  the  natives,  large  numbers  of  whom  were 
sent  to  Spain  as  slaves  in  1495.  The  system 
of  repartimientos  (slave  distributions)  was  be 
gun  in  1496.  Columbus  appears  to  have  had 
no  scruples  on  the  subject,  and  had  indeed 
been  engaged  in  the  Portuguese  slave  trade. 
Ho  strongly  recommended  the  trade  in  the 
cannibal  Indians  ;  and  the  Spanish  sovereigns, 
though  in  general  their  legislation  was  kindly 
toward  the  natives,  did  not  discourage  his 
proposition.  At  a  later  period  Isabella  sought 
to  make  a  distinction  between  Indians  who  had 
been  sold  into  slavery  after  being  taken  in  war, 
and  others  who  had  been  seized  in  consequence 
of  failure  to  pay  tribute ;  and  she  was  very 
angry  with  u  the  admiral "  for  making  the 
seizure,  and  ordered  the  sufferers  to  be  released 
and  returned  to  America.  Under  the  Spanish 
rule  the  Indians  perished  in  immense  numbers, 
until  they  became  extinct  in  the  islands,  or 
were  absorbed  by  the  other  races.  Slavery 
itself  was  not,  unknown  in  America,  and  had  a 
well  defined  system  in  Mexico.  The  desire  of 
the  Spaniards  to  have  laborers,  and  the  inabil 
ity  of  the  natives  to  perform  the  labors  re 
quired  of  them,  soon  led  to  the  sending  of  ne 
groes  to  the  new  world.  Interest  and  human 
ity  promoted  their  rapid  increase  in  the  Spanish 
colonies.  They  could  perform  the  work  to 
which  the  Indians  were  unequal,  and  throve 
under  it.  The  government  of  Ferdinand  feared 
that  the  sending  of  many  negroes  to  America 
would  prove  injurious,  but  Charles  V.  granted 
a  license  to  a  Fleming  to  import  negroes  into 
the  West  Indies.  Thenceforth  the  trade  went 
on  vigorously.  The  demand  of  the  colonists 
for  negroes  was  supported  by  the  benevolent 
Las  Casas,  and  by  other  leaders  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  who  were  desirous  of  pre 
venting  the  extinction  of  the  Indians.  One 
negro  was  counted  as  worth  four  natives. 
There  was  a  negro  insurrection  in  Hispaniola 
as  early  as  1522.  The  African  slave  trade, 
under  such  stimulus  as  was  afforded  by  the 
American  demand,  rapidly  increased,  and  Eng 
land  took  part  in  the  work  of  supplying  the 
Spaniards  in  1562,  previously  to  which  ne 
groes  had  been  landed  in  England,  and  there 


sold,  in  1553.  Queen  Elizabeth  is  charged  with 
sharing  the  profits  made  by  Sir  John  Hawkins, 
the  first  Englishman  who  commanded  a  regu 
lar  slave  trader.  The  English  were  far  more 
cruel  traders  than  the  Portuguese.  In  the 
times  of  the  Stuarts  four  English  companies 
were  chartered  for  carrying  on  the  African 
slave  trade,  and  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  were 
members  of  the  fourth  company.  While  duke 
of  York,  James  II.  was  at  the  head  of  the  last 
company.  After  the  revolution  the  trade  was 
thrown  open  to  all ;  and  at  later  periods  the 
royal  African  company  received  aid  from  par 
liament.  These  companies  furnished  negroes 
to  America;  and  in  1713  the  privilege  of  sup 
plying  them  to  the  ^Spanish  colonies  was  se 
cured  to  Englishmen  for  80  years,  during  which 
144,000  were  to  be  landed.  The  French,  the 
Dutch,  and  other  European  nations  engaged 
in  the  traffic ;  and  the  first  slaves  brought  to 
the  old  territory  of  the  United  States  were 
sold  from  a  Dutch  vessel,  which  landed  20  at 
Jamestown,  Virginia,  in  1620.  The  culture  of 
cotton  began  the  next  year.  Slavery  soon 
came  into  existence  in  nearly  every  part  of 
North  America,  and  Indians  were  enslaved  as 
well  as  negroes.  •  The  son  of  King  Philip  was 
sold  as  a  slave.  The  trade  between  North 
America  and  Africa  was  carried  on  with  con 
siderable  vigor.  Some  of  the  colonies  remon 
strated  against  the  trade,  but  without  success, 
as  the  mother  country  encouraged  it.  In  1776 
it  was  resolved  by  the  continental  congress 
that  no  more  slaves  should  be  imported ;  but 
when  the  American  constitution  was  formed, 
in  1788,  congress  was  prohibited  from  inter 
dicting  the  traffic  before  1808,  at  which  time  it 
was  abolished.  The  state  of  Georgia  prohibit 
ed  the  slave  trade  in  1798.  America  was  thus 
in  advance  of  other  countries  in  fixing  a  time 
for  the  cessation  of  a  traffic  which  has  been  as 
generally  condemned  as  it  has  been  persistently 
pursued  for  four  centuries.  In  England  the 
slave  trade  was  early  denounced  by  individuals, 
but  it  was  regarded  by  most  men  as  a  perfectly 
legitimate  branch  of  commerce.  The  last  act 
of  the  British  legislature  regulating  the  slave 
trade  was  passed  in  1788,  the  same  year  that 
the  first  parliamentary  movement  for  the 
abolition  of  the  trade  was  made.  The  Quakers 
were  opposed  to  slavery  and  the  slave  trade 
from  the  beginning  of  their  existence  as  a  body, 
but  neither  their  influence  nor  their  numbers 
were  large.  English  lawyers  were  nearly 
unanimous  in  their  support  of  the  legality  of 
slavery,  and  the  trade  in  negroes  was  in  va 
rious  ways  encouraged  by  law.  In  the  18th 
century  a  sentiment  of  hostility  to  the  system 
of  slavery,  never  altogether  unknown  since  the 
Christian  era,  became  very  common,  and  was 
shared  by  many  literary  men,  philosophers, 
and  statesmen,  who  labored  with  zeal  for  the 
suppression  of  the  system.  Of  these,  the  most 
noted  was  Granville  Sharp,  who  exerted  him 
self  for  half  a  century  in  the  emancipation 
cause ;  and  it  was  chiefly  through  his  labors 


UN  J  V  IMiSITV   OI- 


SLAVERY 


97 


that  the  decision  of  Lord  Mansfield,  in  the 
case  of  Somerset,  was  given  in  17*72,  that  de 
cision  being  that  the  master  of  a  slave  could 
not  by  force  compel  him  to  go  out  of  the  king 
dom.  "  The  power  of  a  master  over  his  slave," 
the  English  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  king's 
bench  observed,  "  has  been  extremely  different 
in  different  countries.  The  state  of  slavery  is 
of  such  a  nature  that  it  is  incapable  of  being 
introduced  on  any  reasons,  moral  or  political, 
but  only  positive  law,  which  preserves  its  force 
long  after  the  reasons,  occasions,  and  time  it 
self  from  whence  it  was  created  are  erased  from 
memory.  It  is  so  odious  that  nothing  can  be 
suffered  to  support  it  but  positive  law.  "What 
ever  inconveniences,  therefore,  may  follow 
from  a  decision,  I  cannot  say  this  case  is  al 
lowed  or  approved  by  the  law  of  England,  and 
therefore  the  black  must  be  discharged."  Lord 
Mansfield's  decision  has  been  greatly  overrated 
as  to  the  importance  of  its  terms,  and  it  is  in 
correct  to  say  that  it  was  the  first  in  the  order 
of  time.  More  than  ten  years  earlier,  the  ad 
miralty  court  of  Glasgow  liberated  a  negro  slave 
who  had  been  imported  into  Scotland  ;  and  70 
years  before,  Chief  Justice  Holt  ruled  that  "  as 
soon  as  a  negro  comes  into  England  he  is  free ; 
one  may  be  a  villein  in  England,  but  not  a 
slave;"  and  later:  "In  England  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  a  slave,  and  a  human  being  never 
was  considered  a  chattel  to  be  sold  for  a  price." 
The  decision  of  Lord  Mansfield  was  made  al 
most  under  compulsion,  so  strong  was  the  feel 
ing  in  England  against  slavery  at  that  time ; 
and  immediately  the  enemies  of  both  the  trade 
and  the  institution  went  to  work,  and  began 
those  exertions  which  were  not  to  cease  until 
their  country  had  abolished,  first  the  commerce 
in  negroes,  and  then  the  practice  of  enslaving 
them.  The  Quakers  presented  to  parliament 
the  first  petition  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade.  Mr.  Clarkson  began  his  anti-slavery 
labors  in  1780,  and  Mr.  Wilberforce  joined 
him  soon  after.  In  June,  1787,  a  committee, 
composed  of  12  members,  all  Quakers  save 
Clarkson,  Sharp,  and  another,  was  instituted 
for  "  effecting  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade." 
In  spite  of  the  care  they  took  to  define  their 
object  and  to  conciliate  popular  prejudice,  they 
encountered  the  violent  opposition  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  the  country.  The  duke  of 
Clarence  denounced  them  in  the  house  of  lords 
as  fanatics  and  hypocrites,  including  Wilber 
force  by  name.  The  subject  was  brought  be 
fore  parliament,  May  9,  1788,  but  the  aboli 
tionists  were  beaten,  as  they  also  were  in 
1789.  Mr.  Pitt,  chief  of  the  ministry,  and  Mr. 
Fox,  chief  of  the  opposition,  joined  them  in 
1790 ;  and  soon  nearly  all  the  leading  mem 
bers  of  the  house  of  commons,  of  both  par 
ties,  became  abolitionists  ;  but  still  defeat  met 
every  proposition  for  abolition  till  1793,  when 
the  commons  passed  an  act  for  the  gradual 
abolition  of  the  trade,  which  failed  in  the 
house  of  peers.  The  commons  changed  their 
mind  in  1794,  but  passed  another  bill  the  next 


year,  which  the  peers  threw  out.  The  agita 
tion  was  continued,  but  the  abolitionists  failed 
in  parliament  till  1804,  when  another  act  passed 
by  the  commons  was  lost  in  the  upper  house. 
Another  failure  in  the  commons  was  expe 
rienced  in  1805.  In  1806,  when  the  Fox  and 
Grenville  ministry  ruled  England,  abolition 
was  brought  forward  as  a  government  mea 
sure,  and  was  carried  in  1807,  after  the  death 
of  Mr.  Fox.  The  abolitionists  then  began  to 
labor  for  the  removal  of  slavery  itself,  but 
not  with  much  effect  till  1823,  when  a  society 
was  formed  "  for  the  mitigation  and  gradual 
abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  British 
dominions."  The  principal  leaders  in  this  new 
movement  were  Clarkson,  Wilberforce,  and 
Buxton.  About  this  time  appeared  a  pam 
phlet,  written  by  Elizabeth  Hey  rick,  a  Qua 
ker,  and  entitled  "Immediate,  not  Gradual, 
Abolition."  Her  views  did  not  at  first  com 
mand  the  assent  of  those  \vho  controlled  the 
operations  of  the  society,  but  subsequent  re 
flection  and  discussion,  and  the  resistance  of 
the  colonial  authorities  to  every  scheme  of 
amelioration  proposed  by  parliament,  finally 
led  them  almost  unanimously  to  the  conclusion 
that  she  was  right,  and  they  abandoned  the 
doctrines  and  measures  of  gradualism  for  those 
of  immediate  and  unqualified  emancipation  on 
the  soil.  The  cause  from  this  time  advanced 
with  great  rapidity.  The  question  exerted  a 
controlling  influence  in  the  election  of  the  re 
formed  parliament  in  1832,  and  when,  near 
the  close  of  the  year,  that  body  assembled,  the 
government  avowed  its  purpose  to  bring  in  a 
bill  for  the  abolition  of  slavery.  The  anxiety 
of  the  abolitionists  as  to  the  character  of  the 
proposed  measure  led  to  a  conference,  com 
posed  of  369  delegates  from  every  part  of  the 
kingdom.  A  deputation  of  more  than  300 
members  of  this  conference  had  an  audience 
with  leading  members  of  the  cabinet,  to  urge 
the  necessity  of  total  and  immediate  emancipa 
tion.  The  government  measure  was  brought 
forward  April  23,  1833.  It  proposed  an  ap 
prenticeship  of  12  years  for  the  slaves,  and  to 
pay  out  of  their  earnings  to  the  masters  the 
sum  of  £15,000,000.  The  friends  of  emanci 
pation  remonstrated  against  these  features  of 
the  plan,  and  it  was  finally  modified  by  a  re 
duction  of  the  term  of  apprenticeship  to  six 
years,  and  a  provision  to  pay  the  masters 
£20,000,000  out  of  the  national  treasury.  The 
bill  passed  the  house  of  commons  Aug.  7,  the 
house  of  lords  Aug.  20,  and  received  the  royal 
assent  Aug.  28, 1833.  The  day  fixed  for  eman 
cipation  was  Aug.  1,  1834,  and  it  was  left  op 
tional  with  the  local  legislatures  respectively 
to  adopt  or  reject  the  system  of  apprentice 
ship.  Antigua  and  Bermuda  rejected,  while 
the  other  islands  adopted  the  system.  The 
apprenticeship  system  did  not  work  well.  In 
some  instances  the  local  legislatures  volunta 
rily  abolished  it,  and  in  1838,  two  years  before 
the  time  of  its  appointed  expiration,  it  was 
brought  to  an  end  by  act  of  parliament.  In 


98 


SLAVERY 


1843  Great  Britain  emancipated  more  than 
12,000,000  slaves  in  her  East  Indian  posses 
sions. — France  had  been  as  much  committed  to 
negro  slavery  as  England,  but  moved  sooner 
for  its  abolition.  The  national  assembly,  May 
15,  1791,  virtually  granted  equal  political  priv 
ileges  to  all  free  men  without  regard  to  color, 
and  this  led  to  those  struggles  in  Santo  Do 
mingo  which  put  an  end  to  slavery  there. 
Napoleon  I.  succeeded  in  restoring  slavery  in 
most  of  the  French  colonies,  but  failed  in 
Hayti.  In  1815,  during  the  hundred  days,  he 
issued  an  order  for  the  immediate  abolition 
of  the  slave  trade,  which  the  government  of 
Louis  XVIII.  reenacted,  and  the  French  slave 
trade  ceased  in  1819.  The  congress  of  Vienna 
denounced  the  slave  trade.  After  much  dis 
cussion  in  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  slavery 
in  the  French  colonies  was  abolished  by  the 
provisional  government  in  1848,  without  in 
demnity  to  the  masters.  Sweden  abolished 
slavery  in  1846- "T,  Denmark  in  1848,  and  the 
Netherlands  in  1860.  Spain  agreed  in  1814  to 
abolish  the  slave  trade  in  1820.  The  Nether 
lands  abolished  it  in  1818,  and  Brazil  in  1826, 
but  the  Brazilians  continued  to  prosecute  it 
notwithstanding.  In  the  United  States  it  was 
prohibited  by  law  from  1808.  In  1820  a  law 
was  enacted  declaring  it  piracy,  but  no  con 
viction  was  obtained  under  this  statute  till 
November,  1861,  when  Nathaniel  Gordon, 
master  of  a  vessel  called  the  Erie,  was  convict 
ed  at  New  York  and  executed.  A  similar 
statute  was  passed  by  the  British  parliament 
in  1825.  But  the  trade  by  no  means  ceased 
because  of  these  vigorous  efforts  for  its  abo 
lition,  which  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  supported  by  the  presence  of  powerful 
fleets  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  The  demand  for 
slaves  continued  to  be  great,  and  the  profits 
on  the  cargoes  of  slaves  that  were  landed  in 
various  parts  of  America  were  so  heavy  that- 
the  traders  could  afford  to  lose  many  of  their 
vessels.  Not  until  the  breaking  out  of  the 
American  civil  war  did  the  trade  cease  to  be 
profitable,  but  that  and  the  agitation  for  eman 
cipation  in  Brazil  nearly  put  an  end  to  the 
slave  trade  across  the  Atlantic.  In  the  inte 
rior  of  Africa  it  still  has  considerable  vigor 
and  constant  activity,  although  it  is  much 
shorn  of  its  profits  by  the  loss  of  foreign 
markets. — Except  in  Cuba,  slavery  in  Span 
ish  America  has  disappeared.  In  Brazil  it 
continued  to  flourish  with  considerable  vigor 
till  1871.  For  several  years  preceding  that 
date  a  strong  agitation  for  its  gradual  aboli 
tion  had  existed,  in  which  the  emperor  was 
understood  to  sympathize.  The  speech  from 
the  throne  at  the  opening  of  the  chamber  on 
May  3,  1871,  announced  the  belief  of  the  gov 
ernment  that  the  time  had  arrived  for  the  final 
solution  of  the  slavery  controversy,  and  that 
a  bill  would  be  introduced  for  that  purpose. 
The  bill  was  finally  acted  upon  Sept.  27,  when 
it  was  adopted  by  a  considerable  majority. 
The  children  born  of  slaves  from  that  date 


were  to  be  considered  free-born,  but  were  to 
remain  with  the  masters  of  the  mothers  until 
reaching  the  age  of  eight,  when  the  master 
had  the  option  to  retain  their  services  until 
they  should  be  21  years  of  age,  or  to  receive 
from  the  government  a  compensation  of  600 
inilreis.  If  he  should  accept  the  compensation, 
the  government  was  to  take  charge  of  the  mi 
nor  and  of  his  education.  Every  minor  was 
to  be  at  liberty  to  free  himself  from  service 
by  making  compensation  to  the  master  pro 
portioned  to  the  period  for  which  the  service 
was  to  continue.  Ill  treatment  or  neglect  of 
support  or  education  was  to  entitle  a  child  to 
his  discharge  from  service.  Children  ceded  or 
given  to  the  government  or  taken  from  their 
masters  by  it  might  be  delivered  to  privileged 
societies  to  be  kept  until  they  were  21,  under 
an  obligation  securing  them  support  and  edu 
cation.  An  emancipation  fund,  to  be  made 
up  of  certain  taxes,  the  proceeds  of  certain 
lotteries,  and  other  specified  resources,  togeth 
er  with  donations,  was  to  be  employed  annu 
ally  in  manumitting  slaves,  and  they  were  to 
be  entitled  to  purchase  their  freedom.  The 
following  classes  were  to  be  free :  slaves  of 
the  nation ;  slaves  given  to  the  crown  in  usu 
fruct;  slaves  of  the  religious  orders  (within 
seven  years) ;  slaves  belonging  to  vacant  in 
heritances  ;  slaves  who  saved  the  lives  of  their 
masters,  or  the  parents  or  children  of  their 
masters,  and  slaves  given  up  by  their  masters. 
The  law  was  received  with  general  satisfaction. 
— The  whole  number  of  Africans  taken  for 
slaves  is  estimated  at  40,000,000,  or  nearly 
100,000  per  annum  since  the  beginning  of  the 
traffic ;  but  for  80  years  after  the  trade  began 
their  exportation  was  very  limited,  and  prob 
ably  not  30,000  were  taken  by  the  Portuguese 
between  1444  and  1493.  The  greatest  part  of 
the  exportation  was  during  the  years  that 
elapsed  after  movements  for  the  abolition  of 
the  trade  were  commenced,  the  demand  for 
tropical  produce  having  immensely  increased 
in  the  present  century.  Some  of  the  slaves 
were  sold  in  European  countries,  and  it  was 
supposed  that  there  were  15,000  in  the  British 
islands  at  the  time  of  the  decision  of  the  Som 
erset  case.  African  slaves  were  said  to  be 
"  dispersed  all  over  Europe."  Spain  and  France 
took  some  of  them,  as  well  as  England.  The 
number  of  slaves  imported  into  those  Brit 
ish  colonies  which  became  the  United  States 
in  1776  is  computed  at  300,000  down  to  that 
year.  At  the  first  census,  in  1790,  the  slaves 
in  the  United  States  numbered  697,897,  all  the 
states  but  Massachusetts  (which  then  included 
Maine)  having  some  servile  inhabitants,  though 
Vermont  had  but  17,  and  New  Hampshire 
only  158.  In  1800  their  number  was  893,041, 
slavery  having  ceased  in  Vermont,  and  but  8 
slaves  being  left  in  New  Hampshire.  The 
census  of  1810  showed  1,191,364  slaves,  there 
being  none  in  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  and  Ohio,  the  last  a  new  state,  created 
out  of  territory  that  was  a  wilderness  in  1776. 


SLAVERY 


99 


In  1820  the  slaves  numbered  1,538,022;  in 
1830,  2,009,043;  in  1840,  2,487,455;  in  1850, 
3,204,313;  and  in  1800,  3,953,760.— The  feel 
ing  in  the  United  States  was  generally  averse 
to  slavery  at  the  time  their  national  existence 
began,  and  in  some  of  the  southern  states  that 
feeling  was  stronger  than  it  was  in  most  of 
the  northern  ones.  The  ordinance  of  1787, 
excluding  it  from  the  N.  W.  territory,  was  sup 
ported  by  southern  men,  and  some  southern 
states  abolished  the  slave  trade  with  Africa 
while  northern  states  continued  to  carry  it  on. 
Vermont  abolished  slavery  in  1777,  before  she 
had  joined  the  Union.  Pennsylvania  in  1780 
provided  for  the  gradual  emancipation  of  her 
slaves,  of  whom  64  were  still  living  as  such 
in  1840,  the  relics  of  her  3,737  in  1790.  In 
Massachusetts  the  supreme  court  declared  that 
slavery  was  abolished  by  the  act  of  adopting 
the  state  constitution  of  1780,  which  had  been 
so  framed  in  one  part  as  to  provide  for  such  a 
decision.  Ehode  Island  gradually  emancipated 
her  slaves,  and  had  but  5  left  in  1840 ;  and 
Connecticut  did  the  same,  having  17  in  that 
year,  and  having  had  2,759  in  1790.  New 
York  adopted  a  gradual  emancipation  act  in 
1799,  at  which  date  she  had  upward  of  20,- 
000  slaves;  and  in  1817  she  passed  another 
act  declaring  all  slaves  free  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1827.  New  Jersey  pursued  the  same  course 
in  1804,  her  slaves  in  1790  numbering  11,423, 
of  whom  236  were  living  in  1850.  That  the 
southern  states  did  not  imitate  the  emancipation 
policy  of  those  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
American  Union,  is  to  be  attributed  to  a  va 
riety  of  circumstances,  the  principal  of  which 
were  the  difference  of  climate  and  the  difference 
of  social  life,  which  made  slavery  far  more 
profitable  in  the  south  than  it  could  ever  be 
made  in  the  north,  where  it  never  flourished, 
and  where  in  some  instances  the  young  of 
slaves  were  given  away.  The  invention  of  the 
cotton  gin  made  slavery  very  profitable,  and 
so  helped  to  change  that  opinion  which  had 
existed  in  the  south,  both  in  the  colonial  and 
in  the  revolutionary  times,  and  which,  as  ex 
pressed  by  such  men  as  Washington,  Jefferson, 
and  Patrick  Henry,  looked  to  the  .extinction 
of  slavery.  That  opinion  passed  away,  and 
slavery  was  upheld  in  the  southern  states  as 
an  institution  excellent  in  itself,  and  to  be  in 
every  way  promoted  and  extended,  some  of 
its  more  ardent  friends  advocating  the  resump 
tion  of  the  slave  trade  with  Africa.  The  sys 
tem  of  American  slavery,  unlike  that  of  Greece 
or  of  Rome,  was  based  on  the  alleged  infe 
riority  of  the  African  race.  The  Greeks  and 
the  Romans  enslaved  white  men  of  all  races 
with  whom  they  came  in  contact.  So  did 
the  Barbary  states,  in  which,  notwithstanding 
their  proximity  to  the  country  of  the  blacks, 
there  were  probably  as  many  white  as  col 
ored  slaves.  In  America  the  idea  of  hold 
ing  white  men  in  slavery  was  always  abhor 
rent  to  the  most  devoted  supporters  of  sla 
very.  But  owing  to  the  illicit  amalgamation 


of  the  white  and  black  races  which  is  a  con 
comitant  of  slavery,  there  was  no  inconsid 
erable  number  of  American  slaves  in  whom 
the  proportion  of  African  blood  was  so  slight 
as  to  be  almost  or  quite  imperceptible.  The 
aversion  to  color  was  so  far  shared  in  the 
non-slaveholding  states,  that  before  the  late 
civil  war  in  only  one  of  their  number  (Ver 
mont)  were  negroes  entirely  the  equals  of 
the  whites  before  the  law ;  and  socially  they 
were  everywhere  treated  as  an  inferior  caste. 
— Slavery  was  opposed  by  eminent  men  in  the 
United  States  from  the  beginning.  Washing 
ton,  Franklin,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Jay,  Hamil 
ton,  and  many  more  of  those  who  took  a  con 
spicuous  part  in  laying  the  foundations  of  the 
government,  regarded  slavery  as  a  great  evil,  in 
consistent  with  the  principles  of  the  declaration 
of  independence  and  the  spirit  of  Christian 
ity.  They  confidently  expected  that  it  would 
gradually  pass  away  before  the  advancing  pow 
er  of  civilization  and  freedom ;  and,  shrinking 
from  what  they  regarded  as  insurmountable 
obstacles  to  emancipation  in  their  own  time, 
they  consented,  in  forming  the  constitution, 
to  give  the  system  certain  advantages  which 
they  hoped  would  be  temporary,  and  therefore 
not  dangerous  to  the  stability  of  the  govern 
ment.  Societies  to  promote  the  gradual  abo 
lition  of  slavery  were  formed  in  many  of  'the 
states.  The  "Pennsylvania  Abolition  Socie 
ty,"  founded  in  1775,  continued  in  existence 
until  slavery  was  destroyed.  Its  first  president 
was  Benjamin  Franklin,  its  first  secretary  Ben 
jamin  Rush.  In  1790  it  sent  a  memorial  to  con 
gress,  bearing  the  official  signature  of  "Benja 
min  Franklin,  president,"  asking  that  body  to 
"devise  means  for  removing  the  inconsistency 
of  slavery  from  the  American  people,"  and  to 
"  step  to  the  very  verge  of  its  power  for  dis 
couraging  every  species  of  traffic  in  the  persons 
of  our  fellow  men."  The  "  New  York  Manu 
mission  Society"  was  formed  in  1785,  John  Jay 
being  the  first  president,  and  Alexander  Ham 
ilton  his  successor.  Similar  associations  were 
formed  in  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  Dela 
ware,  Maryland,  and  Virginia.  These  socie 
ties  exerted  a  strong  influence  in  favor  of  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  several  northern  states. 
In  1819-'20  the  opponents  of  slavery  made 
a  stern  resistance  to  the  admission  of  Missouri 
to  the  Union  as  a  slave  state,  and  were  de 
feated.  (For  particulars  on  the  compromises 
which  ended  this  and  a  similar  struggle  in 
1850,  and  the  whole  of  the  political  conflicts 
in  regard  to  slaveholding  in  the  territories  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  laws  regulating  the 
rendition  of  fugitive  slaves,  see  UNITED  STATES 
and  the  notices  of  the  presidents  and  the  prin 
cipal  party  leaders,  such  as  Calhoun,  Henry 
Clay,  and  Stephen  A.  Douglas.)  The  Missouri 
conflict  was  followed  by  a  period  of  profound 
repose  in  regard  to  the  whole  subject.  The 
publication,  by  Benjamin  Lundy,  a  Quaker,  of 
a  small  journal  at  Baltimore  entitled  "  Genius 
of  Universal  Emancipation,"  was  almost  the 


100 


SLAVERY 


only  visible  sign  of  opposition  to  slavery  until 
William  Lloyd  Garrison  established  "  The  Lib 
erator"  in  Boston,  Jan.  1,  1831.  Accepting 
the  definition  of  American  slavery  furnished 
by  the  statutes  of  the  slave  states,  which  de 
clare  the  slaves  to  be  "  chattels  personal,  in 
the  hands  of  their  owners  and  possessors,  to 
all  intents,  constructions,  and  purposes  what 
soever,"  he  asserted  that  slaveholding  was  a  sin 
against  God  and  a  crime  against  humanity  ;  that 
immediate  emancipation  was  the  right  of  every 
slave  and  the  duty  of  every  master.  On  Jan. 
1,  1832,  the  first  society  on  this  basis  was  or 
ganized  in  Boston  by  12  men,  Arnold  Buffum,  a 
Quaker,  being  president.  The  "  American  Anti- 
Slavery  Society"  was  formed  in  Philadelphia 
in  December,  1833,  Arthur  Tappan  being  its 
first  president.  This  society  and  its  auxiliaries 
expressly  affirmed  that  congress  had  no  right 
to  abolish  slavery  in  the  slave  states,  and  they 
asked  for  no  action  on  the  part  of  the  national 
government  that  had  not,  up  to  that  time, 
been  held  to  be  constitutional  by  leading  men 
of  all  parties  in  every  portion  of  the  country. 
They  pronounced  all  laws  admitting  the  right 
of  slavery  to  be  "  before  God  utterly  null  and 
void."  They  declared  that  their  principles  led 
them  "  to  reject,  and  to  entreat  the  oppressed 
to  reject,  the  use  of  all  carnal  weapons  for 
deliverance  from  bondage;"  their  measures, 
they  said,  would  be  "  such  only  as  the  opposi 
tion  of  moral  purity  to  moral  corruption,  the 
destruction  of  error  by  the  potency  of  truth, 
and  the  abolition  of  slavery  by  the  spirit  of 
repentance."  By  means  of  lectures,  newspa 
pers,  tracts,  public  meetings,  and  petitions  to 
congress,  they  produced  an  intense  excitement 
throughout  the  country,  the  effects  of  which 
were  soon  manifest  in  the  religious  sects  and 
political  parties.  The  American  anti-slavery 
society  and  those  affiliated  with  it  were  op 
posed  to  the  formation  of  a  distinct  anti-slavery 
political  party,  deeming  it  wiser  to  attempt  to 
diffuse  their  principles  among  the  members  of 
all  parties.  In  1840,  on  account  of  differences 
upon  this  and  other  matters  affecting  the  pol 
icy  of  the  movement,  a  portion  of  the  mem 
bers  seceded  and  formed  the  "American  and 
Foreign  Anti-Slavery  Society."  The  "liberty 
party"  was  organized  in  the  same  year,  main 
ly  by  the  seceders  and  those  in  sympathy  with 
them.  This  party  was  mostly  absorbed  by  the 
"  free-soil  party  "  in  the  presidential  election 
of  1848,  though  a  small  number  of  persons, 
holding  the  opinion  that  the  national  govern 
ment  had  constitutional  power  to  abolish  slave 
ry  in  every  part  of  the  country,  continued  un 
der  the  name  of  liberty  party  for  several  years. 
The  free-soil  party  was  in  its  turn  absorbed 
by  the  republican  party,  which  in  the  presi 
dential  election  of  1856  first  exhibited  great 
strength  and  commanded  a  popular  vote  of 
upward  of  1,300,000,  though  it  failed  to  elect 
its  candidates.  In  1860  it  elected  Abraham 
Lincoln  president  and  Hannibal  Hamlin  vice 
president  by  the  vote  of  all  the  free  states  ex 


cept  New  Jersey.  In  1844  the  American  anti- 
slavery  society  openly  avowed  its  conviction 
that  the  so-called  "  compromises  of  the  consti 
tution  "  were  immoral ;  that,  consequently,  it 
was  wrong  to  swear  to  support  that  instrument, 
or  to  hold  office  or  vote  under  it.  From  that 
time  until  the  secession  of  the  slave  states,  the 
abolitionists  of  this  school  avowed  it  to  be 
their  object  to  effect  a  dissolution  of  the  Amer 
ican  Union  and  the  organization  of  a  northern 
republic  where  no  slavery  should  exist.  The 
"American  Abolition  Society"  was  formed  in 
Boston  in  1855,  to  promote  the  views  of  those 
who  held  that  the  national  government  had 
constitutional  power  to  abolish  slavery  in  every 
part  of  the  Union.  The  "  Church  Anti-Slavery 
Society"  was  organized  in  1859,  for  the  pur 
pose  of  convincing  the  American  churches  and 
ministers  that  slavery  was  a  sin,  and  inducing 
them  to  take  the  lead  in  the  work  of  abolition. 
There  have  been  few  slave  conspiracies  or  in 
surrections  in  the  United  States,  and  the  ser 
vile  population  never  produced  any  band  of 
men  to  be  compared  with  t'he  Maroons  of  the 
West  Indies,  who  so  long  baffled  the  exertions 
of  the  whites  to  subdue  them.  It  is  estimated 
that  more  than  30,000  American  slaves,  after 
escaping  from  bondage,  found  an  asylum  in 
Canada.  They  were  aided  in  their  flight  by 
opponents  of  slavery  in  the  free  states.  An 
attempt,  in  1859,  at  subverting  the  slave  in 
stitutions  of  the  United  States  by  an  insurrec 
tion  ended  in  speedy  defeat,  and  was  followed 
by  the  execution  of  the  leader,  John  Brown, 
and  some  of  his  associates.  The  secession  of 
the  states  which  formed  the  government  of 
the  Confederate  States  in  1861  wholly  changed 
the  relations  of  the  government  of  the  Uni 
ted  States  to  the  institution  of  slavery.  Al 
though  President  Lincoln  hastened  to  make 
strong  assurances  of  the  purpose  of  the  gov 
ernment  to  abide  faithfully  by  all  the  compro 
mises  of  the  constitution  relating  to  slavery, 
and  in  all  the  military  orders  endeavored  to 
provide  for  so  conducting  the  war  as  to  avoid 
disturbing  the  relation  of  master  and  slave  as  it 
then  existed  under  state  laws,  it  soon  became 
evident  that  a  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war 
must  of  necessity  make  serious  inroads  upon  the 
institution,  if  not  wholly  destroy  it  in  those  dis 
tricts  which  the  federal  army  should  occupy. 
In  May,  1861,  Maj.  Gen.  Butler,  commanding 
the  department  of  Eastern  Virginia,  declared 
slaves  who  had  been  employed  for.military  pur 
poses  of  the  confederacy  to  be  contraband  of 
war,  and  appropriated  them  to  the  purposes 
of  his  own  army.  In  August  following  Gen. 
Fremont,  commanding  in  Missouri,  issued  a 
general  order  wherein,  among  other  things,  he 
proclaimed  free  all  the  slaves  of  those  who 
should  take  up  arms  against  the  United  States, 
or  take  active  part  with  their  enemies  in  the 
field.  In  the  particular  specified  this  order 
was  modified  by  direction  of  the  president, 
but  slaves  who  had  performed  any  service 
for  the  confederate  army,  whether  as  servants 


SLAVERY 


101 


or  as  day  laborers,  were  in  general  treat 
ed  as  "contrabands"  by  all  the  military  lead 
ers.  In  the  annual  report  of  the  secretary 
of  war,  Dec.  1,  1861,  the  following  passage 
occurs  :  "  It  is  already  a  grave  question  what 
shall  be  done  with  those  slaves  who  were  aban 
doned  by  their  owners  on  the  advance  of  our 
troops  into  southern  territory,  as  at  Beaufort 
district  in  South  Carolina.  The  number  left 
within  our  control  at  that  point  is  very  con 
siderable  ;  and  similar  cases  will  probably  re 
cur.  What  shall  be  done  with  them  ?  Can.  we 
afford  to  send  them  forward  to  their  masters, 
to  be  by  them  armed  against  us,  or  used  in  pro 
ducing  supplies  to  sustain  the  rebellion  ?  Their 
labor  may  be  useful  to  us;  withheld  from  the 
enemy,  it  lessens  his  military  resources;  and 
withholding  them  has  no  tendency  to  induce 
the  horrors  of  insurrection,  even  in  the  rebel 
communities.  They  constitute  a  military  re 
source  ;  and  being  such,  that  they  should  not 
be  turned  over  to  the  enemy  is  too  plain  to 
discuss.  Why  deprive  him  of  supplies  by  a 
blockade,  and  voluntarily  give  him  men  to 
produce  them  ?  "  Nevertheless  several  of  the 
commanders  of  Union  armies  allowed  masters 
to  appear  within  their  lines  and  carry  off  into 
slavery  fugitives  found  therein.  An  order  of 
Gen.  David  Hunter,  commanding  the  depart 
ment  of  the  South,  dated  May  9,  1862,  declar 
ing  the  states  of  Georgia,  Florida,  and  South 
Carolina  under  martial  law  and  the  slaves  there 
in  free,  was  annulled  by  proclamation  of  the 
president  ten  days  later.  On  Aug.  22,  1862, 
the  president  in  a  public  telegraphic  despatch 
addressed  to  Horace  Greeley,  in  response  to  a 
letter  from  that  gentleman,  gave  utterance  to 
his  views  as  follows:  "If  there  be  those  who 
would  not  save  the  Union  unless  they  could  at 
the  same  time  save  slavery,  I  do  not  agree  with 
them.  If  there  be  those  who  would  not  save 
the  Union  unless  they  could  at  the  same  time 
destroy  slavery,  I  do  not  agree  with  them. 
My  paramount  object  is  to  save  the  Union,  and 
not  either  to  save  or  destroy  slavery.  If  I 
could  save  the  Union  without  freeing  any  slave, 
I  would  do  it;  if  I  could  save  it  by  freeing  all 
the  slaves,  I  would  do  it ;  and  if  I  could  save 
it  by  freeing  some  and  leaving  others  alone,  I 
would  also  do  that.  What  I  do  about  slavery 
and  the  colored  race,  I  do  because  I  believe  it 
helps  to  save  this  Union ;  and  what  I  forbear, 
I  forbear  because  I-do  not  believe  it  would  help 
to  save  the  Union.  I  shall  do  less  whenever  I 
shall  believe  what  I  am  doing  hurts  the  cause. 
and  I  shall  do  more  whenever  I  believe  doing 
more  will  help  the  cause."  Meantime,  on  March 
2,  1862,  the  president  had  recommended  to  con 
gress  that  a  resolution  be  adopted  "that  the 
United  States,  in  order  to  cooperate  with  any 
state  which  may  adopt  gradual  abolition  of 
slavery,  give  to  such  state  pecuniary  aid,  to  be 
used  by  such  state  in  its  discretion,  to  compen 
sate  it  for  the  inconvenience,  public  and  private, 
produced  by  such  change  of  system."  The  res 
olution  was  adopted,  but  produced  no  effect. 


Immediately  after  the  battle  of  Antietam  the 
president  issued  a  proclamation  (Sept.  22, 1862), 
in  which,  after  declaring  his  determination  to 
prosecute  the  war  for  the  object  of  practically 
restoring  the  constitutional  relation  between 
the  Union  and  the  several  states,  and  that  it 
was  his  purpose  at  the  next  meeting  of  con 
gress  to  recommend  some  practical  measure  of 
assistance  in  emancipation  to  those  states  which 
would  voluntarily  accept  it,  he  proceeded  to 
announce  that  on  the  first  day  of  January, 
1863,  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within  any  state 
or  designated  part  of  a  state,  the  people  where 
of  should  then  be  in  rebellion,  should  be  then, 
thenceforward,  and  for  ever  free,  and  the  exec 
utive  government,  including  the  military  and 
naval  authority  thereof,  would  maintain  such 
freedom.  lie  further  proclaimed  that  on  the 
said  first  day  of  January  he  would  by  procla 
mation  designate  the  states  and  parts  of  states 
then  in  rebellion,  but  that  any  state  which 
should  then  be  represented  in  congress  by  mem 
bers  chosen  thereto  at  elections  wherein  a  ma 
jority  of -the  qualified  voters  participated,  should 
in  the  absence  of  strong  countervailing  testi 
mony  be  conclusively  deemed  not  in  rebellion. 
After  then  calling  attention  to  legislation  of 
congress  bearing  date  March  13,  1862,  forbid 
ding  the  employment  of  military  force  to  re 
turn  fugitives  to  slavery,  and  that  of  July  16, 
1862,  for  the  confiscation  of  property  of  rebels, 
including  slaves,  and  enjoining  the  observance 
thereof,  he  closed  with  the  assurance  that  in 
due  time,  on  the  restoration  of  constitutional 
relations  between  the  Union  and  the  respective 
states,  he  should  recommend  compensation  to 
loyal  persons  for  all  losses,  including  that  of 
slaves.  The  final  proclamation  of  freedom  was 
issued  on  Jan.  1,  1803.  It  designated  the  fol 
lowing  states  and  parts  of  states  as  then  in 
rebellion  :  Arkansas,  Texas,  Louisiana  (except 
the  parishes  of  St.  Bernard,  Plaquemine,  Jeffer 
son,  St.  John,  St.  Charles,  St.  James,  Ascen 
sion,  Assumption,  Terre  Bonne,  Lafourche,  St. 
Mary,  St.  Martin,  and  Orleans,  including  the 
city  of  New  Orleans),  Mississippi,  Alabama, 
Florida,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  North  Caro 
lina,  and  Virginia  (except  the  48  counties  des 
ignated  as  West  Virginia,  and  the  counties  of 
Berkeley,  Accomac,  Northampton,  Elizabeth 
City,  York,  Princess  Anne,  and  Norfolk,  inclu 
ding  the  cities  of  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth). 
The  president  enjoined  upon  the  freedmen  to 
abstain  from  all  violence  unless  in  necessary 
self-defence,  and  recommended  to  them  in  all 
cases,  when  allowed  to  do  so,  to  labor  faith 
fully  for  reasonable  wages ;  but  gave  notice  also 
that  suitable  persons  would  be  received  into 
the  armed  service  of  the  United  States.  This 
proclamation  had  no  very  marked  effect  upon 
the  relation  of  slavery  beyond  the  lines  of  the 
federal  army,  but  it  gave  consistency  and  unity 
to  the  action  of  the  federal  commanders,  and  it 
facilitated  and  hastened  the  incorporation  of 
freedmen  and  other  colored  persons  into  the 
federal  armies.  On  June  9,  1862,  a  law  had 


102 


SLAVERY 


been  enacted  which  terminated  for  ever  the  long 
and  bitter  agitation  beginning  with  the  contest 
about  the  admission  of  Missouri  to  the  Union. 
This  declared  that  "from  and  after  the  passage 
of  this  act  there  shall  be  neither  slavery  nor 
involuntary  servitude  in  any  of  the  territories 
of  the  United  States  now  existing,  or  which 
may  at  any  time  hereafter  be  formed  or  acquired 
by  the  United  States,  otherwise  than  in  the 
punishment  of  crime  whereof  the  party  shall 
have  been  duly  convicted."  On  June  23,  1864, 
all  laws  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves 
to  their  masters  were  repealed.  On  Jan.  31, 
1865,  the  final  vote  was  taken  in  congress  sub 
mitting  to  the  states  for  their  approval  and 
ratification  the  following  amendment  to  the 
constitution:  "Article  XIII.  Neither  slavery 
nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punish 
ment  for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have 
been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the 
United  States  or  any  place  subject  to  their 
jurisdiction."  On  Dec.  18,  1865,  the  secretary 
of  state  issued  his  proclamation  declaring  that 
this  amendment  had  been  approved  by  the 
legislatures  of  Illinois,  Rhode  Island,  Michigan, 
Maryland,  New  York,  West  Virginia,  Maine, 
Kansas,  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  Vir 
ginia,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Nevada,  Indiana,  Loui 
siana,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Vermont,  Tennes 
see,  Arkansas,  Connecticut,  New  Hampshire, 
South  Carolina,  Alabama,  North  Carolina,  and 
Georgia — in  all,  27  of  the  36  states — and  was 
consequently  adopted.  The  assassination  of 
President  Lincoln  put  an  end  to  any  very  se 
rious  thoughts  of  making  provision  for  com 
pensation  for  losses  of  slaves;  and  the  four 
teenth  amendment  to  the  constitution,  ratified 
by  a  majority  of  the  states  in  1867-'8,  absolute 
ly  forbade  compensation  being  made  either  by 
the  United  States  or  by  any  state.  Thus  ter 
minated  for  ever  in  the  United  States  the  sys 
tem  of  bondage  which  had  been  its  chief  re 
proach  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  and  of  its  own 
people ;  which  from  the  outset  had  been  the 
principal  source  of  solicitude  to  its  statesmen ; 
and  the  southern  defenders  of  which  finally 
assailed  the  life  of  the  nation  with  a  power  and 
persistency  from  which  it  barely  escaped,  after 
losses  and  sacrifices  such  as  few  peoples  in  mod 
ern  times  have  been  called  upon  to  suffer. — 
The  abolition  of  slavery  has  rendered  the  laws 
of  the  several  states  concerning  it  of  little  prac 
tical  interest,  but  a  few  points  may  be  men 
tioned.  The  slave  was  a  chattel,  for  an  injury 
to  whom  the  master  might  recover  damages  as 
for  an  injury  to  a  beast.  Nevertheless  he  was 
recognized  as  a  person,  so  far  as  to  be  made 
amenable  to  the  criminal  code,  and  was  pun 
ishable  as  such.  The  master  had  a  power  of 
discipline  over  him  which  did  not  extend  to 
life  or  limb,  and  for  any  excess  in  punishment 
he  might  be  criminally  responsible,  as  he  might 
for  excessive  violence  to  a  child  or  appren 
tice.  The  police  laws  of  the  state  were  at  the 
master's  service  for  disciplinary  purposes,  and 
stringent  regulations  were  made  in  his  interest. 


The  slave  had  no  legal  family  relations,  and 
any  that  should  be  voluntarily  formed  might 
be  changed  at  the  will  of  the  master,  by  sale 
or  otherwise.  Slaves  might  be  emancipated  by 
the  master,  by  deed  or  will,  under  state  regula 
tions  ;  but  in  some  of  the  states  the  laws  were 
adverse  to  emancipation,  and  interposed  various 
obstacles.  Whatever  was  acquired  by  the  slave 
belonged  to  his  master,  and  it  was  therefore 
legally  impossible  for  the  slave  to  purchase  his 
freedom;  nevertheless  masters  frequently  re 
ceived  from  their  slaves  sums  which  they  had 
accumulated  by  extra  services,  and  gave  them 
freedom  in  return.  The  general  doctrine  of 
the  courts  was  that  the  master  by  voluntarily 
taking  his  slave  into  a  free  state  gave  him 
his  freedom,  and  this  rule  was  supposed  to  be 
applicable  to  the  free  territories  of  the  United 
States  until  the  decision  of  the  supreme  court 
in  the  case  of  Dred  Scott  in  1857,  which  de 
nied  the  constitutional  power  of  congress  to 
prohibit  the  holding  of  persons  in  slavery  in 
the  territories.  Near  the  same  time  the  doc 
trine  that  a  master  might  lawfully  hold  his 
slaves  in  passing  through  the  free  states  found 
able  advocates  among  lawyers.  Slaves  were 
not  allowed  legal  rights  in  courts,  though  per 
sons  held  as  slaves  but  claiming  to  be  free 
might  bring  actions  to  recover  their  free 
dom.  Slaves  might  be  witnesses  for  or  against 
each  other  where  crimes  were  charged,  but 
were  not  allowed  to  be  witnesses  against  white 
persons.  In  general  the  teaching  of  slaves  to 
read  and  write  was  prohibited,  as  tending  to 
render  them  discontented  with  their  condition. 
Prima  facie  in  slave  states  all  colored  persons 
were  slaves.  Since  the  abolition  of  slavery 
persons  living  together  as  husband  and  wife, 
and  continuing  to  do  so,  have  been  recognized 
in  law  as  being  legally  married ;  but  until  they 
had  voluntarily  assumed  that  relation  after  be 
coming  free,  they  were  at  liberty  to  marry  oth 
ers  without  incurring  legal  penalty. — The  col 
onization  of  emancipated  American  slaves  in 
Africa  was  undertaken  in  1820,  when  the  colony 
of  Liberia  was  founded.  (See  COLONIZATION 
SOCIETY.)  The  colony  of  Sierra  Leone  was 
founded  by  England  in  1787,  being  composed 
of  American  slaves  who  had  joined  her  flag  un 
der  promises  of  freedom.  (See  SIERRA  LEONE.) 
— The  following  are  some  of  the  most  impor 
tant  modern  works  on  the  subject  of  slavery : 
Thomas  Clarkson,  "History  of  the  Abolition 
of  the  Slave  Trade"  (London,  1808);  George 
Stroud,  "Laws  relative  to  Slavery"  (Philadel 
phia,  1827);  William  Blair,  "An  Inquiry  into 
the  State  of  Slavery  among  the  Romans"  (Ed 
inburgh,  1832) ;  L.  M.  Child,  "Appeal  in  behalf 
of  that  Class  of  Americans  called  Africans" 
(Boston,  1833);  Theodore  Weld,  "American 
Slavery  as  It  Is"  (New  York,  1835);  William 
Jay,  "A  View  of  the  Action  of  the  Federal 
Government  on  Slavery"  (New  York,  1838); 
David  Trumbull,  "  Cuba,  with  Notices  of  Por 
to  Rico  and  the  Slave  Trade"  (London,  1840) ; 
Richard  Hildreth,  "Despotism  in  America" 


U  \  I  V 


SLAVIO  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES 


103 


(Boston,  1840);  W.  Adam,  "The  Law  and 
Custom  of  Slavery  in  British  India  "  (Boston, 
1840);  William  Goodell,  "Slavery  and  Anti- 
Slavery  "  (New  York,  1843) ;  Wallon,  Histoire 
de  Vesclavage  dans  Vantiquite  (Paris,  1847); 
Fuller  and  Wayland,  "Domestic  Slavery" 
(New  York,  1847);  Copley,  "A  History  of 
Slavery  "  (London,  1852) ;  Horace  Mann,  "  Sla 
very,  Letters  and  Speeches"  (Boston,  1851); 

s  John  Fletcher,  "  Studies  on  Slavery  "  (Natchez, 
1852) ;  "The  Pro-Slavery  Argument "  (Charles- 

xton,  1853)  ;  F.  L.  Olmsted,  "A  Journey  in  the 
Seaboard  Slave  States,"  "A  Journey  through 
Texas,"  "A  Journey  in  the  Back  Country," 
and  "  The  Cotton  Kingdom  "  (New  York,  1856- 
'61);  the  Eev.  Albert  Barnes,  "An  Inquiry 
into  the  Scriptural  Views  of  Slavery  "  (Phila 
delphia,  1855);  Theodore  Parker,  "Trial  for 
the  Misdemeanor  of.  a  Speech  against  Kid 
napping"  (Boston,  1855);  the  Rev.  Nehemiah 
Adams,  "  A  South  Side  View  of  Slavery"  (Bos 
ton,  1855);  George  Fitzhugh,  "Sociology  for 
the  South"  (Richmond,  1855);  Arthur  Helps, 
"  The  Spanish  Conquest  in  America,  and  its  Re 
lation  to  the  History  of  Slavery,"  &c.  (London 

^  and  New  York,  1856-'60);  Weston,  "Progress 

"'  of  Slavery  in  the  United  States  "  (Washington, 
1857);  T.  R.  R.  Cobb,  "An  Inquiry  into  the 
Law  of  Negro  Slavery  "  (Philadelphia  and  Sa 
vannah,  1858);  John  C.  Hurd,  "Law  of  Free 
dom  and  Bondage  in  the  United  States  "  (Bos 
ton,  1858);  J.  R.  Giddings,  "Exiles  of  Florida" 
(Columbus,  O.,  1858) ;  H.  R.  Helper,  "  The  Im 
pending  Crisis  of  American  Slaverv"  (New 
York,  1859) ;  A.  Gurowski,  "  Slavery  in  His 
tory"  (New  York,  1860);  Horace  Greeley, 
"The  American  Conflict"  (2  vols.,  Hartford, 
1864-'6);  E.  M'Pherson,  "History  of  the  Re 
bellion"  (Washington,  1865),  and  "History  of 
Reconstruction"  (Washington,  1868);  A.  H. 
Stephens,  "The  War  between  the  States"  (2 
vols.,  Philadelphia,  1868-'70);  S.J.May,  "Rec 
ollections  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Conflict "  (Bos 
ton,  1868);  and  Henry  Wilson,  "Rise  and  Fall 
of  the  Slave  Power  in  America"  (3  vols.,  Bos 
ton,  187l-'6). 

SLAVIC  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES.  The  Slavs  or 
Slavi  (in  the  Slavic  languages,  Slovene,  Sto- 
wianie,  &c.,  names  now  commonly  derived 
from  slow  or  stowo,  word  ;  hence,  "  peoples  of 
one  tongue")  are  one  of  the  most  numerous 
and  powerful  groups  of  nations  of  the  Indo- 
European  or  Aryan  race,  occupying  at  present 
nearly  the  whole  of  eastern  Europe  and  parts 
of  northern  Asia,  They  seem  to  have  ancient 
ly  been  included  in  the  names  of  the  Scythians 
and  Sarmatians.  Roman  writers  refer  to  the 
Slavs  under  the  name  of  the  Venedi  (Winds, 
Wends),  and  later  writers  under  that  of  Serbs, 
both  of  which  still  designate  branches  of  the 
race.  In  the  most  ancient  times  to  which  the 
history  of  the  Slavs  as  such  can  be  traced, 
their  seats  were  around  and  near  the  Car 
pathian  mountains,  whence  they  spread  N. 
toward  the  Baltic,  W.  toward  the  Elbe  and 
Saale,  and  finally,  after  the  destruction  of  the 


empire  of  the  Huns,  S.  across  the  Danube  oyer 
the  territories  of  modern  Turkey  and  Greece. 
With  this  extension  the  unity  of  the  race 
ceased,  and  they  split  into  a  number  of  tribes, 
separated  from  each  other  by  political  organ 
ization  and  different  dialects.  The  eminent 
Slavic  scholars  Dobrovsky,  Kopitar,  and  Scha- 
farik  divide  the  Slavs  into  the  eastern  and 
western  or  southeastern  and  northwestern 
stems.  The  former  of  these  contains  three 
branches:  1,  the  Russians,  who  are  subdivi 
ded  into  Russians  and  Rusniaks  or  Ruthenians 
(in  W.  Russia,  E.  Galicia,  and  N.  E.  Hungary) ; 
2,  the  Illyrico-Servian  branch,  comprising  the 
Serbs  proper,  the  Rascians  or  Hungarian  Serbs, 
the  Bosnians,  Herzegovinians,  Montenegrins, 
Slavonians,  Dalmatians,  Croats,  and  Slovens  or 
Winds;  3,  the  Bulgarian  branch.  The  west 
ern  or  northwestern  stem  comprises :  1,  the 
Lechian  or  Polish  branch,  to  which  belong  the 
Poles,  the  Slavic  Silesians,  and  an  isolated  tribe 
in  the  Prussian  province  of  Pomerania  called 
Kassubs ;  2,  the  Czecho-Slovak  branch,  which 
embraces  the  Bohemians,  Moravians,  and  Slo 
vaks  in  N.  W.  Hungary ;  and  3,  the  Sorabo- 
Wendic  or  Lusatian  branch,  containing  the 
remnants  of  the  Slavs  of  N.  Germany.  A 
number  of  Slavic  realms  have  perished  in  suc 
cession,  as  those  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Po 
land  ;  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen 
tury  only  one,  Russia,  was  left,  besides  which 
Servia  and  Montenegro  maintain  a  semi-inde 
pendent  position. — In  modern  times  a  Pansla- 
vic  movement,  aiming  at  a  closer  union  of  all 
Slavic  tribes,  has  arisen  and  gained  consider 
able  political  importance.  One  of  the  first 
publicly  to  advocate  it  was  the  C/echo-Slovak 
poet  Kollar,  who  published  an  address  to  all 
the  Slavs,  urging  them  to  drop  their  numerous 
family  feuds,  to  consider  themselves  as  one 
great  nation,  and  their  related  languages  essen 
tially  as  one.  The  idea  was  seized  upon  with 
eagerness  by  the  Bohemians  and  other  Slavs  of 
Austria,  who  by  a  Slavic  union  hoped  to  pre 
vent  their  being  absorbed  by  the  German  and 
Hungarian  races.  It  has  since  gained  great 
strength  in  Austria  by  the  endeavors  of  Scha- 
farik,  Palacky,  Gaj,  arid  other  eminent  Slavists, 
and  has  also  found  many  distinguished  advo 
cates  in  Poland  and  Russia,  in  literary  as  well 
as  in  political  circles.  From  a  federative  union 
of  all  Slavs  under  a  democratic  form  of  govern 
ment  to  a  union  under  the  sceptre  of  the  czar, 
every  possible  form  of  future  organization  has 
found  advocates,  the  movement  being  princi 
pally  fostered  by  Russian,  and  according  to  cir 
cumstances  also  by  Austrian,  influence.  In  the 
Slavic  congress  of  Prague,  assembled  in  the 
spring  of  1848,  the  revolutionary  element  pre 
vailed,  leading  to  a  bloody  conflict  with  the 
Austrian  troops  under  Windischgratz,  and  the 
severe  persecution  of  various  members  of  the 
congress.  The  opening  of  the  Austrian  pro 
vincial  diets  and  central  Reichsrath  in  1861 
was  productive  of  new  Panslavic  manifesta 
tions.  An  important  Panslavic  gathering  took 


KM:  SLAVIC  RACE  AND  LANGUAGES 


SLAVONIA 


place  in  Moscow  on  occasion  of  the  ethno 
graphic  exhibition  opened  in  May,  1867.  The 
aggregate  number  of  the  Slavs  was  estimated 
by  Schafarik  about  35  years  ago  at  about  80,- 
000,000,  of  whom  about  39,000,000  were  Rus 
sians,  13,000,000  Rusniaks  or  Ruthenians  (in 
a  wider  sense,  including  the  Little  Russians), 
10,000,000  Poles  (including  Silesians  and  Kas- 
subs),  4,500,000  Bohemians  and  Moravians, 
3,500,000  Bulgarians,  2,800,000  Slovaks,  &c. 
More  recent  estimates  place  the  aggregate  num 
ber  of  the  Slavs  nearer  to  90,000,000.  (See 
EUROPE,  vol.  vi.,  p.  787.) — The  Old  or  Church 
Slavic  (so  called  because  it  is  still  used  in 
divine  service)  is  the  oldest  branch  of  the  Sla 
vic  languages.  The  Bible  or  parts  of  it  were 
translated  into  it  by  Cyril  and  Methodius  in 
the  9th  century,  the  former  of  whom  also  in 
vented  an  alphabet  for  it,  which  was  called 
after  him  the  Cyrillic,  and  is  still  used  by  the 
Serbs  belonging  to  the  Greek  church,  and  in 
a  modified  form  by  the  Russians,  while  the 
Poles,  Bohemians,  and  others  use  the  Roman 
alphabet.  (See  GLAGOLITIC.)  The  church  books 
written  in  Old  Slavic  are  still  used  by  the  Serbs 
and  Russians.  Among  the  most  important 
documents  of  this  language  are  old  gospels. 
The  oldest  works  of  the  Servian  and  Russian 
literature,  as  the  works  of  Nestor,  were  also 
written  in  this  language.  There  is  a  grammar 
of  it  by  Miklosich  (Vienna,  2d  ed.,  1854). 
Formerly  this  was  regarded  as  the  common 
language  of  the  ancient  Slavs  and  as  the 
mother  of  all  the  present  Slavic  idioms,  but 
modern  investigations  have  clearly  shown  that 
it  was  only  their  elder  sister.  Where  this 
idiom  was  spoken  is  a  controversy  not  yet 
settled ;  but  the  best  authorities  favor  the 
claims  of  Bulgaria,  regarding  the  present  Bul 
garian  as  its  direct  descendant.  It  is  no  longer 
a  living  tongue,  but  its  treasures  are  still  an 
inexhaustible  mine  for  its  younger  sisters.  Of 
the  living  Slavic  languages,  the  Russian,  Po 
lish,  Bohemian,  and  Servian  have  considerable 
literature.  These  languages,  as  well  as  their 
literatures,  are  treated  separately  under  their 
respective  heads.  Among  the  peculiarities  of 
the  Slavic  languages  are  the  following.  They 
have  three  genders. .  Like  the  Latin,  they  have 
no  articles,  with  the  exception  of  the  'Bulga 
rian,  which  suffixes  one  to  the  noun.  The 
nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjectives  have  seven 
cases.  Some  dialects  have  a  dual.  The  verbs 
are  divided  into  perfect  and  imperfect,  whose 
relation  to  each  other  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  the  perfect  and  imperfect  tenses  in  the  con 
jugation  of  the  Latin  verb.  All  the  dialects 
are  comparatively  poor  in  vowels  and  defi 
cient  in  diphthongs.  There  is  a  great  variety 
of  consonants,  and  especially  of  sibilants,  but 
no  /  proper  is  to  be  found  in  any  genuine 
Slavic  word.  Slavic  words  very  seldom  begin 
with  a,  and  hardly  ever  with  e.  The  letters  I 
and  r  have  in  some  Slavic  languages  the  value 
of  vowels,  and  words  like  tvrdy,  vjtr,  are  in 
metre  used  as  words  of  two  syllables. — The 


primitive  religion  of  the  ancient  Slavs  seems 
to  have  been  a  kind  of  monotheism,  which 
gradually  passed  into  polytheism,  and  lastly 
into  pantheism.  Yet  the  idea  of  one  divine 
essence  was  never  completely  lost,  at  least 
among  the  priests.  All  Slavs  worshipped  as 
their  highest  .god  Sviatovist,  beside  whom  the 
other  divinities  were  accounted  as  mere  demi 
gods.  Among  these  Per.un  and  Radegast  re 
ceived  the  highest  honors.  In  addition  to 
their  gods,  they  believed  in  good  and  evil  spir 
its  and  demons  of  different  kinds,  in  the  im 
mortality  of  the  soul,  and  in  a  retribution  after 
'death.  Worship  was  held  by  their  priests  in 
forests  and  temples,  and  sacrifices  of  cattle  and 
fruit  were  offered.  The  dead  were  burned, 
and  their  ashes  preserved  in  urns. — See  Scha 
farik,  Slawische  Alterthilmer  (2  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1843)  ;  Talvi,  "  Historical  View  of  the  Lan 
guages  and  Literature  of  the  Slavic  Nations" 
(New  York,  1850) ;  Miklosich,  Vergleicliende 
Grammatik  der  slawischen  Sprachen  (Vienna, 
1852-'7l),  and  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  sla 
wischen  Vollcspoesie  (1870);  and  Naake,  "Sla 
vonic  Fairy  Tales"  (London,  1874). 

SLAVONIA,  or  Selavooia  (Hun.  Totorszdg),  a 
province  of  the  Austro-IIungarian  monarchy, 
forming  with  Croatia  a  kingdom  united  with 
that  of  Hungary,  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Hun 
gary  proper,  W.  by  Croatia,  and  S.  by  Turkey  ; 
area,  inclusive  of  the  recently  annexed  por 
tions  of  the  former  Military  Frontier,  about 
0,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  about  000,000,  chiefly  be 
longing  to  the  Greek  church.  It  is  divided 
into  the  counties  of  Pozsega,  Verocze,  and  Szc- 
rem  (Sirmia).  Capital,  Eszek.  The  Danube 
and  the  Drave  separate  Slavonia  from  Hun 
gary,  and  the  Save  from  Turkey.  A  branch 
of  the  Carnic  Alps  traverses  its  whole  length. 
The  mountains  abound  in  coal  and  marble 
and  in  mineral  springs,  and  the  forests  yield 
valuable  timber.  There  are  many  extensive 
plains  covered  with  vineyards,  which  produce 
largo  quantities  of  excellent  red  and  white 
wines.  Cattle  are  largely  exported  to  Cis- 
leithan  Austria  and  Turkey,  along  with  many 
other  products,  among  which  are  grain,  hemp, 
flax,  tobacco,  and  silk.  The  chief  manufac 
ture  is  glass.  Among  the  principal  towns  are 
Peterwardein,  Carlovitz,  and  Semlin  on  the 
Danube,  and  Mitrovitz  (anc.  Sirmium},  Brod, 
and  Old  Gradiska  on  the  Save,  all  formerly  in 
cluded  in  the  Military  Frontier.  The  inhab 
itants  belong  to  the  Illyrico-Servian  branch 
of  the  Slavs.  (See  SERVIAN  LANGUAGE  AND 
LITERATURE.) — Under  the  Romans  Slavonia 
formed  part  of  the  province  of  Pannonia,  and 
was  called  Pannonia  Savia.  Later  it  belonged 
to  the  Byzantine  empire,  until  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Avars  and  Slavs.  In  the  time  of  Louis 
le  D6bonnaire  it  had  its  own  prince,  who  sub 
mitted  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Franks.  In 
the  llth  century  it  was  incorporated  with 
Hungary.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in 
1524,  and  was  formally  ceded  to  them  in  1562 ; 
but  in  1099,  by  the  peace  of  Carlovitz,  it  was 


SLAVS 


SLIDELL 


105 


retroceded  to  Austria,  resuming  also  its  rela 
tion  to  Hungary.  Separated  from  Hungary 
in  1849,  it  was  reunited  with  it  in  1867-'8  as 
a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Croatia  and  Slavo- 
nia.  (See  CROATIA,  and  HUNGARY.) 

SLAYS,  or  Sclaves.  See  SLAVIC  RACE  AND 
LANGUAGES. 

SLEEP,  a  period  of  repose  in  the  animal  sys 
tem,  in  which  there  is  a  partial  suspension  of 
nervous  and  muscular  activity,  necessary  for 
the  reparation  of  the  vital  powers.  In  sleep 
there  is  more  or  less  complete  unconscious 
ness  of  external  impressions,  which  may  be 
dissipated  by  any  extraordinary  excitement, 
in  this  respect  differing  from  the  torpor  of 
coma  produced  by  abnormal  conditions  with 
in  the  cranium  or  the  action  of  narcotic  poi 
sons.  In  the  deep  sleep  after  extreme  fatigue 
there  may  possibly  be  a  complete  suspension 
of  the  activity  of  the  cerebrum  and  the  sen 
sory  ganglia ;  some  consider  dreams  a  proof 
of  imperfect  sleep,  while  others  maintain  that 
there  are  always  dreams  during  sleep,  though 
they  may  not  be  remembered.  The  refresh 
ing  power  of  sleep  depends  on  the  nutritive 
renovation  effected  during  its  continuance ;  it 
is  a  necessity  of  the  system,  and  must  be  pe 
riodically  indulged  in.  After  12  to  10  hours 
of  waking  a  sense  of  fatigue  is  experienced 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  showing  that 
the  brain  needs  rest,  and  this  cannot  be  shaken 
off  unless  by  some  strong  physical  or  moral 
stimulus  ;  more  sleep  is  required  by  the  young, 
and  less  by  the  aged,  in  proportion  to  the 
rapidity  of  waste  of  the  tissues.  When  the 
sense  of  fatigue  has  reached  its  maximum, 
sleep  will  supervene,  even  under  the  most  un 
favorable  circumstances.  It  may  be  retarded 
by  uncommon  mental  concentration,  excite 
ment,  suspense,  or  the  exercise  of  a  strong 
will,  out  always  with  an  exhaustion  of  nervous 
power  which  requires  a  proportionally  long 
period  of  repose.  Stillness,  the  absence  of  light, 
and  monotonous  low  noises,  like  the  buzzing  of 
insects,  the  murmur  of  the  wind  in  the  trees, 
the  purling  sound  of  running  water,  the  rip 
pling  on  a  beach,  the  suppressed  hum  of  a  dis 
tant  town,  the  droning  voice  of  a  dull  reader, 
or  the  mother's  lullaby,  promote  sleep  ;  gentle 
movements,  like  the  swinging  of  a  hammock 
or  the  rocking  of  a  cradle  or  boat,  are  also 
conducive  to  sleep  ;  in  reading  a  dull  book  the 
eyes  wander  fatigued  from  page  to  page,  and 
the  excitement  of  the  mind  is  not  enough  to 
overcome  the  tendency  to  sleep.  Persons 
may  become  so  accustomed  to  continuous  loud 
noises,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  mills,  forges,  and 
factories,  that  they  cannot  readily  fall  asleep 
in  their  absence.  The  transition  from  sleep  to 
the  waking  state,  and  vice  versa,  is  generally 
gradual,  but  sometimes  sudden.  The  foetus 
may  be  said  to  be  in  a  continued  sleep,  and 
the  excess  of  the  sleeping  over  the  waking 
hours  prevails  during  infancy  and  childhood, 
or  while  growth  is  greater  than  the  decay  of 
the  tissues,  and  this  sleep  is  more  profound  as 


well  as  longer.  Persons  of  plethoric  habit, 
with  good  appetite  and  powers  of  digestion, 
are  usually  sound  sleepers ;  the  nervous  sleep 
comparatively  little  ,•  lymphatic,  passionless 
individuals,  who  vegetate  rather  than  live,  are 
generally  long  sleepers.  The  amount  of  sleep 
required  depends  much  on  constitution  and 
habit,  and  the  smallest  sleepers  have  sometimes 
been  men  of  the  greatest  mental  activity.  Most 
men  require  from  six  to  eight  hours  of  sleep 
daily,  and  this  amount  cannot  be  materially 
diminished  without  injury  to  the  health.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  amount  necessary  to  refresh 
the  system  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
bodily  and  mental  exertion  of  the  individual. 
— In  natural  sleep,  during  the  repose  of  the 
voluntary  muscles,  the  senses,  and  the  per 
ceptive  and  intellectual  faculties,  the  functions 
of  respiration,  circulation,  nutrition,  secretion, 
and' absorption  continue.  The  respiration  and 
the  pulse,  however,  are  both  diminished  in 
frequency ;  and  the  temperature  of  the  body 
is  somewhat  reduced  from  its  usual  standard. 
Hence  the  chilliness  generally  felt  during  a  nap 
in  the  daytime,  and  the  propriety  of  throwing 
some  covering  over  the  body  during  sleep,  even 
in  summer,  to  avoid  taking  cold;  in  this  state 
there  is  also  less  power  of  resisting  diseases, 
especially  malarious  ones.  Nothing  is  so  re 
freshing  during  sickness,  or  so  conducive  to 
rapid  convalescence,  as  quiet  sleep;  and  few 
symptoms  are  more  unfavorable  than  contin 
ued  sleeplessness.  A  habitual  deficiency  of 
sleep,  from  excitement  or  excessive  study,  pro 
duces  sooner  or  later  headache,  cerebral  dis 
turbance,  restlessness  and  feverislmess,  and, 
if  the  warning  be  not  seasonably  heeded,  a 
serious  impairment  of  the  vital  powers.  (See 
COMA,  DREAM,  and  SOMNAMBULISM.) 

SLEIDA1V,  or  Sleidanns,  Joliaiiu,  a  German  au 
thor,  whose  real  name  was  Philipson,  born  at 
Schleide'n,  near  Cologne,  in  1506,  died  in  Stras- 
burg,  Oct.  31,  1556.  After  studying  in  many 
universities,  he  was  employed  in  diplomacy  by 
King  Francis  I.  of  France.  Having  secretly 
adopted  Lutheranism,  he  went  to  Strasburg, 
where  in  1542  he  was  appointed  by  the  Protes 
tant  princes  historian  of  the  Smalcald  league, 
and  by  the  town  council  professor  of  law. 
Subsequently  he  conducted  negotiations  with 
France  and  England,  and  attended  the  council 
of  Trent  as  deputy  from  Strasburg,  His  repu 
tation  rests  on  his  great  work  entitled  De  Statu 
Beligionis  et  ReipiilUca,  Carolo  Quinto  Ccemre, 
Commentarii  (1555  ;  best  ed.,  3  vols.,  Frank 
fort,  1785-'G),  in  25  books,  to  which  a  26th 
was  added  from  a  manuscript  found  among  his 
papers.  It  embraces  a  history  of  the  reforma 
tion  from  1517  to  1556,  and  is  remarkable  for 
impartiality  and  for  its  simple  and  elegant 
Latin.  The  best  English  version  is  that  of  E. 
Bohun,  with  a  continuation  to  1562,  entitled 
"  General  History  of  the  Reformation  begun  in 
Germany  by  M.  Luther  "  (fol.,  London,  1689). 

SLIDELL,  John,  an  American  politician,  born 
in  the  city  of  Xew  York  in  1793,  died  in  Lon- 


106 


SLIGO 


SLOE 


don,  July  29,  1871.  He  graduated  at  Colum 
bia  college  in  1810  and  entered  commercial 
life,  but  was  not  successful,  and  removed  to 
New  Orleans,  where  he  became  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Louisiana  bar,  and  was  Uni 
ted  States  district  attorney  from  1829  to  1833. 
He  was  frequently  elected  to  the  state  legis 
lature,  and  was  a  representative  in  congress 
from  1843  to  1845.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
sent  as  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  pleni 
potentiary  to  Mexico.  In  1853  he  was  chosen 
United  States  senator  for  the  unexpired  term 
of  Senator  Soule,  and  was  afterward  reelect- 
ed  for  six  years.  He  was  a  supporter  of  the 
southern  rights  party,  and  when  Louisiana 
had  passed  the  ordinance  of  secession,  in  Jan 
uary,  1861,  he  withdrew  on  Feb.  4  from  the 
senate,  after  delivering  a  menacing  and  defiant 
speech.  In  the  autumn  he  was  sent  as  com 
missioner  to  France,  together  with  Mr.  Mason 
of  Virginia,  who  was  appointed  in  the  same 
capacity  to  England.  Sailing  from  Charleston, 
they  ran  the  blockade,  and  embarked  at  Ha 
vana  on  board  the  English  mail  steamer  Trent. 
On  Nov.  8  Capt.  Wilkes,  of  the  United  States 
steam  frigate  San  Jacinto,  boarded  this  ves 
sel,  and  arrested  the  commissioners,  who  were 
confined  in  Fort  Warren,  Boston  harbor.  But 
as  their  capture  was  informal,  they  were  re 
leased  on  the  reclamation  of  the  British  gov 
ernment,  and  on  Jan.  2,  1862,  sailed  for  Eng 
land.  Mr.  Slidell  proceeded  to  Paris,  where 
through  the  banker  Erlanger  (who  became  his 
son-in-law)  he  secured  some  aid  in  money  and 
ships  for  the  confederates,  and  after  the  close 
of  the  war  settled  in  London. 

SLIGOt  I.  A  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  prov 
ince  of  Oonnaught,  on  the  N.  W.  coast,  border 
ing  on  Leitrim,  Roscommon,  Mayo,  and  the 
Atlantic  ocean;  area,  721  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
115,311.  The  chief  towns  are  Sligo,  Dromore, 
and  Tobercurry.  The  coast  line  is  generally 
rugged,  and  is  deeply  indented  by  the  bays 
of  Sligo  and  Killala.  Sligo  bay  is  about  6  m. 
wide  at  the  mouth,  and  extends  inland  10  m. 
to  the  town  of  Sligo.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Sligo,  Moy,  Arrow,  Awinmore,  and  Easky. 
Lough  Gill,  the  chief  lake,  is  about  5  m.  long 
and  1|-  broad,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  beau 
ty  of  its  scenery.  A  great  deal  of  the  surface 
is  mountainous  or  boggy.  Iron  ore  is  found, 
and  copper  and  lead  mines  were  formerly 
worked.  Coarse  woollens  are  manufactured. 
There  are  many  remains  of  antiquity.  II.  A 
town,  capital  of  the  county,  at  the  head  of  an 
arm  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  107  m.  N. 
W.  of  Dublin;  pop.  in  1871,  9,340.  It  has 
considerable  commerce,  but  vessels  drawing 
more  than  13  ft.  are  obliged  to  anchor  a  mile 
below  the  town.  In  1870  Sligo  was  disfran 
chised  as  a  parliamentary  borough. 

SLOANE,  Sir  Hans,  a  British  naturalist,  born 
at  Killyleagh,  county  Down,  Ireland,  April  16, 
1660,  died  in  Chelsea,  near  London,  Jan.  11, 
1753.  He  studied  medicine,  natural  history, 
and  chemistry  in  London,  where  he  became 


acquainted  with  Ray  and  Boyle.  After  a  tour 
on  the  continent,  he  settled  in  1684  in  London, 
and  was  soon  after  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
royal  society.  In  1687  he  accompanied  the 
duke  of  Albemarle  to  Jamaica  in  the  capacity 
of  physician,  and  during  a  residence  of  15 
months  made  large  collections  of  natural  cu 
riosities,  particularly  of  plants.  Returning  to 
London,  he  was  chosen  physician  of  Christ's 
hospital  in  1694,  a  post  which  he  filled  for  36 
years.  Being  shortly  before  this  time  elected 
secretary  of  the  royal  society,  he  revived  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions,"  and  until  1712 
was  editor  of  the  work.  Meanwhile  he  had 
formed  the  nucleus  of  a  comprehensive  cabinet 
of  curiosities,  which  it  became  one  of  the  chief 
objects  of  his  life  to  enrich  and  enlarge,  and 
which  in  1702  received  a  very  considerable 
augmentation  by  the  bequest  of  the  collection 
of  William  Courten.  In  1716  he  was  created 
a  baronet,  and  was  appointed  physician  general 
to  the  army,  which  office  he  held  till  1727, 
when  he  became  physician  in  ordinary  to  the 
king.  In  1719  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
college  of  physicians,  and  in  1727  president 
of  the  royal  society.  In  1741  he  removed  his 
library  and  collections  to  an  estate  in  Chel 
sea,  purchased  in  1720,  where  he  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  retirement.  His  collections, 
amounting  to  200  volumes  of  dried  plants  and 
over  30,000  other  specimens  of  natural  history, 
besides  a  library  of  50,000  volumes  and  3,566 
manuscripts,  were  by  the  direction  of  his  will 
offered  to  the  nation  for  £20,000,  less  than  a 
quarter  of  their  real  value.  The  legacy  was 
accepted  by  parliament,  and  in  its  purchase 
originated  the  British  museum.  Among  many 
important  benevolent  schemes  he  was  en 
gaged  in  the  establishment  of  a  dispensary 
for  providing  the  poor  with  medical  services 
and  medicines,  and  of  the  foundling  hospital. 
He  also  presented  the  apothecaries'  company 
with  the  freehold  of  their  botanic  garden, 
which  formed  part  of  his  estate  at  Chelsea. 
His  writings  comprise  "  The  Natural  History 
of  Jamaica  "  (2  vols.  fol.,  1707-'25),  a  Latin 
catalogue  of  the  plants  of  Jamaica,  a  treatise 
on  sore  eyes  (once  highly  esteemed),  and 
contributions  to  the  "  Philosophical  Trans 
actions."  He  aided  in  the  introduction  of  the 
use  of  Peruvian  bark  and  other  new  remedies, 
and  gave  a  considerable  impulse  to  the  prac 
tice  of  inoculation  by  performing  that  opera 
tion  on  several  of  the  royal  family. 

SLOE  (A.  S.  sla},  a  wild  plum,  primus  spino- 
sa,  native  in  Europe  and  Russian  and  central 
Asia,  and  sparingly  naturalized  in  the  New 
England  and  some  others  of  the  older  states. 
It  is  a  shrub  or  low  tree,  with  its  smaller 
branches  ending  in  sharp  thorns,  which,  with 
the  blackish  color  of  the  bark,  give  it  the  name 
of  blackthorn  by  which  it  is  frequently  called 
in  England ;  the  leaves  are  ovate  or  oblong ; 
the  small,  white  flowers  are  succeeded  by  a 
small,  globular,  black  fruit,  with  a  fine  bloom ; 
stone  turgid;  pulp  greenish  and  astringent. 


SLOTH 


107 


As  stated  tinder  PLUM,  this  is  thought  to  be 
the  original  of  all  the  cultivated  European  va 
rieties  of  that  fruit.  The  sloe  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  hedge  plant  in  Europe,  and  is  planted 


Sloe  or  Blackthorn  (Prunus  communis). 

around  trees  in  parks  to  protect  them  while 
young  from  injury  by  animals;  it  is  sometimes 
seen  in  this  country  in  collections  of  shrubs, 
its  chief  merit  as  an  ornament  being  its  early 
flowering.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  and  dark- 
colored,  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  is  used  for 
handles  to  tools,  flails,  teeth  to  rakes,  and  the 
like ;  upright  shoots  make  favorite  walking- 
sticks.  The  leaves  when  dried  are  regarded 
as  more  like  tea  than  any  other  substitute; 
they  were  at  one  time  largely  collected  for  the 
adulteration  of  tea  in  England,  but  this  is  now 
forbidden  under  a  heavy  penalty.  The  fruit 
when  mellowed  by  frost  is  eaten  in  some  parts 
of  Europe,  and  is  made  into  a  conserve;  its 
expressed  juice  is  used  in  Germany  to  mark 
clothing,  it  being  nearly  indelible,  and  in  Eng 
land  it  forms  the  basis  of  "British  port." 

SLOTH,  the  name  of  the  edentate  mammals 
of  the  family  tardigrada  (111.)  and  genus  ~brady- 
pus  (Linn.) ;  both  the  family  and  generic  names 
are  derived  from  the  extreme  slowness  of  the 
gait;  it  is  le  paresseux  of  the  French.  The 
skull  is  small,  rounded,  flat,  and  truncated  in 
front ;  the  jaws  very  short  and  the  face  very 
little  projecting  beyond  the  line  of  the  crani 
um  ;  the  malar  bone  gives  off  a  zygomatic  pro 
cess  which  runs  backward  and  passes  above 
the  corresponding  one  of  the  temporal  bone 
without  touching  it,  a  second  process  descend 
ing  outside  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  very  strong. 
The  fore  legs  are  much  longer  than  the  hind, 
and  all  the  toes  end  in  long  curved  claws,  chan 
nelled  underneath,  the  bones  firmly  united 
together  and  the  claws  naturally  turned  in 
against  the  soles;  the  fore  feet  have  either 
three  or  two  toes,  and  the  hind  feet  three 
toes;  the  latter  are  articulated  obliquely  on 
the  leg,  so  that  only  the  exterior  edge  touches 
the  ground,  of  course  making  progression  on 
a  level  surface  very  awkward ;  the  pelvis  is  so 


wide  and  the  thighs  so  laterally  directed  that 
the  knees  cannot  be  brought  together.  The 
ears  are  very  short,  and  concealed  under  the 
hair,  which  is  dry,  harsh,  and  coarsft.  The 
axillary  and  iliac  arteries,  instead  of  pursuing 
their  usual  course  down  the  limbs  as  single 
vessels,  suddenly  subdivide  into  from  40  to  60 
small  trunks  of  equal  size,  freely  anastomosing 
with  each  other,  looking  somewhat  like  a  mass 
of  varicose  veins,  and  distributed  chiefly  to  the 
muscles ;  the  arrest  of  the  circulation  by  pres 
sure  on  a  single  trunk  is  thus  prevented,  and 
its  retardation  permits  slow  and  long  continued 
contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and 
legs.  The  stomach  is  divided  into  four  cavi 
ties  without  folds,  the  intestine  is  short,  and 
the  caecum  absent;  the  mammaa  are  two,  and 
pectoral ;  there  is  a  common  cloaca,  as  in 
birds,  for  the  expulsion  of  the  urine  and  faeces. 
The  dental  formula  is  |i|,  the  teeth  being 
simple,  separated,  nearly  cylindrical,  without 
roots,  with  an  undivided  hollow  base  contin 
ually  growing  as  they  are  worn  by  use,  and 
composed  of  dentine  and  cement  without  en 
amel  ;  there  are  no  incisors ;  the  anterior  mo 
lars  are  very  small  in  the  three-toed  sloth,  but 
in  the  two-toed  are  long,  pointed,  resembling 
canines,  and  the  lower  placed  behind  the  up 
per.  The  tail  is  very  short,  or  absent.  The 
sloths  were  considered  by  the  early  naturalists 
as  imperfect  and  deformed  creatures ;  but  in 
the  trees,  their  natural  home,  their  peculiari 
ties  of  structure  are  as  admirably  adapted  for 
their  convenience  and  enjoyment  as  in  any 
other  animal;  the  fore  limbs  have  great  free 
dom  of  motion,  and  all  are  so  constructed  that 
by  means  of  the  claws  they  suspend  them 
selves  to  the  branches  and  hang  for  a  long  time, 
and  even  sleep,  back  downward.  They  are 
rarely  seen  on  the  ground,  for  the  reason  that 
they  can  pass  from  one  tree  to  another  by  the 
interlocking  branches  for  miles  in  the  thick 
forests  of  South  America,  which  they  inhabit 
from  Guiana  to  Paraguay,  some  species  extend 
ing  to  Peru,  and  according  to  some  authors 
into  Central  America.  They  are  rarely  more 
than  2  ft.  long,  and  their  hair  resembles  in 
color  the  bark  of  the  trees  upon  which  they 
live ;  the  food  is  entirely  vegetable,  the  leaves 
and  twigs  of  trees.  They  have  one  young  one 
at  a  time,  which  clings  to  the  mother's  back, 
hiding  among  the  hair ;  the  native  name  is  ai, 
from  their  feeble  plaintive  cry;  they  are  re 
markably  tenacious  of  life,  and  apparently  un 
conscious  of  pain. — Linnasus  gave  the  name  of 
B.  tridactylm  to  a  three-toed  sloth,  under  the 
impression  that  there  was  only  one  species 
thus  characterized,  whereas  Wagner  describes 
several  in  the  ArcJiin  far  NaturgescTiiclite  for 
1850.  The  animal  referred  to  by  Linnaeus  is 
grayish,  with  the  body  14  in.  long,  the  head 
about  3,  the  tail  1,  the  fore  limb  11,  the  hind 
G,  and  the  claws  2  to  2^ ;  it  has  9  cervical  ver 
tebrae,  and  14  ribs  on  each  side,  of  which  9  are 
true ;  the  thumb  and  little  finger  are  rudimen 
tary  and  hidden  under  the  skin ;  there  is  a  ru- 


108 


SLOTH 


SLUG 


dimentary  clavicle  attached  to  the  acromion ; 
the  hair  is  reversed  on  the  forearm.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  it  can  take  only  50  steps  a 
day,  consuming  a  month  in  traversing  a  mile ; 


Three-toed  Sloth  (Bradjrpus  tridactylus). 

if  by  chance  it  ascends  a  tree  too  remote  from 
another  to  admit  of  a  passage  across,  the  na 
tives  say  that  it  rolls  itself  in  a  ball  and  drops 
to  the  ground,  and  the  thick  wiry  hair  would 
render  such  a  fall  comparatively  harmless ;  from 
its  habits  it  can  rarely  if  ever  drink ;  its  flesh 
and  skin  are  useless ;  in  captivity  it  is  exceed 
ingly  stupid  and  uninteresting.  The  unau  or 
two-toed  sloth  (B.  didactylns,  Linn. ;  genus 


Unau  or  Two-toed  Sloth  (Bradypus  didactylus). 

cholce.pus,  Illig.)  is  mixed  brown  and  white, 
paler  below;  it  is  about  2  ft.  long,  with,  ac 
cording  to  Daubenton,  23  ribs  on  each  side,  of 
which  12  are  true;  the  clavicles  are  complete, 
and  the  tail  is  wanting ;  it  has  a  longer  muzzle 
and  shorter  fore  legs  than  the  three-toed  spe 
cies,  and  is  more  active,  especially  at  night; 
it  inhabits  the  same  region,  and  is  sometimes 
eaten  by  Indians  and  negroes. — For  the  fossil 
edentates,  see  MEG-ALONYX,  MEGATHERIUM,  and 
MYLODON  ;  for  anatomical  details,  see  COM 
PARATIVE  ANATOMY,  and  EDENTATA. 


SLOVAKS,  a  Slavic  people,  belonging  to  the 
western  stem  of  the  race,  and  inhabiting  chiefly 
the  mountainous  regions  of  N.  "W.  Hungary 
and  the  adjoining  portions  of  Moravia.  Their 
number  is  estimated  at  nearly  3,000,000,  more 
than  two  thirds  of  whom  are  Catholics,  and 
the  remainder  Lutherans.  They  are  of  medium 
stature,  have  blue  eyes,  straight  and  long  hair, 
a  yellowish  skin,  and  generally  coarse  features. 
They  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agriculture  and 
mining.  Numbers  of  them  spend  their  lives 
wandering  through  various  countries  of  Eu 
rope,  selling  linen,  mouse  traps,  and  other 
articles  of  wire  work.  The  language  of  the 
Slovaks  is  a  sub-dialect  of  the  Bohemian  or 
Czech,  which  latter  is  generally  used  by  them 
as  a  literary  medium,  as  by  Kollar,  Schafarik, 
Holly,  and  other  writers,  and  is  also  the  lan 
guage  of  their  church  services. — The  Slovaks 
occupied  their  present  abodes  early  in  the  mid 
dle  ages,  and  in  the  9th  century  they  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  Moravian  empire  until  its 
destruction  by  the  Magyars. 

SLOVENS,  or  Sloventzi.     See  TVixDS. 

SLUG  (Umax,  Lam.),  a  genus  of  mollusk,  be 
longing  to  the  air-breathing  gasteropods.  The 
form  is  elongated,  tapering,  snail-like,  the  head 
having  two  long  and  two  short  tentacles  which 
can  be  extended  and  drawn  in  like  the  finger 
of  a  glove  by  being  turned  inside  and  out ;  the 
naked  body  is  covered  anteriorly  by  a  cori 
aceous  mantle,  under  which  is  the  branchial 
cavity,  the  respiratory  orifice  and  vent  open 
ing  on  the  right  side  of  it,  and  the  generative 
orifice  beneath  the  right  tentacles ;  the  man 
tle  in  some  contains  a  calcareous  grit,  and  in 
others  a  small,  thin,  nail-like  shell;  the  head 
can  be  partly  drawn  under  the  mantle ;  at  the 
posterior  end  of  the  body  is  a  small  aperture 
whence  proceed  the  adhesive  threads  by  which 
they  let  themselves  down  from  plants  which 
they  ascend  in  search  of  food.  Their  motion 
is  proverbially  slow,  and  effected  by  the  con 
tractions  of  the  flat  disk  or  foot  on  the  ventral 
surface.  The  upper  jaw  is  in  the  form  of  a 
toothed  crescent,  by  which  they  gnaw  plants 
with  great  voracity ;  the  stomach  is  elongated ; 
the  skin  secretes  a  great  quantity  of  mucosity, 
which  serves  to  attach  them  to  the  surfaces  on 
which  they  creep;  the  eyes  are  small  black 
disks  at  the  end  of  the  posterior  tentacles ;  the 
sense  of  touch  is  delicate.  The  reproductive 
season  is  in  spring  and  summer ;  they  are 
hermaphrodite,  and  mutually  impregnate  each 
other ;  the  eggs,  to  the  number  of  700  or  800, 
are  laid  in  moist  and  shady  places;  at  the  ap 
proach  of  winter  they  burrow  into  the  ground, 
where  they  hibernate;  they  hide  under  decay 
ing  logs  and  stones  in  damp  places,  and  are 
seen  in  gardens  and  orchards  in  evening  and 
early  morning,  especially  after  gentle  and  warm 
showers.  They  are  found  in  the  northern 
temperate  zones  of  both  hemispheres.  The 
common  slug  of  New  England,  L.  tunicata 
(Gould),  is  nearly  an  inch  long,  varying  in 
color  from  dark  drab  to  blackish  brown ;  the 


SLUG  WORM 


SMALLPOX 


109 


back  is  wrinkled,  and  the  upper  tentacles  gran 
ulated  and  black  at  the  tips ;  the  foot  is  very 
narrow;  it  is  found  almost  always  with  the 
isopod  crustaceans  commonly  called  sow  bugs. 
Other  species  are  described ;  they  are  compara 
tively  rare  in  the  United  States,  and  by  no 
means  so  troublesome  as  in  Europe.  The  com 
mon  European  slug,  L.  agrestis  (Linn.),  is  small 
and  unspotted,  and  very  abundant  and  destruc- 


Slug  (Limax  agrestis). 

tive ;  they  are  killed  by  solutions  of  tobacco, 
salt,  or  other  irritants,  or  by  covering  a  spot 
infested  by  them  with  ashes,  lime,  line  sand, 
or  any  powder  which  attaches  itself  to  the 
body  and  prevents  their  walking,  or  they  may 
be  arrested  by  some  sticky  substance;  many 
are  devoured  by  mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles. 
SLUG  WORM,  the  common  name  of  the  larvte 
of  the  sawflies,  or  the  hymenopterous  insects 
of  the  family  tenthredinidw.  The  slug  worm 
described  by  Prof.  Peck  in  his  prize  essay 
(Boston,  1799),  and  called  by  him  tenihredo 
cerasi  (Linn.),  has  been  placed  by  Harris  in 
the  genus  selandria  (blennocampa).  The  fly 
is  black,  with  the  first  pair  of  legs  yellowish 
clay-colored  ;  the  body  of  the  female  is  about 
a  fifth  of  an  inch  long,  that  of  the  male  a  little 
smaller.  They  usually  appear  in  Massachusetts 
on  the  cherry  and  plum  trees  toward  the  end 
of  May,  disappearing  in  three  weeks  after  lay 
ing  their  eggs  singly  in  incisions  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  leaves ;  the  young  are  hatched 
in  two  weeks,  coming  out  from  June  5  to  July 
20,  according  to  season;  they  have  20  short 
legs,  a  pair  under  every  segment  except  the 
fourth  and  the  last,  and  are  half  an  inch  long 
when  fully  grown ;  in  form  they  resemble  small 
tadpoles,  and  are  covered  with  a  thick  slimy 
matter  which  has  given  them  the  name  of  slugs ; 
they  also  emit  a  disagreeable  odor.  They  come 
to  their  full  size  in  26  days,  casting  their  skin 
five  times,  after  which  they  enter  the  ground, 
change  to  chrysalids,  and  come  out  flies  in  16 
days ;  they  then  lay  eggs  for  a  second  brood, 
which  enter  the  ground  in  autumn,  and  appear 
as  flies  in  the  ensuing  spring,  some  remaining 
unchanged  for  a  year  longer.  They  feed  on 
leaves,  and  in  some  seasons  have  been  so  nu 
merous  as  to  strip  trees  entirely  of  their  foliage 
and  even  cause  their  destruction;  they  are 
eaten  by  small  mammals  and  birds,  and  the 


eggs  are  destroyed  by  the  larvae  of  a  tiny  ich 
neumon  fly  (encyrtus).  The  trees  may  be  best 
preserved  against  their  attacks  by  showering 
them  writh  a  mixture  of  whale-oil  soap  and 
water,  or  powdering  with  ashes  or  quicklime. 

SM1LCALD  (Ger.  Schmalkalderi),  a  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Hesse-Nassau 
(before  1866  of  Hesse-Cassel),  34  m.  E.  N.  E. 
of  Fulda;  pop.  in  1871,  5,792.  It  manufac 
tures  iron,  steel,  and  salt. — The  Smalcald 
league  was  concluded  here  in  1531,  by  various 
Protestant  princes  and  free  cities,  for  mutual 
defence  of  their  religious  and  political  inde 
pendence  against  Charles  V.  and  the  Catholic 
states  of  the  empire.  It  was  limited  at  first  to 
six  years,  but  in  1535  new  members  were  ad 
mitted  at  a  second  convention  in  Smalcald,  and 
the  term  was  extended  ten  years,  with  a  reso 
lution  to  maintain  an  army  of  12,000  men. 
The  elector  John  Frederick  of  Saxony  and  the 
landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse  became  the  leaders 
of  the  league,  whose  war  against  the  emperor 
(1546-'7)  was  terminated  by  the  victory  of  the 
latter  at  Muhlberg,  April  24,  1547.  In  1537  a 
confession  of  faith  was  drawn  up  in  several 
articles  by  Luther,  known  subsequently  as  the 
"Articles  of  Smalcald,"  which  became  one  of 
the  symbolical  books  of  the  Lutheran  church. 

SMALLPOX  (variola),  a  contagious  fever,  char 
acterized  by  a  pustular  eruption  having  a  de 
pressed  centre.  The  terms  variola  and  pacce 
first  occur  in  the  Bertinian  chronicle  of  the 
date  961.  Variola  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
varus,  a  blotch  or  pimple,  while  pox  is  of  Sax 
on  origin  and  signifies  a  bag  or  pouch  ;  the 
prefix  small  was  added  in  the  15th  century. 
The  era  commonly  assigned  for  the  first  ap 
pearance  of  smallpox  is  A.  D.  569  ;  it  seems 
then  to  have  begun  in  Arabia,  and  the  raising 
of  the  siege  of  Mecca  by  an  Abyssinian  army 
is  attributed  to  the  ravages  made  by  smallpox 
among  the  troops.  The  new  part  which  Ara 
bia  under  Mohammed  and  his  followers  was 
made  to  play  in  history  contributed  to  the 
rapid  propagation  of  the  disease  throughout 
the  world.  Rhazes,  an  Arabian  physician  who 
practised  at  Bagdad  about  the  beginning  of  the 
10th  century,  is  the  first  medical  author  whose 
writings  have  come  down  to  us  who  treats  ex 
pressly  of  the  disease  ;  he  however  quotes  sev 
eral  of  his  predecessors,  one  of  whom  is  be 
lieved  to  have  flourished  about  the  year  of  the 
Hegira,  A.  D.  622.  Measles  and  scarlet  fever 
were  at  first  confounded  with  smallpox,  or 
considered  as  varieties  of  it ;  and  this  error 
seems  to  have  prevailed  more  or  less  until 
Sydenham  finally  showed  the  essential  differ 
ences  between  them.  Boerhaave  was  the  first 
to  insist  that  contagion  is  essential  to  the  prop 
agation  of  the  disease. — The  period  of  incuba 
tion,  that  is,  the  time  that  elapses  from  the 
moment  the  patient  receives  the  contagion 
until  it  begins  to  manifest  its  effect  in  the 
initiatory  fever,  is  usually  14  days,  though  it 
sometimes  varies.  During  this  time  there  is 
usually  no  disturbance  of  the  ordinary  health. 


110 


SMALLPOX 


The  invasion  of  the  disease  is  announced  by 
chills  followed  by  fever ;  this  is  apt  to  be  at 
tended  with  pain  in  the  back,  particularly  in 
the  loins,  and  with  nausea  and  vomiting.  If 
the  fever  runs  high,  with  violent  pain  in  the 
back  and  much  delirium,  the  disease  commonly 
assumes  a  severe  form.  In  children  the  inva 
sion  is  often  announced  by  an  attack  of  con 
vulsions.  The  eruption  begins  to  show  itself 
on  the  third  day  of  the  fever.  As  a  rule,  it 
appears  first  on  the  face,  then  on  the  neck  and 
wrists,  then  on  the  trunk,  and  finally  on  the 
extremities.  On  the  fifth  day  the  eruption  is 
complete,  and  after  this  few  or  no  new  spots 
appear.  It  at  first  consists  of  minute  rounded 
papules  or  pimples  of  a  characteristic  solid 
consistency,  feeling  like  small  shot  beneath  the 
skin.  It  is  by  this  peculiar  solidity  of  the  spots 
that  smallpox  at  this  period  is  distinguished 
from  other  papular  eruptions.  By  the  fourth 
day  from  their  first  appearance  the  papules  are 
converted  into  vesicles  filled  with  a  thin  lymph 
and  having  a  depressed  centre,  whence  they  are 
termed  umbilicated.  The  vesicles  begin  now  to 
be  surrounded  by  an  areola,  or  circular  flush 
upon  the  skin,  which  soon  becomes  dark  crim 
son  ;  the  lymph,  at  first  colorless  and  transpa 
rent,  is  gradually  converted  into  pus,  which 
increases  in  quantity  and  distends  the  vesicles 
until  they  become  hemispherical.  About  the 
eighth  day  of  the  eruption  a  dark  spot  makes 
its  appearance  at  the  centre  of  the  pustule, 
and  gradually  dries  up  and  is  converted  into 
a  scab.  When  this  scab  falls  it  leaves  either  an 
indelible  cicatrix  or  a  purplish  red  mark  which 
fades  very  slowly,  and  which  long  exposure  to 
a  cool  atmosphere  renders  very  distinct.  In 
passing  away,  the  eruption  follows  the  course 
which  it  took  on  its  first  appearance,  the  scabs 
first  falling  from  the  face,  then  from  the  trunk, 
and  last  from  the  extremities. — When  the  pus 
tules  are  comparatively  few,  they  are  separated, 
sometimes  widely,  from  each  other,  and  the 
disease  is  termed  discrete  (variola  discretci)  ; 
when  they  are  very  numerous,  they  touch  each 
other  and  run  together,  and  then  it  is  termed 
confluent  (variola  confluens)  ;  and  between  the 
two  a  third  variety,  the  semi-confluent  or  co 
herent,  is  often  spoken  of.  In  the  discrete 
form  the  fever  commonly  subsides  on  the  ap 
pearance  of  the  eruption,  and  when  the  pus 
tules  are  few  it  may  not  return  ;  but  where 
they  are  at  all  numerous,  their  maturation  is 
commonly  attended  with  more  or  less  fever. 
With  the  appearance  of  the  eruption  on  the 
surface,  more  or  less  sore  throat  is  complained 
of ;  the  fauces  and  tonsils  are  red  and  swollen, 
and  pustules  make  their  appearance  upon  them, 
upon  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  the  inside  of 
the  cheeks ;  the  patient  at  the  same  time  is 
commonly  troubled  with  salivation.  When 
smallpox  is  confluent,  the  subcutaneous  cellular 
tissue  seems  involved  in  the  disease,  the  swell 
ing  is  very  great,  and  by  the  fifth  day  the 
patient  is  commonly  unable  to  open  his  eyes. 
The  eruption  on  the  face  sometimes  coalesces 


into  one  huge  sore  ;  it  is  attended  with  a  tor 
menting  itching,  and  the  fever  is  of  the  ty 
phoid  kind,  the  debility  being  extreme,  and  the 
patient  restless,  sleepless,  and  often  delirious, 
while  the  pulse  is  small,  frequent,  and  feeble. 
In  such  cases  the  accompanying  inflammation 
of  the  mouth,  nasal  passages,  pharynx,  and 
larynx  adds  greatly  to  the  distress  of  the  pa 
tient  and  the  danger  of  the  disease,  sometimes 
even  producing  suffocation.  The  disease  is 
always  attended  by  a  peculiar  odor,  but  in 
confluent  cases  this  is  nauseous  and  offensive 
to  an  excessive  degree.  In  this  form  the  fever, 
which  commonly  abates  on  the  corning  out  of 
the  eruption,  is  aggravated  as  the  eruption  ap 
proaches  maturation.  The  eighth  day  of  the 
eruption  or  the  eleventh  of  the  disease  is  com 
monly  the  most  fatal  day,  while  more  patients 
die  during  the  second  week  of  the  disease  than 
either  earlier  or  later.  A  second  attack,  even 
after  free  exposure  to  the  contagion,  is  very 
rare.  Only  widely  separated  instances  have 
been  known. — When  patients  recover  from 
severe  attacks  of  smallpox,  blindness  from  an 
intercurrent  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva 
is  an  occasional  result,  and  before  the  general 
introduction  of  vaccination  blindness  from 
smallpox  was  common.  Besides  inflammation 
of  the  eyes,  glandular  swellings  and  abscess 
es,  bed  sores,  and  phlebitis  are  occasional  com 
plications.  It  is  also  sometimes  complicated 
with  a  diseased  condition  of  the  blood,  produ 
cing  hamiorrhage  from  various  organs,  togeth 
er  with  petechia3.  These  cases  are  always  at 
tended  with  great  debility  ;  the  accompanying 
fever  is  typhoid,  and  the  eruption  itself  does 
not  come  out  freely.  They  are  almost  invari 
ably  fatal.  Pregnancy  is  a  serious  complica 
tion.  Abortion  or  premature  delivery  with 
the  death  of  the  child  is  commonly  produced, 
but  the  mother  frequently  recovers.  Some 
times  the  child  presents  the  characteristic 
eruption  of  the  disease,  but  this  is  rare.  Still 
more  rarely  a  mother  whose  system  has  been 
protected  by  vaccination  or  a  previous  attack 
of  the  disease,  communicates  it,  after  exposure, 
to  thefcetus  in  utero,  while  she  herself  escapes. 
Confluent  smallpox  is  always  dangerous,  and 
the  danger  is  aggravated  if  the  patient  be  still 
in  infancy  or  over  45  years  of  age,  or  of  a 
feeble  or  strumous  constitution. — The  mortality 
from  smallpox  is  estimated  at  one  fourth  or  one 
fifth  of  all  who  are  attacked ;  that  of  the  Lon 
don  smallpox  hospital  has  long  averaged  30  per 
cent.  Like  many  other  contagious  diseases,  it 
is  subject  to  epidemic  influence,  and  when  it 
prevails  epidemically  it  seems  to  be  severer 
and  more  fatal.  It  is  remarkable  that  when  it 
is  communicated  by  a  minute  portion  of  the 
virus  being  inserted  under  the  cuticle  by  inocu 
lation,  as  it  is  termed,  the  disease  is  far  less 
violent  than  if  communicated  through  the  at 
mosphere  ;  and  yet  a  second  attack  in  such  a 
case  is  as  improbable  as  in  any  other.  When 
patients  are  inoculated  the  mortality  is  rarely 
greater  than  1  in  GOO  or  TOO.  Inoculation  was 


SMART 


SMELL 


111 


introduced  into  civilized  Europe  from  Constan 
tinople  through  the  sense  and  courage  of  Lady 
Mary  Wortley  Montagu,  but  since  the  discov 
ery  of  vaccination  hy  Dr.  Jenner  has  been  dis 
continued.  (See  VACCINATION.) — For  a  long 
time  the  dangers  of  smallpox  were  aggravated 
by  the  means  used  for  its  cure  ;  in  accordance 
with  the  theories  of  the  time,  which  still  have 
their  influence  among  the  vulgar,  the  eruption 
was  looked  upon  as  an  effort  made  by  nature 
to  free  the  system  of  morbid  matter  ;  the  more 
abundant  it  was,  the  -better  for  the  patient. 
The  eruption  was  accordingly  encquraged  by 
warm  drinks  and  a  heated  atmosphere.  Syden- 
ham  was  the  first  to  inculcate  the  necessity  of 
free  ventilation  and  a  cooling  regimen.  Mild 
cases  require  little  except  attention  to  hygienic 
measures;  the  disease  is  attended  with  little 
danger,  and  should  run  its  course  uninfluenced 
by  art.  When  it  is  severe,  attention  should  be 
early  directed  to  supporting  the  strength  of 
the  patient.  The  diet  should  be  as  nutritious 
as  he  can  bear,  and,  when  indicated  by  the 
pulse,  wine  and  stimulants  should  be  freely 
administered.  The  troublesome  itching,  which 
causes  great  suffering,  may  be  alleviated  by 
the  application  of  sweet  oil,  cold  cream,  or 
lard ;  opiates  may  be  useful  to  procure  sleep, 
and  the  bowels  should  be  occasionally  moved 
by  mild  laxatives  or  enemata. 

SMART,  Christopher,  an  English  author,  born 
at  Shipborne,  Kent,  April  11,  1722,  died  in 
the  king's  bench  prison,  London,  May  18,  1770. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  elected  a 
fellow  of  Pembroke  hall  in  1745,  and  gained 
the  Seatonian  prize  for  poems  on  the  Supreme 
Being  for  five  years  consecutively.  In  1753 
he  married,  removed  to  London,  and  support 
ed  himself  by  writing.  Through  intemperance 
and  extreme  poverty  he  lost  his  reason,  and 
was  confined  in  a  lunatic  asylum  for  two 
years.  He  made  a  prose  translation  of  Hor 
ace,  and  metrical  versions  of  Horace  and  Pha?- 
drus,  and  of  the  Psalms.  Among  his  other 
works  is  "  The  Hilliad,  an  Epic  Poem,"  a  satire 
on  Sir  John  Hill,  who  had  criticised  him.  In 
1752  he  published  a  collection  of  his  poems. 
A  posthumous  edition  appeared  in  1791  with 
a  memoir  (2  vols.  12mo).  His  Horace  has  had 
several  editions  in  the  present  century. 

SMARTWEED.     See  POLYGONUM. 

SMEATON,  John,  an  English  civil  engineer, 
born  at  Austhorpe,  near  Leeds,  May  28,  1724, 
died  there,  Oct.  28,  1792.  Before  he  reached 
his  15th  year  he  had  made  mechanical  inven 
tions  and  discoveries.  He  began  to  study  law, 
but  in  1750  took  up  the  business  of  a  mathe 
matical  instrument  maker,  and  in  1751  invented 
a  machine  for  measuring  a  ship's  way  at  sea. 
He  made  valuable  improvements  in  hydraulic 
machinery,  and  in  1759  read  a  paper  on  this 
subject  before  the  royal  society,  for  which  he 
received  the  Copley  gold  medal.  The  Eddy- 
stone  lighthouse  being  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1755,  Smeaton  rebuilt  it.  (See  LiGHTiiorsE.) 
He  afterward  built  canals  and  locks  on  the 
VOL.  xv. — 8 


Derwentwater  estate,  constructed  the  great 
canal  from  the  Forth  to  the  Clyde,  improved 
the  Calder  navigation,  supplied  Greenwich  and 
Deptford  with  water,  erected  the  Spurn  light 
house,  preserved  the  old  London  bridge,  and 
erected  several  bridges  in  Scotland.  About 
1783  he  withdrew  from  business.  He  pub 
lished  a  volume  on  the  Eddystone  lighthouse 
(1791),  and  his  professional  reports  were  pub 
lished  by  the  institution  of  civil  engineers  (3 
vols.  4to,  1812-'14).— See  Smiles's  "Lives  of 
the  Engineers." 

SMELL,  the  special  sense  by  which  we  take 
cognizance  of  the  odoriferous  qualities  of  for 
eign  bodies.  The  main  peculiarity  of  this  sense 
is  that  it  gives  us  intelligence  of  the  ph}Tsical 
properties  of  substances  in  a  gaseous  or  vapor 
ous  condition.  An  odoriferous  body  gives  off 
emanations  which  diffuse  themselves  through 
the  atmosphere,  and  we  thus  perceive  its  ex 
istence  at  a  distance  and  when  it  may  be  con 
cealed  from  sight.  The  actual  quantity  of 
vaporous  material  necessary  for  making  an 
impression  upon  the  olfactory  organ  is  very 
small ;  and  a  substance  like  musk  or  attar  of 
roses  may  fill  an  entire  apartment  or  even  a 
house  for  days  or  weeks  with  its  peculiar 
odor,  readily  perceptible  by  all  the  occu 
pants,  without  suffering  any  appreciable  loss 
of  weight. — The  organ  of  smell  is  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  upper  part  of  the  nasal  pas 
sages,  supplied  by  the  filaments  of  the  olfac 
tory  or  first  pair  of  cranial  nerves.  These 
nerves  are  endowed  with  the  special  sense  of 
smell,  but  are  destitute  of  ordinary  or  general 
sensibility.  Thus  they  can  perceive  the  odors 
of  foreign  substances,  but  not  the  physical 
contact  of  a  solid  body.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  lower  portion  of  the  nasal  passages  is  sup 
plied  by  filaments  from  the  fifth  pair  of  cranial 
nerves,  which  are  nerves  of  general  sensibility, 
but  not  susceptible  to  the  impression  of  odors. 
Not  all  vapors  are  odoriferous ;  some  are 
simply  irritating  or  stimulating  to  the  mucous 
membrane.  The  odors  proper  are  generally 
of  an  organic  origin,  such  as  those  of  musk, 
asafoetida,  the  leaves  and  blossoms  of  plants, 
and  the  exhalations  of  living  or  decomposing 
animal  bodies.  Other  gaseous  emanations  are 
simply  irritating,  like  those  of  ammonia,  chlo 
rine,  and  acetic  acid.  Sometimes  the  two  kinds 
oij  exhalations  are  mingled ;  thus  pure  alcohol 
is  nearly  or  quite  destitute  of  odor,  but  in 
cologne  water  we  have  the  stimulating  prop 
erties  of  the  alcohol,  mingled  with  odoriferous 
ingredients  of  a  vegetable  origin.  Ammonia 
is  irritating  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nose  for  the  same  reason 'that  it  is  irritating 
to  the  skin  when  brought  in  contact  with  it ; 
but  the  skin  is  incapable  of  perceiving  a  true 
odor.  The  dissemination  of  odors  is  favored 
by  the  movement  of  the  atmosphere  ;  and 
when  a  disagreeable  or  noxious  odor  is  con 
tained  in  the  air  of  an  apartment,  a  free  ven 
tilation  is  the  readiest  method  of  expelling  it. 
When  we  wish  to  perceive  more  distinctly  a 


112 


SMELT 


SMEW 


faint  or  a  delicate  odor,  we  direct  the  air  forci 
bly  upward,  by  a  peculiar  inspiratory  effort  of 
the  nostrils,  through  the  superior  part  of  the 
nasal  passages.  This  movement  is  especially 
observable  in  many  of  the  inferior  animals,  in 
whom  the  sense  of  smell  is  remarkably  acute, 
and  the  olfactory  mucous  membrane  unusually 
extensive  and  sensible.  The  dog,  for  instance, 
will  not  only  distinguish  different  kinds  of  ani 
mals  by  their  odor,  but  will  recognize  different 
individuals  of  the  human  species,  or  particular 
articles  of  dress  belonging  to  them.  He  will 
even  follow  the  track  of  wild  game  by  the 
minute  quantity  of  animal  odor  left  by  their 
footsteps  upon  the  grass  or  dried  leaves. — The 
sense  of  smell,  like  the  other  senses,  becomes 
habituated  to  particular  impressions  when  long 
continued;  even  disagreeable  odors  gradually 
lose  in  this  way  their  offensiveness,  and  we 
become  after  a  time  more  or  less  insensible  to 
their  presence.  A  disagreeable  odor  is  not 
invariably  injurious  in  itself ;  but  it  is  almost 
always  the  indication  or  accompaniment  of  a 
gaseous  emanation  which  is  in  reality  noxious, 
or  will  become  so  if  allowed  to  accumulate. 
The  offensive  odor  is  a  warning  to  the  senses 
that  the  atmosphere  is  no  longer  pure  and 
should  be  renovated;  and  if  this  warning  be 
neglected,  it  at  last  ceases  to  make  itself  felt, 
and  the  exhalations  may  then  imperceptibly 
increase  until  they  produce  serious  injury. 

SMELT,  a  soft-rayed  fish  of  the  salmon  fam 
ily,  and  genus  osmerus  (Artedi).  The  body  is 
elongated  and  covered  with  small  scales ;  there 
are  two  dorsals,  the  first  with  rays  and  the 
second  adipose  and  rayless  ;  ventrals  under 
the  anterior  rays  of  dorsal ;  teeth  on  the  jaws 
and  tongue  very  long,  and  on  the  premaxilla- 
ries  small  and  hooked;  gill  openings  wide;  air 
bladder  silvery  within.  The  common  Amer 
ican  smelt  (0.  viridcsccjis,  Los.)  is  about.  10 
in.  long ;  the  tipper  parts  with  the  dorsal  and 
caudal  fins  are  yellowish  green  with  coppery 
reflections,  with  very  minute  black  dots ;  sides 
silvery  white  ;  abdomen  and  lower  fins  milky 
white;  gill  covers  golden.  It  is  found  from 


American  Smelt  (Osmerus  viridescens). 

New  York  to  Labrador,  going  up  rivers  in 
early  spring  and  returning  to  the  sea  late  in 
autumn,  at  which  times  immense  quantities 
are  taken  by  hook  and  nets ;  the  flavor  is  very 
delicate.  They  bear  transfer  from  salt  into 
fresh  water,  and  have  become  permanent  resi 
dents  in  Ohamplain,  Squam,  and  Winnipiseogee 
lakes,  and  in  Jamaica  pond  near  Boston ;  these 
are  smaller  and  more  slender  than  the  marine 
smelt.  The  European  smelt  (0.  eperlanus, 


Art.)  is  from  7  to  9  in.  long,  lighter  colored 
above,  with  thicker  body  and  narrower  head. 
They  are  found  in  all  the  rivers  opening  into 
northern  seas;  they  are  the  eperlans  of  the 
French  and  the  spirling  or  sparling  of  the 
English ;  when  recently  taken  from  the  water, 
they  have  a  sweetish,  not  disagreeable,  and 
cucumber-like  odor,  from  which  the  generic 
and  the  common  names  are  derived.  Smelts 
eat  small  fish,  crustaceans,  and  mollusks. 

SMELTING.  See  COPPER  SMELTIXG,  IRON 
MANUFACTURE,  LEAD,  and  SILVER. 

SMET,  P^ter  John  de,  an  American  mission 
ary,  born  in  Dendermonde,  Belgium,  Dec.  31, 
1801,  died  in  St.  Louis,  May  23,  1873.  He 
arrived  in  Philadelphia  in  August,  1821,  en 
tered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Whitemarsh,  Md., 
went  to  Missouri  in  1823,  and  aided  in  found 
ing  the  university  of  St.  Louis,  in  which  he 
labored  till  1838,  when  he  was  sent  to  found  a 
mission  among  the  Pottawattamies.  His  suc 
cess  caused  him  to  be  sent  to  the  Flatheads 
in  1840,  and  to  the  Blackfeet  soon  afterward. 
He  then  planned  a  regular  system  of  mission 
ary  establishments,  which  were  taken  charge 
of  by  his  brother  Jesuits,  reserving  to  himself 
a  general  superintendence  over  them  and  the 
duty  of  providing  funds  for  their  support.  He 
published  several  papers  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  creating 
public  interest  in  favor  of  these  missions,  re 
peatedly  visited  Belgium  and  other  Catholic 
countries  to  collect  alms  and  obtain  mission 
aries,  and  established  several  new  missionary 
centres  on  both  sides  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 
During  a  last  voyage  undertaken  for  the  mis 
sions  he  sustained  injuries  which  resulted  in 
his  death.  His  principal  works  are:  "Letters 
and  Sketches,  and  Residence  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains"  (Philadelphia,  1843);  "Oregon 
Missions,  and  Travels  over  the  Rocky  Moun 
tains"  (New  York,  1847);  "Western  Missions 
and  Missionaries  "  and  "  New  Indian  Sketch 
es  "  (New  York,  1863) ;  and  Eeisen  zu  den 
Fehengebirgeh  und  ein  Jalir  unter  den  wil- 
den  Indianerstdmmen  des  Oregon- Gebietes  (St. 
Louis,  1865). 

SMEW  {mergellus  alliellus,  Selby),  a  web- 
footed  bird  differing  from  the  typical  mer 
gansers,  to  which  subfamily  it  belongs,  in  hav 
ing  the  bill  much  shorter  than  the  head  and 
elevated  at  the  base,  and  the  mandibles  with 
short  and  closely  set  lamella?.  It  is  about  17^- 
in.  long  and  27  in.  in  alar  extent ;  the  general 
color  is  white,  whence  its  common  name  of 
white  nun ;  around  the  eyes,  a  patch  on  each 
side  of  the  nape,  semi-collar  on  each  side  of 
lower  neck,  middle  of  back,  tail,  and  wings 
black ;  scapulars,  middle  wing  coverts,  tertials, 
and  secondary  tips  white ;  in  the  female  the 
head  is  reddish  brown.  It  is  found  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  old  world,  in  winter 
coming  down  to  central  Europe,  frequenting 
the  sea  coast,  lakes,  and  rivers ;  it  is  an  expert 
swimmer  and  diver,  and  feeds  on  fish  and 
crustaceans ;  the  nest  is  made  near  the  water, 


SHIBERT 


SMILAX 


113 


and  the  eggs  are  8  to  12 ;  like  other  mergansers 
it  hybridizes  with  the  ducks,  especially  with 
the  genus  clangula  (Flem.).  It  is  generally 


- 


Smew  (Mergellus  albellus). 

believed  to  be  accidental  in  America,  only  a 
single  female  specimen  having  been  obtained 
by  Audubon,  near  New  Orleans. 

SMIBERT,  or  Smybert,  John,  a  Scottish  painter, 
born  in  Edinburgh  about  1684,  died  in  Bos 
ton,  Mass.,  in  1751.  He  studied  in  Italy  for 
three  years,  and  attained  a  respectable  stand 
ing  as  a  portrait  painter  in  London.  In  1728 
he  accompanied  Dean  Berkeley  to  America, 
after  whose  return  he  settled  in  Boston.  He 
painted  most  of  the  contemporary  worthies  of 
New  England  and  New  York.  His  most  cele 
brated  picture  is  a  large  portrait  piece  repre 
senting  Berkeley  and  several  members  of  his 
family,  togeifcij^L  with  the  artist  himself,  on 
their  first  landing  in  America.  It  is  now  in 
the  possession  of  Yale  college. 

SMILAX,  a  genus  of  endogenous,  mostly 
shrubby,  often  prickly  plants,  which  climb  by 
tendrils.  They  are  abundant  in  warm  cli 
mates,  and  are  represented  in  the  Atlantic 
states  by  several  species,  some  of  which  are 
popularly  known  as  greenbrier,  catbrier,  or 
brier.  The  genus  is  the  only  one  in  the  flora 
of  the  northernmost  states  which  affords  an 
example  of  a  woody  endogenous  stem ;  the 
general  aspect  of  the  plants  is  that  of  the  exo- 
gens,  as  their  leaves  are  netted-veined,  while 
in  the  great  majority  of  endogens  they  are 
parallel-veined ;  the  petioles  are  furnished  with 
a  tendril  upon  each  side.  The  flowers,  in  ax 
illary  umbels,  are  small,  dioecious,  with  the 
greenish  or  yellowish  regular  perianth  in  six 
parts ;  the  sterile  flower  has  six  stamens ;  the 
fertile  has  a  free  ovary  of  three  or  more  cells 
and  as  many  thick  and  spreading  stigmas ; 
fruit  a  small  berry  with  one  to  three  seeds. 
The  best  known  species  is  the  common  green- 
brier  (smilax  rotundi folia),  which  extends  from 
Canada  through  the  southern  states;  it  often 
forms,  by  spreading  over  the  shrubs  and  trees, 
impenetrable  thickets,  its  stems  extending  from 
one  tree  to  another  for  30  or  40  ft.,  and  very 
slender  and  strong;  the  smooth  leaves  are 
nearly  orbicular,  often  broader  than  long,  and 


somewhat  heart-shaped  at  base,  of  a  pleasing 
soft^green  color,  which  turns  to  deep  yellow 
in  Autumn,  and  later  to  a  rusty  brown,  though 
in  the  southern  states  they  are  nearly  ever 
green  ;  the  small  clusters  of  berries  are  black, 
with  a  bloom,  and  have  a  tempting  appear 
ance,  but  are  very  nauseous  to  the  taste.  The 
plant  is  variable,  and  forms  of  it  have  been 
described  as  distinct  species.  It  is  a  handsome 
ornamental  climber,  which  has  received  no 
attention  because  it  is  common.  There  are 
about  a  dozen  other  species,  from  New  Jer 
sey  southward,  with  variously  shaped  leaves, 
some  of  them  evergreen,  and  differing  in  their 
fruit  clusters.  The  most  important  of  these 
is  popularly  known  in  the  southern  states  as 
China  brier  (S.  pseudo- China),  which  extends 
northward  to  New  Jersey ;  its  stems,  especially 
near  the  base,  have  weak  blackish  prickles; 
the  leaves  are  ovate  heart-shaped,  often  with 
a  fringe  of  rough  hairs  on  the  margins  and  a 


Greenbrier  (Srnilax  rotundifolia). 

slender  point.  The  young  and  tender  shoots 
of  this  are  eaten  as  asparagus;  the  mature 
stems  have  a  reputation  as  an  alterative ;  the 
rootstocks,  which  are  tuberous,  brownish  red, 
and  sometimes  as  large  as  the  two  fists,  con 
tain  considerable  starch,  which  the  Seminoles 
formerly  used  in  times  of  scarcity,  both  by 
separating  the  starch  and  by  cooking  the  whole 
root ;  a  kind  of  beer  has  been  made  from  them, 
with  molasses,  parched  corn,  and  sassafras ; 
the  root  is  light,  porous,  easily  worked,  and 
is  largely  used  for  tobacco  pipes.  A  few  spe 
cies  are  herbaceous,  the  most  common  being 
the  variable  S.  herlacea,  1  to  6  ft.  high,  with 
mostly  heart-shaped  leaves ;  the  flowers  are  in 
large  umbels,  upon  stalks  3  to  8  in.  long,  the 
fertile  ones  succeeded  by  a  showy,  nearly  glob 
ular  cluster  of  berries.  This  is  sometimes  a 
troublesome  weed  in  pastures ;  when  in  bloom 
its  presence  is  readily  detected  from  the  odor 
of  its  flowers,  which  has  given  the  plant  the 
well  merited  name  of  carrion  flower.  Two 


114: 


SMILES 


SMITH 


other  species  belong  to  this  section,  which  Tor- 
rey  at  one  time  regarded  as  a  distinct  genus, 
to  which  he  gave  the  appropriate  name  of 
coprosmanthus.  Nearly  200  species  of  smilax 
are  enumerated  as  growing  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  but,  judging  from  the  confusion  of 
names  existing  among  our  own,  the  number 
of  real  species  is  much  less.  The  most  impor 
tant  exotic  species  are  those  which  furnish  the 
drug  sarsaparilla.  (See  SAESAPAEILLA.)  An 
other  medicinal  product  is  the  China  root,  the 
rhizome  of  S.  China  and  several  other  east 
ern  species,  which,  under  the  name  of  radix 
Chinee,  came  into  use  about  A.  D.  1535  as  a 
remedy  for  syphilis,  gout.,  and  rheumatism ;  it 
is  now  little  used  except  in  the  East.  The 
fresh  rootstoeks  of  this  and  other  species 
are  cooked  and  eaten  by  the  Chinese. — Under 
the  name  of  smilax  florists  cultivate  in  green 
houses  large  quantities  of  myrsiphyllum  aspa- 
ragoides,  a  liliaceous  plant  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  closely 
allied  to  asparagus; 
it  has  small  tuberous 
roots,  and  very  slen 
der,  strong,  branching 
stems,  which  climb  by 
twining  to  the  height 
of  20  ft.  or  more; 
its  proper  leaves  are 
minute  scales,  from 
the  axils  of  which,  as 
in  asparagus,  appear 
small  branches,  so 
modified  that  they 
look  like  true  leaves, 
the  functions  of  which 
they  perform  ;  the 
flowers  are  small, 
whitish,  and  incon 
spicuous,  and  are  fol 
lowed  by  green  ber 
ries  about  the  size  of 
those  of  asparagus.  It 
is  raised  from  seeds, 
the  roots  being  kept  from  year  to  year.  This 
plant  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  popular 
of  all  greens  used  for  decorations,  as  it  does 
not  readily  fade,  and  its  thread-like  steins  al 
low  it  to  be  used  in  the  most  delicate  work. 
It  is  a  very  useful  window  plant  if  the  atmos 
phere  of  the  room  is  not  excessively  dry. 

SMILES,  Samuel,  a  British  author,  born  at 
Haddington,  Scotland,  in  1816.  After  practis 
ing  as  a  surgeon  for  some  time  at  Leeds,  he 
became  editor  of  the  Leeds  "Times"  in  1845, 
secretary  of  the  Leeds  and  Thirsk  railway,  and 
in  1852  secretary  of  the  Southeastern  railway, 
from  which  post  he  retired  in  1866.  He  has 
published  "Physical  Education,  or  Nature  of 
Children"  (Edinburgh,  1837);  "History  of 
Ireland  and  the  Irish  People  under  the  Gov 
ernment  of  England"  (London,  1844);  "Life 
of  George  Stephenson"  (1857);  "Self-Help, 
with  Illustrations  of  Character  and  Conduct " 
(1859)  ;  "  Brief  Biographies  "  (Boston,  1860)  ; 


Sinilax  Vine  (Myrsiphyllum 
asparagoides). 


"  Workmen's  Earnings,  Strikes,  and  Savings  " 
(London,  1861) ;  "  Lives  of  the  Engineers,  with 
an  Account  of  their  Principal  Works"  (4  vols. 
8vo,  1861-'5;  new  ed.,  5  vols.,  1875),  inclu 
ding  that  of  Stephenson;  "Industrial  Biogra 
phy"  (1863);  "The  Huguenots,  their  Settle 
ments,  Churches,  and  Industries  in  England 
and  Ireland"  (1867);  "Character,"  a  com 
panion  volume  to  "Self-Help"  (1871);  "The 
Huguenots  in  France,  after  the  ^Revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes"  (1874);  and  "Thrift" 
(1875).  Most  of  his  works  have  passed  through 
several  editions  in  England  and  America. 

SMIRKE.  I.  Sir  Robert,  an  English  architect, 
born  in  London  in  1780,  died  at  Cheltenham, 
April  18,  1867.  He  was  the  oldest  son  of 
Kobert  Smirke,  a  popular  genre  painter.  After 
a  tour  through  Germany  and  southern  Europe, 
he  settled  in  London  in  1805  as  an  architect. 
He  brought  himself  early  into  notice  by  his 
design  for  Co  vent  Garden  theatre  (1808-' 9), 
which  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  March,  1856. 
Subsequently  he  was  employed  in  designing 
many  public  buildings  in  the  metropolis,  the 
most  considerable  being  the  mint,  a  Grecian 
Doric  edifice  erected  in  1811 ;  the  post  office 
(1823-'9)  ;  the  college  of  physicians;  King's 
college,  as  the  eastern  wing  of  Somerset 
house  (1831);  and  the  British  museum  (1823- 
'47).  .These  were  all  in  the  classical  style. 
His  chief  Gothic  works  are  the  restorations  of 
York  minster  and  the  improvements  and  ex 
tensions  of  the  Inner  Temple.  He  also  erected 
buildings  for  the  United  Service,  Carlton,  and 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  clubs,  the  last  in  con 
junction  with  his  brother  Sydney.  He  was 
elected  a  royal  academician  in  1812,  and  in 
1831  was  knighted.  He  published  "  Specimens 
of  Continental  Architecture "  (fol.,  London, 
1806).  II.  Sydney,  younger  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  also  an  architect.  His  style  is  more 
ornate  and  florid  than  that  of  his  brother,  and 
has  been  employed  with  effect  upon  several  of 
the  London  club  houses,  especially  the  Carlton 
in  Pall  Mall.  He  also  directed  the  restorations 
of  the  Temple  church  and  Lichfield  cathedral, 
and  in  1847  succeeded  his  brother  as  architect 
of  the  British  museum.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  royal  academy  in  1860,  pro 
fessor  of  architecture  in  1861,  and  treasurer 
in  1862.  He  has  published  "  Suggestions  on 
the  Architectural  Improvements  of  the  West 
of  London"  (1834),  and  "Architecture  of  the 
Temple  Church"  (4to,  1842). 

SMITH,  the  name  of  four  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  central  county  of  Missis 
sippi,  intersected  by  Strong  river  and  drained 
by  the  head  streams  of  Leaf  river ;  area,  620 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,126,  of  whom  1,711 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  generally  level 
and  the  soil  poor.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  144,688  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
28,286  of  sweet  potatoes,  45,040  Ibs.  of  rice, 
5,666  of  wool,  and  2,411  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,065  horses,  2,027  milch  cows, 
4,308  other  cattle,  3,694  sheep,  and  11,254 


SMITH 


115 


swine.  Capital,  Raleigh.  II.  A  1ST.  E.  county 
of  Texas,  bounded  N.  by  the  Sabine  river  and 
W.  by  the  Neches,  and  drained  by  the  sources 
of  the  Angelina;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  16,532,  of  whom  7,131  were  colored. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  surface  is  prairie 
land,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  International  and  Great  Northern  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  420,646 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  22,017  of  barley,  54,987 
of  sweet  potatoes,  100,856  Ibs.  of  butter,  1,878 
gallons  of  molasses,  and  9,322  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,988  horses,  1,189  mules  and  asses, 
4,975  milch  cows,  9,954  other  cattle,  2,726 
sheep,  and  22,658  swine.  Capital,  Tyler.  III. 
A  N.  county  of  Tennessee,  intersected  by  the 
Cumberland  river  and  drained  by  Caney  fork  ; 
area,  about  300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,994, 
of  whom  3,536  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
rough,  but  the  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  126,837  bushels 
of  wheat,  888,078  of  Indian  corn,  72,528  of 
oats,  17,996  of  Irish  and  15,163  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  2,250,202  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  32,674  of  wool, 
255,723  of  butter,  39,061  of  honey,  and  40,344 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  4,857 
horses,  3,715  milch  cows,  6,117  other  cattle, 
17,591  sheep,  and  33,687  swine.  Capital,  Car 
thage.  IV.  A  N.  county  of  Kansas,  bordering 
on  Nebraska,  and  intersected  by  the  N.  fork 
of  Solomon  river ;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  66 ;  in  1875,  3,876.  The  surface  is  un 
dulating  and  fertile.  Capital,  Smith  Centre. 

SMITH,  Adam,  a  Scottish  philosopher,  born 
at  Kirkcaldy,  Fifeshire,  June  5,  1723,  died  in 
Edinburgh,  July  8,  1790.  He  studied  at  the 
university  of  Glasgow  for  three  years,  and  for 
seven  years  at  Oxford.  In  1748  he  fixed  his 
residence  in  Edinburgh,  where  under  the  pat 
ronage  of  Lord  Kames  he  delivered  lectures 
on  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres.  He  was  elected 
in  1751  professor  of  logic  in  the.  university  of 
Glasgow,  and  was  transferred  in  1752  to  the 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  same  univer 
sity,  which  he  filled  nearly  12  years.  His 
course  was  divided  into  four  parts.  The  first 
treated  natural  theology ;  in  the  second,  de 
voted  to  ethics,  he  developed  the  doctrines 
contained  in  his  "Theory  of  Moral  Senti 
ments  ;"  in  the  third,  the  subject  of  which  was 
justice,  he  traced  the  gradual  progress  of  juris 
prudence  and  government ;  and  in  the  fourth, 
the  subject  of  which  was  expediency,  he  ex 
amined  those  political  regulations  which  relate 
to  commerce,  finances,  and  ecclesiastical  and 
military  establishments,  and  which  are  calcu 
lated  to  increase  the  power  and  prosperity  of 
a  state.  The  last  division  included  the  sub 
stance  of  his  work  on  the  "Wealth  of  Na 
tions."  He  published  in  1759  his  "Theory  of 
Moral  Sentiments,"  in  which  he  maintains  the 
doctrine  that  all  moral  emotions  and  distinc 
tions  spring  from  sympathy.  (See  MORAL  PHI 
LOSOPHY.)  From  this  time  he  devoted  a  larger 
portion  of  his  lectures  to  jurisprudence  and 
political  economy.  Near  the  close  of  1763  he 


resigned  his  professorship  to  accompany  the 
young  duke  of  Buccleugh  on  his  travels.  They 
visited  Paris,  resided  18  months  at  Toulouse, 
passed  two  months  at  Geneva,  and  returning 
to  Paris  at  the  end  of  1765,  remained  there 
nearly  a  year.  He  returned  with  his  pupil  to 
London  in  October,  1766,  and  soon  after  fixed 
his  residence  for  ten  years  with  his  mother  at 
Kirkcaldy,  engaged  in  severe  study,  and  occa 
sionally  visiting  Edinburgh  and  London.  For 
many  years  he  enjoyed  an  intimate  friendship 
with  Hume.  In  1776  appeared  his  "Inquiry 
into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of 
Nations,"  which  was  the  first  complete  and 
systematic  statement  of  the  principles  of  po 
litical  economy.  It  received  several  additions 
in  the  third  edition  (1784),  and  was  translated 
into  the  principal  European  languages.  A  new 
edition  by  J.  E.  T.  Rogers  was  published  in 
London  and  New  York  in  1870  (2  vols.  8vo). 
(See  POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  668.) 
Smith  resided  for  two  years  after  its  publica 
tion  chiefly  in  London,  and  in  1778  was  ap 
pointed  one  of  the  commissioners  of  customs 
for  Scotland,  removing  to  Edinburgh.  In  1787 
he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the  university  of 
Glasgow.  A  large  proportion  of  his  savings 
was  allotted  to  secret  charity. 

SMITH,  Albert,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Chertsey,  May  24,  1816,  died  at  Fulham,  near 
London,  May  23,  1860.  He  was  educated  for 
the  surgical  profession  in  London  and  Paris, 
and  joined  his  father  in  practice  at  Chertsey, 
but  soon  became  a  writer  for  the  periodical 
press.  Settling  in  London  in  1841,  he  became 
a  contributor  to  "  Bentley's  Miscellany,"  and 
within  a  few  years  produced  "The  Wassail 
Bowl,"  "The  Adventures  of  Mr.  Ledbury," 
"The  Scattergood  Family,"  "The  Marchio 
ness  of  Brinvilliers,"  "Christopher  Tadpole," 
and  "The  Pottleton  Legacy."  He  was  also 
engaged  for  some  time  upon  "Punch,"  his 
contributions  to  which  included  "  The  Physi 
ology  of  Evening  Parties,"  "  The  Medical  Stu 
dent,"  and  other  light  varieties ;  and  in*  1847 
-'9  he  produced  a  number  of  amusing  trifles 
entitled  "The  Natural  History  of  the  Gent," 
"The  Natural  History  of  the  Ballet  Girl," 
"Stuck-up  People,"  and  "The  Flirt"  He 
also  wrote  Christmas  adaptations  from  the 
tales  of  Dickens,  burlesques,  and  other  stage 
pieces,  and  was  the  dramatic  critic  of  the  "Il 
lustrated  London  News."  A  journey  to  Con 
stantinople  in  1849  furnished  him  with  mate 
rials  for  his  "  Month  at  Constantinople  "  (1850), 
and  also  for  the  public  entertainment  called  the 
"Overland  Mail,"  first  brought  out  in  May, 
1850.  In  August,  1851,  he  made  the  ascent  of 
Mont  Blanc,  and  his  "  entertainment "  found 
ed  thereon  proved  his  most  successful  venture, 
being  constantly  repeated  till  1858.  He  then 
visited  China,  and  after  his  return  gave  a  Chi 
nese  entertainment,  which  in  the  spring  of 
1860  was  replaced  by  the  more  popular  story 
of  Mont  Blanc.  This  he  repeated  until  within 
two  days  of  his  death.  His  entertainments 


116 


SMITH 


were  published  under  .the  titles  "  Story  of  Mont 
Blanc"  (1853),  and  "To  China  and  Back" 
(1859) ;  and  since  his  death  his  brother,  Ar 
thur  Smith,  has  published  from  his  sketches 
"Wild  Oats  and  Dead  Leaves"  (1860),  and 
"Paris  and  London  "  (1867). 

SMITH,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in 
Kilmarnock,  Dec.  31,  1830,  died  at  Wardie, 
near  Edinburgh,  Jan.  5,  1867.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  pattern  designer,  and  himself  became 
a  pattern  designer  for  a  lace  factory  in  Glas 
gow.  In  1852  he  published  serially  in  the 
"  Critic  "  his  poem  "  A  Life  Drama,"  issued 
with  other  poems  in  book  form  in  1853.  In 
1854  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  uni 
versity  of  Edinburgh  (a  post  which  he  re 
tained  till  his  death),  and  about  the  same  time 
delivered  a  series  of  lectures.  His  later  poeti 
cal  works  are:  "Sonnets  of  the  War,"  in  con 
junction  with  Sydney  Dobell  (1855) ;  "  City 
Poems"  (1857);  and  "Edwin  of  Deira"  (1861). 
He  also  wrote  in  prose  "Dreamthorp  "  (1863) ; 
"A  Summer  in  Skye"  (2  vols.,  1865);  "Al 
fred  Hagart's  Household"  (2  vols.,  1866)  ;  and 
"Miss  Oona  McQuarrie"  (1866).  A  posthu 
mous  volume,  "Last  Leaves,"  was  edited  by 
P.  P.  Alexander,  with  a  memoir  (1868). 

SMITH,  Eli,  an  American  missionary,  born  at 
Northford,  Conn.,  Sept.  15,  1801,  died  in  Bey- 
rout,  Syria,  Jan.  11,  1857.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1821,  and  at  Andover  theologi 
cal  seminary  in  1826,  and  on  May  23  of  the 
latter  year  sailed  as  a  missionary  of  the  Ameri 
can  board  for  Malta,  where  he  took  charge 
of  the  missionary  printing  establishment.  In 
1827  he  went  to  Beyrout  to  study  Arabic,  and 
in  1828  returned  to  his  work  at  Malta.  In  1829 
he  made  a  tour  with  Dr.  Anderson  through 
Greece,  and  in  1830-'31  with  Dr.  Dwight  of 
Constantinople  through  Armenia  and  Georgia 
to  Persia,  opening  the  way  for  the  Nestorian 
mission  at  Urumiah.  In  1832  he  visited  the 
United  States,  and  published  a  work  by  him 
self  and  Dr.  Dwight  entitled  "  Missionary  Re 
searches  in  Armenia."  He  returned  to  Bey- 
rout  in  1833.  In  1838  and  again  in  1852  he 
was  the  travelling  companion  and  coadjutor 
of  Dr.  Edward  Eobinson  in  his  explorations 
in  Palestine.  After  the  journey  of  1838  he 
went  to  Leipsic  to  superintend  the  casting  of 
a  new  font  of  Arabic  type,  in  which  he  im 
proved  the  form  of  the  letters,  making  them 
more  distinct  and  nearer  the  style  of  the  writ 
ten  letters.  lie  revisited  the  United  States  in 
1839,  and  again,  on  account  of  severe  illness, 
in  1845.  From  1847  he  was  engaged  upon  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  modern  Arabic, 
which  has  been  completed  since  his  death  by 
Dr.  C.  C.  Van  Dyke.  He  published  a  volume 
of  sermons  and  addresses  (1834). 

SMITH,  George,  an  English  oriental  scholar, 
born  about  1825.  In  1866,  while  examining 
the  large  store  of  Assyrian  paper  casts  in  the 
British  museum,  he  discovered  an  inscription 
of  Shalmaneser  II.,  which  gave  nn  account  of 
the  war  against  Hazael.  In  1867  he  assisted 


in  preparing  a  new  volume  of  "  Cuneiform  In 
scriptions  of  Western  Asia "  for  the  British 
museum.  Thereafter  the  study  of  the  cunei 
form  texts  became  his  sole  occupation.  His 
principal  earlier  discoveries,  published  in  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Ar- 
chasology,"  are :  a  tablet  noticing  the  eclipse 
of  June  15,  763  B.  C.  ;  notices  of  the  Israeli- 
tish  kings  Azariah,  Pekah,  and  Hoshea ;  ac 
counts  of  the  conquest  of  Babylonia  by  the 
Elamites  in  2280  B.  C. ;  a  curious  religious 
calendar  of  the  Assyrians;  and  a  tablet  con 
taining  the  Chaldean  account  of  the  deluge, 
which  he  afterward  discovered  to  be  the  elev 
enth  in  a  series  of  twelve  giving  the  history 
of  an  unknown  hero,  whom  he  believes  to 
be  the  same  as  the  Nimrod  of  the  Bible.  In 
1871  he  published,  at  the  cost  of  Mr.  Fox 
Talbot  and  Mr.  J.  W.  Bosanquet,  his  great 
work  on  the  history  of  Asshur-bani-pal,  giv 
ing  the  cuneiform  texts,  transcriptions,  and 
translations  of  the  historical  documents  per 
taining  to  this  reign.  In  1873  the  proprietors 
of  the  "Daily  Telegraph"  sent  him  on  an  ex 
ploring  expedition  to  Nineveh,  and  in  1874 
he  went  there  again.  lie  obtained  over  3,000 
entire  or  fragmentary  inscriptions,  and  many 
other  objects  of  great  importance.  lie  pub 
lished  in  1875  an  account  of  these  explora 
tions,  and  contributed  a  volume  on  the  history 
of  Assyria  to  the  series  of  "Ancient  History 
from  the  Monuments;"  also  "The  Chaldean 
Account  of  Genesis"  (German  translation  by 
II.  Delitzsch,  with  notes  by  F.  Delitzsch,  1876), 
a  series  of  legends  from  the  cuneiform  inscrip 
tions  resembling  the  Biblical  accounts.  He  is 
now  (1876)  exploring  the  Euphrates  valley. 

SMITH,  Gerrit,  an  American  philanthropist, 
born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  March  6,  1797,  died  in 
New  York,  Dec.  28,  1874.  He  inherited  from 
his  father  Peter  Smith,  a  partner  of  John  Ja 
cob  Astor  in  the  fur  trade,  one  of  the  largest 
estates  in  the  country,  consisting  chiefly  of 
land  in  almost  every  county  of  New  York 
and  in  nearly  all  the  states  of  the  Union.  He 
graduated  at  Hamilton  college,  Clinton,  N.  Y., 
in  1818,  and  for  many  years  his  chief  occu 
pation  was  the  management  of  his  property, 
his  residence  being  at  Peterboro,  Madison  co. 
He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
when  56  years  old  (1853).  In  1825  he  joined 
the  colonization  society,  and  contributed  large 
ly  for  the  removal  of  colored  people  to  Africa. 
Ten  years  later  he  withdrew  from  it  and  joined 
the  American  anti-slavery  society.  He  gave 
away  large  quantities  of  land  in  public  and  pri 
vate  charity,  and  in  1848  distributed  200,000 
acres,  in  parcels  averaging  50  acres.  In  1852 
Mr.  Smith  was  elected  a  representative  in  con 
gress  ;  but  he  did  not  like  public  life,  and  re 
signed  at  the  close  of  the  first  session.  While 
in  congress  he  voted  with  the  party  opposed 
to  slavery,  and  made  several  speeches  on  that 
side.  A  few  years  later  he  contributed  large 
ly  to  the  struggle  for  free  institutions  in  Kan 
sas,  in  which  his  friend  John  Brown  became 


SMITH 


117 


prominent ;  and  in  1859  he  gave  pecuniary  aid 
to  Brown  in  preparing  for  the  attack  on  Har 
per's  Ferry,  though  he  probably  had  no  pre 
cise  knowledge  of  his  plans.  The  failure  of 
that  attempt,  and  grief  and  anxiety  for  the 
loss  of  life  which  it  occasioned,  temporarily 
overthrew  his  reason,  and  for  some  months 
he  was  an  inmate  of  the  insane  asylum  at 
Utica.  During  the  civil  war  he  strongly  ad 
vocated  the  cause  of  the  Union  and  contrib 
uted  largely  for  the  raising  of  troops.  After 
its  close,  he  joined  with  Horace  Greeley  in 
1867  in  signing  the  bail  bond  by  which  Jef 
ferson  Davis  was  liberated.  Mr.  Smith  was 
of  a  strongly  religious  nature,  and  he  was  in 
the  habit  of  preaching  in  a  church  built  by 
himself.  His  originally  orthodox  views  un 
derwent  great  changes,  but  he  is  said  to  have 
finally  returned  to  them.  He  printed  and  dis 
tributed  gratuitously  many  pamphlets,  speech 
es,  and  addresses,  and  published  in  book  form 
"Speeches 'in  Congress"  (1855);  "Sermons 
and  Speeches"  (1861);  "The  Religion  of  Rea 
son  "  (1864) ;  "  Speeches  and  Letters  "  (1865)  ; 
"  The  Theologies  "  (2d  ed.,  1866)  ;  "  Nature  the 
Base  of  a  Free  Theology  "  (1867)  ;  and  "  Cor 
respondence  with  Albert  Barnes  "  (1868). 

SMITH,  Goldwin,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Reading,  Aug.  13,  1823.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at 
Lincoln's  Inn,  but  never  practised.  In  1858 
he  became  regius  professor  of  modern  history 
at  Oxford.  During  the  American  civil  war  he 
was  a  warm  friend  of  the  federal  government, 
and  published  "Does  the  Bible  sanction  Slave 
ry?"  (1863),  "On  the  Morality  of  the  Eman 
cipation  Proclamation"  (1863),  "  Letter  to  a 
Whig  Member  of  the  Southern  Independence 
Association"  (1864),  "England  and  America" 
(1865),  and  "The  Civil  War  in  America"  (1866). 
In  September,  1864,  he  visited  the  United  States. 
In  1866  he  resigned  his  chair  at  Oxford,  with 
a  view  of  taking  up  his  residence  in  America. 
Coming  to  this  country  in  1868,  he  became 
professor  of  English  history  in  Cornell  univer 
sity,  and  resided  at  Ithaca  till  1871,  when  he 
exchanged  his  chair  for  that  of  a  non-resident 
professor,  and  removed  to  Toronto.  He  has 
since  been  appointed  a  member  of  the  senate 
of  the  university  of  Toronto,  and  from  1872  to 
1874  was  the  editor  of  the  "  Canadian  Month 
ly."  In  1874  he  revisited  England.  He  con 
tributed  to  the  "  Anthologia  Oxoniana,"  the 
"  Oxford  Essays,"  and  the  "  Encyclopedia 
Britannica."  His  other  publications  are :  "In 
augural  Lecture  before  the  University  of  Ox 
ford  "  (1859) ;  "  Lectures  on  Modern  History," 
"Lectures  on  the  Study  of  History,"  "Foun 
dation  of  the  American  Colonies,"  "  On  some 
supposed  Consequences  of  Historical  Progress," 
and  "Rational  Religion"  (1861);  "Irish  His 
tory  and  Irish  Character,"  and  "On  Church 
Endowments"  (1862);  "Empire,  a  Series  of 
Letters"  (1863);  "Plea  for  Abolition  of  Tests 
in  Oxford"  (1864);  "Three  English  States 
men,"  sketches  of  Pym,  Cromwell,  and  Pitt 


(1867);  "Reorganization  of  the  University  of 
Oxford  "  (1868)  ;  and  "  Relations  between 
America  and  England  "  (1869). 

SMITH,  Henry  Boynton,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  in  Portland,  Me.,  Nov.  21,  1815. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  college  in  1834,  was 
a  tutor  there  in  1836-'7  and  in  1840-'41,  and 
studied  theology  at  Andover  and  Bangor,  and 
subsequently  at  Halle  and  Berlin.  He  was 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  in  "West 
Amesbury,  Mass.,  from  1842  to  1847,  when  he 
became  professor  of  mental  and  moral  philos 
ophy  in  Amherst  college.  In  1850  he  became 
professor  of  church  history  in  the  Union  theo 
logical  seminary,  New  York,  and  in  1855  of 
systematic  theology,  which  chair  he  resigned 
in  1873.  He  was  elected  in  1863  moderator  of 
the  New  School  general  assembly  of  the  Pres 
byterian  church,  and  at  the  opening  of  the 
next  general  assembly  in  Dayton,  Ohio,  in 
1864,  delivered  a  discourse  which  was  pub 
lished  under  the  title  "  Christian  Union  and 
Ecclesiastical  Reunion."  He  was  subsequently 
a  member  of  the  general  assembly's  committee 
on  reunion  with  the  Old  School  general  as 
sembly,  and  presented  a  report  on  a  doctrinal 
basis  of  union  ("  The  Reunion  of  the  Presby 
terian  Churches,"  8vo,  1867).  In  1867  he  was 
a  delegate  to  the  evangelical  alliance  in  Am 
sterdam,  where  he  read  a  "  Report  on  the 
State  of  Religion  in  the  United  States."  He 
was  a  founder  of  the  "American  Theological 
Review,"  and  its  editor  from  1859  to  1862, 
when  it  was  consolidated  with  the  "  Presbyte 
rian  Review,"  which  he  edited  till  1871.  His 
principal  works  are :  "  The  Relations  of  Faith 
and  Philosophy"  (8vo,  1849);  "The  Nature 
and  Worth  of  the  Science  of  Church  History  " 
(1851);  "The  Problem  of  the  Philosophy  of 
History"  (1853);  "The  Idea  of  Christian 
Theology  as  a  System"  (1857);  "An  Argu 
ment  for  Christian  Colleges  "  (1857)  ;  "  His 
tory  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  in  Chronological 
Tables"  (fol.,  1859);  a  new  edition  of  the 
Edinburgh  translation  of  Gieseler's  "  Church 
History  "  (5  vols.  8vo,  1859-'63),  of  which  vols. 
iv.  and  v.  were  chiefly  translated  by  Prof. 
Smith  ;  a  revised  edition  of  the  Edinburgh 
translation  of  Hagenbach's  "  History  of  Chris 
tian  Doctrine"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1861-'2);  with 
James  Strong,  a  new  edition  of  the  Edinburgh 
translation  of  Stier's  "Words  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  "  (in  parts,  1864  et  seq.) ;  and  with  R. 
D.  Hitchcock,  "  The  Life,  Character,  and  Wri 
tings  of  Edward  Robinson  "  (1864). 

SMITH,  James,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  born  in  Ireland  about  1719, 
died  in  York,  Pa.,  July  11,  1806.  He  came 
to  America  with  his  father's"  family  in  1729, 
studied  law  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  and  after  his 
admission  to  practice  removed  to  the  neigh 
borhood  of  Shippensburg,  and  engaged  in  sur 
veying.  After  a  few  years  he  removed  to 
York,  which  became  his  permanent  home,  and 
entered  upon  the  legal  profession.  In  1774  he 
]  was  chosen  a  deputy  to  attend  the  provincial 


118 


SMITH 


meeting,  or  rather  "  Committee  for  the  Prov 
ince  of  Pennsylvania,"  which  convened  at 
Philadelphia  July  15.  At  this  meeting  he  was 
one  of  those  who  were  appointed  to  "  prepare 
and  bring  in  a  draught  of  instructions  to  the 
representatives  in  assembly  met."  In  1776  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  continental  con 
gress,  in  which  he  continued  till  1778;  and 
when  congress  held  its  sessions  in  York,  the 
board  of  war  occupied  his  law  office. 

SMITH,  James  and  Horace,  English  authors, 
associated  together  in  literary  history.  The 
former  was  born  in  London,  Feb.  10,  1775,  and 
died  there,  Dec.  24,  1839;  and  the  latter  was 
born  in  London,  Dec.  31,  1779,  and  died  at 
Tunbridge  Wells,  July  12,  1849.  They  were 
the  sons  of  Robert  Smith,  a  legal  practitioner 
of  London,  and  were  early  trained  to  an  active 
business  life,  James  in  the  professional  busi 
ness  of  his  father,  and  Horace  as  a  member  of 
the  stock  exchange,  in  which  business  he  ac 
quired  a  fortune.  The  poetical  imitations  en 
titled  "Horace  in  London,"  originally  contrib 
uted  to  the  "Monthly  Mirror,"  and  afterward 
republished  in  England  and  America,  were 
written  principally  by  James.  In  1812  the 
rebuilding  of  Drury  Lane  theatre  led  to  the 
offer  of  a  prize  for  an  opening  address;  the 
brothers,  in  six  weeks,  completed  a  series  of 
parodies  on  the  popular  authors  of  the  day,  in 
the  form  of  addresses  for  the  prize,  and  thus 
arose  the  well  known  volume  of  "Rejected 
Addresses."  The  publisher  Murray  originally 
declined  giving  £20  for  the  copyright,  but 
after  it  had  run  through  16  editions  (1819)  he 
purchased  it  for  £131.  James  Smith  during 
the  remainder  of  his  life  wrote  anonymously 
for  amusement  or  relief  from  physical  suffer 
ing,  contributing  vera  de  societe  and  epigrams  to 
the  magazines  or  annuals,  or  assisting  Charles 
Mathews  the  actor  in  the  preparation  of  his 
"  Country  Cousins,"  his  "  Trip  to  France,"  and 
other  "entertainments."  A  collection  of  his 
miscellaneous  pieces  in  prose  and  verse  was 
published  after  his  death  by  his  brother  (2 
vols.,  1840).  Horace,  subsequent  to  1820,  when 
he  retired  from  business,  was  for  25  years  one 
of  the  most  industrious  authors  of  England. 
In  1826  appeared  "Brambletye  House,"  one 
of  his  earliest  novels,  and  his  most  successful 
one.  It  was  succeeded  by  "Tor  Hill,"  "Reu 
ben  Apsley,"  "Jane  Lomax,"  "The  New  For 
est,"  and  other  novels,  few  of  which  are  now 
known  outside  of  the  circulating  libraries.  In 
1845  the  author  took  a  formal  leave  of  the 
public  in  the  preface  to  "Love  and  Mesmer 
ism."  A  selection  from  the  poetical  works  of 
Horace  and  James  Smith,  including  the  "Re 
jected  Addresses,"  with  a  memoir  by  Epes 
Sargent,  was  published  in  New  York  in  1857. 
"The  Tin  Trumpet"  (2  vols.  8vo),  published 
anonymously  in  1836,  was  republished  in  1869 
as  the  work  of  Horace  Smith. 

SMITH,  Sir  James  Edward,  an  English  botan 
ist,  born  in  Norwich,  Dec.  2,  1759,  died  there, 
March  17,  1828.  lie  studied  medicine  at  Ed 


inburgh,  purchased  the  books,  manuscripts,  and 
herbarium  of  Linnasus,  commenced  the  prac 
tice  of  his  profession  in  London,  received  the 
degree  of  M.D.  at  Leyden,  and  in  1788  founded 
the  Linnsean  society  of  London,  of  which  he 
was  the  first  president.  In  1796  he  returned 
to  Norwich,  though  he  lectured  on  botany  for 
two  months  each  year  at  the  royal  institution. 
He  wrote  "English  Botany"  (36  vols.,  with 
2,592  colored  figures  by  Sowerby,  London, 
1792-1807) ;  Flora  Britannica  (3  vols.,  1800- 
'4) ;  "  Exotic  Botany  "  (2  vols.,  1804-'5) ;  "In 
troduction  to  Systematical  Botany"  (1807); 
and  "The  English  Flora"  (3  vols.,  1823-'5); 
and  he  edited  Sibthorp's  Flora  Grceca  (1808). 

SMITH,  John,  the  founder  of  Virginia,  born 
at  Willoughby,  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  Jan 
uary,  1579,  died  in  London,  June  21,  1631. 
When  young  he  took  part  in  the  wars  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  after  four  years'  service  re 
turned  home,  but  went  abroad  again  to  fight 
against  the  Turks.  He  distinguished  himself 
by  daring  exploits  in  Hungary  and  Transylva 
nia,  and  received  from  Sigismund  Bathori  a 
patent  of  nobility  and  a  pension,  but  finally 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  as  a  slave  to  Con 
stantinople.  Here  he  gained  the  affection  of 
his  young  mistress,  who  to  secure  his  safety 
sent  him  to  her  brother,  a  pasha  on  the  sea  of 
Azov,  with  a  letter  in  which  she  confessed 
her  feelings.  The  proud  prince,  indignant  at 
the  attachment  of  his  sister  to  a  Christian,  mal 
treated  Smith,  who  at  length,  maddened  by  an 
insult,  beat  out  his  master's  brains  with  a  flail, 
put  on  the  dead  man's  clothes,  mounted  his 
horse,  and  finally  reached  a  Russian  garrison 
on  the  Don.  He  was  here  kindly  treated  and 
helped  on  his  journey  to  Transylvania,  where 
he  was  furnished  with  money  to  repair  his 
losses.  Smith  now  returned  to  England,  reach 
ing  it  after  a  long  journey  and  an  attempt  to 
take  part  in  a  war  in  Barbary,  and  was  per 
suaded  by  Capt.  Gosnold,  who  had  already  vis 
ited  the  coasts  of  America,  to  engage  in  the 
founding  of  a  colony.  The  expedition,  con 
sisting  of  three  vessels  and  105  men,  under  the 
command  of  Newport,  set  sail  Dec.  19,  1006. 
By  the  charter,  the  government  of  the  colony 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  council  appointed 
and  removable  by  the  crown ;  their  names  were 
in  a  sealed  box,  not  to  be  opened  until  their 
arrival  at  Virginia.  On  the  voyage  dissensions 
sprang  up  among  the  leaders,  and  much  enmity 
was  shown  to  Smith.  At  the  Canaries  he  was 
charged  with  a  conspiracy  to  make  himself 
king  of  Virginia,  and  was  kept  prisoner  for  the 
rest  of  the  voyage.  After  landing  the  box  was 
opened,  and  although  Smith  was  named  one  of 
the  council,  he  was  excluded.  With  Newport 
he  headed  a  party  of  20  men  to  discover  the 
source  of  the  James.  About  six  weeks  after, 
when  Newport  was  returning  to  England, 
Smith's  enemies  urged  him  to  return  and  be 
reprimanded  by  the  council  in  England  rather 
than  suffer  the  disgrace  of  a  public  conviction 
in  the  colony ;  but  he  demanded  a  trial,  which 


SMITH 


119 


resulted  in  his  acquittal,  and  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  council.  Bad  and  scanty  food 
brought  on  disease  among  the  colonists  and  re 
duced  their  number.  The  president,  Wingfield, 
embezzled  the  stores  and  was  deposed.  Eat- 
cliffe  was  made  his  successor,  but  the  real  head 
was  Smith,  and  to  his  efforts  the  salvation  of 
the  infant  colony  was  owing.  He  set  about 
the  building  of  Jamestown,  and  after  providing 
the  settlers  with  lodgings  made  excursions  into 
the  neighboring  country  to  obtain  corn.  On 
one  of  these  expeditions  he  was  taken  prison 
er  by  the  Indians,  and  his  life  was  saved,  it  is 
said,  by  the  interference  of  Pocahontas.  (See 
POCAIIONTAS.)  Sent  back  to  Jamestown  by 
Powhatan  after  an  absence  of  seven  weeks,  he 
found  the  colony  reduced  to  40  men,  and  the 
most  of  these  had  determined  to  return  to  Eng 
land.  This,  however,  Smith  prevented,  and 
the  arrival  of  Newport  with  120  men  raised 
the  spirits  of  the  colonists.  In  June  and  July, 
1608,  Smith  explored  the  coasts  of  Chesapeake 
bay  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Patapsco.  On 
•July  24  he  started  on  another  expedition,  and 
explored  the  head  of  the  Chesapeake,  returning 
to  Jamestown  on  Sept.  7.  In  these  two  voy 
ages  Capt.  Smith  sailed,  by  his  own  computa 
tion,  about  3,000  m.,  and  from  his  surveys  con 
structed  a  map  of  the  bay  and  the  country  bor 
dering  upon  it.  Being  now  president  of  the 
colony,  he  administered  its  affairs  with  ener 
gy  ;  and  his  influence  restored  quiet  to  the  col 
ony,  which  had  been  filled  with  dissensions  and 
disturbed  by -fears  of  the  Indians.  Smith's 
administration,  however,  had  not  been  satis 
factory  to  the  company  in  England,  whose  too 
brilliant  hopes  had  been  disappointed,  and 
whose  irritation  Smith's  soldierly  bluntness  did 
not  conciliate.  A  new  charter  was  granted, 
and  the  powers  previously  reserved  to  the  king 
were  transferred  to  the  company.  Lord  Del 
aware  was  made  governor,  and  three  com 
missioners,  Newport,  Sir  Thomas  Gates,  and 
Stir  George  Somers,  were  empowered  to  man 
age  the  affairs  of  the  colony  till  his  arrival. 
They  set  sail  with  more  than  500  emigrants, 
and  a  part  of  the  fleet,  in  a  shattered  condi 
tion,  and  without  the  commissioners,  reached 
Virginia  in  August,  1609.  The  new  emigrants 
were -mostly  "dissolute  gallants,  packed  off  to 
escape  worse  destinies  at  home,  broken  trades 
men,  gentlemen  impoverished  in  spirit  and  in 
fortune,  rakes  and  libertines,  men  more  fitted 
to  corrupt  than  found  a  commonwealth."  Dis 
orders  quickly  ensued,  and  Smith,  at  the  re 
quest  of  the  better  part  of  the  colony,  resumed 
the  government.  The  refractory  were  put  in 
prison,  and  new  settlements  established.  Ee- 
turning  from  one  of  them,  he  was  severely  in 
jured  by  the  explosion  of  a  bag  of  gunpowder, 
and  in  September,  1609,  returned  to  England. 
In  1614  he  explored  with  two  ships  the  New 
England  coast,  and  on  his  return  presented  to 
Prince  Charles  a  map  of  the  country  between 
the  Penobscot  and  Cape  Cod.  In  1615  he 
sailed  again  to  New  England,  to  found  a  col 


ony.  His  vessel  was  captured  by  a  French 
man-of-war,  and  he  was  carried  to  La  Eo- 
chelle.  He  escaped,  and  on  his  return  home 
wrote  an  account  of  his  voyages  to  New  Eng 
land,  which  was  published  in  1616.  The  re 
mainder  of  his  life  was  passed  in  retirement. 
He  published  several  works,  the  most  impor 
tant  of  which  are  "The  Generall  Historic  of 
Virginia,  New  England,  and  the  Summer  Isles" 
(1626),  and  "The  True  Travels,  Adventures, 
and  Observations  of  Captain  John  Smith,  in 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  from  1598 
to  1629"  (1630).  These  two  works  were  re 
printed  at  Eichmond  in  1819.  In  1631  he 
published  also  "  Advertisements  for  the  Unex 
perienced  Planters  of  New  England,  or  any 
where,  or  the  Pathway  to  Experience  to  Erect 
a  Plantation."  This  has  been  reprinted  with 
a  facsimile  of  Smith's  map  of  New  England 
(4to,  Boston,  1865);  also  the  "Description 
of  New  England"  (4to,  1865),  and  "A  True 
E  elation  of  Virginia,"  reprinted  from  the 
London  edition  of  1608,  with  an  introduction 
and  notes  by  Charles  Deane  (4to,  1866). — See 
"  Life  of  Capt.  John  Smith,"  by  G.  S.  Ilillard, 
in  Sparks's  "American  Biography,"  vol.  ii. 

SMITH,  Jolm  Augustine,  an  American  physi 
cian,  born  in  Westmoreland  co.,  Va.,  Aug.  29, 
1782,  died  in  New  York,  Eeb.  9,  1865.  He 
went  in  1809  to  New  York,  where  he  edited 
the  "Medical  and  Physiological  Journal,"  and 
was  a  lecturer  on  anatomy  in  the  college  of 
physicians  and  surgeons.  In  1814  he  removed 
to  Virginia,  and  was  president  of  William  and 
Mary  college  till  1826,  when  he  resigned  and 
returned  to  New  York.  He  was  president  of 
the  college  of  physicians  and  surgeons  from 
1831  to  1843,  and  editor  of  the  "Medical  and 
Physiological  Journal."  He  published  "Intro 
ductory  Discourse  at  the  New  Medical  Col 
lege  in  Crosby  Street"  (1827);  "Select  Dis 
course  on  the  Functions  of  the  Nervous  Sys 
tem"  (1840);  "The  Mutations  of  the  Earth" 
(1846) ;  "  Monograph  upon  the  Moral  Sense, 
two  Discourses  "  (1847) ;  "  Prelections  on  Mor 
al  and  Physical  Science"  (1853);  and  numer 
ous  essays  and  lectures  on  moral  philosophy, 
physical  science,  &c. 

SMITH,  John  Lawrence,  an  American  chemist 
and  mineralogist,  born  near  Charleston,  S.  C., 
Dec.  16,  1818.  He  graduated  at  the  universi 
ty  of  Virginia  and  at  the  medical  college  of 
S^outh  Carolina,  and  for  three  years  studied 
chemistry,  physiology,  physics,  mineralogy,  and 
geology  in  Europe.  In  1844  he  commenced 
the  practice  of  medicine  in  Charleston,  deliv 
ered  lectures  on  toxicology,  paid  attention  to 
agricultural  chemistry,  and  ascertained  the 
character  and  value  of  the  marl  beds  extend 
ing  100  m.  back  of  Charleston.  In  1846  he 
was  employed  by  the  Turkish  government-  to 
suggest  improvements  in  the  cotton  culture  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  accepted  the  appointment  of 
mining  engineer.  He  remained  four  years, 
and  in  1849  made  a  report  on  the  "Thermal 
"Waters  of  Asia  Minor."  His  mining  researches 


120 


SMITH 


in  Asia  Minor  led  to  the  subsequent  discov 
ery  of  emery  and  corundum  in  localities  in  the 
United  States.  After  his  return  in  1851  he  in 
vented  the  inverted  microscope,  and  was  pro 
fessor  of  chemistry  in  the  university  of  Vir 
ginia,  and  subsequently  in  the  medical  depart 
ment  of  the  university  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  and 
is  now  (1870)  scientific -superintendent  of  the 
Louisville  gas  works.  In  1867  he  was  a  com 
missioner  to  the  Paris  exposition,  making  a  re 
port  on  "  The  Progress  and  Condition  of  Sev 
eral  Departments  of  Industrial  Chemistry," 
and  in  1873  to  the  Vienna  exhibition.  In 
1872  he  was  elected  president  of  the  American 
association  for  the  advancement  of  science. 
His  scientific  reports  are  numerous,  and  his 
original  researches,  about  50  in  number,  have 
been  collected  in  a  volume,  "Mineralogy  and 
Chemistry:  Original  Researches"  (8vo,  Louis 
ville,  1873).  (See  EMERALD,  and  EMERY.) 

SMITH,  John  Pye,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  Sheffield,  May  25,  1774,  died  in  Guildford, 
Surrey,  Feb.  5,  1851.  In  his  22d  year  he  en 
tered  the  Independent  academy  at  Eotherham, 
and  in  1800  was  chosen  classical  tutor  in  the 
Homerton  theological  academy.  He  subse 
quently  became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Homer- 
ton,  and  in  1813  he  was  appointed  divinity 
tutor.  From  1843  to  1850  he  was  again  classi 
cal  tutor ;  but  on  the  consolidation  of  Ilomer- 
ton,  Highbury,  and  Coward  academies  into 
New  college,  he  resigned.  He  was  a  fellow 
of  the  royal  and  of  the  geological  society.  His 
principal  works  are :  "  The  Scripture  Testimo 
ny  to  the  Messiah"  (3  vols.,  1818-'21 ;  5th  ed., 
2  vols.,  1868);  "Four  Discourses  on  the  Sac 
rifice  and  Priesthood  of  Jesus  Christ"  (3d  ed., 
1827);  "On  the  Personality  and  Divinity  of 
the  Holy  Spirit"  (1831);  ""The  Mosaic  Ac 
count  of  the  Creation  and  the  Deluge  illus 
trated  by  the  Discoveries  of  Modern  Science" 
(1837);  and  "Scripture  and  Geology"  (1839; 
4th  ed.,  greatly  enlarged,  1848;  5th  ed.,  1854). 
— See  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of 
John  Pye  Smith,"  by  J.  Mod  way  (1853). 

SMITH,  Joseph,  founder  of  the  Mormon  church, 
or  church  of  Latter  Day  Saints,  born  at  Sharon, 
Vt.,  Dec.  23,  1805,  killed  at  Carthage,  111., 
June  27,  1844.  His  parents,  of  Scotch  descent, 
early  removed  to  Palmyra,  N.  Y.  The  family 
was  disreputable,  and  Joseph's  education  was 
very  defective.  "With  the  aid  of  Sidney  Eigdon 
he  brought  forth  the  "  Book  of  Mormon," 
which  he  pretended  to  have  discovered  under 
angelic  guidance,  written  on  plates  and  hidden 
in  the  earth ;  and  on  this  he  founded  and  or 
ganized  his  church  in  Manchester,  N.  Y.,  April 
6,  1830.  In  1831  he  went  with  his  disciples  to 
Kirtland,  O.,  and  erected  a  costly  but  very 
singular  temple.  Here  Smith  and  Eigdon  en 
gaged  in  fraudulent  banking,  were  tarred  and 
feathered  for  this  arid  other  offences  in  1832, 
and  after  the  failure  of  their  bank  in  January, 
1838,  fled  to  Missouri.  There,  in  a  town 
named  Far  West,  Smith's  disciples  gathered ; 
but  their  irregularities  occasioned  an  outbreak 


against  them,  and  their  speedy  removal  to 
Hancock  county,  111.,  where  they  built  a  city 
called  Nauvoo,  and  constructed  another  costly 
temple.  Here  Smith,  who  combined  in  his 
own  person  the  chief  military,  municipal,  and 
ecclesiastical  offices,  introduced  polygamy  un 
der  a  pretended  revelation;  but  several  out 
raged  husbands  revolted  and  established  an  op 
position  press,  which  Smith  with  a  mob  de 
molished.  For  this  warrants  were  issued 
against  Smith,  his  brother  Hyrum,  and  others. 
The  Smiths  refused  obedience  to  the  authori 
ties,  the  state  militia  were  summoned,  and  Avar 
was  threatened  ;  but  they  were  finally  induced 
to  surrender,  and  were  imprisoned.  Fearing 
their  release,  a  mob  gathered,  overcame  the 
prison  guard,  and  shot  the  prisoners  dead, 
Joseph  defending  himself  with  a  revolver  till 
his  ammunition  failed.  (See  MORMONS.) 

SMITH,  Joseph  Blather,  an  American  physi 
cian,  born  at  New  Eochelle,  1ST.  Y.,  March  14, 
1789,  died  in  New  York,  April  22,  1866.  He 
graduated  in  medicine  in  1815  at  the  college  of 
physicians  and  surgeons,  New  York.  In  1826' 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  medicine  in  the  college  of  physi 
cians  and  surgeons,  and  in  1829  attending  phy 
sician  to  the  New  York  hospital.  In  1855  his 
chair  was  exchanged  for  that  of  materia  med- 
ica  and  clinical  medicine.  His  most  important 
publications  are:  "Elements  of  the  Etiology 
and  Philosophy  of  Epidemics"  (New  York, 
1824)  ;  "  Report  on  Practical  Medicine" 
("  Transactions  of  the  American  Medical  As 
sociation,"  1848,  vol.  i.);  "Report  on  Public 
Hygiene  "  (ibid.,  1850,  vol.  iii.) ;  "  Medical  To 
pography  and  Epidemics  of  the  State  of  New 
York  "  (ibid.,  1860,  vol.  xiii.) ;  and  "  Therapeu 
tics  of  Albuminuria  "  ("  Bulletin  of  the  New 
York  Academy  of  Medicine,"  1863,  vol.  ii.). 

SMITH,  Robert  Payne,  an  English  orientalist, 
born  in  Gloucestershire  in  November,  1818. 
He  graduated  at  Pembroke  college,  Oxford,  in 
1841,  took  orders,  was  curate  of  Trinity  church 
and  master  of  the  academy  in  Edinburgh,  and 
subsequently  was  head  master  of  the  proprie 
tary  school  in  Kensington.  In  1857  he  was 
appointed  sub-librarian  of  the  Bodleian  library, 
with  special  charge  of  the  oriental  manuscripts. 
In  1865  he  was  made  canon  of  Christ  church, 
Oxford,  and  regius  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
university.  Since  1871  he  has  been  dean  of 
Canterbury.  He  has  published  annotated  cop 
ies  and  English  versions  of  Syriac  manuscripts, 
including  "  Cyril  of  Alexandria's  Commentary 
on  St.  Luke's  Gospel"  (4to,  Oxford,  1858; 
English  version,  2  vols.  8vo,  1859)  and  "Ec 
clesiastical  History  of  John  of  Ephosus  "  (8vo, 
1860).  He  has  also  published  a  Latin  "  Cata 
logue  of  the  Syriac  MSS.  in  the  Bodleian  Li 
brary"  (4to,  1864),  "Authenticity  and  Mes 
sianic  Interpretation  of  the  Prophecies  of 
Isaiah"  (8vo,  1862),  and  "Prophecy  a  Prep 
aration  for  Christ"  (Bampton  lectures  for 
1869).  In  1873:  he  prepared  a  paragraphic 
Bible  for  the  society  for  promoting  Christian 


SMITH 


121 


knowledge.  In  1874  lie  was  understood  to  be 
preparing  a  commentary  on  Jeremiah,  for  the 
"  Speaker's  Commentary,1'  and  was  engaged 
upon  the  Thesaurus  Syriacus,  of  which  up  to 
1872  two  parts  had  been  published. 

SMITH,  Samuel  Stanhope,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  at  Pequea,  Pa.,  March  10,  1750, 
died  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Aug.  21,  1819.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1767,  and 
from  1770  to  1773  was  tutor  there.  He  was 
then  for  some  time  a  missionary  in  western 
Virginia,  and  was  principal  of  the  seminary 
which  became  the  Hampden  Sidney  college. 
In  1779  he  was  appointed  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  the  college  of  New  Jersey,  of 
which  he  was  president  from  1794  to  1812. 
In  1786  he  was  associated  with  several  other 
clergymen  of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  pre 
paring  the  form  of  presbyterial  government 
which  continues  to  the  present  time.  He  pub 
lished  "Causes  of  the  Variety  in  the  Figure 
and  Complexion  of  the  Human  Species  "  (8vo, 
1787) ;  "  Sermons  "  (1799) ;  "  Lectures  on  the 
Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion  "  (12mo, 
1809) ;  and  "  A  Comprehensive  View  of  the 
leading  and  most  important  Principles  of  Nat 
ural  and  Revealed  Religion  "  (8vo,  1816).  His 
"  Sermons,"  with  a  memoir  of  his  life  and 
writings,  were  published  in  1821  (2  vols.  8vo). 

SMITH.  I.  Seba,  an  American  author,  born  in 
Buckfield,  Me.,  Sept.  14,  1792,  died  in  Patch- 
ogue,  L.  L,  July  29,  1868.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  college  in  1818,  and  settled  in  Port 
land,  where  he  edited  the  "Eastern  Argus" 
(1820-'24)  and  the  "  Courier"  (1830-'37).  In 

1842  he  removed  to  New  York.     He  published 
"  Life  and  Letters  of  Major  Jack  Downing  " 
(Boston,  1833),  a  celebrated  series  of  humorous 
political  letters  ;   "  Powhatan,"  a  metrical  ro 
mance  (1841);  "Dewdrops  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,"   miscellanies    (1846);    "New   Ele 
ments  of  Geometry "   (1850) ;    "  Way   Down 
East,  or  Portraitures  of  Yankee  Life"  (1854) ; 
and  "My  Thirty  Years  out  of  the  Senate,  by 
Major  Jack  Downing  "  (1859-'CO).    II.  Elizabeth 
Oakes  (PRINCE),  an  American  authoress,  wife  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  North  Yarmouth  (now 
Cumberland),  Me.     She  married  Mr.  Smith  at 
the  age  of  16,  and  about  the  same  time  became 
an  anonymous  contributor  of  poems  to  the  pe 
riodical  press.      After  her  removal  with  her 
husband  to  New  York  in  1842  she  frequently 
appeared  before  the  public  as  a  lecturer.     In 

1843  appeared  the  first  considerable  collection 
of  her  poetical  pieces  under  the  title  of  "  The 
Sinless  Child  and  other  Poems,"  and  her  metri 
cal  contributions  to  the  magazines  have  since 
been  numerous.     She  is  the  author  of  "  The 
Roman  Tribute"  and  "Jacob  Leisler,"  trage 
dies  ;  "  The  Western  Captive  "  and  "  Bertha  and 
Lily,"  novels;    "The   Salamander,  a   Legend 
for  Christmas;"  and  children's  books  and  mis 
cellaneous  publications.    In  1851  she  published 
"Woman  and  her  Needs,"  a  work  devoted  to 
the  rights  of  woman,  which  Mrs.  Smith  has 
at  various  times  advocated  by*  her  pen  and 


as  a  lecturer.  Among  her  later  publications 
are  :  "  Hints  on  Dress  and  Beauty  "  (1852) ; 
"Shadow  Land"  (1852);  "The  Newsboy" 
(1855) ;  "  Bald  Eagle,  or  the  last  of  the  Rama- 
paughs"  (1867);  "Two  Wives"  (1871);  and 
"Kitty  Howard's  Journal"  (1871).  She  now 
(1876)  resides  at  Hollywood,  Carteret  co.,  N.  C. 
SMITH,  Sydney,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Woodford,  Essex,  June  3,  1771,  died  in  Lon 
don,  Feb.  22,  1845.  He  was  educated  at  New 
college,  Oxford,  where  in  1790  he  obtained  a 
fellowship  of  £100  a  year.  He  took  orders, 
and  in  1794  became  curate  in  the  parish  of 
Netheravon,  in  Salisbury  plain ;  but  three 
years  later  he  went  to  Edinburgh  as  a  private 
tutor.  In  1802  he  was  associated  with  Mur 
ray,  Jeffrey,  Brougham,  Horner,  and  others  in 
establishing  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  to  the 
first  number  of  which,  as  editor,  he  contributed 
seven  articles.  Soon  afterward  he  went  to 
London,  where  his  sermons  attracted  large  and 
fashionable  congregations,  and  in  1804-'6  he 
delivered  courses  of  lectures  on  moral  phi 
losophy  before  the  royal  institution.  A  post 
humous  volume,  entitled  "  Elementary  Sketch 
es  of  Moral  Philosophy"  (1850),  contains  the 
substance  of  these.  Upon  the  return  of  the 
whigs  to  power  in  1806,  he  was  presented  to 
the  living  of  Foston-le-Clay  in  Yorkshire, 
worth  about  £500  a  year.  In  1807-'8  ap 
peared  anonymously  his  "Letters  on  the  Sub 
ject  of  the  Catholics,  by  Peter  Plymley,"  which, 
owing  to  an  admirable  mixture  of  sound  sense, 
irony,  and  pleasantry,  had  an  immense  circu 
lation  ;  and  his  efforts  in  the  cause  of  Cath 
olic  emancipation  were  never  relaxed  until 
that  measure  was  accomplished.  In  1809  he 
published  two  volumes  of  sermons,  and  in 
the  summer  of  that  year  removed  with  his 
family  to  Heslington,  near  York,  where  he  re 
sided  for  a  few  years,  in  the  hope  of  being 
able  to  exchange  Foston-le-Clay  for  some  more 
desirable  parish.  Failing  in  this,  he  turned 
his  thoughts  toward  Foston,  the  forlorn  con 
dition  of  which  he  characteristically  described 
by  saying  it  was  "  actually  twelve  miles  from 
a  lemon,"  constructed  a  parsonage,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1814  moved  with  his  family  into  his 
new  quarters.  In  1828  Lord  Lyndhurst  ap 
pointed  him  canon  of  Bristol  and  rector  of 
Combe-Florey,  near  Taunton,  and  three  years 
later  he  received  a  prebendal  stall  in  St.  Paul's. 
The  remainder  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  the 
discharge  of  his  official  duties,  and  to  literary 
labors  ;  but  he  wrote  nothing  for  the  "  Edin 
burgh  Review"  subsequent  to  1827.  Having 
come  into  the  possession  of  a  considerable  es 
tate  by  the  death  of  his  brother  Courtenay  in 
1843,  he  invested  largely  in  the  public  stock  of 
Pennsylvania ;  and  tlie  neglect  of  that  state  to 
pay  the  interest  on  her  bonds  called  out  his 
"  Petition  to  Congress "  and  "Letters  on  Amer 
ican  Debts,"  writings  overflowing  with  hu 
morous  invective.  His  humor  never  left  him, 
and  under  the  last  regimen  of  his  physician 
he  expressed  his  longing  for  "  even  the  wing 


122 


SMITH 


of  a  roasted  butterfly."  A  collection  of  his 
writings,  comprising  his  review  articles,  "Pe 
ter  Plymley's  Letters,"  and  various  pamphlets 
and  miscellanies,  was  published  in  1839-'40  (4 
vols.  8vo ;  afterward  in  several  other  forms). 
He  left  also  in  manuscript  an  account  of  Eng 
lish  misrule  in  Ireland,  which  his  widow  was 
advised  by  Macaulay  not  to  publish.  In  1855 
appeared  a  memoir  of  him  by  his  daughter 
Saba,  the  wife  of  Sir  Henry  Holland;  and  a 
volume  of  his  writings  and  sayings,  entitled 
"The  Wit  and  Wisdom  of  Sydney  Smith,"  was 
collected  with  a  memoir  by  E.  A.  Duyckinck 
(New  York,  185G). 

SMITH,  Thomas  Sonthwood,  an  English  physi 
cian,  born  at  Martock,  Somersetshire,  Dec.  21, 
1788,  died  in  Florence,  Italy,  pec.  10,  1861. 
He  studied  medicine  at  the  university  of  Ed 
inburgh,  and  settled  in  the  country,  but  in 
1820  removed  to  London,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  "  Westminster  Review."  His 
work  on  "  The  Use  of  the  Dead  to  the  Liv 
ing,"  reprinted  from  the  earlier  numbers  of 
the  "  Review,"  was  instrumental  in  the  pas 
sage  by  parliament  of  the  anatomy  act,  which 
put  an  end  to  the  business  of  "resurrection." 
In  1824  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the 
London  fever  hospital,  and  somewhat  earlier 
to  the  eastern  dispensary.  In  1832  he  was 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  inquire  into  the 
condition  of  factory  children,  and  his  report 
led  to  the  passage  of  the  factory  act.  In  1838 
ho  presented  to  the  poor-law  commission 
ers  the  first  of  a  series  of  reports  on  the 
"Physical  Causes  of  Sickness  and  Mortality 
which  are  capable  of  Removal  by  Sanitary 
Regulations."  This  led  to  the  appointment 
of  a  sanitary  committee  by  the  house  of  com 
mons  in  1840,  and  of  the  health  of  towns 
commission  in  1842.  Dr.  Smith  was  appointed 
in  1840  a  commissioner  to  inquire  into  the 
condition  of  children  and  young  persons  in  the 
mines  and  factories  not  readied  by  the  factory  j 
act,  and  his  reports  induced  the  exclusion  of 
young  children  and  women  from  mining  la 
bor.  In  1847,  as  one  of  the  metropolitan  san 
itary  commissioners,  he  made  a  report  on  the 
means  requisite  for  the  improvement  of  the 
health  of  the  metropolis,  of  which  the  result 
was  the  public  health  act  of  1848  and  the  es 
tablishment  of  a  general  board  of  health.  On 
its  abolition  he  received  a  pension  of  £300. 
His  principal  works  are:  "Illustrations  of  the 
Divine  Government"  (Glasgow,  1814;  5th  ed., 
London,  1866);  "Treatise  on  Fever"  (1830), 
long  a  standard  with  the  profession ;  and  "  The 
Philosophy  of  Health"  (2  vols.  12mo,  1835-'7; 
12th  ed.,  1868). 

SMITH,  William,  called  the  father  of  English 
geology,  born  at  Churchill,  Oxfordshire,  March 
23,  1769,  died  in  Northampton,  Aug.  28,  1839. 
In  his  youth  he  was  a  land  surveyor  and  civil 
engineer,  and  was  led  to  geological  studies  by 
his  professional  observations.  He  began  in 
1794  a  "Map  of  the  Strata  of  England  and 
Wales,"  and  in  1799  published  in  tabular  form 


"The  Order  of  the  Strata  and  their  Organic 
Remains  in  the  vicinity  of  Bath,  examined 
and  proved  prior  to  1799."  In  1801  a  small 
geological  map  of  England  was  produced,  and 
in  1815  the  "  Geological  Map  of  England  and 
Wales,  with  Part  of  Scotland,"  with  a  trea 
tise.  Between  1819  and  1824  he  published 
21  geological  maps  of  English  counties,  col 
ored  to  represent  the  strata,  and  some  works 
on  organic  remains.  In  1824-'8  he  lectured 
on  geology.  In  1831  he  received  from  the 
geological  society  the  Wollaston  medal  for  his 
discoveries  in  geology. 

SMITH,  William,  an  English  scholar,  born  in 
London  in  1814.  He  was  educated  at  Univer 
sity  college,  London,  and  studied  law,  but  be 
came  professor  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Ger 
man  languages  at  the  Independent  collegiate 
schools  of  Highbury  and  Homerton.  In  1850 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin 
in  New  college,  London,  and  in  1853  classi 
cal  examiner  in  the  university  of  London. 
In  1867  he  became  editor  of  the  "Quarterly 
Review."  He  has  edited  a  "Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities  "  (8vo,  1842) ; 
"  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography 
and  Mythology  "  (3  vols.  8vo,  1843-'9) ;  "  Dic 
tionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography"  (2 
vols,,  1854-'7) ;  and  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  " 
(3  vols.,  1860-'63).  All  these  dictionaries  have 
been  abridged  by  him  for  the  use  of  schools. 
The  first  and  the  abridged  edition  of  the  sec 
ond  and  third  combined  have  been  edited  by 
Charles  Anthon  (New  York,  1843  and  1850). 
The  "  Dictionary  of  the  Bible "  has  been 
abridged  by  the  Rev.  S.  W.  Barnum  (New 
York,  1868),  and  edited  and  enlarged  by  Prof. 
II.  B.  Hackett  (4  vols.,  New  York,  1868-'70). 
He  has  also  published  a  "History  of  Greece," 
and  an  abridgment  of  the  same,  an  edition  of 
Gibbon's  "Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,"-and  a  "Student's  Gibbon,"  a  "Stu 
dent's  Hume,"  and  "Student's  Hallam's  Mid 
dle  Ages,"  each  in  one  volume;  a  Latin-Eng 
lish  dictionary  (1855),  based  on  Forcellini 
and  Freund ;  with  J.  D.  Hall,  "A  copious 
and  critical  English-Latin  Dictionary  "  (1870)  ; 
with  George  Grove,  a  "Historical  Atlas  of 
Ancient  Geography,  Biblical  and  Classical " 
(1873) ;  and  "  Modern  Geography  for  Schools  " 
(1873).  In  1874  he  was  preparing  "A  Dic 
tionary  of  Christian  Antiquities"  and  "A  Dic 
tionary  of  Christian  Biography  and  Doctrines." 
He  has  also  published  Latin  and  Greek  courses 
for  schools,  and  other  educational  works,  of 
which  numerous  editions  have  been  issued. 

SMITH,  William  Andrew,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  in  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  Nov.  29, 
1802,  died  in  Richmond,  March  1,  1870.  In 
1825  he  was  admitted  to  the  Virginia  confer 
ence  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church.  In 
1833  he  became  agent  of  Randolph  Macon  col 
lege,  after  which  he  served  as  pastor  of  the 
principal  Methodist  churches  of  Richmond, 
Petersburg,  Norfolk,  and  Lynchburg.  He  was 
a  member  of  every  general  conference  from 


SMITH 


SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION    123 


1832  to  1844,  and  also  of  the  Louisville  con 
vention  at  which  was  organized  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church,  South,  and  of  every  general 
conference  of  this  body  until  his  death.  From 
1846  to  1866  he  was  president  of  Randolph 
Macon  college,  and  during  this  period  not  only 
filled  the  chair  of  moral  science  and  presided 
over  the  college,  but  lectured  extensively  in 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  In  the  autumn 
of  1866  he  was  transferred  to  the  St.  Louis 
conference,  and  in  1869  was  chosen  president 
of  Central  university,  Missouri.  lie  was  for 
a  time  editor  of  the  Richmond  "Christian 
Advocate,"  and  published  "  Lectures  on  the 
Philosophy  of  Slavery  "  (Richmond,  1860),  a 
defence  of  the  institution  as  it  existed  in  the 
southern  states. 

SMITH,  Sir  William  Sidney,  an  English  admi 
ral,  born  at  Midgham,  Sussex,  in  1764,  died  in 
Paris,  May  26,  1840.  He  entered  the  navy  at 
the  age  of  12,  and  before  he  was  20  was  post 
captain,  serving  to  the  close  of  the  American 
war.  He  subsequently  participated  in  the  war 
between  Sweden  and  Russia  as  a  captain  in  the 
Swedish  service.  Afterward,  in  command  of 
a  small  English  flotilla,  he  harassed  French 
commerce  in  the  channel,  but  in  April,  1796, 
was  captured  by  a  superior  force  and  confined' 
in  the  prison  of  the  Temple  in  Paris.  The 
French  government  refused  to  exchange  him, 
but  he  escaped  by  French  aid  after  an  impris 
onment  of  two  years.  In  1798  he  was  put  in 
command  of  a  squadron  to  operate  against  the 
French  on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  and  conducted 
the  memorable  defence  oi  St.  Jean  d'Acre 
against  Gen.  Bonaparte.  He  signed  a  treaty 
with  Gen.  Kleber  for  the  evacuation  of  Egypt 
by  the  French,  which  was  disavowed  by  the 
British  government ;  and  he  continued  to  par 
ticipate  in  the  war  until  compelled  by  wounds 
to  return  to  England  in  1801.  He  afterward 
returned  to  service,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
war  received  a  pension  of  £1,000.  In  1821  he 
was  made  an  admiral.  He  was  an  early  advo 
cate  of  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade.  Me 
moirs  of  his  "  Life  and  Times  "  were  written 
by  Sir  John  Barrow  (2  vols.,  London,  1847). 

SMITHSON,  James,  an  English  physicist,  foun 
der  of  the  Smithsonian  institution,  born  about 
1765,  died  in  Genoa,  June  27,  1829.  He  was 
a  natural  son  of  Hugh,  third  duke  of  North 
umberland,  and  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Macie,  heiress 
of  the  Hungerfords  of  Audley,  and  niece  of 
Charles,  duke  of  Somerset.  In  1786  he  took 
the  honorary  degree  of  A.  M.  at  Oxford,  under 
the  name  of  James  Lewis  Macie,  but  between 
1791  and  1803  adopted  the  name  of  Smithson, 
the  family  name  of  his  father.  At  the  univer 
sity  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  chemist,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  to  adopt  the  method  of 
minute  analysis.  He  became  the  friend  and 
associate  of  Wollaston,  Banks,  and  Davy,  and 
in  1787  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  royal  soci 
ety  and  contributed  eight  papers  to  its  "  Trans 
actions."  His  papers  subsequent  to  1818  were 
published  in  the  "Annals  of  Philosophy"  and 


other  scientific  periodicals.  At  his  death  he 
left  about  200  manuscripts,  probably  intended 
to  form  portions  of  a  philosophical  dictionary. 
He  bequeathed  to  his  nephew  £120,000,  the 
whole  of  his  property,  which  in  case  of  the 
death  of  the  latter  without  heirs  was  to  go  to 
the  government  of  the  United  States  to  found 
at  Washington,  under  the  name  of  the  Smith 
sonian  institution,  an  establishment  for  the 
increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge.  (See 
SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION.) 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  a  scientific  estab 
lishment  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  organized  by 
act  of  congress  in  August,  1846,  to  carry  into 
effect  the  provisions  of  the  will  of  James  Smith- 
son.  The  condition  on  which  the  bequest  was 
to  take  effect  in  favor  of  the  United  States 
having  occurred  in  1835,  by  the  death  of  a 
nephew  of  the  testator  without  issue,  the  Hon. 
Richard  Rush  was  sent  to  London  to  prose 
cute  the  claim.  On  Sept.  1,  1838,  he  deposit 
ed  in  the  United  States  mint  the  proceeds  in 
English  sovereigns,  which  amounted  to  $515,- 
169.  Suggestions  were  invited  by  the  presi 
dent  as  to  the  mode  of  disposing  of  the  fund, 
which  was  in  the  mean  time  lent  to  Arkansas 
and  other  states  to  aid  in  internal  improve 
ments.  •  The  first  section  of  the  act  of  1846, 
passed  after  several  years'  discussion  of  con 
flicting  plans,  creates  an  "  establishment "  for 
the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among 
men,  to  consist  of  the  president  and  vice  pres 
ident  of  the  United  States,  the  several  mem 
bers  of  the  cabinet,  the  chief  justice  of  the 
supreme  court,  the  commissioner  of  the  pat 
ent  office,  and  the  mayor  of  Washington,  du 
ring  their  respective  terms  of  office,  with  such 
other  persons  as  these  may  elect  honorary 
members  of  the  institution.  The  second  de 
clares  the  original  fund  to  be  lent  in  perpetu 
ity  to  the  treasury  of  the  United  States  at  6 
per  cent.,  payable  semi-annually ;  appropriates 
the  interest  from  Sept.  1,  1838,  when  the 
money  was  received,  to  July  1,  1846,  amount 
ing  to  $242,129,  or  so  much  thereof  as  might 
be  necessary,  for  the  erection  of  buildings 
and  other  current  incidental  expenses ;  and 
provides  that  all  expenditures  and  appropria 
tions  shall  in  future  be  made  exclusively  from 
the  accruing  interest  and  not  from  the  princi 
pal  of  the  fund.  By  the  third  section  a  board 
of  managers  is  constituted,  under  the  name  of 
"Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,"  to 
be  composed  of  the  vice  president  of  the  United 
States,  the  chief  justice,  the  mayor  of  Wash 
ington,  three  members  of  the  senate  and  three 
of  the  house  of  representatives,  to  be  select 
ed  by  the  president  and  speaker  thereof,  witli 
six  other  persons  not  members  of  congress, 
of  whom  two  shall  be  resident  in  the  city  of 
Washington  and  the  other  four  inhabitants  of 
the  United  States,  but  no  two  of  the  same  state. 
This  board  is  required  to  elect  one  of  its 
members  as  presiding  officer,  to  be  styled  the 
chancellor  of  the  institution,  and  also  a  suitable 
person  to  act  as  secretary  both  of  the  institu- 


124 


SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION 


tion  and  the  board.  To  this  body  is  assigned 
the  duty  of  a  general  superintendence,  and  of 
making  an  annual  report  to  congress  on  the 
operations,  expenditures,  and  condition  of  the 
institution.  Sections  4,  5,  and  6  assign  a  lo 
cation  and  give  power  for  "the  erection  of  a 
suitable  building  of  sufficient  size,  with  apart 
ments  for  the  reception  and  arrangement  upon 
a  liberal  scale  of  objects  of  natural  history, 
including  a  geological  and  mineralogical  cab 
inet  ;  also  a  chemical  laboratory,  a  library, 
a  gallery  of  art,  and  the  necessary  lecture 
rooms;"  and  provision  is  made  that  all  objects 
of  art,  natural  history,  &c.,  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  with  such  as  may  be  collected 
from  whatever  source  by  the  institution  itself, 
shall  be  deposited  in  the  building.  Section 
7  devolves  on  the  secretary  the  charge  of  the 
building  and  property,  and  the  duties  of  li 
brarian  and  keeper  of  the  museum,  with  the 
power  of  employing  assistants,  subject  to  the 
approval  and  removable  at  the  discretion  of 


Smithsonian  Institution. 

the  regents.  Section  8  defines  the  visitorial 
relations  of  the  members  of  the  establishment 
toward  the  board  of  regents,  and  also  limits 
the  expenditure  for  the  library.  Section  9 
authorizes  the  managers  to  dispose  of  such 
portion  of  the  interest  of  the  fund  as  the  act 
has  not  otherwise  appropriated,  in  such  man 
ner  as  they  shall  deem  best  suited  for  the 
promotion  of  the  purpose  of  the  testator.  On 
this  clause  the  present  organization  of  the  in 
stitution  principally  depends.  In  accordance 
with  the  requirements  of  this  act  of  congress, 
a  spacious  building  was  erected,  making  pro 
vision  for  a  library,  museum,  gallery  of  art,  and 
lectures.  The  entire  cost  of  the  building,  im 
provement  of  the  grounds,  &c.,  has  been  up 
ward  of  $500,000.  A  library  was  begun,  con 
sisting  chiefly  of  transactions  and  proceedings 
of  learned  societies  obtained  by  exchange,  and 
of  other  works  by  purchase  necessary  for  gen 
eral  use,  which  has  become  unequalled  in  this 
country  as  a  resource  for  scientific  reference. 


The  museum,  enriched  by  the  fruits  of  govern 
mental  expeditions  and  the  contributions  of 
individual  explorers  under  the  direction  of  the 
institution,  has  attained  a  magnitude  and  com 
pleteness  seldom  surpassed  in  collections  for 
the  illustration  of  natural  science.  A  gallery 
of  art  was  commenced,  consisting  principally 
of  Indian  portraits,  engravings,  and  such  ar 
ticles  as  were  presented  to  the  institution  by 
foreign  governments ;  and  lectures,  chiefly  on 
scientific  subjects,  were  delivered  up  to  1865, 
when  they  were  abandoned  in  consequence  of 
a  fire  which  destroyed  the  lecture  room  and 
afforded  an  opportunity  of  making  important 
changes  in  the  operations  of  the  institution. 
The  library  was  incorporated  with  that  of 
congress,  making  the  latter  at  once  the  largest 
in  the  United  States,  to  which  the  institution 
annually  contributes  a  copy  of  the  transac 
tions  and  proceedings  of  each  of  the  principal 
societies  of  the  world,  and  in  return  receives 
the  use  of  all  the  books  in  the  collection.  Mr. 
W.  W.  Corcoran  of  Washington 
having  founded  a  free  public  gal 
lery  of  art,  the  institution  has  de 
posited  in  it  its  art  collection. 
This  is  in  accordance  with  the 
general  plan  of-  cooperating  with 
the  different  establishments  in 
the  city  of  Washington,  the  in 
stitution  having  transferred  to 
the  department  of  agriculture  its 
botanical  collections,  and  to  the 
army  medical  museum  all  speci 
mens  relating  to  medicine  and 
anatomy,  while  it  receives  in  re 
turn  from  these  departments 
everything  which  relates  to  nat 
ural  history  and  ethnology.  The 
expense  of  the  care  of  the  grounds 
around  the  building,  which  at 
first  devolved  upon  the  institu 
tion,  has  been  subsequently  de 
frayed  by  government,  and  con 
gress  has  been  induced  to  make  an  annual  ap 
propriation  for  the  support  of  the  museum  of 
$20,000.  By  these  changes  the  burdens  which 
congress  placed  upon  the  institution  have  been 
.removed,  and  an  opportunity  is  afforded  for 
the  expenditure  of  the  income  of  the  Smith- 
son  legacy,  in  strict  conformity  with  the  terms 
of  the  will,  for  the  "increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  among  men." — In  December, 
1840,  the  board  of  regents  selected  Prof.  Jo 
seph  Henry,  then  of  the  college  of  New  Jer 
sey  at  Princeton,  as  their  secretary,  which 
office  he  still  holds  (1876).  His  assistants  are 
Prof.  Spencer  F.  Baird,  formerly  of  Dickinson 
college,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  the  natural  history  de 
partment  (appointed  in  1850),  and  William  J. 
Ehees  as  chief  clerk  (appointed  in  1853).  The 
board  of  regents  from  its  composition  has  ne 
cessarily  changed  to  some  extent  almost  every 
year,  and  of  its  original  members  none  now 
remain.  Soon  after  his  appointment  Prof. 
Henry  submitted  to  the  board  a  "programme 


SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION 


SMOLENSK 


125 


of  organization"  of  the  proposed  operations 
under  the  9th  section,  which  was  adopted,  and 
still  constitutes  the  basis  of  management.  He 
suggested  that  men  of  talent  and  erudition 
should  be  afforded  the  means  of  conducting 
researches,  and  stimulated  to  exertion  through 
facilities  of  publication  and  occasional .  com 
pensation;  and  for  its  diffusion,  the  publica 
tion  of  such  works  as,  while  adding  materially 
to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge,  would  not 
find  a  remunerative  sale  in  the  ordinary  chan 
nels  of  trade.  He  insisted  that  it  ought  to  be 
a  rule  of  the  institution  to  do  nothing  which 
can  be  equally  well  done  by  any  organization 
or  instrumentality  already  in  action.  The  re 
sults  are  as  follows :  1.  Researches.  The  claims 
of  different  classes  of  scientific  research  to  the 
countenance  and  aid  of  the  institution  have 
always  been  pressing  and  difficult  of  adjudica 
tion  ;  yet  a  preference  has  been  given  to  those 
of  widest  influence  and  benefit  to  the  race. 
Ethnology  was  believed  to  be  one  of  these, 
and  a  valuable  and  expensive  memoir  on  the 
archaeology  of  the  Indian  tribes  was  the  first 
to  receive  assistance.  In  connection  with  this, 
aid  was  extended  to  the  compilation  of  a  Da 
kota  grammar  and  dictionary,  and  a  grammar 
of  the  Yoruba  language.  The  circulation  of 
these  has  led  to  other  researches  in  ethnol 
ogy  and  kindred  branches  of  science,  some 
of  which  are  receiving  or  will  receive  assis 
tance.  Astronomy  has  also  engaged  the  ear 
nest  and  continued  efforts  of  the  institution 
for  its  promotion  theoretically  and  practically, 
and  pecuniary  assistance  has  been  furnished 
to  expeditions  undertaken  with  a  view  to  as 
tronomical  and  other  observations.  It  has  not 
only  furnished  instruments  for  physical  obser 
vation  to  expeditions,  but  in  most  cases  has 
defrayed  the  expense  of  the  reduction  and 
publication  of  the  results.  In  meteorology  it 
had  for  many  years  500  regular  observers  scat 
tered  over  every  part  of  the  continent,  and 
accumulated  data  through  this  and  other  mea 
sures  steadily  and  systematically  pursued  for 
developing  the  laws  which  govern  the  phe 
nomena  of  the  weather.  In  accordance  with 
the  plan  of  cooperation  adopted,  this  sys 
tem  has  been  transferred  to  the  United  States 
signal  service.  The  natural  history,  geogra 
phy,  climatology,  geology,  mineralogy,  bot 
any,  and  archaeology  of  this  continent  have 
through  its  aid  received  a  greater  impulse,  and 
more  material  has  been  collected  for  increas 
ing  and  diffusing  the  knowledge  of  them  than 
through  all  other  instrumentalities  during  the 
national  existence.  2.  Publications.  These 
are  of  three  classes.  1st.  "  The  Smithsoni 
an  Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  comprised 
up  to  1875  in  20  large  quarto  volumes,  and  in 
many  cases  expensively  illustrated.  No  me 
moir  is  admitted  into  this  series  which  rests 
on  unverified  hypothesis,  or  which  does  not 
offer  some  positive  addition  to  the  sum  of  ex 
isting  knowledge  ;•  and  the  pretensions  of  each 
in  this  respect  are  decided  by  submission  to 


the  judgment  of  two  or  more  arbiters  of  un 
questionable  competence  and  impartiality.  The 
volumes  thus  far  issued  form  a  series  for  the 
publication  of  which  no  learned  society  in  this 
country  possessed  the  means,  and  which  have 
only  been  equalled  by  foreign  societies  when 
aided  by  their  governments.  They  have  been 
distributed  gratuitously  among  all  the  impor 
tant  libraries  and  learned  associations  of  the 
world,  and  have  afforded  the  means  of  obtain 
ing  by  exchange  those  invaluable  sets  of  the 
"Transactions"  of  foreign  learned  societies, 
not  otherwise  to  be  found  in  this  country.  2d. 
The  "Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections," 
an  occasional  series  comprising  meteorological 
and  physical  tables,  treatises  on  subjects  of 
practical  or  scientific  interest,  and  manuals  for 
the  collection  and  preservation  of  objects  of 
natural  history,  as  well  as  methods  for  various 
physical  observations.  This  series  includes  12 
octavo  volumes.  3d.  The  "Annual  Reports" 
to  congress,  which,  besides  a  popular  analysis 
of  the  memoirs  to  be  contained  in  the  sev 
eral  forthcoming  volumes  of  the  "  Contribu 
tions,"  are  accompanied  by  a  synopsis  of  lec 
tures  and  original  or  translated  articles,  which 
introduce  the  student  to  information  and  topics 
of  discussion  much  above  the  range  of  those 
usually  presented  even  to  the  educated  public. 
These  are  printed  at  the  expense  of  congress, 
and  are  circulated  through  the  members  of 
both  houses,  as  well  as  by  the  institution  it 
self.  3.  Exchanges.  The  institution  now  acts 
as  the  principal,  and  is  gradually  becoming  the 
exclusive  means  of  communication  between 
the  literary  and  scientific  associations  of.  the 
old  and  the  new  world.  4.  Scientific  Corre 
spondence.  The  correspondence  of  the  Smith 
sonian  institution  with  all  quarters  of  the 
globe  is  vast  and  constantly  increasing.  Al 
most  every  day  brings  narratives  of  real  or 
supposed  discoveries  which  are  referred  to  the 
institution,  inquiries  on  scientific  topics  of  all 
kinds,  or  unusual  phenomena,  etc.  These  let 
ters  are  all  answered. — In  1805  a  residuary 
legacy  of  Smithson  was  received,  amounting 
to~$26,210  63  ;  and  in  1874  a  bequest  of  $1,000 
from  James  Hamilton  of  Carlisle,  Pa.  With 
these,  and  savings  of  income  and  increased 
value  of  investments,  the  total  permanent 
Smithson  fund  in  the  United  States  treasury, 
drawing  interest  at  G  per  cent,  in  gold,  now 
amounts  to  $051,000.  There  are  besides  de 
preciated  investments  valued  in  January,  1875, 
at  $35,000,  which  with  a  cash  balance  on  hand 
of  $15,909  99  made  the  total  resources  at  that 
time  $701,909  99. 

SMOKE  TREE.     See  SUMACH. 

SMOLENSK.  I.  A  "W.  government  of  Russia, 
bordering  on  Tver,  Moscow,  Kaluga,  Orel, 
Tchernigov,  Mohilev,  Vitebsk,  and  Pskov;  area, 
21,637  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,140,015.  The 
surface  is  an  elevated  undulating  plain,  broken 
occasionally  by  low  hills.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Dnieper  and  Desna.  It  is  interspersed  with 
numerous  small  lakes  and  morasses ;  and  there 


126 


SMOLLETT 


are  immense  forests  of  excellent  timber,  which 
abound  with  game.  The  soil  is  generally  pro 
ductive.  Great  numbers  of  cattle  and  of  the 
celebrated  Lithuanian  horses  are  raised.  Much 
attention  is  given  to  raising  bees,  and  honey 
and  wax  form  important  articles  of  export. 
Iron,  copper,  and  salt  are  found.  Linen  and 
woollen  goods  are  manufactured,  and  tine  car 
pets  are  exported.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
government,  on  both  sides  of  the  Dnieper,  230 
m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Moscow  ;  pop.  in  1867,  22,977. 
It  is  considered  the  key  to  Moscow,  and  is 
strongly  walled  and  fortified.  It  is  the  seat  of 
a  bishop,  and  has  a  remarkable  cathedral  and 
more  than  20  other  Greek  churches.  Its  manu 
factures  consist  chieliy  of  linen  and  woollen 
cloths,  leather,  hats,  and  soap.  It  was  impor 
tant  in  the  9th  century,  and  was  long  inde 
pendent  under  its  own  princes.  The  Tartars, 
Lithuanians,,  and  Russians  afterward  held  it 
successively;  and  in  the  16th  and  17th  centu 
ries  it  was  the  scene  of  conflicts  between  the 
Poles  and  Russians,  often  changing  masters, 
but  finally  taken  by  the  latter  in  165-4.  On 
Aug.  17,  1812,  was  fought  the  battle  of  Smo 
lensk,  between  the  French  and  the  Russians. 
In  the  night  the  Russians  abandoned  the  town, 
and  on  the  morning  of  Aug.  18  it  was  occu 
pied  by  the  French,  who  next  marched  upon 
Moscow,  leaving  most  of  Smolensk  in  ashes. 
The  town  was  subsequently  rebuilt  and  great 
ly  embellished. 

SMOLLETT,  Tobias  George,  a  British  author, 
born  in  Dalquhurn  house,  parish  of  Oardross, 
Dumbartonshire,  in  1721,  died  at  Monte  Nero, 
near  Leghorn,  Oct.  21,  1771.  He  was  educated 
at  the  grammar  school  of  Dumbarton  and  at 
the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  was  apprenticed 
to  a  medical  practitioner.  When  his  appren 
ticeship  expired,  in  his  19th  year,  he  set  out 
for  London,  carrying  with  him  a  tragedy  en 
titled  "The  Regicide,"  which  he  vainly  at 
tempted  to  produce  on  the  stage.  Thwarted 
in  his  purpose,  he  accepted  in  1741  the  post  of 
surgeon's  mate  on  an  80-gtin  ship,  and  sailed 
on  the  disastrous  expedition  against  Cartagena, 
which  he  has  described  in  "  Roderick  Random," 
and  with  more  detail  in  the  "  Compendium  of 
Voyages."  He  left  the  navy  at  Jamaica,  and 
while  there  became  acquainted  with  Anne 
Lascelles,  whom  he  married  in  1747.  Return 
ing  to  England  in  1746,  after  the  battle  of  Cul- 
loden,  he  produced  anonymously  "The  Tears 
of  Scotland,"  an  ode  lamenting  the  atrocities 
of  the  royal  army.  He  also  published  "  Ad 
vice,  a  Satire  "  (1746),  and  "  Reproof,  a  Satire  " 
(1747),  and  wrote  "Alceste,  an  Opera,"  for 
the  Covent  Garden  theatre,  which  was  with 
drawn  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  the 
manager.  In  1748  appeared  the  first  of  his 
novels,  "The  Adventures  of  Roderick  Ran 
dom."  lie  made  a  short  visit  to  Paris  in  1750, 
and  in  1751  published  "The  Adventures  of 
Peregrine  Pickle,"  which  is  disfigured  by  an 
episode  detailing  the  intrigues  of  Lady  Vane, 
for  inserting  which  he  is  said  to  have  received 


a  liberal  reward  from  her.  He  now  resumed 
the  medical  profession,  settled  at  Bath,  and 
published  in  1752  "An  Essay  on  the  External 
Use  of  Water."  Obtaining  no  practice,  he  re 
moved  to  Chelsea,  and  devoted  himself  again 
to  literary  pursuits.  In  1753  appeared  his 
"Adventures  of  Ferdinand  Count  Fathom." 
In  1755  he  published  by  subscription  his  trans 
lation  of  "  Don  Quixote,"  more  animated  and 
elegant  but  less  accurate  than  that  of  Jarvis, 
on  which  it  was  founded.  Afterward  he  un 
dertook  the  management  of  the  "Critical  Re 
view."  His  irritable  temper  and  capricious 
tastes  involved  him  in  numerous  vexations 
and  quarrels ;  a  contemptuous  critique  on  the 
"Rosciad"  provoked  against  him  the  spleen 
of  Churchill;  and  in  1759  an  attack  on  Ad 
miral  Knowles,  one  of  the  commanders  at 
Cartagena,  caused  him  to  be  arraigned  for 
libel  and  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  £100  and  three 
months'  imprisonment.  He  had  meantime 
produced  a  "  Compendium  of  Authentic  and 
Entertaining  Voyages  "  (7  vols.,  1757),  a  come 
dy  entitled  "The  Reprisals,"  which  Garrick 
brought  out  on  the  stage,  and  a  "  Complete 
History  of  England"  (4  vols.,  1757-'8),  written 
in  14  months,  which  became  very  popular. 
While  in  prison  he  wrote  "  The  Adventures  of 
Sir  Launcelot  Greaves,"  a  sort  of  travesty  of 
"Don  Quixote,"  which  appeared  in  the  "Brit 
ish  Magazine  "  in  1760-161.  He  afterward  con- 
.tributed  the  accounts  of  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany  to  the  "Modern  Universal  History," 
and  continued  his  "  Complete  History  of  Eng 
land,"  bringing  the  narrative  down  from  1748 
to  1764.  The  whole  work  was  in  16  vols. 
8vo,  of  which  only  the  last  5  vols.,  forming 
a  continuation  to  Hume,  are  how  read.  On 
the  accession  of  George  III.  he  undertook  to 
defend  the  administration  of  Lord  Bute  in  a 
weekly  paper  entitled  "  The  Briton."  He  was 
effectively  and  abusively  answered  by  Wilkes 
in  his  "North  Briton,"  and  his  services  being 
unpaid,  and  his  side  most  unpopular,  he  with 
drew  from  the  contest.  His  health  was  shat 
tered  by  this  discomfiture,  by  his  labors  on 
a  translation  of  the  works  of  Voltaire  and 
on  a  compilation  entitled  "The  Present  State 
of  All  Nations,"  and  by  the  death  of  his 
only  child;  and  in  1763  he  went  abroad  for 
two  years.  In  1766  he  published  "  Travels 
through  France  and  Italy,"  which  was  ridi 
culed  by  Sterne  in  his  "Sentimental  Jour 
ney."  On  returning  from  Italy  he  visited 
Scotland,  resided  at  Bath  during  the  following 
year,  and  there  wrote  "  The  Adventures  of  an 
Atom,"  a  political  satire,  in  which  he  assailed 
Lord  Bute  and  the  earl  of  Chatham.  His 
broken  health  obliged  him  again  to  seek  a 
milder  climate,  and  he  went  to  Italy  in  1770, 
beginning  on  his  way  to  write  "The  Expedi 
tion  of  Humphrey  Clinker,"  which  appeared 
in  1771,  just  before  his  death. — His  life  has 
been  written  by  Thomas  Roscoe,  Dr.  Moore, 
and  others.  One  of  the  best  editions  of  his 
works  appeared  in  1873  (8  vols.  8vo,  London). 


SMYRNA 


127 


SMYRNA  (Turk.  Ismir),  a  town  of  Asiatic  | 
Turkey,  capital  of  the  vilayet  of  Aidin,  near 
the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Smyrna,  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  210  m.  S.  "W.  of  Constan 
tinople;  pop.  (according  to  the  Austrian  con 
sul  general  Scherzer's  estimate  in  1873)  about 
155,000,  including  75,000  Greeks,  45,000  Turks, 
15,000  Jews,  10,000  Roman  Catholics,  6,000 
Armenians,  and  4,000  Europeans  and  Ameri 
cans.  Another  estimate  places  the  population 
at  180,000.  Owing  to  the  large  preponderance 
of  the  Christians,  it  is  called  by  the  Turks  the 
Giaour  city.  It  stands  upon  a  plain  between 
the  ancient  Mt.  Pagus  and  the  sea,  part  of  it 
on  the  slope  of  the  hill.  The  streets  are  gen 
erally  narrow  and  dirty.  An  interesting  local 
ity  is  the  so-called  caravan  bridge,  with  adjoin 
ing  grounds  for  the  accommodation  of  camels 
during  the  night.  Along  the  shore  and  in  its 
vicinity  reside  the  Christians,  excepting  the 


Armenians,  whose  quarter  is  partly  on  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  hill,  the  upper  slopes  being 
occupied  by  the  Turks ;  and  in  the  region  be 
tween  the  Armenians  and  Turks  live  the  Jews, 
who  are  chiefly  of  Spanish  descent  and  mostly 
poor.  On  the  summit  of  the  hill  is  a  castle. 
A  quay  is  in  course  of  construction.  Smyrna 
contains  a  governor's  palace,  churches  for  va 
rious  denominations,  a  convent,  and  several 
schools,  that  of  the  Prussian  deaconesses  being 
the  best.  A  large  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  is 
in  course  of  construction.  An  archaeological 
school  was  projected  in  1874  for  promoting 
excavations  at  the  site  of  ancient  Ephesus,  ad 
joining  a  station  on  the  Smyrna  and  Aidin 
railway.  Another  line  to  Ala-Shehr  (the  an 
cient  Philadelphia)  was  extended  from  Kas- 
saba  in  1875.  A  Turkish  governor  general, 
and  Greek,  Armenian,  and  Roman  Catholic 
archbishops  reside  in  the  city ;  and  there  are 


Smyrna. 


American  and  other  missionaries.  In  the  ad 
joining  villages  of  Burnabad  and  Budja  are 
fine  villas.  Smyrna  is  an  important  station 
for  steamers  and  a  great  commercial  empo 
rium  ;  the  harbor  is  magnificent,  and  at  all 
times  crowded  with  shipping.  The  entrances 
in  1873  were  630  steamers  and  785  sailing 
vessels,  tonnage  659,247;  clearances,  627  and 
693,  tonnage  648,579.  The  imports,  chiefly 
cotton  and  other  manufactured  goods,  amount 
ed  to  $23,332,780,  and  the  exports,  including 
cotton,  figs,  raisins,  opium,  sponges,  and  valo- 
nia,  to  $20,794,332.  The  shipments  of  cotton, 
now  so  important,  were  insignificant  previous 
te  the  American  civil  war.  In  1873-'4  the  im 
ports  from  the  United  States,  chiefly  petroleum, 
were  valued  at  $300,000,  and  the  exports  to  the 
United  States,  including  opium,  figs,  liquorice 
root,  wool,  and  rags,  at  $2,234,344. — Smyrna 
was  probably  colonized  by  ^Eolians  from  Cyme, 
VOL.  xv.— 9 


but  early  fell'  into  the  hands  of  the  Colopho- 
nians,  and  in  the  7th  century  B.  C.  formed  the 
13th  city  of  the  Ionian  league.  According  to 
Strabo,  it  was  destroyed  by  Sadyattes  of  Lydia 
about  627,  and  remained  in  ruins  for  several 
centuries,  It  was  rebuilt  and  enlarged  by  An- 
tigonus  and  Lysimachus,  successors  of  Alex 
ander  the  Great,  and  became  one  of  the  first 
cities  of  that  era.  One  of  the  seven  churches 
mentioned  in  the  book  of  Revelation  was  at 
Smyrna,  and  Polycarp  was  its  first  bishop. 
The  town  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
A.  D.  178,  and  rebuilt  by  Marcus  Aurelius.  It 
afterward  had  many  changes  of  fortune ;  and 
being  occupied  by  a  Seljuk  chieftain  about  the 
end  of  the  llth  century,  it  was  nearly  destroyed 
by  the  Byzantine  fleet.  It  was  again  rebuilt, 
and  subsequently  the  Genoese  held  it  for  a 
long  period.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  14th 
century  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  in  whose 


128 


SMYTH 


SNAIL 


possession  it  ultimately  remained,  after  being 
captured  in  1402  by  Tamerlane.  Among  its 
many  calamities  in  modern  times  were  the 
conflagration  of  1841  and  the  earthquake  of 
1846.  In  July,  1853,  Martin  Koszta  was  de 
livered  here  from  the  hands  of  the  Austrians 
by  Capt.  Ingraham. — See  Scherzer's  La  pro 
vince  de  Smyrne  (1875). 

SMYTH,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Virginia,  bounded 
S.  E.  by  the  Iron  mountain  range  and  drained 
by  the  head  streams  of  Holston  river;  area, 
about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,898,  of  whom 
1,244  were  colored.  The  surface  is  an  ele 
vated  valley  between  the  Iron  mountain  range 
and  Walker's  mountain;  the  soil  is  very  fer 
tile.  Limestone,  gypsum,  and  salt  are  found. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and 
Ohio  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  44,681  bushels  of  wheat,  96,829  of  Indian 
corn,  66,323  of  oats,  3,327  tons  of  hay,  1,575 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  10,514  of  wool,  64,910  of  but 
ter,  26,820  of  cheese,  3,113  of  flax,  and  9,897 
of  honey.  There  were  1,595  horses,  1,846 
milch  cows,  3,193  other  cattle,  4,553  sheep, 
and  4,059  swine.  Capital,  Marion. 

SMYTH,  Thomas,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Belfast,  Ireland,  June  14,  1808,  died 
in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Aug.  20,  1873.  He  was 
educated  in  Belfast  and  London,  and  in  1830 
entered  the  theological  seminary  at  Princeton, 
N.  J.  From  1832  till  his  death  he  was  pastor 
of  the  second  Presbyterian  church  in  Charles 
ton,  S.  C.  Among  the  numerous  works  of  Dr. 
Smyth  are:  "  Lectures  on.  the  Prelatical  Doc 
trine  of  Apostolic  Succession  "  (Boston,  1841); 
"  The  Ecclesiastical  Catechism  "  (1841) ;  "  Ec 
clesiastical  Republicanism"  (1843);  "Presby 
tery  and  not  Prelacy  the  Scriptural  and  Primi 
tive  Polity  "  (1843) ;  "  Calvin  Defended  "  (Phil 
adelphia,  1844);  "The  Rite  of  Confirmation" 
(1845);  "The  Name,  Nature,  and  Functions 
of  Ruling  Elders  "  (1845) ;  "  The  History, 
Character,  and  Results  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly  of  Divines"  (New  York,  1847); 
"  The  Unity  of  the  Human  Races  proved  to  be 
the  Doctrine  of  Scripture,  Reason,  and  Sci 
ence"  (1850);  "Nature  and  Claims  of  Young 
Men's  Christian  Associations  "  (Philadelphia, 
1857) ;  "  Faith  the  Principle  of  Missions  " 
(1857);  "The  Well  in  the  Valley"  (1857);  and 
"Obedience  the  Life  of  Missions"  (1860). 

SMYTH.  I.  William  Henry,  a  British  naval 
officer,  born  in  Westminster,  Jan.  21,  1788, 
died  near  Aylesbury,  Sept.  9,  1865.  He  en 
tered  the  navy  in  1805,  and  rendered  impor 
tant  aid  in  the  defence  of  Cadiz  in  1810.  He 
became  lieutenant  in  1813,  and  soon  afterward 
was  appointed  to  a  command  in  the  flotilla 
under  Sir  Robert  Hall  detailed  for  the  defence 
of  Sicily.  By  order  of  the  lords  of  the  ad 
miralty  he  made  an  elaborate  survey  of  Sicily 
and  the  adjacent  islands,  which  occupied  him 
for  several  years,  and  resulted  in  the  publica 
tion  by  the  admiralty  of  an  atlas  of  Sicily.  As 
an  accompaniment  to  this,  he  published  a  "  Me 
moir  descriptive  of  the  Resources,  Inhabitants, 


and  Hydrography  of  Sicily  and  its  Islands, 
interspersed  with  Antiquarian  and  other  No 
tices"  (4to,  1824).  He  afterward  completed 
the  survey  of  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  and 
was  employed  in  1823  and  1824  in  a  survey  of 
the  coasts  of  Sardinia,  and  published  a  "  Sketch 
of  the  present  State  of  the  Island  of  Sardinia  " 
(8vo,  1828).  He  attained  the  rank  of  post 
captain  in  February,  1824,  and  settled  soon 
after  at  Bedford,  where  he  built  a  small  ob 
servatory,  and  in  1844  published  a  "  Cycle  of 
Celestial  Objects,  for  the  use  of  Naval,  Mili 
tary,  and  Private  Astronomers  "  (2  vols.  8vo). 
In  1853  he  attained  the  rank  of  rear  admiral, 
and  in  1857  he  was  appointed  hydrographer 
to  the  admiralty.  His  most  valuable  work  is 
entitled  "  The  Mediterranean,  a  Memoir,  Physi 
cal,  Historical,  and  Nautical"  (8vo,  1854),  in 
which  he  gives  in  systematic  and  condensed 
form  the  results  of  his  numerous  surveys  and 
observations  on  the  physical  geography  of  that 
sea.  He  also  wrote  "  Sidereal  Chromatics " 
(1864),  and  "The  Sailor's  Word  Book  "  (1867). 
II.  Charles  Piazzi,  son  of  the  preceding,  has  held 
the  post  of  astronomer  royal  for  Scotland. 
In  1856  he  transported  a  large  collection  of 
meteorological,  magnetical,  and  astronomical 
instruments  to  the  peak  of  Teneriffe,  where  he 
selected  two  stations,  one  8,840,  and  the  other 
10,700  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  obtained  impor 
tant  results  detailed  in  his  "Teneriffe,  an  As 
tronomer's  Experiment  "  (London,  1858).  He 
has  since  written  "Three  Cities  in  Russia" 
(1862) ;  "  Our  Inheritance  in  the  Great  Pyra 
mid  "  (1864;  new  ed.,  1874) ;  "  Life  and  Work 
at  the  Great  Pyramid"  (1867);  "On  the  An 
tiquity  of  Intellectual  Man,  from  a  Practical 
and  Astronomical  Point  of  View"  (1868)  ;  and 
"Equal  Surface  Projection  for  Maps  of  the 
World"  (1871).  He  maintains  that  the 'pyra 
mids  are  memorials  of  a  system  of  weights 
and  measures  intended  to  be  perpetual. 

SNAIL,  the  common  name  of  the  helicida,  a 
large  family  of  gasteropod  mollusks,  terrestrial 
and  air-breathing.  The  number  known  is  now 
so  large  that  the  treatment  of  the  subfamilies 
and  genera  would  require  a  volume.  Restrict 
ing  the  name  heticidcB  to  such  as  have  a  well 
developed  external  spiral  shell,  the  snails  may 
be  characterized  as  animals  breathing  air  by 
means  of  branchial  vessels  spread  like  a  net 
work  over  the  internal  walls  of  a  cavity  in  the 
anterior  part  of  the  body,  covered  by  the  shell, 
and  communicating  with  the  atmosphere  by  a 
small  valvular  opening  on  the  right  side  ;  they 
have  four  retractile  tentacles,  the  upper  two 
the  largest  and  having  eyes  at  the  apex ;  there 
is  a  dentated  horny  jaw  on  the  upper  lip, 
which  is  opposed  by  the  tongue;  the  gullet 
is  wide,  with  large  white  salivary  glands  on 
its  sides,  and  the  liver  is  well  developed ;  the 
whole  body  is  very  glutinous  ;  the  locomotion 
is  slow,  by  means  of  the  ventral  foot ;  they 
are  hermaphrodite,  with  reciprocal  impregna 
tion.  The  shells  are  always  external, '  vary 
much  in  form,  and  contain  the  entire  animal ; 


SNAIL 


SNAKE  RIVER 


129 


they  have  no  operculum,  the  opening  during 
hibernation  being  closed  by  a  secretion  from 
the  mantle,  which  hardens  into  what  is  called 
the  epiphragm ;  the  shell  is  generally  turned 
from  left  to  right,  the  free  edge  to  the  right, 
but  they  are  often  reversed ;  the  newly  hatched 
young  resemble  their  parents,  and  have  a  shell 
of  one  whorl  and  a  half.  They  are  sensitive 
to  cold,  and  like  moist  places;  the  sense  of 
touch  is  acute,  especially  in  the  tentacles,  and 
they  appear  to  have  a  sense  of  smell ;  they  are 
nocturnal,  and  feed  principally  on  plants,  though 
sometimes  devouring  each  other.  The  repro 
ductive  season  is  toward  the  end  of  spring; 
the  eggs,  to  the  number  of  30  to  100,  are  de 
posited  in  moist  places,  in  natural  or  artificial 
holes ;  the  young  come  out  in  20  to  30  days. 
Snails  are  distributed  very  widely,  from  the 
northern  limit  of  trees  to  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
from  the  hot  and  moist  plains  to  a  height  of 
11,000  ft.  on  mountains;  some  are  cosmopo 
lite,  ranging  wherever  their  food  is  found,  and 
others  are  restricted  within  narrow  limits. 
About  1,500  species  have  been  described,  some 
of  which  from  their  voracity  are  very  injurious 
to  vegetation,  and  some  useful  to  man  as  food; 
they  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  able  to  re 
sist  long  droughts.  A  specimen  of  the  desert 
snail  of  Egypt  (helix  desertorum),  which  re 
mained  dormant  in  the  British  museum  four 
years,  afterward  lived  in  the  possession  of  one 
of  the  curators  more  than  two  years. — The 
genus  helix  (Lam.)  is  the  type  of  the  family. 
The  Eoman  or  vineyard  snail  (II.  pomatia, 
Linn.)  is  a  large  species,  reddish  browrn  with 
paler  bands ;  these  snails  were  used  as  food  by 
the  ancient  Romans,  who  reared  them  in  parks, 
and  fattened  them  on  cooked  meat  and  flour, 
obtaining  them  from  the  islands  of  the  Medi 
terranean  ;  they  are  still  eaten  in  many  coun 
tries  of  Europe,  especially  by  Roman  Catholics 
during  Lent,  being  considered  as  fish ;  great 
numbers  are  eaten  in  France ;  they  are  also 
recommended  as  an  ingredient  in  soups  for  con 
sumptive  persons.  The  reproductive  internal 
organs,  in  the  apex  of  the  shell,  consist  of  many 
parallel  cooca,  each  of  which  has  an  external 
layer  producing  eggs,  and  an  internal  sac  pro 
ducing  semen  ;  the  apparatus  is  very  complex. 
The  H.  aspersa  (Linn.),  or  common  garden 
snail,  originally  from  Europe,  but  now  natu 
ralized  in  most  parts  of  the  globe,  is  also  used 
as  food,  when  boiled  in  milk,  for  consumptives. 
These  species  wThen  abundant  are  very  destruc 
tive,  laying  waste  whole  gardens  in  a  single 
night,  always  attacking  the  tenderest  and  most 
succulent  plants ;  besides  their  natural  ene 
mies,  mammals  and  birds,  great  numbers  are 
killed  by  fires,  inundations,  sudden  changes  of 
temperature,  felling  of  forests,  cultivation  of 
the  land,  and  by  hogs  and  poultry  following 
the  plough ;  the  remedies  for  their  depreda 
tions  are  the  same  as  for  the  slugs.  The  largest 
of  the  American  snails  is  the  H.  albolabris 
(Say),  of  a  yellowish  horn  color,  with  white, 
broadly  reflected  lip ;  the  shell  has  five  or  six 


whorls,  with  minute  revolving  lines  and  the 
umbilicus  closed ;  in  October  they  cease  feed 
ing,  and  select  a  place  under  some  log  or  stone, 
where  they  fix  themselves  for  the  winter, 


American  Snail  (Helix  albolabris). 

mouth  upward.  For  details  on  the  American 
species,  see  Dr.  A.  Binney's  "  Terrestrial  Air- 
breathing  Mollusks  of  the  United  States"  (3 
vols.,  Boston,  1851,  and  vol.  iv.,  a  continuation 
by  G.  W.  Binney,  Boston,  1859). 

SNAKE.     See  SEBPENT. 

SNARE  BIRD.     See  DAETEE. 

SNARE  RIVER  (also  called  Lewis  fork  or 
river,  Saptin  river,  and  Shoshone  river),  a 
tributary  of  the  Columbia,  rising  in  the  Rocky 
mountains  in  N.  W.  Wyoming,  near  the  sources 
of  the  Yellowstone  and  Madison  rivers,  at  an 
elevation  of  about  8,000  ft.  above  the  sea, 
about  lat.  44°  K,  Ion.  110°  30'  W.  It  flows 
1ST.  W.  to  the  junction  of  Lewis  fork,  the  out 
let  of  Shoshone  and  Lewris  lakes ;  then  S.,  ex 
panding  in  its  course  into  Jackson  lake,  and 
again  N.  W.  to  the  junction  of  Henry's  fork  (a 
total  course  of  nearly  200  m.)  in  Idaho,  about 
lat.  43°  15',  Ion.  112°.  Henry's  fork  rises  in 
Henry  lake  (6,443  ft.  above  the  sea,  about  lat. 
44°  30',  Ion.  111°  30')  in  E.  Idaho,  on  the  border 
of  Montana,  near  the  head  wraters  of  Jefferson 
river,  and  has  a  S.  course.  From  the  junction 
the  Snake  describes  a  curve  of  more  than  350 
m.  through  S.  Idaho,  flowing  S.  W.  and  then 
N.  W.,  and  strikes  the  Oregon  border  in  about 
lat.  44°  40';  it  then  flows  K  about  200  m., 
separating  Idaho  from  Oregon  and  Washington 
territory,  when  in  about  lat.  46°  30'  it  turns 
W.  into  Washington,  and  after  a  further  course 
of  about  150  m.  falls  into  the  Columbia  about 
20  m.  above  the  Oregon  boundary,  about  lat. 
46°  15',  Ion.  119°.  Its  total  length  is  upward 
of  900  m.  Steamers  ascend  to  Lewiston  on 
the  Idaho  border ;  navigation  is  then  impeded 
for  more  than  100  m.  by  shallows  and  rapids, 
above  which  the  river  is  again  navigable  for 
150  or  200  m.  In  its  course  through  S.  Idaho, 
the  Snake  flows  through  a  vast  canon,  vary 
ing  in  depth  from  100  to  1,000  ft. ;  many  of 
its  tributaries  sink,  and,  passing  under  the 
strata  of  lava,  fall  from  the  sides  of  the  canon 
into  the  main  stream;  and  here  occur  the 
American,  Shoshone,  and  Salmon  falls,  for  an 
account  of  which  see  IDAHO,  vol.  ix.,  p.  167. 
Its  chief  tributaries  on  the  right  bank  are  the 
Malade  from  the  north ;  the  Boise,  Payette, 
Weiser,  Salmon,  and  Clearwater  (which  enters 
at  the  point  where  the  Snake  leaves  the  Idaho 
boundary)  from  the  east ;  and  the  Palouse  (in 


130 


SNAZEBOOT 


Washington)  from  the  north.  On  the  left 
bank  it  receives  among  others  the  Blackfoot, 
Port  Neuf,  Bannack,  Raft,  Goose,  Salmon,  and 
Bruneau,  in  Idaho ;  the  Owyhee,  Malheur, 
Burnt,  and  Powder,  in  Oregon ;  and  the  Grande 
Eonde,  just  within  Washington  territory. 

SNAKEROOT,  a  common  name,  usually  with  a 
prefix,  for  several  plants  which  are  botanical- 
ly  very  distinct,  applied  to  them  because  they 
were  supposed,  especially  by  the  Indians,  to  be 
efficacious  against  the  poisonous  bites  of  ser 
pents.  1.  Seneca  snakeroot  (officinal  as  sene 
ga)  is  polygala  senega.  The  genus  polygala 
(Greek  Tro/lvf,  much,  and  yd/la,  milk,  as  some 
species  were  formerly  supposed  to  increase  the 
secretion  of  milk)  has  about  200  species,  widely 
distributed,  about  25  of  which  belong  to  this 
country,  and  a  few  showy  exotics  are  grown 
as  greenhouse  plants.  The  flowers  have  the 
general  appearance  of  those  of  the  leguminosce, 
but  their  structure  is  quite  different  and  is  dif- 


Seneca  Snakeroot  (Polygala  Senega).    Part  of  Eoot  of 
natural  size. 

ficult  to  describe;  two  of  the  five  sepals  are 
colored  and  petal-like,  while  the  three  proper 
petals  are  united,  the  middle  one  keeled- shaped 
and  often  bearing  a  crest ;  the  six  or  eight  sta 
mens  are  united  by  their  filaments  in  two  sets, 
the  anthers  one-celled  and  opening  by  a  hole 
at  the  top ;  pod  small  and  two-seeded.  Poly 
gala  polygama  and  P.  pauciflora,  both  pretty 
native  species,  produce,  besides  ordinary  flow 
ers,  numerous  fertile  flowers  on  short  under 
ground  runners.  P.  senega,  the  thick,  hard, 
and  knotted  rootstocks  of  which  are  the  seneca 
snakeroot  of  the  shops,  is  found  from  New 
England  southward  and  westward ;  the  stems 
are  about  a  foot  high;  leaves  lanceolate,  and 
the  white  flowers  in  close  terminal  spikes.  The 
dried  root  has  a  peculiar  odor  and  an  acrid 
taste  when  chewed ;  it  contains  a  principle 
called  senegine,  probably  the  same  that  has 
been  called  polygalic  acid,  and  closely  allied  to 
saponine.  The  drug  was  first  introduced  into 


Europe  as  the  Seneca  rattlesnake  root  about 
1734,  and  in  1749  Linnaeus  wrote  a  dissertation 
upon  the  drug.  It  is  a  stimulant  expectorant, 
and  in  large  doses  emetic  and  diaphoretic ; 
it  is  chiefly  used 
in  the  compound 
sirup  of  squills, 
or  hive  syrup.  2. 
Virginia  snake- 
root,  as  found  in 
the  shops,  is  the 
root  of  aristolo- 
chia  serpentaria 
and  its  varieties. 
The  genus  aris- 
tolochia  is  apet- 
alous,  and  com 
prises  low  herbs 
and  climbing 
vines;  the  tubu 
lar  calyx  is  often 
curiously  bent 
and  inflated,  and 
in  some  of  the  hot 
house  exotic  spe 
cies  presents  some 

Of  the  Strangest  Virginia  Snakeroot  (Aristolochia 
forms  to  be  found  serpentaria). 

among      flowers. 

The  best  known  species  is  A.  sipho,  which, 
under  the  name  of  Dutchman's  pipe  (from  the 
shape  of  the  flowers),  is  often  cultivated  as  a 
vine  for  verandas.  The  medicinal  species  has 
a  weak  stem  about  a  foot  high,  usually  heart- 
shaped  leaves,  and  a  few  inconspicuous  flowers 
close  to  the  root,  the  calyx  tube  being  curved 
like  the  letter  S.  It  is  most  abundant  in  the 
middle  states  and  southward,  but  like  most 
medicinal  plants  has  become  rare  in  the  older 
states.  The  dried  root,  when  bruised,  has  a 
marked  odor  and  taste,  which  have  been  com 
pared  to  camphor,  valerian,  and  turpentine 
combined ;  it  contains  an  essential  oil  and  a 
resin.  Virginia  snakeroot  had  a  high  reputa 
tion  with  the  Indians  as  a  cure  for  snake  bites, 
and  was  early  introduced  into  England  as  a 
remedy  for  the  bite  of  reptiles  and  rabid  dogs, 
and  was  officinal  in  the  London  Pharmacopoeia 
of  1650.  It  is  now  used  only  as  a  stimulant 
tonic  and  diaphoretic,  and  has  been  employed 
in  the  treatment  of  intermittent  fevers.  3. 
Canada  snakeroot,  also  called  wild  and  Indian 
ginger,  is  asarum  Canadense.  The  genus  asa- 
rum,  with  the  preceding  one,  belongs  tc  the 
family  of  aristolochiacece,  and  consists  of  low 
stemless  herbs,  from  the  creeping  rootstocks 
of  which  rise  usually  one  or  two  heart-shaped 
leaves  on  long  petioles,  and  a  short-peduncled 
flower,  which  appears  in  early  spring ;  the 
regular  calyx  has  three  equal  lobes,  brownish 
purple,  enclosing  12  stamens  and  the  large  pis 
tils.  A.  Canadense  has  broadly  heart-kidney- 
shaped  deciduous  leaves,  in  pairs,  with  the 
flower  between  them.  The  dried  rootstock  is 
in  contorted  pieces  about  the  size  of  a  quill, 
with  an  odor  and  a  taste  somewhat  between 


SNAKES 


SNEEZING 


131 


those  of  ginger  and  cardamoms ;  it  contains  an 
essential  oil ;  it  is  an  aromatic  stimulant,  and 
is  sometimes  used  to  modify  the  action  of  other 
medicines ;  in  domestic  practice  a  tincture  is 
used  in  colic,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  country 
it  is  made  to  serve  the  purpose  of  ginger  in 
cookery;  it  is  one  of  the  things  chewed  to 
conceal  a  bad  breath.  Two  evergreen  species 
are  found  from  Virginia  southward :  A.  Vir- 
ginicum,  with  small  round-heart-shaped,  and 
A.  arifolium,  with  large  halberd-shaped  leaves; 
both  possess  similar  aromatic  rootstocks,  and 
the  leaves  of  all  three,  when  dried,  powdered, 
and  used  as  snuff,  are  said  to  have  similar 
properties  with  the  foreign  A.  Europaum,  or 
asurabacca,  in  producing  sneezing  and  a  copious 
flow  of  mucus  from  the  nose. — Black  snake- 
root  is  sanicula  Canadensis  and  S.  Marilan- 
dica.  Button  snakeroot  is  eryngium  yucccefo- 
lium ;  the  same  name  is  also  given  to  some 


Canada  Snakeroot  (Asarum  Canadense). 

species  of  liatris.  White  snakeroot  is  eupato- 
rium  ageratoides.  Snakehead  is  chelone  glabra. 

SHAKES,  a  family  of  American  Indians.  See 
SHOSHONES. 

SNAPPING  TURTLE  (cJielydra  serpentina, 
Schweig.  ;  genus  clielonura,  Fleming),  an 
American  species  of  fresh-water  chelonians, 
characterized  by  a  large  head,  with  both  jaws 
strongly  hooked  and  two  barbels  under  the 
chin,  short  and  pointed  snout,  the  nostrils 
near  together,  and  the  eyes  large,  prominent, 
and  far  forward;  the  sternum  is  small,  cru 
ciform,  immovable,  and  covered  with  twelve 
plates  and  three  supplemental  ones ;  the  cara- 
p#ce  oblong,  depressed,  more  or  less  tricari- 
nated,  deeply  notched  behind  with  three  points 
on  each  side  of  the  central  notch;  the  neck 
long  and  thick,  with  a  warty  skin ;  tail  very 
long,  surmounted  by  a  scaly  or  tuberculated 
crest;  the  anterior  limbs  with  five  nails,  the 
posterior  with  four;  the  skin  of  the  limbs 
above  and  below  scaly.  The  head  may  be  in 


great  part  retracted  within  the  shell,  whence 
it  can  be  very  suddenly  extended  by  the  long 
and  extensile  neck,  but  the  limbs  and  feet  are 
mostly  exposed.  The  shell  is  dusky  above, 


Snapping  Turtle  (Chelydra  serpentina). 

and  the  lower  parts  yellowish ;  it  attains  a 
length  of  more  than  4  ft.  and  a  weight  of  50 
Ibs. ;  it  prefers  sluggish  and  deep  water  in 
ponds  or  rivers,  keeping  principally  at  the  bot 
tom  ;  it  is  very  voracious,  and  feeds  on  fish, 
reptiles,  and  such  aquatic  birds  as  come  within 
its  reach,  especially  young  ducks  and  goslings 
and  wounded  birds ;  it  has  been  known  to  at 
tack  man,  and  is  not  unfrequently  caught  with 
hooks;  its  flesh  is  much  esteemed  for  soups, 
though  in  the  old  animals  it  has  a  musky  odor. 
It  goes  far  from  water  to  deposit  its  eggs; 
though  an  excellent  swimmer,  it  is  awkward 
on  land,  walking  slowly,  with  the  head,  neck, 
and  tail  extended,  raised  on  the  legs  like  an 
alligator,  whence  it  is  called  by  the  negroes 
alligator  cooter ;  it  is  very  savage  if  attacked, 
raising  itself  with  such  quickness  on  its  legs  as 
to  elevate  the  whole  body  from  the  ground  and 
enable  it  to  make  considerable  hops,  snapping 
with  great  ferocity  and  quickness  at  any  object 
coming  within  reach  of  its  long  neck ;  its  bite 
is  severe  and  tenacious.  It  is  distributed  from 
Maine  to  Georgia,  and  westward  to  the  Missis 
sippi,  being  replaced  further  west  by  the  C. 
Temminckii  (Troost;  genus  gypochelys,  Ag.), 
characterized  by  a  larger  triangular  head, 
rougher  shell,  and  neck  and  limbs  covered 
with  spiny  warts.  In  the  northern  states  it 
lays  its  eggs,  20  to  40,  between  June  10  and 
25,  generally  in  the  forenoon,  and  in  captiv 
ity  a  month  later ;  it  excavates  a  hole  at  first 
directly  down  and  then  laterally,  so  that  the 
widest  part,  where  the  nest  is,  is  on  one  side ; 
sometimes  several  holes  are  dug,  before  one  is 
found  to  suit;  the  females  lose  their  shyness 
at  this  time,  and  smooth  the  earth  over  with 
care  after  the  eggs  are  deposited. — In  some 
parts  of  the  country,  the  soft-shelled  turtles 
(trionycidce)  are  called  snapping  turtles.  The 
eggs  in  these  species  are  nearly  globular,  about 
an  inch  in  diameter,  white,  and  with  hard  shells. 
SNEEZING,  a  modification  of  the  ordinary 
respiratory  movements,  accompanied  by  a  vio 
lent  expiratory  effort,  sending  forth  a  blast  of 
air  from  the  lungs  intended  to  expel  some  irri 
tating  substance  from  the  nasal  air  passages. 
It  differs  from  coughing  in  the  communication 
between  the  larynx  and  mouth  being  partly  or 
wholly  cut  off  by  the  drawing  together  of  the 


132 


SNELL 


SNIPE 


sides  of  the  soft  palate  over  the  back  of  the 
tongue,  so  that  the  blast  of  air,  by  a  convul 
sive  movement,  passes  through  the  nose  with 
more  or  less  noise  instead  of  through  the 
mouth.  It  may  be  excited  by  acrid  vapors, 
irritating  liquids  or  solids,  diseased  secretions, 
or  the  simple  entrance  of  air  when  the  Schnei- 
derian  membrane  is  peculiarly  irritable. 

SNELL,  WHIebrord,  a  Dutch  mathematician, 
born  in  Leyden  in  1591,  died  there,  Oct.  31, 
1626.  He  studied  law,  but  devoted  himself 
principally  to  mathematics.  When  17  years 
old  he  published  an  essay  in  which  he  endeav 
ored  to  restore  a  lost  treatise  of  Apollonius. 
He  travelled  in  Germany,  and  won  the  friend 
ship  and  esteem  of  Kepler.  In  1613  he  suc 
ceeded  his  father  as  professor  in  the  univer 
sity  of  Leyden.  He  was  the  first  to  make  a 
trigonometrical  measurement  of  an  arc  of  a 
meridian,  and  thence  to  calculate  the  size  of 
the  earth.  His  result  was  erroneous,  on  ac 
count  of  the  imperfection  of  the  instruments 
then  in  use;  but  he  himself  discovered  the 
errors.  He  also  discovered  the  law  of  the  re 
fraction  of  light  (see  LIGHT,  vol.  x.,  p.  438), 
and  improved  the  methods  of  approximating 
to  the  ratio  of  the  radius  to  the  circumfer 
ence  of  the  circle.  His  most  important  work 
is  Eratosthenes  Batavus,  sive  de  Terra  Am 
bitus  vera  Quantitate  (Leyden,  1617). 

SNELLING,  Josiah,  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  Boston  in  1782,  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
Aug.  20, 1828.  He  was  appointed  a  lieutenant 
in  the  4th  infantry  in  1808,  became  captain  in 
1809,  distinguished  himself  in  the  battle  of 
Tippecanoe  in  1811,  and  was  made  brevet  ma 
jor  for  services  at  the  battle  of  Brownstown, 
Aug.  9,  1812.  In  1814  he  was  made  inspector 
general  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was 
prominent  in  the  affair  of  Lyon's  creek.  In 
1819  he  was  made  colonel  of  the  5th  infantry. 
He  was  a  witness  against  Hull  at  his  trial,  and 
wrote  "Remarks  on  General  William  Hull's 
Memoirs  of  the  Campaign  of  the  Northwest 
ern  Army,  1812  "  (8vo,  Detroit,  1825). 

SNETHEN,  Nicholas,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  at  Fresh  Pond  (now  Glen  Cove)J  Long 
Island,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  15,  1769,  died  in  Princeton, 
Ind.,  May  30,  1845.  In  1794  he  entered  the 
itinerant  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church,  travelled  and  preached  for  four  years 
in  Connecticut,  Vermont,  and  Maine,  labored 
at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  for  a  year  or  more,  and- 
thence  was  ordered,  to  Baltimore,  where  he 
attended  the  general  conference  in  May,  1800, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  favor  of  limiting 
the  episcopal  prerogative,  a  delegated  general 
conference  (his  plan  for  which  was  finally 
adopted  in  1808),  and  a  preachers'  anti-slavery 
tract  society,  and  against  the  future  admission 
of  any  slaveholder  into  the  church.  He  after 
ward  travelled  with  Bishop  Asbury  as  his  pri 
vate  secretary.  In  1804-'6  he  was  stationed  in 
New  York,  whence  he  removed  to  his  farrf  on 
Longanore,  Frederick  co.,  Md.  By  his  mar 
riage  ho  became  the  holder  of  slaves,  whom 


he  emancipated  as  soon  as  the  law  would  per 
mit  (1820).  From  1809  to  1814  he  was  again 
an  itinerant,  and  was  stationed  successively  in 
Baltimore,  Georgetown,  Alexandria,  and  on 
the  circuit  of  his  farm  residence.  While  in 
Georgetown  he  was  elected  chaplain  to  con 
gress.  In  1829  he  removed  to  Indiana.  He 
was  the  first  to  introduce  camp  meetings  into 
Maryland  and  New  York.  In  1821  he  began 
to  write  in  favor  of  lay  representation.  The 
refusal  of  this  right  by  the  general  conference 
in  1828,  and  the  expulsion  from  the  church  of 
many  of  its  advocates,  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  Methodist  Protestant  church,  in  which 
Mr.  Snethen  bore  a  prominent  part,  and  in 
connection  with  which  he  continued  to  travel 
and  preach  after  his  removal  to  the  west  till 
a  short  time  before  his  death.  He  published 
"Lectures  on  Preaching  the  Gospel"  (1822), 
"Essays  on  Lay  Representation"  (1835),  and 
"Lectures  on  Biblical  Subjects"  (1836).  A 
volume  of  his  sermons,  edited  by  Worthing- 
ton  G.  Snethen,  was  published  in  1846. 

SNEYDERS.     See  SXYDEES. 

SNIPE,  a  group  of  wading  birds,  of  the  sub 
family  scolopacincB.  It  is  characterized  by  a 
long,  straight,  slender  bill,  obtuse  and  flexible, 
covered  with  a  soft,  sensitive  skin,  abundantly 
supplied  with  nerves  towasd  the  end;  the 
upper  mandible  the  longest,  somewhat  bent 
down  at  the  end,  and  grooved  on  the  sides,  in 
which  the  nostrils  are  placed  ;  the  tongue  long, 
slender,  and  pointed  at  the  end,  the  oesophagus 
narrow,  and  the  stomach  very  muscular ;  eyes 
far  back  in  the  head;  wings  moderate  and 
pointed ;  tail  short  and  rounded ;  legs  short, 
feathered  lower  down  than  in  most  waders  ; 
hind  toe  •  small,  elevated,  but  reaching  the 
ground,  the  anterior  long  and  slender,  and  free 
except  in  the  genus  macroramphu$.  Snipes 
are  migratory  and  small,  going  north  to  breed ; 
they  frequent  marshy  places  and  the  margins 
of  rivers  and  ponds,  where  they  probe  the  soft 
mud  perpendicularly  with  the  bill  in  search  of 
worms,  insects,  and  Iarva3 ;  the  nest  is  a  slight 
hollow  on  the  ground,  lined  with  grass  and 
sedge,  and  the  eggs,  usually  four,  are  placed 
with  the  pointed  end  inward ;  the  young  are 
able  to  leave  the  nest  as  soon  as  hatched  ;  the 
flesh  is  considered  a  great  delicacy.  The 
subfamily  includes  the  genera  macroramphus 
(Leach),  gallinago  (Leach),  rJiyncJicea  (Cuv.), 
zcolopax  (Linn.),  and  pMloliela  (Gray),  of 
which  the  last  two  will  be  noticed  under  WOOD 
COCK. — In  macrorampJius  the  wings  are  long 
and  pointed,  with  the  first  and  second  quills 
equal ;  the  tarsi  are  longer  than  the  middle  toe, 
which  is  united  to  the  base  of  the  outer  by  a 
short  web.  The  species  are  found  in  Europe 
and  North  America,  occurring  in  large  flocks 
near  the  sea,  feeding  on  small  mollusks,  worms, 
and  insects;  they  fly  rapidly  and  irregularly 
with  a  quivering  whistle.  The  gray  or  red- 
breasted  snipe  (M.  griseus,  Leach)  is  about  10 
in.  long  and  18  in.  in  alar  extent,  the  bill  2}  in., 
and  weighs  3J  oz. ;  the  prevailing  colors  above 


SNIPE 


SNOEEI  STUELASON 


133 


are  dark  ashy,  pale  reddish,  and  black,  with 
rump  and  upper  tail  coverts  white;  under 
parts  pale  ferruginous,  with  spots  and  bands 
of  brownish  blacl^ ;  the  quills  brownish  black, 


Wilson's  Snipe  (Gallinago  Wilsonii). 

the  shaft  of  the  first  primary  white ;  the 
young  are  dull  white  below,  marked  with  ashy ; 
the  plumage  is  more  gray  in  winter,  and  more 
red  in  summer.  It  occurs  over  temperate 
North  America,  in  large  flocks,  occasionally 
going  inland  in  autumn  on  the  return  from 
the  north,  where  it  goes  to  breed ;  the  flight 
is  rapid  and  strong,  accompanied  by  a  single 
mellow  "  weet ;"  the  call  note  is  a  whistle ;  the 
flesh  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  the  common 
American  snipe. — In  gallinago  the  tarsus  is 
shorter  than  the  middle  toe,  and  there  is  no  web. 
The  American  or  Wilson's  snipe  (G.  Wilsonii, 
Bonap.)  is  about  10-J-  in.  long,  with  an  alar  ex 
tent  of  17  in.,  the  bill  2|-  in.,  and  weighs  3  oz. ; 
above  the  feathers  are  brownish  black,  spotted 
and  edged  with  yellowish  brown  or  ashy  white ; 
a  black  line  from  base  of  bill  over  top  of  head ; 


Common  European  Snipe  (Qallinago  media). 

throat  and  neck  before  reddish  ashy,  under 
parts  white,  quills  and  tail  like  back,  the  latter 
widely  tipped  with  bright  rufous,  with  a  nar 
row  subterminal  black  band.  It  occurs  over 


temperate  North  America,  going  in  summer  as 
far  as  Nova  Scotia,  where  it  breeds  in  June  in 
the  elevated  moss-covered  marshes ;  the  eggs 
are  yellowish  olive,  spotted  with  brown  ;  they 
return  to  the  south  in  October,  and  are  very 
fond  of  the  rice  fields ;  they  rarely  visit  the  sea 
shore,  and  never  the  interior  of  woods;  the 
cry  resembles  the  syllables  "wau-aik."  They 
are  fond  of  leeches  and  other  food  not  gen 
erally  coveted  by  man,  though  most  epicures, 
ignorant  of  this,  are  in  the  habit  of  cooking  and 
eating  them,  contents  of  intestines  included. 
The  great  or  double  snipe  of  Europe  (G.  major, 
Steph.)  is  11  or  12  in.  long,  varied  with  black 
and  bright  reddish  above,  the  red  arranged 
longitudinally,  and  whitish  red  below ;  the 
shaft  of  the  first  quill  is  whitish  ;  it  inhabits 
N.  Europe.  The  common  snipe  of  Europe  (G, 
media,  Steph.)  is  10  or  11  in.  long,  with  two 
blackish  longitudinal  bands  on  the  head,  the 
neck  spotted  with  brown  and  fawn  color,  the 
mantle  blackish  with  two  longitudinal  fawn- 
colored  bands,  the  wings  brown  waved  with 
gray,  quill  shafts  brown,  and  lower  parts  white 
waved  with  blackish  on  the  flanks ;  it  flies  very 
high,  with  a  shrill  cry  ;  from  its  wavering- 
flight  it  is  generally  difficult  to  shoot;  its  flesh 
is  delicious. — In  rhynchcea  the  bill  is  shorter 
and  more  curved,  the  first  three  quills  equal 
and  longest,  the  tertials  as  long  as  the  quills, 
and  the  tail  very  short ;  the  species  are  adorned 
with  bright  yellow  ocellated  spots  on  the  quills 
and  tail ;  they  occur  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
in  the  East  Indies,  and  Australia.  The  Cape 
snipe  (J?.  Capensis,  Cuv.)  is  10  in.  long,  varie 
gated  with  black  and  cinereous ;  around  the 
eye,  a  little  way  down  the  neck,  pectoral  band, 
and  abdomen,  white. 

SNOHOMISH,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Washington 
territory,  bordering  W.  on  Puget  sound  and 
E.  on  the  Cascade  mountains,  and  drained  by 
several  streams;  area,  1,500  sq.  m.;  pop.  in 
1870,  599.  Extensive  forests  skirt  the  streams, 
and  lumber  is  the  chief  source  of  wealth.  Coal 
is  found  in  various  places.  Along  the  sound 
are  extensive  cranberry  marshes,  and  in  the 
interior  large  tracts  adapted  to  agriculture. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  1,290  bush 
els  of  oats,  1,415  of  barley,  11,680  of  potatoes, 
and  857  tons  of  hay.  The  value  of  live  stock 
was  $25,305.  Capital,  Snohomish  City. 

SNORRI  STURLASON,  or  Snorre  Stnrluson,  an 
Icelandic  historian,  born  on  the  shores  of 
Hvammsfiord,  a  bay  on  the  W.  coast  of  Ice 
land,  in  1178,  murdered  at  Eeykholt,  Sept.  22, 
1241.  He  was  of  distinguished  family,  was 
carefully  educated,  and  became  proficient  in 
Greek  and  Latin.  Though  originally  poor,  he 
became  by  marriage  the  wealthiest  man  in 
Iceland ;  and  his  legal  attainments,  bravery, 
and  eloquence  obtained  for  him  the  highest  po 
sitions  in  the  field  and  in  the  althmg  or  legis 
lature.  His  residence  was  a  fortified  strong 
hold,  and  he  appeared  in  the  national  assembly 
with  a  retinue  of  hundreds  of  armed  follow 
ers.  Traces  of  his  sumptuous  abode  at  Eeyk- 


134 


SNOW 


FI:J. 


holt  still  exhibit  stone  structures  of  finished 
elegance  for  hot  baths,  supplied  from  boiling 
springs  through  an  aqueduct  of  hewn  stone 
500  ft.  in  length.  On  being  elected  to  the 
chief  magistracy,  he  gave  proof  of  great  judi 
cial  learning.  In  1213  he  produced  an  ode  to 
a  Norwegian  warrior,  which 
was  requited  by  liberal  pres 
ents.  This  poem  was  fol 
lowed  by  others,  one  of  them 
composed  in  honor  of  the 
king  of  Norway,  Haco  V. 
On  a  visit  to  Norway  he  was 
made  an  honorary  marshal 
of  the  court,  and  upon  re- 
embarking  for  Iceland  was 
loaded  with  rich  presents.  Faction  and  disor 
der  prevailed  throughout  Iceland,  and  the  king 
of  Norway  seized  the  moment  to  advance 
his  designs  for  the  subjugation  of  the  island. 
Snorri  became  involved  in  domestic  feuds,  and 
in  1237  appeared  in  Norway  as  a  fugitive.  The 
king  created  him  a  jarl,  but  soon  became  hos 
tile  to  him,  and  Snorri  returned  to  Iceland. 
Emissaries  were  employed 
to  seize  him  and  send  him 
in  irons  to  Norway,  but  he 
was  murdered  at  Reykholt  by 
his  son-in-law,  Gissur.  II is 
most  .important  work  is  the 
Ileimskringla,  or  "  Chroni 
cle  of  the  Norwegian  Kings." 
It  is  probable  that  in  this 
work  he  made  large  use  of 
the  writings  of  Ari  Erode, 
fragments  of  whose  Scandi 
navian  histories,  composed  a 
century  earlier,  still  remain. 
The  Younger  Edda  also  bears 
the  name  of  Snorri  Sturla- 
son  alone,  but  it  was  gradu 
ally  formed  by  the  successive 
additions  of  several  writers.  The  first  copy 
of  it  was  found  by  Arngrim  Jonsson  in  1628. 
The  original  Icelandic  text  of  the  Ileims'kring- 
la  was  first  printed  by  Peringskiold  in  1697, 
though  a  Danish  translation  was  current  100 
years  before.  The  last  edition  is  by  Schoning 
and  others,  in  Icelandic,  Danish,  and  Latin  (6 
vols.,  Copenhagen,  1777-1826).  There  is  an 
English  translation,  "  The  Heimskriugla,  or 
Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of 
Norway,"  by  Samuel  Laing 
(3  vols.,  London,  1844). 

SNOW,  the  fiocculcnt  white 
masses  of  crystals  in  which 
the  aqueous  vapor  of  the  at 
mosphere  at  low  tempera 
tures  is  precipitated  from  the 
clouds.  The  other  forms  in 
which  atmospheric  vapor  appears  are  treated 
of  _  under  DEW,  FEOST,  HAIL,  and  RAIN.  The 
primary  condition  necessary  to  the  formation 
of  snow  is  the  saturation  of  the  air  at  a  freez 
ing  temperature  with  vapor ;  the  exact  limits  r 
of  temperature  are  not  known,  but  probably  j 


vary  with  the  density  of  the  air  and  the  va 
por  ;  the  surplus  vapor  is  precipitated  from 
its  invisible  state  in  minute  crystals,  the  pri 
mary  form  of  which  is  that  of  a  rhomboid 
having  angles  of  60°  and  120°.  (See  CEYS- 
TALLOGRAPIIY.)  By  far  the  larger  part  of 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4. 


FIG.  5. 


snow  falls  during  the  night,  and  in  many  lo 
calities  the  maximum  fall  is  between  1  and  7 
A.  M.,  which  suggests  that  the  cooling  neces 
sary  to  the  production  of  snow  is  mainly  due 
to  radiation  ;  a  secondary  maximum  between 
8  and  10  A.  M.  is  explicable  as  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  dynamic  cooling  of  rising  cur 
rents.  The  complexity  of  the  forms  of  snow 


FIG. 


flakes  increases  with  the  quantity  of  moisture 
in  the  air,  and  probably  with  the  variety  of 
alternations  of  temperature  to  which  they  are 
exposed.  Their  size  increases  with  the  tem 
perature  and  humidity ;  thus  they  are  much 
larger  from  9  to  11  A.  M.  than  before  sun 
rise.  Little  however  is  satisfactorily  known 
on  these  points.  More  than  1,000  forms  of 
snow  crystals  have  been  observed  and  figured 


FIG. 


FIG. 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  11. 


by  Scoresby,  Glaisher,  Green,  Stephen  Lowe, 
and  others.  A  very  beautiful  contribution 
to  this  subject  was  published  anonymously 
in  New  York  in  1863,  under  the  title  of 
"  Cloud  Crystals,"  iji  which  over  150  new 
forms  are  added  to  those  described  by  previ- 


SNOW 


135 


ous  authors,  and  several  interesting  observa 
tions  are  given  upon  the  conditions  of  their 
formation.  The  accompanying  figures,  repre 
senting  specimens  of  the  simple  and  the  more 
complicated  forms  of  crystals,  are  from  Bu- 
chau's  "  Meteorology."  Scoresby,  who  first 
studied  these  forms,  classified  them  into :  1, 
thin  plates  (figs.  1  to  7)  ;  2,  spherical  nuclei 
studded  with  needles  (fig.  8) ;  3,  three-  or  six- 
sided  prisms  or  needles  (fig.  9) ;  4,  six-sided 
pyramids  (fig.  10)  ;  5,  prisms  terminated  by 
planes  (fig.  11).  The  conditions  regulating 
the  occurrence  of  each  figure  are  probably 
quite  definite,  inasmuch  as  it  is  rare  that  more 
than  three  or  four  kinds  of  flakes  occur  at  the 
same  time.  The  high  cirrus  clouds  are  prob 
ably  generally  formed  of  spiculaa,  or  possibly 
small  flakes  of  snow,  which  when  the  clouds 
are  not  too  thick  give  rise  to  the  phenomena 
of  halos  (see  HALO),  and  the  geometrical  ex 
planation  of  these  latter  seems  generally  to 
require  that  the  snow  flakes  present  in  these 
clouds  should  be  principally  of  the  simplest 
forms.  The  amount  of  snowfall  in  different 
parts  of  the  earth  is  known  with  less  accuracy 
than  is  that  of  rainfall,  owing  partly  to  the 
drifting  of  the  snow,  but  especially  to  the  fact 
that  a  too  great  diversity  has  existed  in  the 
methods  adopted  by  the  observers  to  ascertain 
either  the  quantity  or  the  depth  of  the  snow. 
It  is  generally  assumed  that  ^  or  TV  °f  tne 
depth  of  snow  measured  immediately  after 
falling  will  give  the  corresponding  depth  of 
melted  snow.  Quetelet,  as  the  mean  of  many 
observations,  says  |-,  but  for  very  dry  or  very 
wet  snow  these  fractions  are  very  uncertain. 
The  total  depth  of  snowfall,  is  greatest,  other 
conditions  being  the  same,  where  the  strong 
winds  of  winter  are  laden  with  moisture ;  •  thus 
it  averages  annually  4  to  7  ft.  in  the  interior  of 
Maine,  Vermont,  New  York,  and  Upper  Can 
ada,  but  only  2  ft.  for  the  states  in  the  same 
latitude  further  west.  One  of  the  heaviest 
snowfalls  recorded  in  America  was  that  which 
continued  from  Feb.  19  to  24,  1717,  when  the 
snow  remained  5  or  6  ft.  deep  over  all  the  set 
tled  parts  of  New  England.  The  geographical 
distribution  of  snow  at  sea  level  is  such  that  in 
general  in  the  eastern  parts  of  North  America 
and  Asia  it  is  rarely  seen  S.  of  lat.  30°,  and  in 
western  Asia  S.  of  lat.  36°.  On  the  W.  side 
of  North  America  it  is  rarely  seen  at  the  sea 
level  on  the  immediate  coast,  but  is  quite  com 
mon  in  the  interior. — Falls  of  snow  may  occur 
in  any  month  in  extreme  polar  latitudes;  in 
New  England  and  Canada  snow  falls  mostly 
from  November  to  March  inclusive,  but  in  the 
latitude  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  it  falls  mostly 
during  January  and  February.  The  average 
number  of  days  on  which  snow  falls  is,  for  St. 
Petersburg,  170;  Paris,  12;  Washington,  D.  C., 
20 ;  Gibraltar,  0 ;  San  Francisco,  0 ;  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  1.  But  on  ascending  above  the  sea  level 
we  soon  come  to  altitudes  such  that  snow  may 
fall  and  remain  on  the  ground  at  any  season  ; 
the  altitude  at  which  accumulations  remain 


throughout  the  year  is  called  the  limit  of  per 
petual  snow.  The  conditions  governing  this 
lower  limit  were  first  studied  carefully  by  Hum- 
boldt  in  his  climatology  of  Asia,  and  more  re 
cently  has  been  investigated  by  Grad  (1873)  ; 
according  to  these,  the  limit  in  question  has 
a  general  apparent  connection  with  the  iso 
therms  of  32°  F.,  but  departs  therefrom  to  an 
important  degree  when  the  prevailing  winds 
are  dry  or  moist.  Thus  the  limit  is  lower  in 
the  southern  than  in  the  northern  hemisphere ; 
lower  on  the  S.  than  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
Himalaya  mountains ;  lower  within  the  tropics 
than  under  the  latitudes  20°  to  35°.  From 
these  latitudes  it  diminishes,  according  to 
Grad,  to  about  3,000  ft.  in  lat,  00°  S.  and 
65°  N. ;  but  only  in  the  high  polar  regions  is 
the  limit  below  1,000  ft.,  it  being  higher  in 
Greenland  or  Spitzbergen,  where  it  is  only 
the  glaciers  that  descend  to  sea  level.  (See 
GLACIEE.) — Owing  to  the  innumerable  reflect 
ing  facets  of  the  minute  crystals  and  the  quan 
tity  of  air  caught  between  the  crystals,  a  layer 
of  snow  is  a  remarkably  perfect  non-conductor 
of  heat ;  for  this  reason  the  covering  of  snow 
on  the  ground  forms  an  almost  perfect  protec 
tion  to  the  plants  beneath  against  the  freezing 
that  would  otherwise  follow  the  radiation  of 
their  heat  into  the  atmosphere.  In  Ebermayer's 
"Influence  of  Forests"  (1873)  a  case  is  quoted 
(by  no  means  an  extreme  one)  in  which  the 
temperature  of  the  air  was  —  6'8°  F.,  and  that 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth  beneath  the  snow 
+  83-8°  F.,  while  -below  the  surface  the  earth 
was  still  warmer.  On  the  other  hand,  the  in 
dividual  crystals  of  snow  have  probably  the 
same  large  radiating  power  as  ice  in  larger 
solid  blocks,  which  according  to  Leslie  is  85, 
that  of  lampblack  being  100.  The  consequence 
of  this  is,  that  during  the  night  very  hard 
frozen  crusts  are  formed  on  the  surface  of  the 
snow  which  has  been  somewhat  thawed  during 
the  day;  the  same  property,  together  with 
that  of  regelation,  explains  the  peculiar  struc 
ture  of  the  surface  snows  of  glaciers,  and 
assists  in  the  formation  of  areas  of  colder  air 
over  snow  fields  than  over  bare  land.  Equally 
important  is  the  great  absorptive  power  of 
snow  for  solar  heat,  since  by  reason  of  it  the 
surface  of  a  layer  of  snow  is  melted  rapidly, 
and  a  large  amount  of  moisture  is  thrown 
into  the  air,  giving  rise  to  extensive  fog  and 
haze,  and  having  a  decided  influence  on  the 
development  of  storms. — Snow  flakes  in  falling 
bring  with  them  nearly  all  the  fine  dust  float 
ing  in  the  air,  leaving  the  atmosphere  extreme 
ly  pure ;  thus  in  northern  Europe  Nordens- 
kiold  has  found  freshly  fallen,  snow  impreg 
nated  with  a  black  dust  of  carbon  and  iron 
such  as  could  only  have  come  from  meteors  ; 
at  other  times  the  dust  is  such  as  could  only 
have  come  from  eruptions  of  volcanoes,  espe 
cially  those  in  Iceland. — Snow  is  occasionally 
tinged  black,  yellow,  red,  or  green,  as  was 
known  to  Pliny.  These  colors  are  due  to 
the  presence  of  microscopic  organisms,  as  was 


136 


SNOWBALL 


SNOW  BIRD 


suspected  by  De  Saussure  (1760),  which  were 
described  by  Dr.- Wollaston  as  minute  spher 
ical  globules  having  a  transparent  covering 
and  divided  into  seven  or  eight  cells  filled 
with  a  red  oily-like  liquid  insoluble  in  water. 
Girod-Chantraus  (1797  and  1802)  described 
these  as  plants  under  the  name  volvox  lacus- 
tris.  Bauer  (1820)  demonstrated  that  they 
are  a  fungous  growth,  which  he  named  uredo 
nwalis.  Robert  Brown  concluded  them  to  be 
alga?  allied  to  the  tremella  cruenta.  Agardh 
confirmed  the  views  as  to  their  vegetable  na 
ture,  and  gave  them  the  title  protococcus  per- 
mesina.  Bravais  and  Martins,  as  members  of 
the  northern  commission,  verified  the  identity 
of  red  (hcvmatococcus  nivalis)  and  green  {proto 
coccus  mridis)  globules  as  being  one  and  the 
same  plants  in  different  stages  of  growth,  the 
green  being  probably  the  riper.  The  most  re 
cent  authority  on  this  difficult  subject  is  Ros- 
tafinski  (1875),  who  retains  the  generic  name 
hcematococcus,  and  has  farther  confirmed  the 
identity  of  these  microscopic  algfe.  Ehrenberg 
(1847)  found,  besides  vegetable  spores,  animal 
cules  properly  so  called,  among  which  the  most 
abundant  in  red  snow  is  that  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  philodina  roseola. — The  glare  of  the 
sunlight  reflected  from  snow-covered  ground 
grves  rise,  unless  the  eyes  are  protected  by 
glasses  or  goggles,  to  a  very  severe  inflamma 
tion  of  the  optic  nerve.  (See  AMAUEOSIS,  and 
BLIND.) 

SNOWBALL.     See  GUELDER  ROSE. 

S1YOWBERRY,  the  common  name  for  a  native 
shrub,  given  on  account  of  its  large,  very  pure 
white  berries,  which  ripen  in  autumn  and  re 
main  after  the  leaves  have  fallen.  The  genus 
sympJioricarpus  (Gr.  avjuQopuv,  to  bear  together, 
and  Kapirds,  fruit,  from  the  clustered  berries), 
to  which  it  belongs,  is  exclusively  North  Amer- 


Snowberry  (Symphoricarpus  racemosus). 

ican,  extending  from  British  America  to  Mexi 
co,  and  contains  about  six  species ;  it  belongs 
to  the  honeysuckle  family,  and  differs  from  the 
honeysuckle  (Lonicera)  itself  in  having  a  regu 


lar  corolla  and  a  fewer-seeded  berry.  All  are 
small  branching  shrubs,  with  ovate  entire  (or 
sometimes  wavy-toothed),  opposite  leaves,  and 
small,  bell-shaped,  four-  to  five-lobed,  white 
or  rose-tinted  flowers  in  short  spikes  or  clus 
ters.  The  snowberry  (8.  ra-ce?nosus)  is  found 
from  Vermont  westward  to  Oregon,  and  as  far 
south  as  Pennsylvania ;  it  is  one  of  the  most 
common  garden  shrubs,  and  is  cultivated  for 
its  white  berries.  The  wolfberry  (S.  occiden- 
talis),  growing  from  Michigan  westward,  has 
also  white  berries.  The  Indian  currant  or 
coralberry  (S.  vulgaris\  found  from  western 
New  York  to  Texas,  and  sometimes  cultivated, 
has  small  dark  red  berries  in  dense  clusters. 

SNOAV  BIRD,  a  well  known  member  of  the 
finch  family,  and  genus  junco  (AVagler).  With 
the  general  characters  of  the  finch  family,  the 
middle  toe  is  shorter  than  the  short  tarsus,  the 
outer  the  longest ;  the  wings  are  rather  short, 
and  the  tail  slightly  notched ;  the  second  quill 
is  the  longest.  The  common-snow  bird  (/.  Jiye- 
Sclater)  is  about  6^  in.  long,  and  9  in. 


Snow  Bird  (Junco  hycmalis). 

in  alar  extent ;  the  upper  parts  are  nearly  uni 
form  dark  plumbeous,  darkest  anteriorly,  with 
out  any  red  in  the  interscapular  region  ;  lower 
parts  white ;  the  external  two  tail  feathers 
white,  the  third  white  margined  with  black. 
It  is  found  from  the  eastern  United  States  to 
the  Missouri  and  the  Black  hills  of  the  west, 
and  from  Louisiana  to  the  fur  countries.  It 
appears  in  New  England  from  the  south  early 
in  April,  while  the  ground  is  covered  with 
snow,  going  north  to  breed,  and  returning  south 
late  in  autumn.  They  are  found  in  small  fami 
lies,  which  usually  keep  by  themselves,  often 
visiting  farm  yards  and  hopping  after  domestic 
poultry,  and  in  cold  weather  retiring  into  holes 
in  hay  stacks.  They  are  fond  of  grass  seed 
and  berries  ;  the  flesh  is  delicate  and  juicy,  and 
is  often  sold  in  the  New  Orleans  market ;  the 
spring  notes  are  agreeable.  The  nest  is  on  the 
ground,  the  entrance  generally  concealed  ;  the 
eggs  are  four,  three  fourths  by  five  eighths  of 
an  inch,  yellowish  white  with  numerous  small 
reddish  brown  dots.  A  nearly  allied  species 
in  the  Rocky  mountains  is  the  J.  caniceps 
(Baird),  having  a  reddish  spot  in  the  inter- 
scapular  region  but  not  on  the  wings.  On  tho 


SNOW  BUNTING 


SNOWFLAKE 


137 


Pacific  coast  is  the  J.  Oregonus  (Sclat.),  head 
and  neck  sooty  black,  a  chestnut  patch  on  the 
back  and  wings,  and  the  belly  pure  white. 

SNOW  BUNTING.     See  BUNTING. 

SNOWDROP,  an  early  spring  flower,  the  name 
being  derived,  according  to  Prior,  from  the 


Snowdrop  (Galanthus  nivalis). 

German  Schneetropfen,  which  does  not  refer 
to  a  drop  of  snow,  but,  so  far  as  the  drop  is 
concerned,  to  the  pendents  or  ear  drops  worn 
by  ladies  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  The 
genus,  galanthus  (Gr.  yd/la,  milk,  and  avdoc, 
flower),  belongs  to  the  amaryllis  family,  and 
consists  of  three  or  four  European  species. 
The  small  bulbs  throw  up  two  or  three  nar 
row  leaves  and  a  flattened  scape  which  bears 
(usually)  a  single  fragrant  flower  on  a  slender 
nodding  pedicel ;  the*  perianth  has  six  separate 
divisions,  the  three  inner  tipped  with  green 
and  shorter  than  the  three  pure-white  outer 
ones.  The  common  snowdrop  is  G.  nivalis, 
which,  though  very  common  in  England,  is 
supposed  to  be  naturalized  there ;  its  leaves 
are  very  narrow,  and  its  flower  stalk  3  to  6 
in.  high ;  there  is  a  double  variety ;  the  plant 
blooms  early,  often  appearing  in  February. 
The  Crimean  snowdrop  (G.  plicatus)  has  the 
same  general  appearance  as  the  common,  but 
is  larger  in  all  its  parts.  The  bulbs,  which  are 
small,  should  be  planted  in  clumps,  and  bloom 
more  satisfactorily  if  left  undisturbed  for  sev 
eral  years.  (For  cultivation,  see  HYACINTH.) 

SNOWDROP  TREE,  a  name  given  to  shrubs  or 
small  trees  of  the  genus  Halesia,  on  account  of 
the  pure  white  pendulous  flowers,  wrhich  have 
also  suggested  the  equally  common  name  of 
silver-bell  tree.  Halesia  belongs  to  the  storax 
family,  and  is  a  genus  of  two  or  at  most  three 
species,  which  have  large,  veiny,  pointed,  de 
ciduous,  alternate  leaves  without  stipules  ;  the 
flowers,  in  clusters  or  short  racemes,  open 
just  as  the  leaves  appear,  from  axillary  buds 
of  the  previous  year;  the  small  calyx  is  four- 
toothed,  its  tube  cohering  with  the  ovary; 


petals  four,  united  at  the  base  or  to  the  mid 
dle,  forming  a  bell-shaped  corolla;  stamens  8 
to  16,  more  or  less  united  at  the  base;  ovary 
two-  to  four-celled,  becoming  a  large,  dry, 
bony,  two-  to  four-winged  fruit  with  one  to 
four  cells,  each  of  which  contains  a  cylindrical 
seed.  The  best  known  species  is  the  four- 
winged  snowdrop  tree  (H.  tetraptera),  so  called 
from  the  four  wings  to  the  fruit ;  it  is  found 
from  Virginia  southward ;  it  sometimes  reach 
es  the  height  of  50  ft.,  but  is  more  general 
ly  much  smaller ;  the  bark  is  dark-colored, 
marked  by  light  fissures,  which  give  it  a  char 
acteristic  netted  appearance ;  the  ovate-oblong 
leaves  have  glandular  petioles,  are  2  to  4  in. 
long,  and  finely  serrate ;  the  flowers  have  four- 
lobed  corollas,  nearly  an  inch  long,  with  12  to 
16  stamens  distinctly  united  below  the  middle. 
This  tree  is  quite  hardy  in  the  northern  states. 
The  two-winged  species  (H.  diptera)  is  more 
southern,  and  is  found  from  the  Carolinas 
southward ;  the 
larger  leaves  are 
coarsely  serrate ; 
the  flowers  are 
larger  than  in 
the  preceding, 
and  consist  of 
four  nearly  dis 
tinct  petals,  and 
the  8  to  12  sta 
mens  are  near 
ly  distinct ;  the 
fruit,  which  is 
about  an  inch 
long,  has  only 
two  wings ;  the 
tree  does  not 
grow  so  large  as 
the  other.  This 
species  is  quite 
rare  and  difficult 
to  find  in  the 
nurseries,  forms 
of  the  preceding  being  confounded  with  it. 
Michaux  described  a  third  species,  H.  parm- 
flora,  which  seems  to  be  nearly  unknown,  if 
indeed  it  be  not  a  form  of  one  of  the  others. 
The  trees  are  raised  from  seeds,  which,  unless 
sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  lie  in  the  ground  a  year 
before  they  germinate. 

SNOWPLARE,  a  name  said  to  have  been  in 
vented  by  Curtis  for  leuco'ium  vernum,  to 
distinguish  it  from  snowdrop,  to  which  it  is 
nearly  related  and  which  it  closely  resembles. 
Leuco'ium  (the  ancient  Greek  name)  is  a  small 
genus  of  the  amaryllis  family,  of  three  species, 
all  of  which  are  European ;  it  differs  from  ga 
lanthus  (see  SNOWDEOP)  in  having  one  to  seven 
flowers  upon  the  scape,  and  the  divisions  of  the 
flower  are  of  equal  length.  In  our  catalogues 
L.  vernum  is  the  plant  offered  as  snowflake, 
but  the  English  designate  this  as  spring  snow- 
flake,  as  summer  and  autumnal  species  are  also 
sold  more  commonly  than  with  us.  The  spring 
snowflake  comes  very  early,  and  is  much  like 


Snowdrop  Tree  (Halesia  tetraptera). 


138 


SNUFF 


SOAP 


a  large  snowdrop,  its  scape,  about  12  in.  high, 
bearing  a  single,  large,  very  fragrant,  pure 
white  flower,  each  division  of  winch  is  tipped 


Spring  Snowflake  (Leucomm  vcrnutn),  Flower  and  Bulb. 

with  green.  The  summer  snowflake  (L.  cesti- 
vum)  has  a  scape  about  2  ft.  high,  with  three 
to  seven  flowers  about  an  inch  long,  blooming 
in  late  spring  or  early  summer.  The  autumnal 
snowflake  (L.  autumnale,  also  called  Acts)  has 
narrow  leaves  and  a  scape  6  in.  high,  bearing 
two  to  three  sm'all  flowers,  which  are  pure 
white  or  suffused  with  rose,  and  appearing 
before  the  leaves  in  September.  This  is  only 
a  greenhouse  plant  here ;  the  others  are  treated 
like  other  spring  bulbs.  (See  HYACINTH.) 

SNUFF.     See  TOBACCO. 

SNYDER,  a  central  county  of  Pennsylvania, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Susquehanna  river;  area, 
about  260  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,606.  The 
surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  fertile.  Iron  ore 
and  coal  are  found  in  great  abundance.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  and 
the  Pennsylvania  canal  passes  along  the  E. 
border.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
247,381  bushels  of  wheat,  12,752  of  rye,  255,- 
831  of  Indian  corn,  283,841  of  oats,  73,889  of 
potatoes,  4,762  of  clover  seed,  18,939  tons  of 
hay,  9,366  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  241,246  of  butter. 
There  were  3,964  horses,  3,900  milch  cows, 
4,489  other  cattle,  3,367  sheep,  and  9,050  swine ; 
3  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  11 
of  tanned  and  10  of  curried  leather,  21  flour 
mills,  and  8  saw  mills.  Capital,  Middleburg. 

SNYDERS,  Sneyders,  or  Snyers,  Francis,  a  Flem 
ish  painter,  born  in  Antwerp  in  1579,  died 
there  in  1657.  He  is  celebrated  for  his  pic 
tures  of  animals  and  hunting  scenes,  excelling 
in  those  which  represent  violent  action.  He 
produced  many  pictures  jointly  with  Rubens, 
Jordaens,  and  others,  they  executing  the  hu 
man  figures  and  Snyders  the  animals. 

SOAP  (Gr.  ca-uv,  Lat.  sapo),  a  compound 
formed  by  the  union  of  alkalies  with  oils  and 


fats.  The  invention  of  soap  is  ascribed  by 
Pliny  to  the  Gauls,  and  he  gives  the  Germans 
credit  for  manufacturing  both  hard  and  soft 
soaps.  From  them  the  Romans  learned  the 
art,  but  soap  was  for  a  long  time  principally 
used  by  them  as  a  wash  for  the  hair.  A  com 
plete  soap-boiling  establishment,  and  soap  in 
a  good  state  of  preservation,  have  been  dis 
covered  at  Pompeii.  Some  natural  produc 
tions  possess  the  qualities  of  soap,  as  the  ber 
ries  of  the  soap  tree  (sap  Indus  saponaria)  of 
South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  and  the 
bark  of  the  quillaja  saponaria,  which  has  been 
carried  from  Peru  to  Liverpool  for  washing 
woollens.  The  juice  of  soapwort  or  bouncing 
Bet  (saponaria  officinalis)  forms  a  lather  with 
water,  and  is  used  in  England  for  scouring 
dresses.  In  California  the  roots  of  the  pha- 
langium  pomaridianum,  which  grows  there 
abundantly,  and  has  the  odor  of  brown  soap, 
is  much  used  for  washing  clothes.  Alkaline 
waters,  -when  used  upon  greasy  fabrics,  form 
soaps  similar  to  those  produced  in  the  regular 
manufacture.  Different  kinds  of  oils  may  be 
used  in  soap  making,  having  different  pro 
portions  of  the  proximate  principles  of  fatty 
bodies,  stearine,  palmitine,  and  oleine  (see 
OILS  AND  FATS),  and  also  upon  the  kind  of 
alkali,  soda  making  a  harder  soap  than  pot 
ash.  The  hardest  soaps  are  made  with  stea 
rine  and  soda,  the  softest  with  oleine  and  pot 
ash.  The  natural  combination  of  glycerine 
with  the  fatty  acids  is  broken  up  by  the  action 
of  the  alkali,  and  the  glycerine  exists  in  a  free 
state  in  the  soap,  or  it  may  be  extracted  as  a 
separate  product.  The  principal  fats  and  oils 
used  for  making  soap  are  tallow,  and  palm, 
cocoanut,  rape,  poppy,  linseed,  hempseed,  and 
olive  oils ;  the  last  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  celebrated  Castile,- Marseilles,  and  other 
marbled  and  plain  soaps  of  southern  Europe. 
The  best  oils  for  marbled  soaps  come  from 
Naples,  and  the  Spanish  oils  are  also  highly 
esteemed.  The  oils  from  the  East  are  not  so 
rich  in  stearine,  and  are  more  or  less  colored 
green,  which  is  objectionable.  The  mottling 
or  marbling  of  soaps  is  produced  by  sprinkling 
the  surface  of  the  newly  made  body  succes 
sively  with  lyes  of  less  and  less  concentration, 
by  which  the  soap  is  again  rendered  sufficient 
ly  pasty  or  semi-fluid  to  allow  of  the  aggre 
gation  in  different  masses  of  the  particles  of 
coloring  matter. — The  ordinary  method  of  sa- 
ponification,  as  the  conversion  of  fats  into 
soaps  is  called,  is  by  boiling  them  with  solu 
tions  of  caustic  potash  or  soda.  Most  fats  re 
quire  long  continued  boiling  with  excess  of 
alkali,  but  others,  as  lard,  beef  marrow,  and 
oil  of  sweet  almonds,  may  be  saponified  by  agi 
tation  with  caustic  alkali  at  ordinary  tempera 
tures  ;  and  under  increased  pressure  the  alka 
line  carbonates  will  readily  produce  saponifica- 
tion  of  fats.  Rosin,  which  is  capable  of  form 
ing  a  soap  with  either  potash  or  soda,  is  fre 
quently  added  to  soaps.  Every  kind  of  soap 
contains  a  variable  quantity  of  water,  partly 


SOAPSTONE 


SOCIALISM 


139 


in  chemical  combination.  Soap  is  perfectly 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  hot  water,  but  both  so 
lutions  solidify  to  a  jelly  at  a  certain  stage  of 
concentration.  Opodeldoc  is  soap  mixeowith 
alcohol  in  this  state,  to  which  camphor  is  add 
ed.  Cold  water  does  not  dissolve  the  alka 
line  oleates,  palmitates,  and  stearates  which 
constitute  ordinary  soap,  without  decomposi 
tion,  the  alkali  being  dissolved  and  the  oily 
acid  precipitated ;  and  when  hot  solutions  are 
cooled  the  same  action  takes  place.  Soap  is 
quite  insoluble  in  a  solution  of  common  salt 
containing  more  than  one  part  in  400  of  water, 
so  that  on  the  addition  of  salt  to  the  contents 
of  a  soap  pan,  a  curd  consisting  of  a  solid 
soap  will  rise  to  the  surface,  while  the  alka 
line  salts  and  glycerine  remain  dissolved  in  the 
water.  Some  soaps,  as  those  made  from  co- 
coanut  oil,  are  not  so  easily  separated  from 
their  solutions  by  common  salt.  Other  chlo 
rides,  as  those  of  potassium  and  ammonium 
(sal  ammoniac),  have  a  similar  action  to  that 
of  common  salt.  Soaps  are  scented  and  col 
ored  by  mixing  coloring  matter  and  volatile 
oils  or  odorous  matters  with  them.  They  are 
sometimes  medicated  with  antiseptic  and  oth 
er,  substances,  such  as  creosote,  carbolic  acid, 
chlorate  of  potash,  and  sulphur,  and  are  used 
as  detergents  and  in  skin  diseases.  Arsenic 
is  sometimes  added  to  soap  and  used  by  tax 
idermists  in  preserving  their  preparations. 
Those  medicinal  preparations  called  liniments 
are  soaps  whenever  they  are  made  by  the  mix 
ture  of  an  alkali  or  an  alkaline  earth  with  an 
oil.  Silicate  of  sodium  (soluble  glass)  may  be 
mixed  with  soap  and  used  with  advantage  as  a 
domestic  cleansing  agent.  Soaps  mixed  with 
fine  sand  or  pumice  stone  do  not  possess  the 
same  detergent  properties,  but  are  useful  for 
scouring.  The  manufacture  of  soap  is  more 
largely  carried  on  in  Great  Britain  than  in  any 
other  country,  although  great  quantities  of 
toilet  soaps  are  made  in  France,  especially  for 
the  American  market.  The  annual  product 
of  Great  Britain  is  often  considerably  over 
200,000,000.  Ibs.  The  manufacture  is  also  car 
ried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  United 
States,  and  some  fine  toilet  and  other  soaps 
are  made. — The  history  of  soap  may  be  found 
in  Beckmann's  "History  of  Inventions;"  its 
technology  in  Parnell's  "  Chemistry  applied  to 
the  Arts,"  Knapp's  "Chemical  Technology," 
Wagner's  "  Chemical  Technology,"  Muspratt's 
"  Chemistry,"  Morfit's  "  Applied  Chemistry  in 
the  Manufacture  of  Soaps  and  Candles,"  and 
in  "A  General  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture 
of  Soap,"  by  H.  Dussauce  (8vo,  Philadelphia, 
1869).  The  French  manufacture  is  described 
in  one  of  the  Manuels  Roret  entitled  Nouveau 
manuel  theorique  et  pratique  du  saxonier,  ou 
VArt  de  faire  toutes  sortes  de  savons  (Paris, 
1852). 

SOAPSTONE.     See  TALO. 

SOBIESRI.     See  JOHN  III.  SOBIESKI. 

SOCIALISM,  the  doctrine  that  society  ought 
to  be  reorganized  on  more  harmonious  and 


equitable  principles.  Communism  and  coop 
eration  are  its  principal  divisions  or  varieties. 
Communism  and  socialism  are  sometimes  used 
as  synonymous ;  but  generally  the  former  term 
specially  refers  to  the  plans  of  social  reform 
based  on  or  embracing  the  doctrine  of  a  com 
plete  community  of  goods.  Cooperation  is 
understood  to  be  that  branch  of  socialism 
which  is  engaged  exclusively  with  theories 
of  labor  and  methods  of  distributing  profits, 
and  which  advocates  a  combination  of  many 
to  gain  advantages  not  to  be  reached  by  indi 
viduals.  Viewed  as  a  whole,  socialistic  doc 
trines  have  dealt  with  everything  that  enters 
into  the  life  of  the  individual,  the  family,  the 
church,  or  the  state,  whether  industrially,  mor 
ally,  or  spiritually.  The  orjgin  of  all  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  desire  to  ameliorate  the  con 
dition  of  the  less  favored  classes,  and  in  the 
attempt  to  overcome  by  association  the  dep 
rivations  to  which  individuals,  especially  those 
without  rank,  culture,  and  capital,  are  ex 
posed.  After  many  experimental  attempts  in 
recent  times  to  effect  a  radical  modification  of 
society  in  all  its  parts,  the  simplified  socialism 
of  the  present  day  mostly  aims  only  to  pro 
tect  the  laborer  in  his  rights,  or  to  shield  him 
against  the  oppression  of  capitalists. — The  his 
tory  of  socialism  runs  parallel  with  that  of 
property.  Wherever  the  power  of  individual 
proprietors  became  oppressive,  communistic 
doctrines  usually  arose.  Such  was  the  origin 
of  the  schemes  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  Pha- 
leas  of  Chalcedon  expected  gradually  to  re 
move  the  disparities  of  property  by  making 
a  law  that  the  rich  should  give  but  not  re 
ceive  dower  in  marriage;  and  in  order  that 
none  should  be  intellectually  superior  to  oth 
ers,  he  desired  that  all  should  receive  the  same 
education.  Plato's  ideal  republic  was  to  con 
sist  of  three  classes:  the  educated,  who  are 
the  law  makers  and  rulers ;  the  common  peo 
ple,  including  agriculturists  and  other  labor 
ers  ;  and  the  goldiers.  The  state  was  to  assign 
to  every  one  his  rank  and  sphere  of  activity ; 
the  soil  was  to  be  the  property  of  all,  and  its 
fruits  were  to  be  equally  shared  by  all.  The 
women  also  were  to  be  common  property,  as 
well  as  the  slaves.  Communistic  doctrines 
more  or  less  evolved  from  peculiar  religious 
views,  and  advocating  the  founding  of  isolated 
communes,  existed  among  the  ancient  Hindoos 
and  Egyptians.  Among  the  earliest  attempts 
at  socialistic  life  was  that  of  the  Jewish  sect 
known  as  the  Essenes,  who  had  established 
themselves  on  the  western  shores  of  the  Dead 
sea  about  the  2d  century  B.  C.  Though  there 
are  few  trustworthy  accounts  of  their  teach 
ings  and  practices,  it  may  be  accepted  as  cer 
tain  that  they  held  their  property  in  common, 
and  discountenanced  marriage,  without  really 
prohibiting  it.  (See  ESSENES.)  The  Carpo- 
cratians,  an  early  Christian  sect,  which  con 
tinued  to  exist  until  the  middle  of  the  6th 
century,  also  practised  community  of  goods 
and  of  women.  Many  features  of  the  monas- 


SOCIALISM 


ticism  of  the  middle  ages  are  more  or  less  com 
munistic.  Societies  of  women  were  formed 
for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  poor  in  the  llth 
century,  possessing-  at  first  nothing  of  the  later 
conventual  type.  They  had  clusters  of  houses 
and  gardens,  whose  inmates  supported  them 
selves  by  their  own  labor,  grouped  round  a 
hospital  and  similar  institutions.  In  time  the 
dormitories,  refectories,  and  work  rooms  were 
also  occupied  in  common.  Such  was  the  ori 
gin  of  the  beguinages  of  the  Netherlands. 
Later,  various  ascetic  communistic  societies 
arose,  as  the  "Brethren  and  Oferks  of  the 
Common  Life,"  founded  by  Gerard  Groot 
about  1378  in  the  Netherlands,  whose  mem 
bers,  chiefly  priests,  supported  themselves  by 
manual  labor  and.  by  teaching  and  preaching. 
Along  with  these  existed  communities  whose 
members  indulged  in  the  wildest  license,  and 
were  finally  extirpated  by  the  authorities ; 
such  were  the  Adamites,  who  walked  about 
naked. and  had  a  community  of  wives.  At 
the  reformation  a  communistic  tendency  was 
wide-spread  in  Germany,  and  it  led  to  a  re 
volt  of  the  serfs  against  their  lords,  a  move 
ment  of  social  reform  avowedly  tfased  upon 
the  doctrines  of  the  New  Testament.  (See 
PEASANTS'  WAE.)  Some  of  the  Anabaptists, 
the  movements  begun  by  Storch  and  Miinzer 
(see  MU^ZER),  the  familists,  the  levellers,  and 
numerous  other  fanatical  sects  of  this  period, 
all  show  more  or  less  of  the  same  spirit  of  hos 
tility  to  the  rich,  of  a  desire  for  a  better  distri 
bution  of  property,  and  a  struggle  to  realize  an 
ideal  social  state.  In  the  same  period  appeared 
the  first  works  which,  depicting  a  more  or  less 
fanciful  or  ideal  community,  may  be  consid 
ered  the  precursors  of  the  more  recent  scien 
tific  socialistic  schemes.  The  first  edition  of 
Sir  Thomas  'More's  "  Utopia,"  an  account  of 
an  imaginary  commonwealth,  where  there  are 
only  good  and  happy  citizens  and  the  govern 
ment  is  perfectly  paternal,  was  printed  in  Lat 
in  at  Louvain  in  1516,  and  it  was  soon  trans 
lated  into  English,  French,  Dutch,  and  Italian. 
Another  Utopia  was  depicted  by  Campanella 
in  his  Civitas  Solis  (1623).  A  vast  hierarchy 
of  officials  assign  and  direct  the  duties  of  the 
people  ;  four  hours  a  day  are  devoted  to  labor, 
the  women  performing  the  lighter  tasks  ;  the 
rest  of  the  day  the  people  are  trained  in  phi 
losophy  and  the  sciences.  Similar  schemes 
were  sketched  by  Hall  in  his  Mundus  Alter, 
Fenelon,  Morelly,  Defoe  in  his  "Essay  on 
Projects,"  and  Bacon  in  the  "New  Atlantis." 
In  1656  Harrington  published  his  "Oceana," 
of  which  Hume  said  that  it  was  the  most  val 
uable  model  of  a  commonwealth  hitherto  of 
fered.  The  first  complete  plan  of  an  industrial 
community  intended  for  immediate  adoption 
was  John  Boiler's  scheme  of  a  "  College  of 
Industry"  (169G).  The  shareholders  were  to 
divide  among  themselves  the  profits  of  the 
college,  but  the  laborers  were  to  be  guaran 
teed  all  things  necessary  in  case  of  sickness, 
for  the  education  of  their  children,  for  the 


maintenance  of  their  widows,  and  the  like. 
In  France  there  have  been  at  various  times 
small  communities  in  which  work  was  divided 
according  to  the  capacity  of  the  members,  who 
received  equal  shares  of  the  profits,  and  elect 
ed  a  master* of  the  community,  vested  with 
full  power  of  command,  and  constituting  their 
legal  representative.  In  the  United  States 
there  are  about  TO  communistic  societies,  all 
based  on  a  religious  belief  of  some  form.  The 
Shakers  were  established  in  the  northern  states 
about  1780,  and  in  the  west  about  30  years 
later ;  the  Eappists  were  established  in  4805, 
the  Zoarites  in  1817,  the  Eben-Ezer  or  Amana 
communists  in  1844,  the  Bethel  community  in 
1844,  the  Oneida  Perfectionists  in  1848,  the 
Icarians  in  1849,  and  the  Aurora  commune  in 
1852.  Though  the  Icarians  reject  Christian 
ity,  yet  they  raise  to  the  position  of  a  creed 
their  doctrine  of  brotherly  love,  or  their  com 
munistic  idea.  In  the  Bethel  and  Aurora  com 
munes  unselfishness  takes  the  place  of  a  reli 
gious  system.  Community  of  women  is  prac 
tised  only  by  the  Perfectionists  (see  NOYES, 
JOHN  HUMPIIEEY)  ;  the  Shakers  and  Eappists 
are  celibates ;  and  at  Icaria,  Amana,  Aurora, 
Bethel,  and  Zoar  the  family  relation  is  held  in 
honor.  Only  the  Perfectionists  are  of  strict 
ly  American  origin  ;  the  principles  of  the 
Shakers,  though  first  established  here,  origina 
ted  in  England ;  the  Icarians  are  French,  and 
the  others  are  German.  The  Shakers  are  the 
most  numerous. — After  the  reign  of  terror  in 
France,  Babeuf  and  his  friends  formed  a  con 
spiracy  to  overthrow  the  state.  They  taught 
that  all  men  had  equal  rights  in  all  property 
and  in  the  enjoyment  of  it ;  every  exclusive 
appropriation  of  the  soil  or  of  a  branch  of  in 
dustry  was  a  crime ;  all  persons  should  receive 
the  same  kind  and  degree  of  education ;  the 
functions  of  the  government  should  be  to  su 
perintend  the  division  of  labor,  the  collecting 
of  the  produce  in  public  stores,  and  the  dis 
tribution  of  it  to  communities  and  individuals. 
The  marriage  relations  and  religious  subjects 
were  not  specially  discussed  by  them.  Ba 
beuf  perished  on  the  scaffold,  and  his  doctrine 
seemed  to  have  perished  with  him ;  but  in 
1834  Buonarotti  revived  it,  and  by  means  of 
pamphlets  and  the  Moniteur  Repiiblicain,  the 
Jlomme  Libre,  and  other  journals,  it  was  again 
propagated.  After  some  vain  attempts  at  in 
stituting  social  equality  by  insurrectionary 
means,  the  Babeuvists  were  content  to  con 
tinue  as  secret  organizations,  many  of  them 
developing  the  original  doctrine,  and  the  tra- 
vailleurs  egalitaires  going  to  the  extent  of  ab 
rogating  marriage  as  being  a  species  of  per 
sonal  property,  of  wishing  all  towns  destroyed 
as  the  natural  hotbeds  of  tyranny,  &c.  In  op 
position  to  the  travailleurs  egalitaires  Cabet 
(1788-1856)  wrote  his  Voyage  en  Icarie,  advo 
cating  a  comparatively  innocent  communism, 
a  small  model  of  which  he  established  in  this 
country. — Saint-Simon  (1760-1825)  gathered 
about  him  men  of  science,  and  travelled  in  or- 


SOCIALISM 


141 


der  to  enlarge  his  views ;  gave  balls,  dinners, 
and  festivals,  to  extend  his  knowledge  of  man 
kind  ;  and  finally,  when  his  wealth  had  been 
scattered,  found  himself  abandoned  to  the  most 
painful  privations,  lie  was  thus  fitted,  as  he 
thought,  by  a  trial  of  all  the  conditions  of  hu 
manity,  to  become  their  exponent  and  their 
reformer.  He  contrived  what  he  denominated 
a  new  Christianity,  or  a  scheme  for  the  recon 
struction  of  the  religion,  politics,  industry,  and 
social  relations  of  mankind.  .To  each  man 
according  to  his  capacity,  to  each  capacity  ac 
cording  to  its  works ;  such  was  the  grand  for 
mula  of  the  St.  Simonian  gospel.  But  the  au 
thor  did  not  live  to  witness  its  propagation. 
It  was  reserved  for  Eodrigues,  Enfantin,  Ba- 
zard,  Buchez,  and  others  to  disseminate  it  over 
France.  By  their  lectures  and  a  journal  estab 
lished  by  them  called  Le  Producteur,  it  soon 
gained  many  disciples,  and  at  one  time  seemed 
on  the  point  of  absorbing  the  best  youthful 
mind  of  the  nation.  Many  men,  who  have 
since  attained  distinction,  as  statesmen  and 
men  of  letters,  took  part  in  the  famous  expo 
sitions  of  the  rue  Taranne,  Paris,  where  the 
new  school  had  its  academy.  But  Saint-Simon 
had  left  his  doctrine  in  the  vague  state  of  an 
aspiration  or  a  sentiment  rather  than  a  system. 
His  followers  began  to  differ  when  they  be 
gan  to  define.  Sects  arose  in  the  bos'om  of 
the  new  faith.  A  common  family  was  estab 
lished  in  the  rue  Monsigny,  but  the  order  of 
functions  had  not  been  arranged  in  a  satisfac 
tory  way.  An  open  quarrel  between  two  of 
the  chiefs,  Enfantin  and  Bazard,  led  to  other 
dissensions.  The  finances  of  the  general  asso 
ciation  failed,  and  the  police  interfered  with  its 
meetings,  which  had  become,  in  consequence 
of  the  vivacity  of  the  discussions  and  the  ap 
pearance  of  women  on  the  tribune,  more  at 
tractive  than  the  theatre.  Enfantin  collected 
his  friends  again  at  a  patrimonial  estate  which 
he  held  at  M6nilmontant,  where  a  multitude 
of  laborers  were  organized  into  groups  of  in 
dustrials,  artists,  priests,  &c. ;  but  the  experi 
ment  could  not  be  made  to  pay,  Enfantin  was 
seized  and  imprisoned,  and  the  new  family 
gradually  dispersed.  In  spite  of  its'  want  of 
practical  success,  the  school  of  Saint-Simon  ex 
ercised  and  continues  to  exercise  a  powerful  in 
fluence  over  the  French  mind. — Charles  Fourier 
(1772-1837)  saw  very  clearly  what  his  prede 
cessors  had  not  seen,  that  society  was  a  growth, 
and  not  a  construction  ;  he  saw  that  as  it  had 
followed  fundamental  laws  of  development  in 
the  past,  so  it  must  follow  the  same  laws  in  the 
future  ;  these  laws,  he  also  discerned,  must  be 
in  analogy  with  the  other  laws  of  the  living 
universe  ;  and  he  concluded  that  the  science  of 
society  must  be  the  flower  and  consummation 
of  all  other  sciences.  But  not  satisfied  with 
these  grand  generalizations,  and  the  practical 
applications  to  which  'they  inevitably  lead,  he 
assumed  the  character  of  a  universal  social 
philosopher  and  legislator,  and  lost  himself  in 
magnificent  a  priori  speculations  as  to  the  for 


mation  and  propagation  of  worlds,  and  the 
future  destinies  of  all  humanity.  His  vigorous 
thought  procured  him  many  disciples  in  France, 
England,  and  the  United  States ;  many  efforts 
have  been  made  to  reduce  his  more  practical 
maxims  to  practice,  but  no  signal  or  decisive 
result  has  anywhere  been  achieved.  (See 
FOURIEK.) — While  Fourier  and  his  disciples 
intended  to  carry  out  their  socialistic  reforms 
by  their  own  exertions  and  without  receiving 
any  material  aid  from  the  government,  Louis 
Blanc  wanted  the  government  to  undertake 
the  regeneration  of  society  by  the  u  organ 
ization  of  labor,"  holding  that  the  evils  of 
large  capital  and  destructive  competition  could 
and  ought  to  be  cured  by  means  of  the  state, 
the  largest  capitalist  of  all,  from  which  every 
laborer  that  needs  it  has  a  right  to  demand 
employment  (droit  an  travail).  The  govern 
ment  should  purchase  or  gradually  absorb  the 
large  industrial  institutions  of  the  country,  and 
eventually  render  it  more  profitable  to  every 
laborer  to  join  the  large  governmental  work 
shops  than  to  follow  his  calling  on  his  own 
account.  The  wages  of  a]l  laborers  should  be 
equal.  As  soon  as  the  state  had  succeeded 
in  becoming  the  only  and  general  controller 
of  production  in  the  country,  and  the  work 
men  had  had  sufficient  opportunity  to  appre 
ciate  the  abilities  of  individuals  among  them, 
the  governmental  administration  should  be 
superseded  by  the  self-government  of  the  la 
borers,  on  democratic  principles.  Louis  Blanc 
opposed  to  the  maxim  of  Saint-Simon,  u  To 
each  according  to  his  ability,"  his  own,  "  From 
each  according  to  his  ability,  to  each  according 
to  his  need."  The  revolution  of  1848  put  him 
in  a  position  to  experiment  with  his  scheme. 
The  provisional  government  erected  public 
workshops,  and  paid  wages  to  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  laborers ;  but  these  were  produc 
tive  only  of  confusion,  and  contributed  toward 
the  socialistic  insurrection  of  June,  which  end 
ed  in  a  crushing  defeat. — Proudhon  (1809-'65) 
desired  to  carry  out  his  reforms  without  the 
aid  of  the  state,  and  argued  in  opposition  to 
Louis  Blanc  that  the  state  not  only  should  not, 
but  could  not  inaugurate  new  social  systems. 
In  fact,  Proudhon  was  opposed  to  systematic 
socialism  of  any  sort.  Though  himself  a  Uto 
pian,  he  combated  the  Utopias  of  everybody 
else.  The  infallibility  which  he  claimed  for  his 
own  doctrines  he  rendered  still  more  odious 
in  the  eyes  of  his  opponents  by  his  peculiar 
manner  of  expressing  his  ideas.  In  one  of  his 
earlier  principal  publications,  Qii'est  ce  que  la 
propri'etef  (1841),  he  seemed  to  attack  all 
property  as  being  a  kind  of  theft,  while  his  in 
tention  was  only  to  demonstrate  the  illegality 
of  incomes  received  without  labor.  Similar 
ly,  his  expression  that  he  wanted  to  reduce  the 
state  to  "anarchy"  utterly  obscured  his  real 
meaning,  which  was  that  the  artificial  central 
ization  of  the  French  government  should  give 
way  to  a  government  controlled  by  the  masses, 
Like  most  socialists,  Proudhon  considered  the 


142 


SOCIALISM 


application  of  justice  in  the  distribution  of 
the  wages  of  the  labor  and  the  profits  of  the 
capital  employed  in  production  to  be  the  most 
important  problem  of  political  economy.  The 
means  proposed  by  him  for  making  wages  and 
profits  proportional  to  each  other  were,  that 
each  citizen  should  unite  in  his  own  person  the 
four  necessary  factors  of  production  :  laborer, 
capitalist,  merchant,  and  employer.  To  bring 
this  about,  he  held  that  employment  should  be 
guaranteed  to  the  laborer,  and  that  there  should 
be  a  reorganization  of  the  credit  system,  which 
he  himself  attempted  by  establishing  the  banq.ue 
du  peuple  in  1849.  This  bank  was  an  associa 
tion  of  20,000  laborers,  who  pledged  themselves 
to  take  the  paper  issued  by  it  in  lieu  of  cash. 
Proudhon  believed  that  a  conventional  sign  of 
this  sort,  costing  but  little  labor  to  produce, 
could  take  the  place  of  gold  and  silver  coins, 
the  production  of  which  requires  a  large  amount 
of  labor.  The  bank  advanced  to  any  member, 
on  articles  produced  by  him,  four  fifths  of  their 
value  in  its  own  notes,  and  'demanded  no  in 
terest  for  the  loan.  On  security  being  given, 
it  would  advance  upon  work  not  yet  done. 
Proudhon  expected  that  this  gratuitous  credit, 
enabling  men  to  consume  at  any  time  the 
wages  of  their  labor,  would  be  the  means  of 
inciting  the  members  of  the  association  to  as 
great  industry  as  the  hope  of  accumulating 
interest-bearing  capital,  since  their  means  of 
present  enjoyment  would  depend  upon  their 
energy.  The  government  soon  closed  the  bank 
for  violation  of  the  laws  of  trade,  and  Proud- 
hon's  followers  maintain  that  his  scheme  has 
never  had  a  fair  trial. — Robert  Owen  (1771- 
1858),  in  England,  was  arousing  the  public 
mind  to  the  necessity  of  a  new  order  of  socie 
ty  at  the  same  time  that  Saint-Simon  and  his 
disciples  were  preaching  in  France.  They  pro 
ceeded,  however,  on  wholly  different  grounds. 
Owen's  fundamental  axiom  was  that  man  was 
made  entirely  by  his  external  circumstances,  so 
that,  to  form  his  character,  and  to  produce  his 
entire  happiness,  nothing  was  requisite  but  a 
change  in  his  external  relations.  Possessed  of 
great  wealth,  he  established  a  manufacturing 
colony  at  New  Lanark,  in  which  his  principles 
were  applied  to  the  laboring  classes.  Justice  in 
the  payment  of  labor,  vast  domestic  economies, 
and  a  thorough  system  of  infant  and  adult  edu 
cation  gave  it  for  a  time  great  and  increasing 
prosperity.  Statesmen  and  churchmen  alike 
admitted  the  success  of  the  attempt,  and  the 
system,  or  parts  of  the  system,  were  in  a  fair 
way  of  being  introduced  into  other  manufac 
turing  districts.  But  Owen  was  encouraged  by 
the  promise  of  his  plans  to  step  forth  as  a  phi 
losopher.  He  taught  in  pamphlets,  speeches, 
letters,  and  books,  his  doctrine  of  the  omnipo 
tence  of  circumstances  and  of  human  irrespon 
sibility,  attacking  at  the  same  time  all  religions 
and  all  governments,  and  thus  provoking  the 
earnest  hostility  of  the  clergy  as  well  as  of 
politicians.  Other  establishments  were  sub 
sequently  erected  at  New  Harmony,  Indiana, 


and  Orbiston,  Scotland,  but  they  failed.  His 
popularity  declined  rapidly,  except  among  a 
portion .  of  the  laboring  classes,  and  he  ac 
complished  nothing  beyond  his  earlier  suc 
cess.  He  had  travelled  over  the  world  to  in 
doctrinate  it  with  his  principles,  but  the  world 
remained  to  the  end  of  his  life  stubbornly  in 
credulous.  Nevertheless  he  has  a  just  claim 
to  be  considered  the  originator  of  modern  co 
operation. — In  1869  England  alone  numbered 
1,308  cooperative  societies,  under  general  reg 
ulations  prescribed  by  act  of  parliament ;  749 
of  these  sent  in  their  returns  to  government  at 
the  end  of  1870,  from  which  their  condition 
appears  to  have  been  as  follows :  number  of 
members,  249,113;  share  capital,  £2,034,261 ; 
loan  capital,  £197,128;  average  stock  in  trade 
during  the  year,  £912,127;  value  of  build 
ings,  fixtures,  and  land,  £962,276 ;  dividend 
to  members,  £467,164;  to  non-members,  £16,- 
523  ;  allowed  for  educational  purposes,  £3,775. 
The  most  successful  experiment  of  the  English 
cooperators  is  that  of  the  Rochdale  "  Equita 
ble  Pioneers'  Society,"  established  mainly  on 
the  principles  of  Owen.  Its  primary  object 
was  the  founding  of  a  store  for  the  sale  of  the 
necessaries  of  life,  which  wTas  opened  in  De 
cember,  1844.  In  1847  the  pioneers  opened  a 
drapery  department,  in  1850  a  slaughter  house, 
in  1852  shoemaking  and  tailoring  establish 
ments  ;  and  after  a  history  of  continuous  suc 
cess,  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  year  1870  they 
numbered  5,560  members,  and  had  a  share 
capital  of  £81,232.  Similar  stores  and  asso 
ciations  now  exist  in  various  parts  of  Europe, 
America,  and  Australia.  The  varieties  of  co 
operation  so  far  developed  are  numerous,  but 
they  are  all  founded  upon  the  original  idea  of 
associated  as  opposed  to  isolated  efforts.  The 
power  which  the  joint-stock  principle  places 
in  the  hands  of  small  capitalists,  the  coopera 
tive  system  places  in  the  hands  of  the  smallest 
capitalists;  it  even  enables  the  man  without 
capital  to  accumulate  it.  Morier  describes  co 
operation  as  "  the  child  of  socialism,  rescued 
by  the  economists  from  the  dangerous  custody 
of  its  parents."  In  Germany  this  movement 
on  the  part  of  the  laborers  was  urged  forward 
by  Schulze-Delitzsch  in  opposition  to  the  so 
cialism  of  Lassale  and  Marx,  which  led  to  the 
formation  of  the  "  International  Association." 
(See  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION.)  Schulze- 
Delitzsch  originated  a  new  form  of  coopera 
tion,  which  has  been  successful  in  Germany  to 
an  extraordinary  degree.  He  devised  a  peo 
ple's  bank,  or  cooperative  credit  bank,  from 
which  the  members  can  borrow  small  sums  up 
to  1,000  thalers.  The  capital  is  derived  from 
the  entrance  fees  and  subscriptions  of  the 
members.  The  shares  are  fixed  at  40  thalers, 
and  may  be  paid  by  instalments.  A  40-thaler 
shareholder  may  borrow  60  thalers  without 
security ;  money  is  borrowed  by  the  society  at 
a  low  rate  of  interest ;  members  on  leaving  re 
ceive  the  amount  paid  up  on  their  shares,  and 
are  relieved  from  all  liabilities  after  two  years. 


UN  1  V  i;  US  IT'Y    01 


SOCIETIES 


In  1870  the  number  of  loan  or  credit  banks  in 
Germany  was  estimated  at  2,000,  and  numer 
ous  associations  of  a  similar  nature  are  now 
established  in  Russia,  Denmark,  Italy,  France, 
and  England.  There  is  in  Germany  a  politi 
cal  party  of  socialists  called  Socialdemolcraten, 
another  development  of  the  same  movement 
which  produced  the  international  association, 
mainly  composed  of  workingmen  and  their 
friends.  This  party  aims  to  establish  complete 
liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity,  by  uniting  all 
the  working  classes  in  associations,  and  secu 
ring  to  all  the  same  rights  and  opportunities 
to  work;  there  are 'to  be  no  favored  classes 
or  individuals,  and  the  whole  world  is  to  form 
one  great  solidarity.  The  so-called  Katheder- 
socialisten  are  not  socialists  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  word,  but  a  school  of  political 
economy  opposing  the  free  traders. — See,  be 
sides  the  works  named  in  the  biographies  of 
the  principal  socialists,  Stein,  Der  Socialismus 
und  Communismus  des  heutigcn  Frankreicli 
(Leipsic,  1844),  and  Geschiclite  der  socialen 
Beicegung  in  Frankreich  (3  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1849-'ol) ;  Bluntschli,  Die  Communisten  in 
der  Schweiz  (Zurich,  1843);  Schiifne,  Kapita- 
lismus  und  Socialismus  (Tubingen,  1870 ;  Eng 
lish  translation  by  Kaufmann,  London,  1875); 
Noyes,  "  History  of  American  Socialisms  " 
(Philadelphia,  1870);  Diihring,  KritiscTie  Ge- 
scliichte  der  National- Oekonomie  und  des  So- 
cialismus  (Berlin,  1871);  Le  Play,  Z'  Organisa 
tion  du  travail  (Paris,  1871),  and  La  reforme 
sociale  en  France  (Paris,  1872)  ;  Nordhoff, 
"  The  Communistic  Societies  of  the  United 
States"  (New  York,  1875);  and  Holyoake, 
"  History  of  Cooperation"  (London,  1875). 

SOCIETIES,  Literary  and  Scientific.  The  origin 
of  this  distinctive  title  for  private  intellectual 
associations  is  as  ancient  as  that  of  academies. 
(See  ACADEMY.)  Societies  existed  in  antiqui 
ty  and  in  the  middle  ages,  and  in  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands  they  acquired  importance  in 
the  15th  century  by  promoting  classical  cul 
ture.  The  associations  or  corporations  of  the 
Meistersingers  nourished  till  the  16th  century. 
The  17th  century  witnessed  the  formation  of 
bodies  in  Germany  for  the  improvement  of 
the  language,  after  the  model  of  the  Florentine 
La  Crusca  and  the  French  academy,  and  the 
rise  and  progress  of  scientific  societies,  espe 
cially  of  the  "  Royal  Society  of  London,"  incor 
porated  in  1663  for  the  investigation  and  ad 
vancement  of  physical  science.  Many  impor 
tant  societies  were  formed  in  Great  Britain 
in  the  18th  century,  including  the  "  Society 
of  Antiquaries"  (London,  1717),  the  "Royal 
Society  of  Dublin"  (1731),  "Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh"  (1783),  "Medical"  (London, 
1773),  and  "Linnsean"  (1788);  and  in  1800 
sprang  up  in  London  the  "  Royal  Institu 
tion  of  Great  Britain,"  celebrated  for  chemical 
and  other  lectures.  (See  LONDON,  vol.  x.,  pp. 
604-'o.)  The  subsequent  increase  of  learned 
bodies  was  still  more  rapid.  The  United  King 
dom  now  has  societies  for  almost  all  branches 
VOL.  xv. — 10 


of  science,  letters,  learning,  and  art;  and  with 
a  view  of  establishing  greater  unity,  the  royal 
society  of  London,  and  the  astronomical,  geo 
logical,  Linna3an,  and  chemical  societies,  are 
to  meet,  after  the  completion  of  the  palace  of 
learning  in  the  new  Burlington  house,  in  the 
same  building,  which  is  also  to  contain  their 
extensive  libraries,  collections,  and  reading 
rooms.  Most  remarkable  for  stimulating  many 
of  the  important  discoveries  of  the  century  are 
the  "  Geological  Society  "  (1807)  and  the  "  Roy 
al  Geographical  Society  "  (1830).  Those  en 
gaged  in  antiquarian  and  archaeological  re 
searches  also  display  great  vigor ;  and  special 
bodies,  as  for  instance  those  relating  to  explora 
tions  in  Palestine,  have  achieved  signal  results. 
Among  other  peculiarly  valuable  institutions 
are  the  "Royal  Astronomical  Society  "  (1820), 
which  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  kind ; 
the  "  Statistical  Society  "  p834),  which  throws 
much  light  upon  the  national  resources;  and 
the  "  Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  "  (1823),  with  branches  in  Bom 
bay,  Madras,  Hong  Kong,  and  elsewhere.  The 
"Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,"  at  Calcutta, 
dates  from  1784.  There  are  learned  societies 
in  other  parts  of  the  East,  in  Canada,  Austra 
lia,  and  in  almost  every  important  part  of  the 
British  empire ;  and  all  the  leading  societies 
publish  the  results  of  their  labors.  The  most 
important  English  perambulatory  body  is  the 
"  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,"  founded  in  1831.  (See  ADVANCEMENT 
OF  SCIENCE.)  The  "  National  Association  for 
the  Promotion  of  Social  Science  "  held  its  first 
public  meeting  at  Birmingham,  Oct.  12,  1857, 
under  the  presidency  of  Lord  Brougham.  It 
embraced  originally  the  five  departments  of  ju 
risprudence,  education,  punishment  and  refor 
mation,  public  health,  and  social  economy ;  and 
a  sixth  department  relating  to  trade  and  inter 
national  law  was  added  in  1860.  The  annual 
meetings  are  held  at  a  different  place  each 
year,  and  are  chiefly  occupied  in  reading  dis 
quisitions  and  in  discussions. — The  continent 
of  Europe  emulates  England  in  encouraging 
explorations,  and  this  is  especially  the  case 
with  the  geographical  societies  of  Berlin,  St. 
Petersburg,  and  Vienna,  and  the  "Institute" 
at  Gotha.  In  France  and  Italy  the  number  of 
societies  is  diminished  by  the  omnipotence  of 
the  academies.  The  former  country,  however, 
has  several  of  importance,  especially  the  so- 
ciete  geographique  of  Paris,  which  publishes  a 
celebrated  monthly  Bulletin,  and  the  socicte 
asiatique,  which  has  called  into  existence  ori 
ental  societies  in  Germany  and  England.  In 
the  latter  part  of  last  century  Germany  had  a 
poets'  union  (Gottinger  Dichtcrbund  or  Hain- 
fatnd)  among  its  societies,  with  Klopstock  at 
its  head.  In  the  present  century  it  has  initia 
ted  scientific  congresses  and  other  associations 
in  the  interest  of  political  and  social  science, 
and  the  country  abounds  with  societies  de 
voted  to  every  branch  of  knowledge,  art,  and 
industrv.  Among  the  oldest  is  the  Wissen- 


144 


SOCIETY  ISLANDS 


scJiaftlicher  Verein  at  Gottingen  (1750),  and 
the  best  known  are  devoted  to  natural  history 
and  geology,  especially  in  Berlin.  Switzerland, 
Austria,  Hungary,  Russia,  Holland,  Belgium, 
and  the  Scandinavian  countries  have  various 
learned  bodies  apart  from  the  academies.  They 
abound  also  in  the  United  States,  especially  in 
regard  to  investigations  of  local  and  national 
history,  nearly  every  state  having  a  historical 
society  with  a  library.  The  "  New  York  His 
torical  Society"  (founded  in  1804)  and  the 
"New  York  Geographical  Society"  (1852)  are 
described  under  NEW  YORK,  vol.  xii.,  p.  404. 
The  most  important  society  in  the  United 
States  is  the  "American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,"  founded  in  1847. 
(See  ADVANCEMENT  of  SCIENCE.)  A  "  Social 
Science  Association,"  organized  in  Boston  in 
1865,  had  in  1874  about  300  members. 

SOCIETY  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the  S.  Pacific 
ocean,  extending  between  lat.  16°  and  18°  S., 
and  Ion.  148°  and  155°  W. ;  area,  GG6  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  18,000.  The  group  is  formed  of 
two  clusters  of  islands,  one  of  which  lies  about 
70  m.  N.  AV.  of  the  other.  They  were  formerly, 
and  by  some  geographers  still  are,  distinguished 
by  the  separate  designations  of  the  Society 
islands  (proper)  and  the  Tahiti  or  Georgian 
islands.  The  latter  are  under  the  French  pro 
tectorate  ;  area,  453  sq.  m. ;  pop.  13,800,  of 
whom  about  970  are  emigrants,  400  soldiers, 
and  600  foreign  residents.  The  former  are  in 
dependent;  area,  213  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  4,000. 
Mariners  usually  speak  of  one  cluster  as  the 
windward  and  the  other  as  the  leeward,  ap 
plying  the  term  Society  islands  to  both  com 
bined.  The  Society  islands,  thus  defined,  ex 
clusive  of  several  islets,  are  Tahiti  or  Otaheite, 
Eimeo,  Maiaoiti,  Haiti  a,  Tetuaroa,  Huahine, 
Raiatea,  Otaha  or  Tahaa,  Borabora,  Marua  or 
Maupiti,  and  Tubai,  the  first  five  belonging  to 
the  Tahiti  group,  and  the  remainder  to  the  So 
ciety  islands  proper.  The  islands  are  moun 
tainous  in  the  interior,  the  highest  peak,  on 
the  island  of  Tahiti,  reaching  an  elevation  of 
7,339  ft.,  and  have  a  border  from  1  to  5  m. 
wide  of  rich  level  ground  extending  from  the 
base  of  the  high  lauds  to  the  sea.  In  general 
appearance  they  are  alike,  and  lava,  basalts,  and 
pumice  stone,  which  are  found  in  several  places, 
indicate  that  their  origin  was  volcanic.  They 
are  surrounded  by  belts  of  coral  rock,  of  va 
rious  width,  situated  from  a  few  yards  to  5  m. 
from  the  shore,  with  openings  which  permit 
the  passage  of  canoes,  while  some  of  them  ad 
mit  ships  to  smooth  water  and  good  anchorage. 
There  are  small  lakes  and  lagoons  in  some  of 
the  islands,  and  all  are  watered  by  numerous 
streams,  upon  the  banks  of  which,  or  along  the 
shores,  the  inhabitants  reside. — There  is  con 
siderable  variety  of  soil,  the  sides  of  the  moun 
tains  being  frequently  covered  with  a  thin  lay 
er  of  light  earth  ;  the  summits  of  many  of  the 
hills  have  a  thick  stratum  of  red  ochre  or  yel 
low  marl,  while  the  soil  of  the  level  tracts 
along  the  shores  is  a  rich  alluvial  deposit,  mixed 


with  vegetable  mould,  and  is  exceedingly  fer 
tile.  The  climate  is  healthful  and  very  mild, 
the  range  of  the  thermometer  throughout  the 
year  being  inconsiderable.  Besides  the  bread 
fruit,  these  islands  produce  almost  every  tropi 
cal  vegtable  and  fruit,  including  some  peculiar 
to  the  group.  A  few  fruits  and  vegetables 
have  been  introduced  from  the  temperate  re 
gions.  The  guava  shrub,  brought  from  Nor 
folk  island,  is  now  common,  and  bears  a  pro 
fusion  of  fruit,  upon  which  pigs  and  cattle 
feed  with  avidity.  Garden  produce  is  little 
cultivated,  and  agriculture  is  very  backward. 
A  botanic  garden,  established  by  the  French, 
offers  seeds  to  colonists  and  natives ;  but  there 
is  little  demand  for  them,  and  prizes  offered 
to  stimulate  production  were  withdrawn  in 
1865  as  useless.  The  spontaneous  production 
of  fruits  seems  sufficient  for  the  natives.  An 
Anglo-Portuguese  agricultural  company,  estab 
lished  in  1861  for  the  cultivation  of  cotton  and 
coffee  by  Chinese  coolies,  has  effected  but  little. 
The  introduction  of  limes  and  oranges  has  been 
very  successful.  Pigs,  dogs,  and  rats  were  the 
only  quadrupeds  found  upon  the  islands  at  the 
time  of  their  discovery ;  but  all  our  domestic 
animals  have  been  introduced,  and  with  the 
exception  of  the  sheep  and  rabbit  have  thriven 
remarkably  well.  Horned  cattle  are  abundant. 
There  are  numbers  of  aquatic  fowl ;  the  alba 
tross,  tropic  birds,  and  petrel  are  found  on  all 
the  islands;  herons  and  wild  ducks  frequent 
the  lakes  and  lagoons ;  and  there  are  several 
kinds  of  birds  of  prey,  woodpeckers,  and  small 
paroquets.  Domestic  fowl  are  abundant,  and 
were  upon  the  group  at  the  time  it  was  dis 
covered. — The  natives  belong  evidently  to  the 
Malay  race,  and  are  generally  above  the  middle 
stature.  Their  countenances  are  open  and  pre 
possessing,  though  their  features  are  bold  and 
sometimes  prominent.  Their  complexion  is 
olive  or  reddish  brown,  but  there  are  great  va 
rieties  of  shades.  The  appearance  of  .the  men 
is  vigorous  and  graceful,  and  their  behavior 
affable  and  courteous.  Tattooing  is  not  now 
practised.  The  native  costume  has  been  alto 
gether  abandoned  for  dresses  resembling  those 
worn  by  civilized  nations.  The  native  manu 
factures  have  been  entirely  superseded  by  im 
ported  goods.  The  chief  intercourse  is  carried 
on  with  Valparaiso,  Sydney,  and  San  Fran 
cisco,  and  the  domestic  exports  of  the  group 
consist  principally  of  cocoanut  oil,  arrowroot, 
sugar,  and  pearl  shells.  The  annual  exports 
amount  to  about  $1,000,000,  and  the  imports  to 
about  $650,000.  The  principal  port,  Papiete 
in  Tahiti  (pop.  about  800),  is  the  residence  of 
several  foreign  merchants.  It  is  a  free  port 
except  for  arms  and  spirits,  has  a  dock  for 
repairing  vessels,  government  buildings,  and  a 
hospital;  and  two  newspapers,  one  in  the  na 
tive  language  and  one  in  French,  are  published. 
— The  Spaniards  lay  claim  to  the  discovery  of 
Tahiti  in  1606,  by  Quiros,  who  called  the  isl 
and  Sagittaria.  Capt.  AVallis,  in  a  British  ship 
sent  to  make  discoveries  in  the  South  sea, 


SOCIETY  ISLANDS 


SOCINUS 


145 


reached  Tahiti  in  1767,  and  named  it  King 
George's  island.  Bougainville  touched  at  it  in 
1768,  naming  it  Nouvelle  Cy there.  Capt.  Cook 
reached  it  in  1769,  discovered  most  of  the 
islands  in  the  1ST.  W.  cluster,  gave  to  the  whole 
group  the  name  of  Society  islands,  in  honor 
of  the  royal  society  of  London,  and  restored 
the  native  name  to  Tahiti.  The  Spaniards 
attempted  to  colonize  Tahiti  in  1772-'4;  and 
about  that  date  Cooke  visited  the  group  a 
second  time,  and  again  on  his  last  voyage  in 
1777,  when  he  found  a  house  and  cross  which 
the  Spaniards  had  erected  carefully  preserved 
by  the  natives.  After  this  11  years  passed 
without  any  communication  between  the  So 
ciety  islands  and  the  rest  of  the  world,  when 
the  Bounty  arrived  to  transport  plants  of  the 
breadfruit  tree  to  the  British  West  India  isl 
ands.  The  interest  excited  by  these  voyages 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  London  mis 
sionary  society,  which  fitted  out  a  ship  to  car 
ry  missionaries  into  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 
This  vessel  arrived  at  Tahiti  early  in  1797. 
For  a  long  time  the  labors  of  the  missionaries 
were  fruitless,  till  Pomare  II.  embraced  Chris 
tianity  about  1815.  Pomare  died  in  1821,  and 
during  the  minority  of  his  son  the  missionaries 
acquired  great  influence ;  but  the  son  having 
died  before  he  attained  manhood,  he  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Queen  Aimata  or  Pomare,  the  lat 
ter  being  the  surname  of  the  reigning  family. 
From  the  conversion  of  Pomare  II.  the  power 
of  the  missionaries  continued  increasing,  till  it 
became  paramount  in  Tahiti.  The  success  of 
the  French  Catholic  missions  on  the  islands  to 
the  east  induced  two  priests  to  go  to  Tahiti. 
The  English  missionaries  opposed  this,  and  the 
priests  were  forcibly  deported.  The  French 
government  then  sent  a  frigate  to  demand 
liberty  for  all  French  subjects,  and  $2,000  as 
the  expenses  of  the  voyage  to  France  of  the 
expelled  missionaries.  In  1843  a  strong  force 
landed  on  Tahiti  and  hoisted  the  French  flag, 
taking  possession  in  the  name  of  Louis  Phi 
lippe.  (See  Du  PETIT-THOFAES.)  The  queen 
made  her  escape  to  a  neighboring  island,  and 
several  skirmishes  took  place  between  the  na 
tives  and  the  invaders.  There  was  also  a 
protracted  diplomatic  dispute  with  England, 
which  ended  in  the  payment  of  an  indem 
nity  by  the  French  government  for  the  ex 
pulsion  of  the  British  consul  Pritchard  and 
the  seizure  of  some  of  his  property.  In  1846 
the  French  power  was  completely  established 
in  Tahiti.  Pomare  was  recalled,  and  a  treaty 
was  entered  into,  by  which  she  was  restored 
to  authority,  and  the  whole  of  her  domin 
ions  placed  under  the  protection  of  France. 
Capt.  Cook,  from  the  crowds  which  collected 
on  the  coast,  supposed  the  population  of  Tahiti 
to  be  80,000;  but  the  first  missionaries  esti 
mated  it,  along  with  that  of  the  neighboring 
island  of  Eimeo,  at  10,000.  A  census  by  the 
French  in  1864  made  the  population  of  Tahiti, 
Marua,  Tetuaroa,  and  Maiaoiti,  13,847.  The 
reduction  from  former  years  is  due  to  infanti- 


cide,tvenereal  disease,  smallpox,  and  rum.  At 
tempts  have  been  made  to  increase  the  popula 
tion  by  immigration.  A  f  ew  hundred  Chinese 
coolies  have  been  introduced,  and  the  French 
deported  convicts  from  New  Caledonia,  but 
were  obliged  to  withdraw  them  in  1864,  on 
account  of  their  demoralizing  influence  upon 
the  natives.  By  the  labors  of  the  missionaries 
the  moral  and  social  condition  of  the  latter  has 
been  much  improved,  and  education  is  extend 
ing.  In  1865  school  districts  were  established, 
with  two  schools,  one  Protestant  and  one 
Roman  Catholic,  in  each  district. 

SOCIMJS  (Ital.  SOZZINI).  I.  Lrclins,  an  Ital 
ian  theologian,  born  in  Siena  in  1525,  died  in 
Zurich,  March  16,  1562.  His  studies  led  him 
to  doubt  some  of  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  the  church,  including  that  of  the  Trinity. 
After  various  travels  he  resided  in  Switzer 
land,  Germany,  and  Poland,  finally  settling  in 
Zurich.  In  Wittenberg  he  gained  the  friend 
ship  of  Melanchthon,  and  in  Geneva  of  Cal 
vin  ;  but  the  favor  of  the  reformers  was  with 
drawn  when  his  peculiar  doctrines  were  dis 
covered.  His  life  was  written  in  Latin  by  Ill- 
gen  (8vo,  Leipsic,  1814),  who  also  published 
in  1826  two  parts  of  another  work  in  quar 
to,  entitled  Synibolce  ad  Vitam  et  Doctrinam 
Lcelii  Socini  illustrandam.  II.  Faustus,  nephew 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Siena  in  December, 
1539,  died  near  Cracow,  March  3,  1604.  By 
his  skeptical  spirit  he  had  early  made  himself 
obnoxious  to  the  authorities  of  the  church,  and 
at  the  age  of  20  was  compelled  to  seek  safety 
abroad.  After  the  death  of  his  uncle,  whose 
property  and  manuscripts  he  inherited,  he  re 
turned  to  Italy.  After  spending  12  years  as 
an  attendant  upon  the  luxurious  court  of  Flor 
ence,  he  resolved  to  be  a  religious  reformer, 
and  in  1574  took  up  his  residence  at  Basel, 
where  he  busied  himself  in  elaborating  into  a 
system  the  scattered  hints  and  views  in  the 
writings  of  Ltclius.  In  1577  he  appeared  in 
open  debate,  maintaining  that  the  Trinity  was 
a  pagan  doctrine,  and  that  Christ  was  a  cre 
ated  and  inferior  being.  This  made  him  un 
popular  with  the  Swiss  church,  but  gave  him 
fame  abroad.  He  was  called  to  Transylvania 
to  oppose  Davidis,  who  had  taken  the  extreme 
ground  that  all  adoration  of  Christ  was  idola 
trous.  His  efforts  being  unsuccessful,  he  passed 
into  Poland,  where  the  Anti-Trinitarian  party 
had  gained  a  strong  foothold.  But  his  moder 
ate  opinions  made  him  unpopular  here,  and  he 
was  coldly  received.  After  four  years  of  resi 
dence  in  Cracow,  his  marriage  with  the  daugh 
ter  of  a  nobleman  in  the  neighborhood  gave 
him  new  influence.  He  found  a  comfortable 
home,  and  made  proselytes  from  the  noble  and 
wealthy  classes.  But  his  wife  and  her  father 
died,  illness  prostrated  him,  his  lands  in  Italy 
were  confiscated,  and  a  few  years  before  his 
death  he  was  assailed  by  a  mob,  dragged  into 
the  street,  and  exposed  in  the  market  place ; 
his  furniture  was  broken  and  his  manuscripts 
were  destroyed.  His  works,  contained  in  the 


146 


SOCIOLOGY 


first  two  volumes  of  the  Bibliotheca  Fra^rum 
Polonorum,  consist  of  theological  tracts,  ex 
positions  of  Scripture,  and  polemical  treatises, 
with  a  great  number  of  letters.  Many  of  his 
unpublished  letters  are  in  the  library  of  Siena. 
— Though  Socinus  was  the  founder  of  a  school 
in  theology,  his  influence  was  rather  negative 
than  positive.  He  denied  the  Trinity,  the  deity 
of  Christ,  the  personality  of  the  devil,  the  na 
tive  and  total  depravity  of  man,  the  vicarious 
atonement,  and  the  eternity  of  punishment. 
His  theory  was  that  Christ  was  a  man  divinely 
commissioned,  who  had  no  existence  before  he 
was  conceived  by  the  Virgin  Mary ;  that  hu 
man  sin  was  the  imitation  of  Adam's  sin,  and 
that  human  saltation  was  the  imitation  and 
adoption  of  Christ's  virtue ;  that  the  Bible  was 
to  be  interpreted  by  human  reason,  and  that  its 
metaphors  were  not  to  be  taken  literally.  The 
name  Socinian,  which  is  often  given  to  those 
who  hold  Unitarian  opinions  as  a  term  of  re 
proach,  was  for  a  century  the  honorable  de 
signation  of  a  powerful  and  numerous  religious 
body  in  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Transylvania. 
It  was  only  the  union  of  the  secular  and  eccle 
siastical  force  during  the  reigns  of  Sigismund 
III.  and  his  successor  that  succeeded  in  break 
ing  up  and  dispersing  the  Socinian  party  in 
Poland  ;  and  the  Racovian  catechism  (so  called 
from  its  place  of  publication,  Rakow  in  Po 
land),  compiled  mainly  from  the  writings  of 
Socinus,  is  still  the  text  book  of  faith  and 
worship  in  many  Hungarian  and  Transylva- 
nian  churches.  The  opinions  of  Socinus  are 
professed  still  by  many  churches  in  Holland, 
Switzerland,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United 
States.  His  life  was  written  .by  the  Pole 
Przypcovius,  and  by  the  Rev.  Joshua  Toul- 
min  (8vo,  London,  1777). 

SOCIOLOGY,  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
actions  of  men  living  together  in  society,  and 
of  the  institutions  thus  created.  Its  scope  em 
braces  the  whole  history  of  man  from  the  ori 
gin  of  language  to  the  latest  development  of 
modern  civilization.  As  a  constructive  sci 
ence  it  is  of  very  recent  birth.  In  a  looser 
sense,  as  consisting  of  general  speculations 
upon  social  affairs,  it  is  almost  as  old  as  so 
ciety  itself.  Plato,  doubtless  founding  on  le 
gendary  ideas  about  the  relation  between  the 
microcosm  and  the  macrocosm,  discovered  the 
parallelism  between  the  parts  of  a  society  and 
the  faculties  of  the  human  mind  ;  he  also  phil 
osophically  explained  the  rise  of  division  of 
labor  in  a  society.  Aristotle  classified  politics, 
constructed  a  framework  for  speculations  on 
government,  and  stated  two  of  the  three  sources 
of  the  origin  of  society:  instinctive  gregari- 
ousness  and  experience  of  utility.  The  later 
Greek  historians  of  Rome  indulged  in  some  ar 
bitrary  theories  about  the  influence  of  climate. 
Ilobbes,  following  the  lead  of  Plato,  tried  to 
establish  an  erroneous  parallelism  between  a 
society  and  the  human  body ;  but  his  concep 
tion  of  the  state,  the  Leviathan,  as  an  organ 
ism,  a  living  whole  made  up  of  related  parts, 


was  a  real  sociological  advance.  Pascal  devel 
oped  this  idea ;  he  regarded  the  whole  succes 
sion  of  human  beings  as  a  single  individual 
man,  whose  youth  is  the  world's  antiquity, 
whose  years  are  the  world's  generations,  whose 
maturity  is  the  world's  prime;  he  thus  for 
mally  enunciated  the  idea  of  progress,  so  vital 
to  sociology.  Vico  held  that  it  might  be 
shown  that  peoples  the  most  widely  separated 
in  place  and  time  had  followed  nearly  the 
same  course  in  the  development  of  their  lan 
guages  and  political  condition.  About  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century,  the  French  eco 
nomic  sect  of  the  physiocrats  maintained  that 
there  are  natural  laws  of  society  which  give 
it  a  direction  of  its  own,  irrespective  of  legis 
lative  interference.  Turgot  even  earlier  had 
discovered  that  all  epochs  of  history  are  fast 
ened  together  by  a  sequence  of  causes  and 
effects,  and  had  concluded  that  there  is  an 
ordered  movement  of  advance  in  societies. 
Herder,  in  his  Ideen  zur  Philosophic  der  Ge- 
schichte  der  Menschheit  (1784),  considers  hu 
manity  as  an  individual  tending  through  many 
vicissitudes  to  perfection,  which  it  reaches  in 
another  world.  Of  the  many  socialist  schemes 
which  sprang  up  after  the  French  revolution, 
that  of  Saint-Simon  alone  has  any  scientific 
value ;  and  all  that  was  true  in  his  somewhat 
unscientific  speculations  has  been  incorpora 
ted  by  Saint-Simon's  secretary  and  disciple 
Auguste  Comte  in  his  positive  philosophy. 
Comte  first  subjected  the  whole  course  of  his 
tory  to  a  careful  analysis,  so  as  to  throw  new 
light  on  the  development  of  society.  He  first 
fully  apprehended  the  relations  of  biology  or 
the  science  of  man  to  sociology;  first  clearly 
stated  the  diminishing  influence  of  physical 
surroundings  on  societies ;  first  gave  its  entire 
weight  to  the  increasing  influence  of  social 
circumstances,  both  on  the  society  in  which 
we  live  and  on  that  which  has  gone  before  us. 
Comte  was  consequently  the  first  to  lay  down 
the  lines,  although  they  are  rude  and  imperfect, 
on  which  a  scheme  of  society  as  it  will  be  may 
be  constructed.  His  sociology,  however,  bears 
the  marks  of  the  incomplete  erudition  and 
backward  science  of  the  time.  When,  in  the 
hands  of  the  Thierrys,  Guizot,  Villemain,  and 
many  others,  history  had  taken  a  new  depar 
ture,  Comte  profited  by  the  movement.  But 
the  studies  of  these  distinguished  writers  were 
too  closely  confined  to  the  political  and  intel 
lectual  aspects  of  society,  and  Comte  followed 
them  in  their  exclusiveness.  Coming  in  the 
wake  of  the  great  modern  scientific  move 
ment,  Herbert  Spencer  has  attempted  to  change 
the  face  of  sociology.  Taking  up  the  analogy 
between  society  and  man,  erroneously  treated 
by  Plato  and  Ilobbes,  Pascal  and  Turgot, 
Spencer  has  converted  it  into  a  series  of  gen 
eralizations  exhibiting  a  correspondence  be 
tween  individual  organisms  and  societies,  and 
of  these  he  has  made  the  basis  of  his  new  sci 
ence.  He  describes  each  community  as  a  so 
cial  organism,  which  has  structures  and  func- 


SOCORRO 


SOCRATES 


tions.  The  structures  are  forms  of  govern 
ment,  civil,  ecclesiastical,  military,  industrial, 
and  ceremonial ;  the  functions  are  sentiments, 
ideas,  industrial  processes,  the  fine  arts ;  and 
both  closely  resemble  the  structures  and  func 
tions  of  an  individual  organism.  In  his. "First 
Principles  "  he  goes  further,  arid  seeks  to  de 
rive  social  and  organic  together  with  inorganic 
laws  from  certain  ultimate  principles.  Thus 
the  origin  of  division  of  labor  in  a  commu 
nity,  and  differences  in  industrial  occupations, 
are  clearly  due  to  diversities  of  external  cir 
cumstances.  This  is  an  induction ;  as  a  mat 
ter  of  fact  all  simple  societies,  various  groups 
of  which  are  exposed  to  unlike  outward  condi 
tions,  tend  to  become  complex  societies.  Spen 
cer's  a  priori  explanation  is  that,  all  influence 
being  force,  river  banks,  sea  shores,  all  cli 
matic  and  local  conditions,  are  forces.  If  they 
do  not  influence  the  feelings  and  thus  modify 
the  habits  of  organic  beings  near  them,  they 
are  wasted  ;  but  this  is  inconceivable,  for  force 
persists.  The  instability  of  homogeneous  or 
low  forms  of  social  life  is  therefore  deducible 
from  the  persistence  of  force.  Passing  from 
general  to  special  aspects  of  sociology,  his  plan 
embraces  next  the  history  of  the  domestic  re 
lations.  Political  organizations  as  historically 
based  on  the  family  will  then  be  elucidated, 
and  the  functions  of  government  discrimina 
ted.  The  necessary  development  of  industry 
from  slavery  through  serfdom  to  cooperation 
will  be  shown.  Intellectual,  aesthetic,  and 
moral  progress  will  be  regarded  as  psycho 
logical  processes  determined  by  social  condi 
tions.  And  finally  all  phases  of  society  will 
be  shown  to  be  connected  with  and  reacting 
on  one  another.  But  one  division  of  this  im 
mense  work  has  been  executed  (1876). 

SOCORRO,  a  S.  W.  county  of  New  Mexico, 
bordering  on  Arizona,  intersected  in  the  east 
by  the  Rio  Grande,  and  containing  the  sources 
of  the  Gila  river;  area,  about  11,500  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,603.  There  are  fertile  val 
leys  along  the  streams,  but  the  greater  part  of 
the  county  is  mountainous  and  unproductive. 
Gold,  iron,  and  other  minerals  are  found.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  26,889  bushels 
of  wheat,  26,860  of  Indian  corn,  24,006  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  2,150  gallons  of  wine.  There  were 
271  horses,  1,313  milch  cows,  1,628  working 
oxen,  1,514  other  cattle,  23,500  sheep,  547 
swine,  and  4  flour  mills.  Capital,  Socorro. 

SOCOTRA,  an  island  in  the  Indian  ocean,  be 
longing  to  the  sultan  of  Oman,  about  130  m. 
E.  N.  E.  of  Cape  Guardafui,  the  eastern  ex 
tremity  of  Africa ;  length  about  75  m.,  breadth 
about  25  m. ;  area,  1,309  sq.  in. ;  pop.  about 
3,000.  Tamarida,  the  capital,  is  in  lat.  12°  39' 
N.,  Ion.  54°  1'  E.  The  surface  is  generally  about 
800  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  the  shores  are  bold. 
Toward  the  north  there  is  a  ridge  of  moun 
tains  with  several  peaks  rising  to  the  height  of 
5,000  ft.  There  are  some  small  streams,  and 
where  there  is  sufficient  moisture  vegetation 
is  remarkably  luxuriant.  Date  trees  and  cot 


ton  are  cultivated ;  but  Socotra  is  particularly 
famous  for  aloes  and  the  gum  of  the  dragon's 
blood  tree,  both  of  which  are  said  to  be  the 
finest  in  the  world.  Camels,  horned  cattle, 
sheep,  asses,  and  goats  are  reared.  There  is 
some  trade  with  Muscat. — Christianity  appears 
to  have  been  planted  on  this  island  during  the 
apostolic  age,  and  it  remained  Christian  until 
the  end  of  the  15th  century,  sharing  the  fate 
of  the  Nestorian  church,  which  the  Socotrans 
had  joined.  The  Portuguese  several  times  at 
tempted  to  occupy  the  island  and  to  revive 
Christianity.  In  1834  the  English  explored 
Socotra  and  appeared  disposed  to  occupy  it ; 
but  they  abandoned  the  design  when  they  oc 
cupied  Aden.  There  are  two  peculiar  tribes 
on^the  island,  one  said  to  be  descendants  of 
Jews,  and  the  other  of  the  Portuguese. 

SOCRATES,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  Athens  between 
471  and  469  B.  C.,  died  in  that  city  in  399. 
He  was  the  son  of  Sophroniscus,  a  sculptor, 
and  of  Pha3narete,  a  midwife,  and  was  trained 
in  his  father's  art.  Tradition  ascribed  to  his 
chisel  three  draped  figures  of  the  Graces  which 
in  the  time  of  Pausauias  were  shown  at  the 
entrance  to  the  acropolis.  As  a  philosopher 
he  called  himself  self-taught,  and  referred  his 
knowledge  sometimes  to  books,  but  more  fre 
quently  to  intercourse  with  distinguished  men. 
Though  traditionally  represented  as  an  old, 
bald-headed  man,  it  is  probable  that  his  ex 
traordinary  peculiarities  were  early  manifest 
ed,  and  it  is  certain  that  he  was  famous  both 
among  wits  and  the  populace  in  423,  when 
the  "Clouds"  of  Aristophanes  was  first  exhib 
ited.  Plato,  Xenophon,  and  Aristophanes  offer 
different  phases  and  estimates  of  his  philoso 
phy,  but  agree  in  the  outline  of  his  personal 
qualities  and  habits.  With  remarkable  physi 
cal  strength  and  endurance,  he  trained  himself 
to  coarse  fare,  scanty  clothing,  bare  feet,  and 
indifference  to  heat  or  cold,  aiming  thus  to  re 
duce  the  number  of  his  wants,  as  a  distant  ap 
proach  to  the  perfection  of  the  gods.  He  had  a 
flat  nose,  thick  lips,  prominent  eyes,  bald  pate, 
squat  figure,  and  ungainly  gait,  and  wandered 
about  the  streets  of  Athens,  standing  motion 
less  for  hours  in  meditation,  and  charming  all 
classes  and  ages  by  his  conversation ;  so  that 
Alcibiades  (in  Plato's  Symposium)  likened  him 
to  an  uncouthly  sculptured  Silenus  containing 
within  the  images  of  the  gods,  and  declared 
that  "  as  he  talks,  the  hearts  of  all  who  hear  leap 
up  and  their  tears  are  poured  out."  Though 
a  sage  and  a  mart}rr,  he  was  wholly  removed 
from  asceticism,  exemplified  the  finest  Athe 
nian  social  culture,  was  a  witty  as  well  as  seri 
ous  disputant,  and  on  festive  occasions  would 
drink  more  wine  than  any  other  guest  without 
being  overcome.  Few  events  of  his  life  are 
recorded.  Of  his  wife  Xanthippe,  all  that  has 
passed  into  history  is  that  she  bore  him  three 
sons,  that  she  had  a  violent  temper,  and  that 
he  said  he  married  and  endured  her  for  self- 
discipline.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  lover  of 


148 


SOCRATES 


the  city,  within  which  alone  he  found  instruc 
tion,  and  beyond  the  walls  of  which  he  never 
went,  except  once  to  a  public  festival,  and 
again  to  serve  as  hoplite  at  Potidaaa  (about 
431),  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian 
struggle,  at  Delium  (424),  and  at  Amphipolis 
(422).  At  Potida3a  he  went  barefoot  over 
ice  and  snow,  surpassed  all  other  soldiers  first 
in  the  cheerful  endurance  of  hunger  and  then 
in  the  apparent  enjoyment  of  plenty,  and 
saved  the  life  of  Alcibiades,  to  whom,  instead 
of  himself,  his  own  request  caused  the  prize 
of  valor  to  be  awarded.  His  composure  and 
bravery  were  alike  distinguished  at  Delium 
and  Amphipolis.  He  sought  influence  neither 
as  a  soldier  nor  statesman,  and  once  only  dis 
charged  a  political  oflice.  In  406  he  was  one 
of  the  five  prytanes  of  the  senate,  when  the 
illegal  sentence  of  death  was  proposed  against 
the  victors  at  the  Arginusse ;  and  he,  being 
epistates  for  that  day,  refused  to  put  the  ques 
tion  to  vote,  despite  the  menaces  of  the  peo 
ple  and  the  assembly.  With  four  other  citi 
zens  he  was  summoned  by  the  thirty  tyrants 
to  go  to  Salamis  and  bring  back  Leon  to  pun 
ishment  ;  and  he  alone  refused.  Engaged  as  a 
missionary  in  the  service  of  truth  and  virtue, 
he  was  warned  from  participating  in  public 
affairs  by  what  he  called  a  <5aiju6viov,  i.  e.,  an 
internal  voice,  which  he  professed  to  hear  from 
childhood  in  the  way  of  restraint,  but  never  in 
the  way  of  instigation,  and  which  he  was  ac 
customed  to  speak  of  familiarly  and  to  obey 
implicitly.  This  demon  or  genius  of  Socrates, 
which  was  not  personified  by  himself,  was  re 
garded  by  Plutarch  as  an  intermediate  being 
between  gods  and  men,  by  the  fathers  of  the 
church  as  an  evil  spirit,  by  Le  Clerc  as  one  of 
the  fallen  angels,  by  Ficino  and  Dacier  as  a 
good  angel,  and  by  later  writers  as  a  personi 
fication  of  conscience,  or  practical  instinct, 
or  individual  tact.  Nor  was  this  the  only 
way  in  which  he  thought  he  received  the  spe 
cial  mandates  of  the  gods.  By  divinations, 
dreams,  and  oracular  intimations,  he  believed 
his  peculiar  mission  to  be  imposed  upon  him  ; 
and  when  the  Pythian  priestess  pronounced 
him  to  be  the  wisest  of  men,  he  was  perplexed 
between  the  decision  of  an  authority  which 
he  deemed  worthy  of  all  respect  and  his  own 
estimate  that  he  had  no  wisdom  whatsoever 
on  any  subject.  With  this  sanction,  he  struck 
out  the  original  path  of  an  indiscriminate  pub 
lic  talker  for  the  sake  of  instruction.  His 
disinterestedness,  poverty,  temperance,  easy 
affability,  and  unrivalled  sagacity,  as  well  as 
his  plausible  and  captivating  voice  and  man 
ner,  commended  his  conversation.  He  spent 
the  whole  day  in  public,  in  the  walks,  the  gym 
nasia,  the  schools,  the  porticoes,  the  work 
shops,  and  the  market  place  at  the  hour  when 
it  was  most  crowded,  talking  with  every  one 
without  distinction  of  age,  sex,  rank,  or  con 
dition,  discussing  with  politicians,  sophists, 
military  men,  artists,  and  ambitious  youths, 
eager  to  get  self-knowledge  and  to  awaken  the 


moral  consciousness,  striving  to  win  now  Alci 
biades  and  now  Theodota  to  virtue,  never  ac 
cepting  money  in  return  for  wisdom,  attract 
ing  listeners  during  his  later  years  even  from 
the  remoter  cities  of  Greece,  but  founding  no 
school,  teaching  in  no  fixed  place,  and  writing 
no  books.  His  custom  was  by  systematic  cross 
examination  to  convict  every  distinguished 
man  whom  he  met  of  ignorance.  Thus,  after 
hearing  the  oracular  eulogy  from  Delphi,  as 
reported  by  Plato  in  his  "-Apology,"  he  set 
out  to  examine  the  men  whom  he  deemed 
wiser  than  himself.  The  politicians,  the  poets, 
and  the  artificers  were  in  turn  affronted  as 
he  attempted  to  demonstrate  their  conceit  of 
knowledge  without  its  reality,  their  skill  with 
out  wisdom.  His  irony,  or  assumption  of  the 
character  of  an  ignorant  learner,  till  he  in 
volved  his  opponent  in  contradictory  answers, 
added  zest  to  his  discussions.  But  he  differed 
from  the  sophists,  though  he  was  ridiculed  as 
the  chief  of  them,  in  that,  whether  serious  or 
humorous,  he  was  ever  seeking  a  positive  basis 
for  truth,  while  they  for  the  most  part  denied 
the  possibility  of  truth,  and  could  ply  the  so 
phistical  art  with  entire  indifference  to  it.  In 
his  conception,  virtue  was  as  intellectual  as 
vice,  and  he  let  slip  no  opportunity  to  engage 
with  the  masters  of  sophistry,  to  follow  them 
through  their  subtleties,  to  unravel  their  cap 
tious  inquiries,  and  to  wield  the  weapons  of 
rhetorical  adroitness  in  the  interest  of  truth. 
He  exhibited  undisguised  contempt  for  the  ru 
lers,  proclaiming  that  government  was  a  most 
difficult  science,  and  that  men,  who  would  not 
trust  themselves  in  a  ship  without  an  experi 
enced  pilot,  not  only  trusted  themselves  in  a 
state  with  untried  rulers,  but  even  sought  to 
become  rulers  themselves.  He  thus  naturally 
and  necessarily  made  for  himself  enemies  in 
every  direction  and  among  all  classes.  At 
tached  to  none  of  the  political  parties,  ridi 
culed  in  turn  as  a  buffoon  and  as  a  moral  cor- 
rupter,  at  once  satirized  by  Aristophanes  and 
hated  by  the  thirty,  especially  odious  from  his 
intimate  connection  with  Critias  and  Alcibi 
ades,  only  a  decent  pretext  was  wanted  to  bring 
upon  him  the  vengeance  of  power,  and  this  was 
found  in  a  charge  of  impiety.  An  orator  named 
Lycon  and  a  poet  named  Meletus  united  with 
the  demagogue  Anytus  in  impeaching  him  for 
despising  the  tutelary  national  gods,  for  intro 
ducing  other  and  new  deities,  and  also  for  cor 
rupting  the  youth.  The  details  of  the  accusers 
were,  that  he  worshipped  a  demon  unknown 
to  the  mythology,  that  he  contemned  the 
existing  political  constitution  by  ridiculing  the 
practice  of  choosing  archons  by  lot,  that  he 
taught  young  men  the  habit  of  depreciating  the 
entire  mode  of  life  of  their  fathers,  and  that  he 
quoted  and  perverted  passages  from  the  poems 
of  Homer  and  Hesiod  to  favor  aristocratic  doc 
trines.  He  approached  his  trial  with  no  ex 
pectation  of  acquittal,  though  he  had  always 
obeyed  the  laws,  and  even  in  religious  opinions 
was  identified  with  the  public  mind  of  Athens. 


SOCRATES 


SODA 


149 


He  commented  upon  all  the  imputations,  and 
denied  some.  He  mentioned  his  blameless 
life,  his  divine  commission,  and  the  consequent 
antipathies  which  he  aroused,  refuted  the 
charge. of  irreligion,  maintained  a  calm,  brave, 
and  almost  haughty  bearing,  and  declared  his 
solicitude  rather  for  the  good  repute  of  the 
Athenians  than  for  himself.  He  heard  with 
out  surprise  the  sentence  of  condemnation, 
which  was  passed  by  a  majority  of  only  five  or 
six  in  the  Athenian  dicastery  of  567  members. 
It  is  probable  that  the  prosecution  was  de 
signed  rather  to  humble  than  to  destroy  him. 
Xenophon  affirms  that  the  defiant  and  fearless 
tone  of  his  defence  was  the  direct  cause  of  his 
condemnation ;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  capi 
tal  sentence  which  followed  it  was  the  conse 
quence  of  his  libera  contumacia,  as  Cicero  ex 
presses  it.  The  penalty  of  deatli  having  been 
pronounced,  he  declared  himself  satisfied  both 
with  his  own  conduct  and  with  the  result,  cal 
culated  that  his  bearing  on  the  trial  would  be 
the  most  emphatic  lesson  which  he  could  read 
to  the  youth  of  Athens,  and  predicted  that  his 
removal  would  be  the  signal  for  numerous  suc 
cessors  in  so  worthy  a  work.  An  interval  of 
30  days  was  allowed  for  the  annual  Theoric 
mission  of  the  sacred  ship  to  Delos,  which  he 
passed  in  prison,  with  chains  on  his  legs,  in 
conversation  with  his  friends.  The  Platonic 
dialogues  of  "Crito"  and  "Phaado,"  in  addi 
tion  to  their  historic  value,  may  be  regarded 
as  imitations  or  developments  of  his  last  argu 
ments  on  the  duty  of  obedience  to  the  laws 
and  on  the  evidence's  of  immortality.  There 
is  no  authority  but.  that  of  late  and  untrust 
worthy  writers  for  the  statement  that  the 
Athenians  lamented  his.  fate  and  punished  his 
accusers. — The  Memorabilia  of  Xenophon  and 
the  dialogues'  of  Plato  have  been  supposed  to 
represent  an  exoteric  and  an  esoteric  Socra 
tes,  and  there  has  been  a  long  controversy  as 
to  which  contains  the  most  complete  and  true 
history.  The  former  professes  to  record  ac 
tual  conversations  held  by  him,  and  was  de 
signed  as  an  apology;  while  the  Socrates  of 
the  latter  is  the  spokesman  of  theories  which 
may  or  may  not  have  been  the  opinions  of  the 
master  as  well  as  the  disciple.  But  the  two 
pictures  thus  presented  are  in  the  main  accor 
dant.  Socrates  marks  the  epoch  in  Greek  phi 
losophy  when  speculation  turned  from  physics 
to  ethics.  He  directed  his  attention  to  hu 
man  relations  and  duties.  Astronomy  he  pro 
nounced  a  divine  mystery ;  geometry  he  val 
ued  only  for  land-measuring  ;  general  physics 
he  discarded  altogether  as  having  furnished 
and  promising  nothing  but  hypothetical,  con 
trary,  and  useless  results ;  human  practice  alone, 
with  the  knowledge  pertaining  to  it,  was  es 
teemed  the  proper  subject  of  human  investiga 
tion.  According  to  Cicero,  "Socrates  called 
philosophy  down  from  the  heavens  to  earth, 
and  introduced  it  into  the  cities  and  houses  of 
men,  compelling  men  to  inquire  concerning  life 
and  morals  and  things  good  and  evil." — The 


most  complete  discussions  concerning  Socrates 
are  in  general  histories  of  Greece  and  of  phi 
losophy.  See  also  Moses  Mendelssohn's  life  of 
Socrates,  prefixed  to  his  own  Phcedon  ;  Nares, 
"An  Essay  on  the  Demon  or  Divination  of  So 
crates"  (1782) ;  Wiggers,  Sokrates  als  Mensch, 
Burger  und  Philosoph  (1811) ;  Schleiermacher, 
Ueber  den  Werth  des  Sokrates  als  Philosophen 
(1815-'18) ;  Lelut,  Du  demon  de  Socrate  (1836) ; 
K.  F.  Hermann,  De  Socratis  Accusatoribus 
(1854)  ;  and  Zeller,  "  Socrates  and  Socratic 
Schools"  (1868).  Ueber weg's  "History  of  Phi 
losophy"  (1872),  vol.  i.,  pp.  80-88,  contains  a 
full  list  of  works. 

SODA,  a  name  given  to  sodic  monoxide,  or 
common  oxide  of  sodium,  Na2O,  the  base  of 
the  important  series  of  sodium  salts;  also  to 
the  hydrated  oxide,  or  caustic  soda,  NallO, 
and  in  commerce  to  the  normal  carbonate,  Na2 
C03  +  10H2O.  Anhydrous  sodic  monoxide,  or 
the  soda  of  the  chemist,  Na2O,  is  formed  when 
the  metal  is  burned  in  dry  air  or  oxygen  gas, 
by  exposing  the  dioxide  to  a  high  heat,  or  by 
heating  sodic  hydrate  with  an  equivalent  quan 
tity  of  metallic  sodium,  whereby  NallO  +  Xa 
is  converted  intoNa20  +  H.  When  sodium  is 
burned  in  oxygen  gas  till  its  weight  is  constant 
a  dioxide,  Na202,  is  formed.  When  exposed 
to  the  air  it  deliquesces,  and,  uniting  with  car 
bon  dioxide,  resolidifies  as  carbonate.  When  a 
heap  of  it  is  moistened  it  becomes  heated  and 
evolves  oxygen  gas.  The  monoxide  attracts 
moisture  as  powerfully  as  the  corresponding 
potassic  oxide,  forming  sodic  hydrate  or  caustic 
soda,  from  which  the  water  cannot  be  expelled 
by  heat  alone.  The  properties  of  caustic  soda 
resemble  those  of  caustic  potash,  and  it  may 
be  prepared  from  the  carbonate  by  a  similar 
method  (see  POTASH,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  756) ;  but  its 
action  upon  acids  is  rather  less  energetic.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  2 '13.  It  is  manufactured 
on  a  large  scale  in  the  alkali  works  accord 
ing  to  a  process  proposed  by  Mr.  Gossage,  by 
which  advantage  is  taken  of  the  presence  of 
caustic  soda  in  the  black  ash  solution.  The 
crude  solution  of  black  ash  vats  is  evapora 
ted  to  a  specific  gravity  of  1*5  or  T6,  during 
which  operation  most  of  the  carbonate,  sul 
phate,  and  chloride  crystallize  out.  The  "  red 
liquor,"  as  it  is  technically  called,  which  owes 
its  color  to  a  compound  of  sulphide  of  sodium 
and  sulphide  of  iron,  and  which  is  also  con 
taminated  with  ferrocyanide  and  sometimes 
with  sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  has  air  forced 
through  it  while  hot,  which  causes  the  precipi 
tation  of  the  iron  as  sesquioxide  and  the  con 
version  of  the  sulphur  compounds  into  sul 
phates.  The  addition  of  sodic  nitrate  com 
pletes  the  oxidation,  and  this  salt  may  be  used 
for  the  whole  process.  After  its  addition  the 
evaporation  is  carried  further  until  the  whole 
mass  is  heated  nearly  to  redness.  When  the 
temperature  rises  to  311°  large  quantities  of 
ammonia  are  evolved,  and  as  it  increases  ni 
trogen  escapes  abundantly.  The  fused  soda  is 
poured  into  sheet-iron  vessels,  in  which  it  so- 


150 


SODA 


lidifies. — The  normal  carbonate,  existing  in  cer 
tain  lakes  in  Egypt  and  Hungary,  and  in  the 
volcanic  springs  of  Iceland  and  North  Amer 
ica,  often  containing  sesquicarbonate,  was  long 
known  in  commerce  as  natron.  Large  quan 
tities  of  it  and  of  other  soda  salts  occur  in  the 
form  of  an  efflorescence  on  the  "  alkali  plains  " 
of  the  western  territories.  It  was  formerly  pre 
pared  artificially  from  kelp,  or  the  ashes  of  sea 
weeds  and  f uci,  and  also  from  barilla,  the  semi- 
fused  ash  of  the  salsola  soda,  a  plant  which  has 
been  cultivated  with  great  care  by  the  Span 
iards,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Alicante,  the 
seed  being  sown  in  light  low  soils  which  are 
irrigated  by  sea  water.  Barilla  yields  much 
more  soda  than  kelp,  the  latter  being  now  prin 
cipally  used  for  obtaining  iodine.  But  the 
quantity  of  soda  obtained  from  barilla  is  small 
in  comparison  with  that  manufactured  by  the 
process  of  Leblanc,  which  consists  in  first  con 
verting  chloride  of  sodium  or  common  salt  into 
sulphate  of  sodium  or  Glauber's  salt,  and  then 
converting  the  sulphate  into  carbonate  by  heat 
ing  it  with  carbonate  of  lime  and  coal.  The 
conversion  of  common  salt  into  sulphate  or 
"salt  cake"  is  called  the  "salt-cake  process," 
and  is  effected  in  a  salt-cake  furnace.  One  of 
the  best  forms  of  furnace  contains  two  iron 
vessels  or  retorts  placed  in  separate  heating 
apartments  or  furnaces,  but  connected  with 
each  other  by  a  neck.  Into  the  first  vessel, 
called  the  decomposer,  which  is  oval,  are  in 
troduced  5  or  6  cwt.  of  common  salt  and  a  gath 
er  less  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  of  sp.  gr.  1*78, 
and  a  gentle  heat  is  applied.  Hydrochloric 
acid  is  evolved  and  passes  off  by  a  flue  to  con 
densing  towers  containing  fragments  of  coke 
or  stone,  thro-ugh  which  water  is  allowed  to 
trickle.  There  are  two  towers,  the  first  one 
receiving  the  vapors  at  the  bottom,  passing 
what  are  not  absorbed  to  the  top  of  the  other, 
from- the  bottom  of  which  the  residue,  mostly 
air  and  some  impurities,  issues  and  passes  into 
a  large  chimney.  In  the  first  vessel  about 
half  the  salt  is  decomposed,  when  the  pasty 
mass,  consisting  of  acid  sulphate  of  sodium  and 
undecomposed  salt,  is  thrust  into  the  second 
vessel  or  roaster,  which  is  heated  to  a  high 
er  degree,  and  the  decomposition  completed. 
The  reaction  in  the  first  vessel  is  as  follows : 
2NaCl  *  H2S04  =  NaCl  +  XaII,SO4  +  IIC1.  In 
the  second  vessel  the  acid  sodic  sulphate  re 
acts  upon  the  unchanged  salt,  the  hydrogen 
taking  the  chlorine  to  form  hydrochloric  acid, 
leaving  two  molecules  of  sodium  to  unite  with 
the  sulphion,  SO4 ;  thus,  NaCl  +  K"aIISO4  = 
HCl  +  Na2S04.  The  hydrochloric  acid  gas 
from  both  vessels  passes  through  the  same  flue 
and  condensing  towers.  The  neutral  sulphate 
or  "salt  cake"  is  then  removed  from  the  sec 
ond  chamber,  reduced  to  powder,  and  mixed 
with  powdered  chalk  and  coal,  in  the  propor 
tion  of  two  parts  each  of  sulphate  and  chalk 
and  one  part  of  coal.  This  mixture  is  then 
thrown  in  quantities  of  from  2  to  3  cwt.  into 
a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  melted  while  be 


ing  stirred.  The  mass  is  then  raked  out  into 
a  mould  from  which  it  is  turned  when  cold, 
forming  ball  soda,  or  black  ash,  which  contains 
from  20  to  '27  per  cent,  of  pure  soda  or  neu 
tral  carbonate,  minus  its  water  of  crystalliza 
tion,  and  mixed  with  calcium  sulphate,  quick 
lime,  and  imburned  coal.  The  reaction  is 
represented  as  follows:  Na2S04  +  CaC03  +  4C 
=Na2C03  +  CaS  +  4CO,  the  chemical  changes 
consisting  firstly  in  the  deoxidation  of  the  salt 
cake,  and  its  conversion  into  disodic  sul 
phide  with  evolution  of  carbonic  oxide,  and 
secondly  in  the  formation  of  sodic  carbonate 
and  calcic  sulphide  by  interchange  of  the  con 
stituents  of  the  disodic  sulphide  and  calcic  car 
bonate.  The  sodium  salts  are  extracted  in  a 
series  of  vats,  by  warm  water  which  passes 
from  one  to  the  other.  Calcium  sulphide, 
which  is  formed  in  large  quantities,  was  for 
merly  a  waste  product,  but  is  now  partly  util 
ized  in  the  preparation  of  hyposulphite  of  soda, 
which  has  been  employed  to  a  considerable 
extent  as  an  "antichlor"  for  removing  the 
last  traces  of  chlorine  from  bleached  paper 
pulp.  The  black  solution  obtained  by  the  lix- 
iviation  of  the  black  ash  is  allowed  to  settle, 
when  it  is  pumped  into  iron  pans  and  evapo 
rated  by  the  waste  heat  from  the  furnaces. 
Much  of  the  salt  crystallizes  during  ebullition 
and  is  removed  by  perforated  ladles.  The 
mother  liquor  retains  a  portion  of  caustic  soda, 
which  may  be  converted  into  carbonate  by 
mixing  it  with  sawdust  and  roasting  in  a  rever 
beratory  furnace.  At  present,  however,  this 
conversion  into  carbonate  is  not  much  prac 
tised,  but  the  caustic  soda  is  extracted  accord 
ing  to  the  plan  of  Mr.  Gossage,  already  de 
scribed.  The  crude  carbonate  is  crystallized 
by  redissolving  it  in  hot  Avater,  allowing  this 
to  become  clear  by  standing,  and  then  running 
it  into  deep  pans,  having  a  capacity  to  yield 
about  one  ton  of  crystallized  carbonate.  The 
solution  cools  in  five  or  six  days,  and  large 
crystals  are  formed.  The  mother  liquor  yields 
an  inferior  ash. — Sodic  carbonate,  or  commer 
cial  neutral  carbonate  of  soda,  has  a  nauseous 
alkaline  taste,  and  crystallizes  in  large  trans 
parent  rhomboidal  prisms,  containing  10  mole 
cules  of  water,  which  melt  in  their  water  of 
crystallization,  are  soluble  in  any  proportion 
of  hot  water,  and  are  also  very  soluble  in  cold 
water.  The  salt  easily  parts  with  its  water, 
and  melts  at  a  red  heat.  If  it  is  crystallized 
at  a  temperature  of  —4°  F.,  15  molecules  of 
water  of  crystallization  are  taken  up.  Mit- 
scherlich  obtained  sodic  carbonate  with  six 
molecules  of  water  of  crystallization.  Above 
93'2°  the  salt  crystallizes  in  forms  derived  from 
the  square-based  octahedron,  containing  five 
molecules  of  water;  but  between  158°  and 
176°  it  crystallizes  in  four-sided  prisms  con 
taining  only  one  molecule  of  water.  The  max 
imum  solubility  of  soda  in  water  is  at  100'4°. — 
The  principal  uses  of  commercial  carbonate  of 
soda  are  in  the  preparation  of  the  bicarbonate 
and  of  caustic  soda ;  in  the  manufacture  of  hard 


SODA  POWDERS 


SODIUM 


151 


soap,  for  which,  purpose  it  is  better  adapted 
than  potash  on  account  of  not  being  deliques 
cent  like  the  latter  alkali  (see  SOAP)  ;  and  also 
very  largely  in  the  preparation  of  paper  pulp 
from  various  materials.  The  paper  maker  uses 
it  in  connection  with  quicklime,  which  reduces 
it  to  caustic  soda.  (See  PAPER.)  It  is  also 
used  in  the  laundry,  and  for  domestic  and 
cleansing  purposes  generally. 

SODA  POWDERS.     See  EFFERVESCENCE. 

SODA  WATER.     See  MINERAL  WATERS. 

SODERMA>TLMD,  a  S.  E.  Isen  or  province  of 
Sweden,  bounded  N.  by  Lake  Maalar,  E.  by  the 
Isen  of  Stockholm,  which  embraces  a  portion 
of  the  old  province  of  Sodermanland,  and  S. 
E.  by  the  Baltic;  area,  2,603  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1874,  138,696.  It  is  generally  level  and  fer 
tile,  and  abounds  in  inland  lakes,  including 
part  of  Lake  Hjelmar.  Agriculture  is  the 
principal  occupation,  and  the  fisheries  and 
lumber  trade  are  of  some  importance.  Capi 
tal,  Nykoping. 

SODIUM,  the  most  abundant  of  the  alkali  met 
als,  its  chloride  composing  the  principal  part 
of  the  saline  matter  of  the  ocean,  and  also  ex 
isting  in  extensive  beds  in  geological  strata. 
Large  quantities  of  nitrate  and  carbonate  of 
sodium  are  found  in  beds,  and  in  some  rocks 
it  is  combined  with  silica.  The  metal  was  ob 
tained  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  soon  after  his 
discovery  of  potassium,  and  by  a  similar  meth 
od.  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard  afterward  pre 
pared  it  by  decomposing  sodic  hydrate  with 
metallic  iron  at  a  white  heat.  It  may  be  pre 
pared  readily  by  the  process  of  Brunner,  which 
consists  in  distilling  a  mixture  of  the  carbonate 
with  powdered  charcoal.  The  process  has 
been  improved  by  Deville  and  others,  and  em 
ployed  on  a  large  scale  in  manufacturing.  The 
carbonate  of  soda  used  in  the  process  is  pre 
pared  by  calcining  the  crystallized  neutral  car 
bonate.  It  is  thoroughly  dried,  pounded,  and 
mixed  with  a  slight  excess  of  charcoal.  Ground 
chalk  is  also  added,  to  preserve  a  pasty  condi 
tion  and  prevent  the  carbonate  of  soda  from 
separating  from  the  charcoal.  The  following 
proportions  are  recommended  by  Deville  for 
manufacturing  operations:  dry  carbonate  of 
soda,  30  kilogrammes;  charcoal,  13;  chalk,  3. 
The  materials  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and 
it  is  well  to  calcine  the  mixture  before  putting 
it  into  the  distilling  apparatus,  by  which  it  is 
made  more  compact,  so  that  a  greater  quan 
tity  can  be  introduced.  It  is  put  into  cylindri 
cal  iron  retorts  covered  with  clay,  which  are 
heated  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  The  re 
torts  have  movable  ends,  so  that  at  the  close 
of  the  operation  the  charge  may  be  withdrawn 
and  a  fresh  one  introduced  without  removing 
the  cylinders  or  putting  out  the  fire.  The  re 
ceivers  are  of  the  form  used  in  the  preparation 
of  potassium.  (See  POTASSIUM,  vol.  xiii.,  p. 
758.)  The  same  precautions  are  necessary  as 
in  the  preparation  of  that  metal.  The  chalk 
is  employed  to  prevent  the  charcoal  from  sep 
arating  the  carbonate  of  soda  when  it  fuses. 


The  charcoal  combines  with  oxygen  when  the 
heat  is  sufficient  to  weaken  the  affinities  be 
tween  the  constituents  of  the  salt,  and  the 
metallic  sodium  is  left  free,  when  it  distils 
over  and  is  condensed  in  the  receiver,  nearly 
pure  if  the  operation  is  well  conducted.  It  is 
perfectly  purified  by  melting  it  under  naphtha, 
when  it  may  be  run  into  moulds  like  those  used 
for  lead. — Sodium  is  a  brilliant  silver-white 
metal,  resembling  potassium  in  its  physical  and 
in  most  of  its  chemical  properties.  It  is  a  good 
conductor  of  heat  and  electricity.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  0-972,  its  atomic  weight  23,  and  its 
symbol  Na,  (jiatriwri).  It  is  soft  at  common 
temperatures,  fuses  at  207'7°  F.,  and  oxidizes 
rapidly  in  the  air.  At  the  freezing  point  of 
water  it  is  very  ductile,  and  at  the  zero  of 
Fahrenheit  it  is  quite  hard.  If  a  small  quan 
tity  of  the  metal  is  melted  in  a  sealed  tube 
filled  with  coal  gas,  and  cooled  till  crystalliza 
tion  begins,  when  the  liquid  portion  is  turned 
off  shining  octahedral  crystals  wrill  remain. 
When  dropped  into  cold  water  it  decomposes 
it  with  violence,  evolving  hydrogen  gas,  but 
does  not  produce,  enough  heat  to  inflame  it 
unless  the  metal  is  held  in  one  spot  so  that  the 
heat  shall  not  be  dissipated.  If  the  water  is 
previously  warmed,  the  gas  will  take  fire,  burn 
ing  with  a  bright  characteristic  yellow  flame. 
Sodium  is  widely  diffused  in  the  mineral,  ani 
mal,  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  united  with  silicic 
and  carbonic  acid  in  many  minerals,  forms  a 
large  share  of  the  saline  portions  of  animal  flu 
ids,  and  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of 
marine  plants.  It  unites  with  oxygen  to  form 
two  well  known  oxides :  the  monoxide,  Xa2O, 
the  soda  of  the  chemists,  and  the  dioxide,  Na2O2. 
These  two  oxides  are  formed  when  sodium  is 
burned  in  common  air.  Yvrhen  burned  in  oxy 
gen  gas  till  it  no  longer  increases  in  weight,  it 
is  wholly  converted  into  the  dioxide.  With 
water  it  forms  a  hydrate,  NallO,  which  corre 
sponds  in  composition  to  the  monoxide,  a  mole 
cule  of  hydrogen  replacing  one  of  sodium.  This 
hydrate  is  the  caustic  soda  of  commerce.  (See 
SODA.) — Salts.  The  salts  of  sodium  are  among 
the  most  important  of  all  compounds,  not  ex 
cepting  those  of  potassium.  The  principal  one  is 
the  chloride,  or  common  salt.  (See  SALT.)  The 
iodide,  N"al,  and  the  bromide,  NaBr,  are  anal 
ogous  to  the  corresponding  potassium  com 
pounds.  At  temperatures  above  86°  the  bro 
mide  crystallizes  in  anhydrous  cubes,  but- at 
lower  temperatures  it  unites  with  two  mole 
cules  of  water  and  forms  hexagonal  tables.  The 
iodide,  at  temperatures  above  10-4°,  crystallizes 
in  anhydrous  cubes  ;  but  at  ordinary  tempera 
tures  large,  transparent,  striated,  oblique  rhom 
bic  prisms  are  formed,  containing  two  molecules 
of  water.  The  small  proportion  of  sodic  iodide 
which  is  contained  in  sea  water  furnishes  the 
commercial  supply  of  iodine,  the  kelp  from 
which  iodine  is  obtained  being  the  ashes  of 
marine  plants  which  assimilate  the  iodide  from 
the  sea  water.  (See  IODINE.)  The  sulphides  of 
sodium  correspond  to  those  of  potassium,  and 


152 


SODIUM 


may  be  prepared  by  similar  processes.  The 
fluoride,  NaF,  exists  in  combination  with  alu- 
minic  fluoride  in  the  mineral  cryolite  6(NaF), 
A12F6,  found  in  Greenland  and  the  Ural,  which 
is  the  chief  source  of  metallic  aluminum.  (See 
ALUMINUM,  and  CEYOLITE.) — Sodic  sulphate, 
the  well  known  Glauber's  salt,  is  described  un 
der  that  title.  Sodium  unites  with  sulphurous 
acid  to  form  a  neutral  and  an  acid  sulphite. 
The  neutral  salt,  NaaS08  +  10Hap,  is  procured 
by  passing  sulphurous  anhydride  (see  SUL- 
PIIUE),  the  product  of  sulphur  burned  in  air, 
over  moistened  crystals  of  sodic  carbonate  as 
long  as  the  gas  is  absorbed,  dissolving  the  mass 
in  water  and  crystallizing.  It  is  extensively 
employed  for  the  preparation  of  the  hyposul 
phite  of  soda,  which  is  largely  used  under  the 
name  of  "antichlor"  to  remove  the  last  traces 
of  chlorine  from  bleached  paper  pulp.  (See 
PAPER,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  46.)  The  acid  sulphite, 
NaIISO3,  is  of  little  importance.  The  hypo 
sulphite,  Na2S2O3  +  5II2O,  was  formerly  made 
to  some  extent  from  impure  sodic  sulphide, 
or  sulphuret  of  sodium,  by  passing  sulphurous 
anhydride  through  it  until  it  ceased  to  be  ab 
sorbed  ;  but  it  is  now  largely  prepared  from 
neutral  sulphite  of  soda  by  digesting  this  salt 
with  sulphuric  acid  for  several  days,  at  a  mod 
erate  heat.  It  may  also  be  prepared  by  digest 
ing  a  solution  of  the  sulphite  with  flowers  of 
sulphur.  The  sulphur  is  gradually  dissolved, 
forming  a  clear  solution  which  yields  crystals 
on  evaporation ;  these  are  oblique  prisms  be 
longing  to  the  right  prismatic  system,  free 
ly  soluble  in  water,  but  insoluble  in  alcohol. 
Hyposulphite  of  soda  possesses  the  property 
of  forming  double  salts  with  silver  compounds, 
and  in  photography  it  is  employed  in  dissolv 
ing  away  ordinary  insoluble  compounds  of  sil 
ver,  such  as  chloride  and  iodide.  A  mixed 
solution  of  sulphite  and  hyposulphite  of  soda 
dissolves  malachite  and  blue  copper  ore,  and 
Stromeyer  has  employed  it  in  the  hydro-metal 
lurgical  extraction  of  copper.  It  is  also  used 
for  preparing  antimonial  cinnebar  and  aniline 
green.  Hyposulphite  of  soda  fuses  at  compar 
atively  low  temperatures  in  its  water  of  crys 
tallization,  and  advantage  is  taken  of  this  prop 
erty  in  the  sealing  of  glass  tubes  containing 
explosive  compounds  to  be  used  under  water 
in  torpedoes.  Mr.  M.  Carey  Lea  employs  it 
as  a  new  test  for  ruthenium.  If  a  salt  of  this 
metal  is  made  alkaline  with  ammonia  and 
boiled  with  the  hyposulphite,  it  first  acquires 
arose  color,  and  then  a  magnificent  carmine. 
Employed  in  medicine,  it  appears  to  have  de 
oxidizing  powers,  in  consequence,'  it  has  been 
suggested,  of  conversion  of  hyposulphurous 
into  sulphuric  acid.  It  diminishes  urea  and 
increases  uric  acid  in  the  urine,  and  also  in 
creases  the  sulphates  and  causes  the  appear 
ance  of  sugar  and  oxalic  acid.  It  has  been 
used,  in  accordance  with  the  suggestions  of 
Dr.  Polli,  in  zymotic  diseases,  or  those  which 
are  supposed  to  be  caused  by  ferments  in  the 
blood,  the  development  of  which  it  has  the 


power  of  arresting.  It  has  also  been  used  in 
cases  of  yeasty  vomiting,  on  account  of  its 
destructive  effect  on  the  sarcenia  xentriculi 
which  infests  the  stomach  in  that  disease,  and 
as  a  local  application  in  parasitic  affections 
of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes.  It  may 
be  given  in  doses  of  from  10  to  20  grains 
three  times  a  day,  dissolved  in  water.  For 
external  use  a  dram  may  be  dissolved  in  an 
ounce  of  water. — The  nitrate,  called  also  cubic 
nitre,  is  described  in  the  article  NITRATES. — 
The  neutral  carbonate,  commonly  called  soda 
in  commerce,  is  treated  under  SODA.  Bicar 
bonate  of  soda,  acid  sodic  carbonate,  or  mono- 
sodic  carbonate,  may  be  formed  by  saturating 
a  strong  solution  of  the  neutral  carbonate  or 
sal  soda  with  carbonic  acid.  It  is  also  manu 
factured  on  a  large  scale  by  passing  a  current 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  over  crushed  and  moist 
ened  crystals  of  commercial  carbonate,  exposed 
two  or  three  inches  in  depth  in  a  chamber 
upon  cloths  stretched  horizontally  above  one 
another.  The  carbonate  passes  into  the  ses- 
quicarbonate,  and  then  into  the  bicarbonate, 
which  may  be  redissolved  and  crystallized  on 
evaporation  in  rectangular  four-sided  prisms, 
soluble  in  10  parts  of  water  at  50°.  If  the  so 
lution  is  heated,  four  molecules  of  bicarbonate 
lose  one  of  carbonic  acid  and  are  converted 
into  the  sesquicarbonate  (45s"aIICO3=2Ka2CO3, 
IIoCOs  +  HoCOs),  which  by  heating  to  redness, 
or  by  continued  boiling,  is  converted  into  nor 
mal  carbonate.  Bicarbonate  of  soda  is  much 
used  in  medicine  as  an  antacid  and  promoter 
of  mucous  secretions  and  perspiration,  and  as 
an  ingredient  in  effervescing  powders.  (See 
EFFERVESCENCE.)  It  is  also  used  in  bread 
making,  as  was  formerly  the  sesquicarbonate. 
There  are  several  compounds  of  sodium  with 
boracic  acid,  but  only  one  is  of  any  practical 
importance,  the  acid  borate  (biborate  of  soda, 
or  common  borax),  which  is  described  in  the 
article  BORAX. — Sodium  forms  with  the  three 
varieties  of  phosphoric  acid  orthophosphates, 
metaphosphates,  and  pyrophosphates.  Among 
the  orthophosphates  are  trisodic  phosphate, 
or  subphosphate  of  sodium,  Na3PO4  +  12II2O, 
prepared  from  rhombic  phosphate  by  adding 
caustic  soda  to  its  solution  ;  and  the  hydric 
disodic  phosphate,  or  rhombic  phosphate  of 
sodium,  Na2HP04  +  12IIoO,  commonly  called 
phosphate  of  soda,  and  the  salt  from  which 
most  of  the  phosphates  are  obtained.  The 
latter  is  prepared  by  adding  sodic  carbonate  to 
acid  calcic  phosphate,  one  of  the  salts  formed 
in  obtaining  phosphorus.  (See  PHOSPHORUS, 
vol.  xiii.,  pp.  464  and  465.)  Tricalcic  phos 
phate  is  precipitated  while  the  disodie  phos 
phate  is  held  in  solution.  "When  decanted  and 
evaporated  it  forms  large,  transparent,  efflo 
rescent,  rhombic  prisms,  soluble  in  four  parts 
of  cold  water,  but  fusing  at  00°  F.  in  their 
water  of  crystallization.  It  has  an  alkaline  re 
action,  and  corrodes  flint  glass,  causing  white 
silicious  scales  to  separate  from  the  surface. 
When  evaporated  at  temperatures  above  90° 


SODOM 


SOUL 


153 


it  combines  \vith  seven  molecules  of  water 
of  crystallization,  and  does  not  effloresce. 
On  adding  free  phosphoric  acid  to  a  solution 
of  rhombic  phosphate,  biphosphate  of  soda, 
N"aHa  +  PO4  +  HaO,  is  formed,  which  crystal 
lizes  in  right  rhombic  prisms  having  a  strong 
ly  acid  reaction.  There  are  several  metaphos- 
phates  of  sodium,  and  also  double  salts  of  the 
same  constitution  in  which  another  metal  is 
one  of  the  basyles.  There  are  several  pyro- 
phosphates,  embracing  also  both  single  and 
double  salts,  for  a  description  of  which  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  larger  works  on  chem 
istry. — The  silicates  of  sodium  are  glasses  of 
various  degrees  of  fusibility,  and  also  of  solu 
bility  in  water.  (See  COXCEETE,  GLASS,  and 
GLASS,  SOLUBLE.)  There  are  several  organic 
salts  of  sodium,  the  principal  of  which  are 
acetates,  citrates,  oxalates,  tartrates,  and  vale- 
rianates  ;  but  they  do  not  possess  sufficient  gen 
eral  interest  to  require  notice  here.  —  General 
Characteristics  of  Sodium  Salts.  There  are 
no  good  direct  tests  of  sodium  salts,  because 
they  are  nearly  all  soluble,  so  that  the  presence 
of  sodium  is  often  inferred  when  the  absence 
of  every  other  metal  is  proved,  and  yet  a  saline 
substance  remains  which  yields  yellow,  striated, 
prismatic  crystals  on  addition  of  chloride  of 
platinum  and  evaporating  the  solution,  a  double 
salt  of  sodium  and  platinum  being  formed. 
The  detection  of  this  double  salt  is  more  cer 
tain  by  microscopic  examination  with  polar 
ized  light,  which  tinges  the  crystals  with  va 
rious  characteristic  colors.  Before  the  blow 
pipe  the  salts  of  sodium  impart  an  intense 
yellow  to  the  outer  flame.  Spectroscopic  ex 
amination  reveals  pure  yellow  light  having  the 
same  position  in  the  solar  spectrum  as  the 
double  line  D.  The  chief  distinguishing  char 
acteristics  between  sodium  and  potassium  salts 
are,  that  the  latter  impart  a  violet  color  to 
flames,  and  are  generally  more  insoluble,  as 
shown  in  the  slight  solubility  of  sulphate  of 
potassium  and  the  great  solubility  of  Glauber's 
salt.  Many  sodium  salts  moreover  effloresce 
on  exposure  to  the  air,  while  potassium  salts 
generally  deliquesce,  a  fact  markedly  shown  in 
the  carbonates. 

SODOM,  in  Biblical  history,  one  of  the  five 
cities  of  the  plain  or  valley  of  Siddim,  de 
stroyed  on  account  of  the  wickedness  of  the 
inhabitants.  (See  DEAD  SEA.) 

SOEST,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Westphalia,  13  m.  X.  by  E.  of  Arnsberg;  pop. 
in  1871,  12,404.  It  has  a  Catholic  cathedral, 
and  among  the  Protestant  churches  the  re 
stored  Weisenkirche  is  remarkable  for  its  pure 
Gothic  architecture.  There  are  many  brew 
eries  and  several  manufactories.  The  princi 
pal  trade  is  in  grain.  The  plain  surrounding 
the  town  contains  10  villages,  and  is  very  fer 
tile.  Soest  was  once  a  Hanseatic  town  of  great 
importance,  but  has  never  recovered  from  the 
effects  of  the  thirty  years'  war. 

SOFALA,  I.  A  country  on  the  E.  coast  of 
Africa,  within  the  territory  of  Mozambique, 


of  which  it  forms  the  southern  half.  It  ex 
tends  from  about  lat.  18°  to  24°  S.,  and  from 
the  seaboard  to  the  Motapa  mountains,  hav 
ing  an  extreme  length  of  about  400  m.  and  a 
breadth  of  nearly  200  m.  Along  the  coast  the 
land  is  low  and  swampy,  but  it  rises  toward 
the  interior  till  it  terminates  in  the  Motapa 
range.  The  country  is  watered  by  several 
considerable  rivers,  of  which  the  most  impor 
tant  are  the  Sofala,  the  Sabia,  and  the  Inham- 
ban  or  Inhambane.  The  Portuguese  establish 
ed  colonial  settlements  in  Sofala  early  in  the 
1 6th  century,  and  the  country  is  still  nominal 
ly  a  dependency  of  Portugal,  although  Euro 
pean  rule  is  really  limited  to  the  few  garri 
soned  stations  near  the  coast.  The  chief  towns 
are  Sofala  and  Inhamban  ;  the  latter  port  is  8 
m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  in  lat,  23°  57'  S.,  Ion.  30°  6'  E.,  and  has 
a  good  harbor.  The  exports  are  mainly  am 
ber,  beeswax,  and  ivory.  The  natives  are  ne 
groes,  and  the  slave  trade  is  carried  on,  but  to 
no  considerable  extent.  Sofala  was  formerly 
celebrated  for  its  export  of  gold  dust,  and  some 
geographers  have  supposed  it  to  be  the  Ophir 
of  the  ancients.  The  coast  region  is  very  un- 
healthful.  II.  A  town  in  the  above  country, 
formerly  the  capital  of  a  native  kingdom,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Sofala,  in  lat.  20°  3'  S., 
Ion.  34°  39'  E.  It  has  a  fort  and  a  church, 
and  consists  of  a  few  mud  and  straw  huts, 
though  once  a  place  of  considerable  trade.  A 
bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  interferes  with 
the  approach  of  large  vessels. 

SOGDIA>"A,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia,  S.  E. 
of  the  sea  of  Aral  (Oxianus  Lac  us).  It  was 
separated  from  Bactria  on  the  southwest  by 
the  Oxus,  and  from  Scythia  on  the  north  by 
the  Jaxartes,  thus  embracing  a  part  of  modern 
Bokhara.  The  Persians  conquered  it  in  the 
time  of  Cyrus.  Alexander  invaded  it  in  329 
B.  C.,  and  established  some  colonies.  After 
his  death  it  belonged  to  Syria,  and  subsequently 
fell  to  the  Turkomans. 

SOHAR,  a  seaport  town  of  Oman,  Arabia, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Batina,  on  the  sea 
of  Oman,  125  m.  X.  W.  of  Muscat ;  pop.  about 
20,000.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  defended 
by  a  few  guns.  The  castle,  a  handsome  build 
ing  with  three  walls  around  it,  occupies  a  low 
hill,  from  which  an  open  space  planted  with 
trees  extends  to  the  sea.  The  market  place  is 
lanre  and  regular,  and  contains  good  shops. 
Many  of  the  liouses  are  of  two  and  three  sto 
ries  and  well  built.  The  roadstead  is  well  pro 
tected,  and  offers  good  anchorage,  but  large 
vessels  have  to  lie  some  distance  off  shore. 
Outside  the  walls  is  an  open  sandy  space,  but 
beyond  it  are  gardens  with  shade  trees  and 
running  waters.  The  chief  manufactures  of 
the  town  are  arms,  stuffs  of  wool,  cotton,  and 
silk,  carpets,  and  coverlets.  Sohar  once  had  a 
large  trade,  but  it  has  been  injured  by  the 
prosperity  «of  Muscat,  and  many  of  its  build- 
iners  are  now  in  a  semi-ruinous  condition. 

SOHL.     See  ZOLYOM. 


154: 


SOIIN 


SOLANUM 


SOIIN,  Karl  Ferdinand,  a  German  painter,  born 
in  Berlin,  Dec.  10,  1805,  died  in  Cologne,  Nov. 
25,  1867.  He  studied  at  the  academy  of  Ber 
lin  and  under  Schadow,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  Diisseldorf  and  to  Italy.  He  was  professor 
at  the  academy  of  Diisseldorf  from  1838  to 
1855,  and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Diisseldorf  school.  He  especially  excelled  in 
the  rich  coloring  of  female  figures,  and  in 
idealized  portraits  of  ladies.  His  works  in 
clude  "  Rinaldo  and  Armida  "  (1827)  ;  "  Hylas 
captured  by  Nymphs  "  (1829)  ;  "Diana  in  her 
Bath"  (1833);  "The  Two  Leonoras,"  after 
Goethe's  Tasso  (1834);  "Romeo  and  Juliet " 
(183G);  "The  Sisters"  (1843);  "Vanitas" 
(1844) ;  "  The  Lute  Player  "  (1848) ;  "  The  Four 
Seasons"  (1851);  and  "Loreley"  (1853). — 
His  son  PAUL  EDUAED  RICHARD  (born  in  1834) 
excels  in  genre  and  portrait  painting.  His 
nephew  and  son-in-law  WILHELM  (born  in 
1830)  has  executed  good  genre  pictures,  inclu 
ding  "A  Delicate  Question"  (1864),  and  "The 
Consultation  with  a  Lawyer"  (1866). 

SOIL*    See  AGEICULTUEE. 

SOISSONS  (anc.  Noviodunum,  and  afterward 
Augusta  Suessionum),  a  fortified  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river  Aisne,  56  in.  N.  E.  of 
Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  10,404.  It  has  a  cathe 
dral  built  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  the 
ruined  abbey  of  St.  Jean  des  Vignes,  a  castle, 
and  a  college.  In  the  environs  is  the  abbey 
of  St.  Medard,  founded  by  Clotaire  I.  in  557, 
now  occupied  as  an  institute  for  deaf  mutes. 
There  are  manufactures  of  fine  tapestry,  linen, 
hosiery,  cordage,  earthenware,  and  leather. — 
Soissons  was  the  chief  place  of  the  Suessiones 
in  the  time  of  Cresar,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  6th  century  the  capital  of  Clovis,  who  had 
there  defeated  the  Roman  general  Syagrins 
(486),  and  it  gave  name  to  the  kingdom  of  his 
fourth  son.  It  has  sustained  many  sieges.  On 
Oct.  16,  1870,  it  surrendered  to  the  Germans, 
after  three  weeks'  investment  and  four  days' 
bombardment.  The  council  which  condemned 
Abelard's  doctrines  met  here  in  1122. 

SOROTO,     See  SACKATOO. 

SOLANDER,  Daniel  Charles,  a  Swedish  natural 
ist,  born  in  Norrland,  Feb.  28,  1736,  died  in 
London,  May  16,  1782.  He  was  educated  at 
TJpsal  under  Linnaaus,  studied  medicine,  made 
a  tour  in  Russia,  and  went  to  England  in  1760, 
after  spending  some  time  in  flie  Canaries.  He 
was  employed  in  preparing  a  catalogue  of  the 
collections  in  the  British  museum,  and  in  1766 
published  a  catalogue  of  the  Brander  Collec 
tion  of  fossils.  In  l76S-'7l  he  accompanied 
Sir  Joseph  Banks  on  Capt.  Cook's  first  voyage 
round  the  world.  In  1771  he  received  the  de 
gree  of  D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford  university.  In 
1773  he  was  appointed  under  librarian  to  the 
British  museum.  lie  greatly  promoted  the 
study  of  botany  in  England. 

SOLAN  GOOSE.     See  GANNET. 

SOLANO,  a  N.  W.  county  of  California,  bound 
ed  S.  E.  by  the  Sacramento  river  and  S.  by 


Suisun  bay:  area,  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
16,871,  of  whom  920  were  Chinese.  The  sur 
face  consists  mostly  of  valleys,  marsh  lands, 
undulating  prairies,  and  high  rounded  hills. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  agricultural  counties  in 
the  state.  There  is  very  little  timber.  Marble 
is  found,  and  limestone  from  which  a  superior 
hydraulic  cement  is  obtained.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  California  Pacific  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  1,949,418  bushels  of 
wheat,  443,400  of  barley,  54,780  gallons  of 
wine,  306,817  Ibs.  of  wool,  119,969  of  butter, 
and  37,469  tons  of  hay.  There  were  6,852 
horses,  1,046  mules  and  asses,  4,123  milch 
cows,  8,815  other  cattle,  41,890  sheep,  and  17,- 
133  swine ;  1  manufactory  of  cars,  1  of  cement, 
1  of  machinery,  7  of  sacldlery  and  harness,  8 
of  wine,  1  flour  mill,  3  tanneries,  and  3  brew 
eries.  Capital,  Fail-field. 

SOLANUI,  the  name  (of  unknown  deriva 
tion)  of  a  genus  of  plants  which  is  the  type 
of  a  large  and  important  order,  the  solanacece. 
Some  of  the  conspicuous  species  of  solatium 
being  popularly  known  as  nightshade,  the 
order  or  family  is  often  called  the  nightshade 
family.  The  solanums  are  annual  or  perennial 
herbs,  and  in  warm  climates  they  include 
shrubs,  and  even  trees,  with  alternate  leaves; 
the  flowers,  sometimes  terminal  or  axillary, 
are  often  extra-axillary,  appearing  upon  the 
stem  at  some  point  between  the  leaves,  an  un 
usual  position  due  to  a  more  or  less  complete 
union  between  the  flower  stalk  and  the  main 
stem.  The  calyx  and  wheel-shaped  corolla  are 
mostly  five-parted  or  five-lobed,  the  five  sta 
mens  with  very  short  filaments,  the  large,  an 
thers  crowded  around  the  style,  and  opening 
by  a  pore  at  the  apex  of  each  cell;  the  (mostly) 
two-celled  ovary  is  surmounted  by  a  simple 
style  with  an  obtuse  stigma,  and  in  fruit  be 
comes  a  two-celled  berry  containing  numerous 
flattened,  somewhat  kidney-shaped  seeds  with 
a  fleshy  albumen.  The  genus  solatium  is  exten 
sive;  in  its  latest  revision  (Dunal,  1852)  some 
850  well  defined  species  are  admitted,  and 
about  100  not  sufficiently  known  are  enumer 
ated  ;  they  are  found  in  all  temperate  coun 
tries,  but  in  tropical  regions,  especially  those 
of  South  America,  they  are  very  abundant. 
The  most  important  species  is  solatium  tiibero- 
sum  (see  POTATO),  the  tubers  of  which  are  so 
generally  used  as  food.  The  tomato  (described 
under  its  proper  title)  was  placed  here  by 
Linnaeus,  and  though  later  botanists  have  given 
it  a  separate  genus,  lycopersicum,  it  can  hardly 
be  kept  distinct  from  solatium.  Under  EGG 
PLANT  is  described  another  cultivated  species, 
and  under  NIGHTSHADE  is  given  a  common 
weed,  S.  nigrum.  Several  species  are  cultiva 
ted  for  ornament  in  gardens  and  greenhouses, 
and  a  few  wild  species,  not  elsewhere  men 
tioned,  are  of  importance  as  weeds.  —  The 
beaked  solanum  (S.  rostratum),  very  abundant 
on  the  plains  west  of  the  Mississippi,  is  a 
much-branched  annual,  2  to  3  ft.  high  and 
abundantly  armed  with  strong  yellow  spines ; 


SOLANUM 


SOLAR  TIME 


155 


it  has  yellow  flowers,  one  of  the  anthers  of 
which  is  much  larger  than  the  others,  and, 
being  prolonged  into  a  long  curved  beak,  has 
given  the  species  its  name ;  the  small  berry  is 
included  in  the  very  spiny  calyx.  This  has 
been  introduced  into  gardens,  and  in  some 
places  has  become  a  weed ;  the  plant  is  inter 
esting  from  the  fact  that  it  afforded  the  Colo 
rado  potato  beetle  its  chief  food  before  the  in 
troduction  of  the  potato  in  the  far  west.  (See 
POTATO  BUG.) — One  of  the  worst  weeds  of 
cultivation  is  S.  Carolinense,  known  in  some 
localities  as  horse  nettle,  and  in  others  as  ap 
ple  of  Sodom;  it  has  a  perennial  root,  with 
prickly  steins  a  foot  or  more  high ;  the  oblong, 
sinuate  leaves  prickly  on  both  sides ;  the  blu 
ish  white  flowers,  in  small  lateral  racemes,  are 
succeeded  by  orange-yellow  berries  about  'a 
third  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  is  especial 
ly  abundant  and  troublesome  in  the  southern 
states,  and  is  sparingly  found  as  far  north  as 
Connecticut.  It  is  very  hard  to  extirpate,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Delaware  it  has  gained  such 
complete  possession  of  the  soil  as  to  lessen  ma 
terially  the  value  of  farms,  and  in  some  cases 
to  cause  fields  to  be  abandoned. — A  climbing 
species,  S.  dulcamara,  is  popularly  known  as 
bitter-sweet ;  the  rind  of  the  stalks  is  said  to 
taste  at  first  bitter  and  afterward  sweet,  a  pe 
culiarity  recognized  in  the  Latin  name,  dulcis- 
amara,  given  to  the  plant  in  the  16th  century. 
It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  is  thoroughly  natu 
ralized  in  all  the  older  states,  and  is  not  rare 
in  cultivation.  The  stem  is  somewhat  climb 
ing,  and  grows  to  the  height  of  6  to  10  ft. ; 
it  is  woody  at  the  base,  but  the  upper  part  is 
killed  back  every  winter ;  the  leaves  are  usual 
ly  ovate-heart-shaped,  but  frequently  the  up 
per  ones  have  a  lobe  on  each  side  at  the  base 


Bitter-sweet  (Solanum  dulcamara). 


and  become  halberd-shaped;  the  flowers  are 
in  small  cymes ;  the  corolla  is  pale  blue  or 
purple,  against  which  the  large  yellow  anthers 
appear  in  strong  contrast,  and  make  them 


rather  showy  ;  they  are  succeeded  by  an  oval 
berry  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  bright  red  ; 
the  plant  begins  to  bloom  in  June  and  con 
tinues  till  autumn,  and  flowers  and  fruit  in 
every  intermediate  stage  up  to  full  ripeness 
may  usually  be  found  upon  it.  Though  bitter 
sweet  has  been  in  use  as  a  medicine  for  some 
centuries,  there  is  very  little  positive  knowl 
edge  concerning  it;  it  appears  to  contain  a 
very  small  amount  of  solanine  in,  a  modified 
form;  it  has  been  used  in  gout  and  rheuma 
tism,  in  various  affections  of  the  chest,  and  in 
skin  diseases.  The  berries  are  very  showy, 
and,  being  not  unpleasant  to  the  taste,  are  lia 
ble  to  be  eaten  by  children ;  in  regard  to  their 
effects  there  is  the  most  opposite  testimony; 
some  authors  assert  that  they  are  highly  poi 
sonous,  while  Garrod  says  that  he  has  admin 
istered  to  a  patient  half  a  pound  of  the  fresh 
berries  daily  with  no  ill  effect. — Several  spe- 


^v 


Ornamental-leaved  Solanum  (S.  Warscewiczii). 

cics  of  solanum  are  ornamental  plants  in  the 
greenhouse  and  garden ;  some  of  these,  valued 
for  their  ornamental  fruit,  are  described  under 
JEEUSALEM  CHEERY.  The  jasmine-like  sola 
num  (S.  jasminoides)  is  a  tall,  climbing  house 
plant  from  Brazil,  with  dark  green,  smooth, 
ovate  or  heart-shaped  leaves,  and  large  clus 
ters  of  white  or  slightly  bluish  and  pleasantly 
fragrant  flowers,  produced  in  profusion ;  it  is 
an  admirable  greenhouse  climber,  and  is  often 
planted  out  in  summer ;  in  the  southern  states 
the  root  remains  alive  through  the  winter. 
Some  of  the  erect  tropical  species  have  a  very 
robust  habit  of  growth  and  ample  foliage ;  in 
some  the  large  leaves  are  handsomely  cut ;  in 
others  they  are  marked  by  pleasing  contrasts 
of  color,  and  the  flowers  are  often  showy. 
Among  the  best  are  S.  crinitum,  S.  macran- 
thum,  8.  marginatum,  and  8.  Warsceioiczii, 
which  grow  from  3  to  8  ft.  high  and  are  highly 
ornamental. 

SOLAR  SYSTEM,     See  PLANET,,  and  SUN. 

SOLAR  TIME.     See  DAY. 


156 


SOLDER 


SOLE 


SOLDER  (Lat.  aolidus,  solid),  a  metal  or  alloy 
used  for  joining  together  different  pieces  of 
metal,  whether  of  the  same  or  of  different 
kinds.  Solders  are  divided  into  hard  and  soft. 
The  soft  solders  may  be  used  for  joining  all 
kinds  of  metals,  but  usually  those  having  low 
melting  points.  The  hard  solders  are  better 
adapted  for  the  less  fusible  metals,  especially 
where  strength  is  required.  Practically  the 
solder  must  be  more  fusible  than  either  of  the 
metals  to  be  united,  but  the  more  nearly  these 
points  coincide  the  stronger  will  be  the  union. 
Gold  in  the  form  of  leaf  or  fine  shreds  is 
used  for  soldering  platinum  vessels  ;  it  may 
be  slightly  alloyed  with  copper.  Silver  is  con 
sidered  the  best  solder  for  German  silver. 
Copper  in  shreds  is  often  used  for  iron  when 
welding  is  not  permissible,  sometimes  slightly 
alloyed  with  zinc.  Soft  solders  have  tin  for  a 
basis,  generally  alloyed  with  lead.  Those  con 
taining  much  lead  are  sometimes  ranked  with 
hard  solders.  Pewter  may  be  used  for  a  sol 
der,  and  by  the  addition  of  bismuth,  antimony, 
or  cadmium  its  fusing  point  may  be  lowered  so 
that  it  can  be  used  as  a  solder  for  pewter.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  more  important  sol 
ders.  For  gold:  gold  (18  carats)  66-6,  silver 
16*7,  copper  16'7.  A  good  gold  solder  for  gen 
eral  purposes  is  100  parts  of  gold,  40  of  silver, 
and  30  of  copper  (Makins).  For  silver:  silver 
06*6,  copper  30,  brass  3'4;  or  silver  65,  copper 
24,  zinc  11.  It  is  better  to  add  the  metals 
separately  than  to  use  brass,  which  may  have 
an  uncertain  composition.  Pewterer's  solder  : 
coarse — tin  3,  lead  4,  bismuth  2 ;  fine — tin  2, 
lead  1,  bismuth  1.  Plumber's  solder:  tin  1, 
lead  3  ;  a  finer  kind  has  the  same  composition 
as  fine  pewterer's  solder.  Hard  spelter  solder, 
used  for  soldering  copper,  is  made  of  copper 
16,  zinc  12.  Soft  spelter  solder,  for  brass,  is  ! 
made  of  equal  parts  of  copper  and  zinc.  Fluxes 
are  used  to  preserve  the  cleanness  of  the  sur 
faces  of  the  metals  and  free  them  from  oxide 
while  the  operation  of  soldering  is  going  on. 
The  solder  is  applied  in  various  ways.  The 
surfaces,  sometimes  previously  cleaned  with  a 
file  or  with  muriatic  acid  or  an  acid  solution 
of  chloride  of  zinc,  are  brought  together,  and 
the  solder  in  strips  or  grains  laid  on.  Then  a 
flux  composed  of  borax  or  sal  ammoniac,  some 
times  mixed  with  a  little  common  rosin,  is  ap 
plied,  and  the  parts  are  heated  with  a  blowpipe 
or  a  stream  of  intensely  heated  air.  But  it  is 
more  common  to  use  a  soldering  iron,  an  in 
strument  consisting  of  a  heavy  square,  pyra 
midal,  or  conical  piece  of  copper,  riveted  in 
a  fork  of  wrought  iron,  to  which  a  wooden 
handle  is  attached.  This  "  iron,"  being  heated 
above  the  fusing  point  of  the  solder,  is  applied 
to  it,  and  a  few  adhering  drops  of  the  melted 
alloy  are  carried  to  the  parts  to  be  joined, 
which  are  then  held  in  position  until  the  sol 
der  hardens.  Aluminum  cannot  be  soldered 
in  the  ordinary  way,  but  must  first  be  tinned. 
A  good  general  solder  for  aluminum  is  com 
posed  of  zinc  90,  aluminum  6,  copper  4. 


SOLE  (solea,  Cuv.),  a  genus  of  soft-rayed 
flat  fishes  of  the  family  pleuronectidce.  (See 
FLOUNDEK.)  The  genus  has  the  jaws  concealed 
under  the  scaly  skin,  the  upper  rounded  and 
longest;  the  eyes  are  both  on  the  right  side, 
small,  the  lower  behind  the  upper  and  almost 
at  the.  angle  of  the  mouth;  the  mouth  is 
curved,  and  turned  almost  wholly  to  the  left 
side,  and  the  fine  and  villif orm  teeth  are  nearly 
all  on  this  side ;  the  snout  is  in  advance  of  the 
mouth ;  the  lateral  line  straight ;  branchial 
openings  below  the  small  pectorals ;  dorsal  and 
anal  very  long,  often  confluent  with  the  caudal ; 
no  air  bladder,  and  no  pancreatic  cseca,  and  the 
intestine  long  and  often  doubled ;  the  blind  side 
is  sometimes  furnished  with  shred-like  villi. 
The  common  sole  (S.  vulgaris,  Cuv.)  has  the 
body  more  elongated  than  in  most  flat  fishes, 
with  a  blunt  and  rounded  muzzle ;  the  length 
is  from  10  to  20  in.,  and  the  color  uniform  dark 
brown  above  and  white  below,  the  pectorals 
tipped  with  black.  It  inhabits  the  sandy 
shores  of  Great  Britain,  keeping  near  the  bot 
tom,  feeding  on  the  spawn  and  fry  of  other 
fishes  and  on  shell  fish ;  it  is  found  from  the 
seas  of  Scandinavia  to  the  Mediterranean.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  and  most  delicate  fishes  for 
the  table,  and  is  caught  in  immense  numbers 
by  trawl  nets ;  the  flesh  is  white  and  firm,  and 
is  in  good  .condition  all  the  year  except  in 
February  and  March,  when  they  are  spawning. 
Some  are  found  reversed,  or  with  the  eyes  and 
colored  surface  on  the  left  side,  and  a  few  -are 
dark  and  rough  on  both  sides.  In  the  genus 
achirus  (Lac.)  there  are  no  pectorals;  species 


Common  Sole  (Solea  vulgaris). 

are  found  in  the  Indian  seas,  with  the  upper 
parts  marbled  with  brown  and  lighter.  The 
New  York  sole  (A.  mollis,  Mitch.)  is  6  to  8  in. 
long,  dark  brown,  marked  transversely  with 


SOLEURE 


SOLOMON-  BEN  ISAAC          157 


irregular  black  bands,  and  has  small  scales ;  it 
is  found  from  Nantucket  to  North  Carolina. 

SOLEURE.     See  SOLOTHUEX. 

SOLFERLNO,  a  village  of  Lombardy,  in  the 
province  and  20  m.  S.  E.  of  Brescia.  It  has  a 
ruined  castle,  formerly  the  residence  of  a  prince 
of  Solferino ;  but  it  is  chietly  remarkable  for 
the  great  victory  won  here  by  the  allied  French 
and  Sardinian  forces  over  the  Austrians  on 
June  24,  1859.  The  battle  lasted  16  hours, 
and  four  French  corps  under  Marshals  Bara- 
guay  d'Hilliers,  MacMahon,  Canrobert,  and 
Niel,  and  led  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  III., 
and  fouf  divisions  of  the  Sardinian  army, 
commanded  by  Victor  Emanuel  in  person, 
were  opposed  to  an  immense  Austrian  force, 
under  the  command  of  the  emperor  Francis 
Joseph.  The  allies  lost  about  18,000  killed 
and  wounded ;  the  Austrians,  20,000,  besides 
6,000  prisoners  and  30  cannon.  The  battle 
closed  the  war,  and  the  peace  of  Villafranca 
followed.  On  June  24,  1870,  the  bones  of  the 
slain  on  this  field  were  collected  in  three  ossu 
aries,  which  were  consecrated  in  the  presence 
of  representatives  of  France,  Italy,  and  Austria. 

SOLGER,  Karl  Wilhelm  Ferdinand,  a  German 
author,  born  in  Schwedt,  Prussia,  Nov.  28, 
1780,  died  in  Berlin,  Oct.  20,  1819.  After 
extensive  studies  and  a  varied  career,  he  final 
ly  became  in  1811  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Berlin.  His  works  include  a  translation  of 
Sophocles  (1808  ;  2d  ed.,  1824) ;  Erwin :  vier 
Gespraclic  iiber  das  Schone  und  die  Kunst  (2 
vols.,  1815);  PhilosopJiisehe  (fesprdche  (1811)  • 
posthumous  writings  and  letters,  edited  by 
Tieck  and  Raumer  (2  vols.,  1826) ;  and  lectures 
on  aesthetics,  edited  by  Heyse  (1829). 
.  SOLIMAN.  See  SOLYMAN. 

SOLINGEN,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  near 
the  Wupper,  12  m.  S.  E.  of  Dusseldorf ;  pop. 
in  1871,  14,040.  It  contains  a  Catholic  and 
two  Protestant  churches,  a  synagogue,  a  supe 
rior  school,  and  a  chamber  of  commerce.  It 
has  for  centuries  been  celebrated  for  its  man 
ufacture  of  sword  blades  and  other  cutlery, 
and  iron  and  steel  ware.  There  are  in  and 
around  Solingen  more  than  2,700  establish 
ments,  employing  about  10,000  persons. 

SOLIS,  Antonio  de,  a  Spanish  historian,  born 
in  Alcala  de  Henares,  July  18,  1610,  died  in 
Madrid,  April  19,  1686.  After  becoming  cele 
brated  as  a  dramatist  and  poet,  he  was  ap 
pointed  official  historiographer,  and  entered 
holy  orders  in  1667.  His  principal  historical 
work  is  Historia  de  la  conquista  de  Mexico 
(fol.,  Madrid,  1684;  new  ed.,  Paris,  1858; 
English  translation  by  Townsend,  2  vols,  Lon 
don,  1724,  reprinted  in  1738  and  1753).  His 
most  celebrated  play,  La  Gitanilla,  or  "The 
Pretty  Gypsy  Girl,"  is  founded  on  Montal- 
van's  piece  borrowed  from  the  story  of 
Cervantes.  A  collection  of  his  plays  ap 
peared  at  Madrid  in  1732. 

SOLIS,  Juan  Diaz  de,  a  Spanish  navigator,  born 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century,  killed  in 
South  America  in  1516.  In  conjunction  with 


Yafiez  Pinzon,  he  discovered  Yucatan  in  1506. 
In  1508  they  unitedly  explored  the  coast  of 
South  America  from  Cape  St.  Augustine  to  lat. 
40°  S.,  and  took  possession  of  the  continent 
for  Spain.  Having  quarrelled,  they  returned 
to  Spain  in  1509 ;  a  lawsuit  followed,  and  So- 
lis  was  beaten  and  imprisoned,  and  Pinzon  re 
ceived  important  grants  in  the  island  of  San 
Juan.  Afterward  Solis  was  released,  was  paid 
34,000  maravedis  indemnity,  and  on  the  death 
of  Amerigo  Vespucci  became  pilot  major.  In 
1515,  with  three  ships,  he  explored  the  coast 
from  Cape  San  Roque  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  en 
tered  the  estuary  of  La  Plata,  which  he  called 
the  Mar  Dulce,  and  ascended  the  river.  He 
was  kindly  received  by  the  Indians,  but  after 
ward  ambuscaded,  killed,  and  eaten.  Accord 
ing  to  some  authorities,  he  discovered  the  Pla 
ta  in  1512,  and  made  a  second  voyage  to  it. 

SOLLY,  Sanmel,  an  English  surgeon,  born  in 
1805,  died  in  London,  Sept.  24,  1871.  He  be 
came  a  member  of  the  London  college  of  sur 
geons  in  1828,  lecturer  on  practical  anatomy 
and  assistant  surgeon  to  St.  Thomas's  hospital 
in  1833,  and  subsequently  attending  surgeon. 
He  was  also  for  many  years  lecturer  on  sur 
gery.  His  principal  work  is  "Anatomy  and 
Pathology  of  the  Brain  "  (2d  ed.,  1847),  which 
was  for  a  long  time  a  valuable  and  standard 
book.  He  also  published  "Surgical  Experi 
ences"  (1865).  He  was  fellow,  member  of 
the  council,  and  for  two  years  vice  president 
of  the  college  of  surgeons. 

SOLMIZATION,  in  singing,  the  application  to 
the  seven  notes  of  the  musical  scale  of  the  syl 
lables  ut  (or  do),  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  si,  to  en 
able  the  singer  to  acquire  full  command  of  the 
vowel  sounds.  (See  Music,  vol.  xii.,  p.  76.) 

SOLOMON.     See  HEBREWS,  vol.  viii.,  p.  586. 

SOLOMON,  Song  of.     See  CANTICLES. 

SOLOMON,  Wisdom  of.     See  WISDOM,  BOOK  OF. 

SOLOMON  BEN  GABIROL  (properly  perhaps 
Solomon  ben  Judah  ben  Gabirol,  and  popular 
ly  Gabirol),  a  Jewish  philosopher  and  poet, 
born  in  Malaga,  Spain,  about  1020,  died  in 
Valencia  or  Ocaila  about  1076.  Almost  all 
that  is  known  of  his  life  is  that  he  lived  for  a 
time  in  Saragossa,  and  was  intimate  with 
Samuel  Hallevi.  As  a  Hebrew  poet  he  im 
mortalized  himself  by  his  Kether  malkhuth 
("  Crown  of  Royalty  "),  a  didactic  hymn  on 
the  cosmos,  which  has  been  incorporated  in 
the  Jewish  liturgy.  His  philosophical  works 
he  wrote  in  Arabic,  and  only  incomplete  He 
brew  translations  of  them  are  extant.  His 
"  Source  of  Life,"  in  which  he  appears  as  a 
bold  Aristotelian,  is  cited  by  Albertus  Magnus 
and  other  medieval  Christian  philosophers, 
the  name  of  the  author  appearing  in  the  cor 
rupt  forms  of  Avicebron,  Avencebrol,  &c.,  de 
rived  from  the  Arabic  Aben  Gebrol.  The 
identity  of  the  names  has  but  recently  been 
established. — See  Munk,  Melanges  de  philoso- 
phiejuive  (Paris,  1857). 

SOLOMON  BEN  ISAAC,  rabbi,  erroneously  sur- 
narned  YARIII  or  JARCHI,  and  generally  known 


158 


SOLOMON  ISLANDS 


SOLON 


under  the  abbreviation  EASHI  (the  initials  o'f 
the  Hebrew  Rabbi  Shelomoh  Yitz'hafci),  a  Jew 
ish  commentator  of  the  Bible  and  Talmud, 
born  in  Troyes,  France,  about  1040,  died  there, 
July  13,  1105.  His  comments  on  the  Talmud 
have  never  been  excelled,  and  they  accompany 
all  editions  of  the  text.  Those  on  the  Bible 
have  been  translated  into  Latin  by  Breithaupt 
(3  vols.,  Gotha,  1710-14).  A  German  transla 
tion  of  the  commentary  on  Genesis  was  made 
by  Hayman  (Bonn,  1833),  and  one  of  the  whole 
Pentateuch  by  Lucas  (Prague,  1833-'8). 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  the  S.  Pacific 
lying  S.  E.  of  New  Britain  and  E.  of  New 
Guinea,  extending  in  a  S.  E.  direction  from 
lat.  4°  50'  to  11°  50'  S.,  and  from  Ion.  154°  30' 
to  162°  30'  E.  The  group  is  composed  of  the 
Islands  Bougainville,  Choiseul,  Malayta,  Santa 
Isabella,  New  Georgia,  Guadalcanar,  San  Cris- 
toval,  and  several  smaller  ones,  the  area  of  the 
whole  being  estimated  at  10,000  sq.  in.  Moun 
tains,  often  of  considerable  height,  traverse 
them.  The  shores  are  generally  low,  and  in 
some  places  bordered  with  mangrove  swamps. 
They  are  watered  by  numerous  streams,  and 
the  temperature  is  cooled  by  copious  rains. 
They  are  very  fertile ;  bananas,  yams,  sugar 
cane,  and  ginger  are  cultivated  ;  and  the  bread 
fruit,  cacao,  and  clove  trees  abound.  They 
are  inhabited  by  negrillos  and  Malays.  The 
population  is  very  irregularly  distributed,  the 
northern  islands  being  more  populous  than  the 
others. — The  islands  were  discovered  and  ex 
plored  in  1508  by  the  Spanish  navigator  Men- 
dan  a,  sent  out  by  his  uncle  Lope  de  Castro, 
viceroy  of  Peru.  He  named  them  Solomon 
islands  on  the  pretence  that  the  riches  of  Sol 
omon's  temple  were  brought  from  them.  He 
died  in  Santa  Cruz  group  in  1505,  while  on 
his  way  -to  colonize  them,  and  they  were  not 
again  visited  till  rediscovered  by  Carteret  in 
1767.  Some  partially  successful  missionary 
efforts  have  recently  been  made  there. 

SOLOMON'S  SEAL,  the  common  name  for  spe 
cies  of  polygonatum  (Gr.  TTO/U'^,  many,  and 
yew,  knee,  the'stems  having  numerous  joints), 
a  genus  of  the  lily  family,  closely  related  to 
asparagus,  and  having  thick,  knotted,  horizon 
tal  rootstocks,  which  show  upon  their  upper 


Solomon's  Seal.     Rhizome,  showing-  stem,  bud,  and  scars  of 
former  stems. 

surface  deep  scars  left  by  the  falling  away  of 
the  stems  of  previous  years,  a  character  which 
gave  rise  to  the  popular  name.  Each  root- 
stock  bears  a  single  leafy  stem  ;  in  front  of  it 


is  a  bud  to  continue  the  growth  another  year, 
and  behind  it  are  the  scars  of  former  stems ; 
the  stems,  1  to  4  ft.  high,  are  gracefully  curved, 
and  clothed  with  nearly  sessile  or  half  clasping, 
strongly  nerved  leaves,  from  the  axils  of  which 
appear  the  drooping  greenish  flowers  ;  the  pe 
rianth  is  cylindrical,  six-lobed  at  the  summit, 
with  six  stamens  inserted  near  the  middle  of 
the  tube ;  the  three-celled  ovary  ripens  to  a 
globular  black  or  blue  berry  with  two  to  six 
see.ds.  The  great  Solomon's  seal  (P.  gigan- 
teum}  and  the  smaller  (P.  liflorum)  are  com 
mon  species,  while  the  remaining  one,  the 
broad-leaved  (P.  lat  1  folium),  is  vefy  local. 
Several  species  are  found  in  Europe,  which 
were  formerly  used  medicinally,  and  ours  have 
a  reputed  value  as  diuretics.  The  young  shoots 
are  cooked  and  eaten  in  Turkey  like  asparagus, 
and  the  roots,  which  contain  a  considerable 
quantity  of  starch,  have  been  used  in  Europe 
as  food  in  times  of  scarcity.  They  are  inter 
esting  but  not  showy  garden  plants.  Species 
of  the  related  genus  smilacina  are  called  false 
Solomon's  seal ;  they  have  their  flowers  in  ter 
minal  racemes,  and  mostly  red  berries. 

SOLON,  the  Athenian  lawgiver,  born  about 
G38  B.  C.,  died  in  Athens  about  559.  He  was 
a  lineal  descendant  of  Codrus.  In  his  youth 
he  visited  many  parts  of  Greece  and  Asia  as  a 
merchant,  gained  distinction  by  his  poems,  and 
from  his  reputation  for  political  wisdom  was 
reckoned  one  of  the  seven  sages.  Returning 
to  Athens,  he  began,  his  political  career  by 
recovering  Salamis  from  the  Megarians.  The 
Athenians  had  repeatedly  failed  in  their  at 
tempts  upon  this  island,  and  had  prohibited 
any  citizen  on  pain  of  death  from  proposing  a 
renewal  of  the  enterprise.  Solon  counterfeited 
madness,  and  in  apparent  frenzy  read  in  the 
agora  a  short  poem,  the  effect  of  which  was 
that  the  law  was  rescinded,  war  was  declared, 
and  he  himself  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  it.  In  a  single  campaign  (about  600)  the 
Megarians  were  expelled  from  the  island,  but 
a  tedious  conflict  ensued,  which  was  finally 
settled  in  favor  of  Athens  by  the  arbitration 
of  Sparta.  Soon  after,  in  the  Amphictyonic 
council,  he  moved  the  decree  by  which  the 
Athenians  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Del 
phian  oracle  against  Cirrha.  In  594  he  was 
called  by  all  parties  to  the  archonship,  with 
powers  substantially  dictatorial,  and  chiefly 
with  authority  to  confirm,  repeal,  or  modify 
the  Draconian  laws.  The  constitution  of  Solon 
(see  ATHENS,  vol.  ii.,  p.  55),  which  made  prop 
erty  instead  of  birth  the  title  of  citizenship, 
and  which  was  the  prelude  to  the  subsequent 
democracy,  was  by  a  solemn  oath  of  the  gov 
ernment  and  people  declared  valid  without 
alteration  for  ten  years.  lie  obtained  leave 
of  absence  for  that  period,  visited  Egypt,  and 
went  thence  to  Cyprus,  where  he  persuaded 
the  prince  of  yEpea  to  change  the  site  of  the 
town,  and  himself  made  the  regulations  for  the 
prosperity  of  the  new  establishment,  which  in 
his  honor  was  called  Soli.  He  returned  to 


SOLOTHURN 


SOLYMAN  II. 


159 


Athens  prior  to  the  first  usurpation  of  Pisis- 
tratus  (560),  and  amid  violent  dissensions  was, 
respected  by  all  parties,  but  was  unable  to 
overrule  the  popular  favor  of  his  kinsman. — 
The  chief  sources  for  the  biography  of  Solon 
are  the  compilations  of  Plutarch  and  Diogenes 
Laertius.  The  extant  fragments  of  his  verses 
are  usually  contained  in  the  collections  of  the 
Greek  gnomic  poets,  and  there  is  a  separate 
edition  of  them  by  Bach  (Leyden,  1825). 

SOLOTHURN  (Fr.  Soleure),  a  N.  W.  canton  of 
Switzerland,  bordering  on  Basel  Country,  Aar- 
gau,  and  Bern;  area,  303  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
74,713,  of  whom  62,078  were  Roman  Catho 
lics.  The  Jura  mountains  occupy  a  part  of 
the  canton,  and  the  remainder  of  the  surface 
is  level  and  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
river  Aar,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine.  Gold, 
silver,  iron,  and  lignite  are  found.  The  soil  is 
remarkably  fertile.  A  great  deal  of  the  sur 
face  is  occupied  by  meadows  and  pastures, 
upon  which  large  numbers  of  cattle  are  kept. 
The  forests  are  extensive,  and  afford  valuable 
timber.  German  is  the  language  of  the  canton. 
The  government  was  formerly  aristocratic,  but 
democratic  principles  have  been  largely  intro 
duced  into  it,  especially  by  the  revision  of  the 
constitution  in  1841. — SOLOTJIURN,  the  capital, 
is  at  the  foot  of  the  Weissenstein,  on  the  Aar, 
17  m.  1ST.  by  E.  of  Bern;  pop.  in  1870,  7,054. 
It  has  one  of  the  finest  cathedrals  of  Switz 
erland,  an  arsenal  with  a  large  collection  of 
ancient  armor,  and  a  museum  containing  a 
rich  collection  of  Jura  fossils.  Till  1874  it 
was  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  Basel. 

SOLSTICE  (Lat.  sol,  the  sun,  and  stare,  to 
stand),  the  period  in  the  annual  revolution  of 
the  earth  round  the  sun  when  he  is  at  that 
point  in  the  ecliptic  furthest  north  or  south 
from  the  equator,  or  in  other  words  reaches 
his  greatest  northern  or  southern  declination. 
There  are  two  solstices  in  the  year :  the  sum 
mer  solstice,  June  22,  when  the  sun  seems  to 
traverse  the  tropic  of  Cancer ;  and  the  winter 
solstice,  Dec.  22,  when  he  reaches  his  greatest 
southern  declination,  and  appears  to  traverse 
the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  For  several  days  be 
fore  and  after  the  solstice  there  is  but  a  slight 
variation  in  the  sun's  apparent  declination,  and 
so  far  as  his  motion  from  and  toward  the  eclip 
tic  is  concerned  he  may  be  said  to  stand  still. 
The  solstitial  points  are  the  two  points  of  the 
sun's  greatest  elevation  above  or  depression 
below  the  equator ;  and  a  circle  through  these 
points  and  the  poles  of  the  earth  is  called  the 
solstitial  colure. 

SOLUBLE  GLASS.     See  GLASS,  SOLUBLE. 

SOLWAY  FRITH,  an   arm   of   the   Irish   sea, 
which  extends  40  m.  N.  E.  between  England  j 
and  Scotland,   with   a  breadth  varying  from  | 
24  m.,  between  St.  Bees  Head  in  Cumberland  j 
and  Rayberry  Head  in  Kirkcudbrightshire,  to 
2  m.     It  receives  on  the  English  side  the  rivers  ! 
Derwent,  Ellen,  Waver,  Wampool,  and  Eden  ; 
and  on  the  Scottish  side,  the  Urr,  Nith,  and 
Annan.     Whitehaven,  Maryport,  and  Allonby 

VOL.  XY. — 11 


are  on  the  English  side,  and  Annan  and  Kirk 
cudbright  on  the  Scottish.  At  ebb  tide  the 
broad  sands  which  occupy  a  considerable  por 
tion  of  the  frith  are  left  dry. 

SOLYMAN  II.,  or  Suleiman,  called  the  MAGNIFI 
CENT,  an  Ottoman  sultan,  born  about  1495, 
died  before  Sziget  in  Hungary,  Sept.  5,  1566. 
He  was  the  son  of  Selim  I.,  whom  he  succeed 
ed  in  1520.  In  1521  he  subdued  the  rebellion 
of  Ghazali  Bey  in  Syria,  and  in  Hungary  took 
Belgrade  and  other  fortified  towns.  After  an 
arduous  siege  he  took  Rhodes  from  the  knights 
of  St.  John  in  1522.  He  invaded  Hungary  a 
second  time  in  1526,  won  the  decisive  battle  of 
Mohacs  (Aug.  29),  in  which  Louis  II.  of  Hun 
gary  lost  his  life,  overran  a  part  of  the  king 
dom,  and  recognized  as  king  John  Zapolya, 
who  put  himself  under  Solyman's  protection. 
This  embroiled  the  sultan  with  Ferdinand  I.  of 
ITapsburg,  who  was  elected  king  by  the  major 
ity  of  the  Hungarians,  and  began  the  first  of 
the  Turkish  wars  against  Germany.  In  1529 
Solyman  took  Buda,  and  appeared  before 
Vienna  with  a  vast  army ;  but  after  a  number 
of  assaults  he  retired  with  a  loss  of  80.000 
men.  A  second  attempt  in  1532  was  baffled 
by  the  resistance  of  Guns  under  Jurisics.  In 
1534  he  invaded  Persia,  arid  subdued  Armenia 
and  Irak,  with  the  cities  of  Tabriz  and  Bag 
dad;  in  1536  formed  an  alliance  with  Francis 
I.  of  France  against  Charles  V.,  the  brother  of 
Ferdinand ;  in  the  same  year  created  the  Bar- 
bary  corsair  Khair  ed-Din  or  Barbarossa  a 
Turkish  admiral,  and  thus  swept  the  Mediter 
ranean  and  Italian  coasts;  conquered  Croatia 
in  1537  by  a  great  victory  over  the  imperial 
ists  at  Eszek ;  and  in  1538  made  the  conquest 
of  Yemen.  An  attempt  in  1537  on  Corfu 
failed.  Upon  the  death  of  John  Zapolya  in 
1540,  he  supported  his  son  John  Sigismund, 
and  continued  the  war  with  Ferdinand  till 
1547,  when  a  truce  humiliating  to  that  prince 
was  agreed  upon.  He  now  again  invaded 
Persia,  in  1548  gained  a  victory  at  Van  in  Ar 
menia,  and  in  1549-'50  conquered  the  prov 
inces  of  Shirvan  and  Georgia.  Hostilities  in 
Hungary  were  renewed  in  1552.  John  Sigis 
mund  was  established  in  Transylvania  under 
Turkish  protection,  and  Solyman's  fleets  under 
Piali,  the  successor  of  Khair  ed-Din,  gained  a 
victory  over  the  combined  fleets  of  the  empe 
ror  at  Jerba  on  the  African  coast.  A  truce 
made  in  1562  left  the  Turks  in  possession  of 
their  Hungarian  conquests.  In  an  attempt 
upon  Malta  in  1565,  the  whole  naval  force  of 
Solyman  was  repulsed.  In  1566  he  again  led 
a  vast  army  to  the  invasion  of  Hungary,  crossed 
the  Drave,  and  laid  siege  to  the  fortress  of 
Sziget,  which  was  defended  by  a  small  garri 
son  under  Zrinyi ;  but  a  paroxysm  of  anger  at 
the  terrible  repulses  he  encountered  induced 
an  attack  of  apoplexy,  in  which  he  died  a 
few  days  before  the  last  and  fatal  assault  was 
made.  Under  this  sultan  the  Ottoman  empire 
attained  its  greatest  military  power,  and  it  be 
gan  immediately  to  decline  under  his  succes- 


160 


SOMAULI 


SOMERSET 


sor,  Selim  II.  By  the  Turks  he  was  surnamed 
the  Legislator  (Kanuni),  and  the  Kanun  Na- 
tneh,  or  code  of  laws  and  regulations,  drawn 
up  under  his  direction,  formed  the  basis  for  a 
long  period  of  the  Turkish  administration  of 
government  and  justice.  He  was  also  a  patron 
of  literature  and  art;  in  his  reign  the  use  of 
the  Turkish  language  in  literature  superseded 
that  of  the  Persian. 

SOMAULI,  or  Somal,  the  general  name  of  the 
tribes  inhabiting  that  portion  of  Africa  S.  of 
the  gulf  of  Aden,  and  extending  from  Cape 
Guardafui  and  the  straits  of  Bab-el- Mandeb 
to  the  Doho  river.  The  eastern  tribes  are 
called  Burri,  the  western  Gulbedh.  The  prin 
cipal  eastern  tribes  are  the  Midjertheyn,  the 
Wursumgalli,  and  Dulbharita;  the  principal 
western,  the  Habr  Awal,  the  Habr  Tul  Jaala, 
and  the  Habr  Gerhajis.  The  eastern  tribes 
are  generally  peaceable  and  orderly,  the  west 
ern  savage  and  warlike.  They  are  all  Moham 
medans,  and  are  very  superstitious,  believing 
in  charms  and  witchcraft.  They  live  gener 
ally  in  houses  made  of  mats.  Slavery  exists 
among  them.  In  war  they  use  shields,  spears, 
bows,  and  poisoned  arrows.  Their  principal 
articles  of  trade  are  various  kinds  of  gums, 
tragacanth,  myrrh,  and  especially  frankincense. 
They  are  generally  governed  by  chiefs,  who 
however  have  little  power.  The  characters 
and  modes  of  life  of  the  various  tribes  differ 
greatly.  Their  language  is  a  mixture  of  Arabic 
and  Galla  words,  and  the  race  is  supposed  to 
be  of  the  same  mixed  origin. 

SOMERS,  John,  lord,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  Worcester,  March  4,  1651,  died  April 
26,  1716.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  college, 
Oxford,  and  in  1676  was  called  to  the  bar  at 
the  Middle  Temple,  but  remained  some  years 
longer  at  the  university,  publishing  several  po 
litical  pamphlets,  and  a  variety  of  metrical  and 
prose  versions  from  classical  authors.  He  be 
gan  to  practise  law  in  London  in  1682,  acquired 
great  professional  eminence,  and  became  a 
leader  of  the  whig  party.  He  represented 
Worcester  in  the  convention  which  met  in 
January,  1689,  and  was  a  member  of  the  two 
committees  (acting  as  chairman  of  the  second) 
which  prepared  the  "Declaration  of  Right." 
In  1689  he  was  appointed  solicitor  general  and 
knighted,  in  1692  attorney  general,  in  1693  lord 
keeper  of  the  great  seal,  and  in  1697  lord  chan 
cellor,  when  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Baron  Somers  of  Evesham.  After  ineffectual 
attempts  to  fasten  upon  him  a  charge  of  mal 
administration,  and  also  of  complicity  in  the 
piracies  of  Capt.  Kidd,  whom  he  had  helped 
fit  out  a  ship  to  capture  pirates,  an  unsuccess 
ful  motion  was  made  in  the  house  of  commons, 
April  10,  1700,  that  the  king  should  be  re 
quested  to  dismiss  him.  But  his  absence  by 
illness  from  the  debates  upon  a  measure  dis 
tasteful  to  William,  assumed  to  be  by  design, 
induced  the  king  on  the  17th  of  the  same  month 
to  remove  him.  In  the  next  year  an  attempt 
was  made  to  impeach  Somers  on  14  distinct 


charges,  the  most  important  of  which  referred 
to  an  illegal  issue  at  the  king's  request  of  blank 
commissions  under  the  great  seal  for  the  pur 
pose  of  negotiating  certain  treaties,  to  his  al 
leged  complicity  with  Kidd,  and  to  his  acqui 
sition  of  various  unreasonable  grants  from  the 
crown  in  addition  to  the  salary  and  fees  of  his 
office ;  but  the  commons  declined  to  prosecute 
the  impeachment,  and  he  recovered  the  favor 
of  the  king,  whose  last  speech  to  parliament 
was  written  by  him.  On  the  accession  of  the 
whigs  to  power  in  1708,  Somers  was  appointed 
president  of  the  council,  and  held  the  office 
until  the  return  of  Harley  and  the  tories  in 
1710.  Subsequently  he  participated  in  legis 
lative  duties  until  his  death,  which  happened 
from  apoplexy.  A  number  of  original  letters 
and  papers,  illustrating  his  life  and  character, 
perished  by  fire  in  1752.  The  so-called  "  Som 
ers  Tracts  "(16  vols.  4to,  l748-'52;  new  ed. 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  13  vols.  4to,  1809-'15) 
consist  of  pamphlets  selected  chiefly  from  his 
library.  R.  Cooksey  wrote  "Life  and  Charac 
ter  of* Lord  Somers"  (4to,  1791). 
SOMERS  ISLANDS.  See  BEEMUDAS.  ^ 
SOMERSET,  the  name  of  four  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  W.  county  of  Maine, 
bordering  on  Canada,  intersected  by  the  Ken- 
nebec  river,  and  drained  by  the  head  streams 
of  the  Penobscot  and  Walloostook  rivers ; 
area,  3,800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  34,611.  The 
surface  is  diversified,  and  the  soil  generally 
good.  There  are  several  small  lakes,  and  the 
N.  part  is  covered  with  forests,  affording  vast 
quantities  of  timber  for  export.  The  Maine 
Central  and  the  Somerset  railroads  enter  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  31,202 
bushels  of  wheat,  106,657  of  Indian  corn,  296,- 
185  of  oats,  92,767  of  barley,  20,536  of  buck 
wheat,  31,408  of  peas  and  beans,  988,179  of 
potatoes,  113,481  tons  of  hay,  366,442  Ibs.  of 
wool,  796,238  of  butter,  and  169,349  of  cheese. 
There  were  7,222  horses,  11,132  milch  cows, 
5,886  working  oxen,  14,954  other  cattle,  78,- 
400  sheep,  and  3,590  swine  ;  23  manufactories 
of  carriages  and  wagons,  2  of  edge  tools  and 
axes,  5  of  furniture,  8  of  tc^nned  and  5  of 
curried  lea.ther,  1  of  paints,  1  of  paper,  6  of 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  6  of  turned  and  carved 
wood,  3  of  woollen  goods,  9  wool-carding  and 
cloth-dressing  establishments,  5  flour  mills,  and 
39  saw  mills.  Capital,  Skowhegan.  II.  A  N. 
central  county  of  New  Jersey,  bounded  N.  E. 
by  the  Passaic  and  W.  by  the  Lamington  riv 
er,  intersected  by  the  Raritan,  and  traversed 
by  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  canal  and  sev 
eral  railroads ;  area,  275  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
25,510.  The  surface  in  some  parts  is  very 
hilly,  and  the  soil  generally  fertile,  especially 
along  the  streams.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  218,766  bushels  of  wheat,  561,136 
of  Indian  corn,  700,515  of  oats,  86,684  of  pota 
toes,  42,034  tons  of  hay,  22,457  Ibs.  of  wool, 
3,800  of  flax,  and  587,093  of  butter.  There 
were  6,263  horses,  9,992  milch  cows,  4,922 
other  cattle,  7,302  sheep,  and  7,883  swine; 


SOMERSET 


SOMERVILLE 


1C1 


2  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements, 
8  of  cheese,  1  of  pig  iron,  3  of  castings,  10 
tanneries,  6  distilleries,  18  flour  mills,  and  7 
saw  mills.  Capita),  Somerville.  III.  A  S.  W. 
county  of  Pennsylvania,  bordering  on  Mary 
land,  bounded  W.  by  the  Youghiogheny  river 
and  Laurel  ridge,  arid  intersected  in  the  south 
by  Castleman's  river;  area,  1,000  sq.  m, ;  pop. 
in  1870,  28,226.  The  surface  is  generally 
mountainous,  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  glades 
are  admirably  adapted  to  grazing.  The  coun 
ty  abounds  in  bituminous  coal,  and  iron  ore, 
lire  clay,  and  cannel  coal  of  excellent  quality 
are  found.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Pittsburgh, 
Washington,  and  Baltimore  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  134,641  bushels 
of  wheat,  142,515  of  rye,  92,277  of  Indian 
corn,  559,616  of  oats,  49,779  of  buckwheat, 
84,476  of  potatoes,  51,327  tons  of  hay,  80,177 
Ibs.  of  wool,  1,344,522  of  butter,  11,005  of 
flax,  and  674,326  of  maple  sugar.  There  were 
8,273  horses,  13,811  milch  cows,  15,157  other 
cattle,  32,343  sheep,  and  10,748  swine;  43  tan 
neries,  16  saw  mills,  and  14  woollen  mills. 
Capital,  Somerset.  IV.  A  S.  E.  county  of 
Maryland,  on  the  E.  shore  of  Chesapeake  bay, 
and  bounded  S.  E.  by  the  Pocomoke  river 
and  sound ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  18,190,  of  whom  7,274  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  generally  fer 
tile.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Eastern  Shore 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
40,719  bushels  of  wheat,  251,883  of  Indian 
corn,  100,110  of  oats,  105,009  of  Irish  and 
42,026  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  9,090  Ibs.  of 
wool.  There  were  1,235  horses,  1,693  milch 
cows,  4,427  other  cattle,  3,199  sheep,  and 
7,628  swine.  Capital,  Princess  Anne. 

SOMERSET,  Edward  Seymour,  duke  of.  See 
SEYMOUR. 

SOMERSET,  Robert  Carr,  earl  of.  See  OVER- 
BURY,  Sir  THOMAS. 

SOMERSETSHIRE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  England, 
bordering  on  the  counties  of  Gloucester,  Wilts, 
Dorset,  and  Devon,  and  the  Bristol  channel : 
area,  1,636  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  463,412.  The 
coast  is  indented  by  several  bays,  the  chief  of 
which  is  Bridgewater  bay.  The  principal  riv 
ers  are  the  Avon,  Frome,  Yeo,  Axe,  Brue,  and 
Parret.  The  Avon,  Bridgewater,  and  other 
canals,  and  the  Great  Western  railway  inter 
sect  the  county.  The  surface  is  hilly,  but 
there  is  also  a  great  extent  of  marshy  land, 
and  much  of  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  Wheat 
and  potatoes  are  the  principal  crops,  and  large 
numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared.  Coal, 
iron,  and  lead  are  largely  produced.  Woollen 
cloth,  canvas,  gloves,  silk,  lace,  paper,  glass, 
and  various  kinds  of  iron  ware  are  manufac 
tured.  Somersetshire  contains  many  remains 
of  antiquity.  Bristol  is  partly  in  this  coun 
ty,  and  the  other  principal  towns  are  Bath, 
the  capital, 'Wells,  Taunton,  Bridgewater,  and 
Frome. 

SOMERSWORTH,  a  town  of  Straff ord  co.,  ISTew 
Hampshire,  on  the  Salmon  Falls  river,  which 


separates  it  from  Maine,  and  on  the  Eastern 
and  Boston  and  Maine  railroads,  33  m.  E.  of 
Concord  and  65  m.  N.  of  Boston ;  pop.  in  1870, 
4,504.  It  is  the  fifth  town  in  the  state  in  point 
of  manufactures,  the  principal  village  being 
Great  Falls,  near  the  falls  of  that  name  in  Sal 
mon  Falls  river.  The  Great  Falls  manufac 
turing  company,  with  a  capital  of  $1,500,000, 
controls  the  water  power  (reckoned  at  3,200 
horse  power),  and  employs  about  1,800  hands, 
manufacturing  about  20,000,000  yards  of  cot 
ton  goods  annually.  The  Great  Falls  wool 
len  company  manufactures  cassimeres,  and  the 
Somersworth  machine  company  stoves  and 
castings  of  all  kinds ;  these  have  a  capital  of 
$100,000  each.  There  are  several  smaller  man 
ufactories,  including  a  flour  mill  with  a  capital 
of  $30,000.  The  village  contains  three  banks, 
two  hotels,  about  60  stores,  15  schools,  a  pub 
lic  library  of  6,000  volumes,  a  weekly  news 
paper,  and  six  churches. 

SOMERVILLE,  a  N".  E.  central  co.  of  Texas, 
intersected  by  the  Brazos  river;  area,  about 
300  sq.  m.  It  was  formed  in  1875  from  Hood 
co.  The  surface  is  rolling  and  the  soil  fertile. 
Wheat,  Indian  corn,  and  cotton  grow  well. 
Capital,  Glen  Rose. 

SOMERVILLE,  a  city  of  Middlesex  co.,  Massa 
chusetts,  on  the  Mystic  river,  2  m.  1ST.  W.  of  the 
state  house,  Boston;  pop.  in  1850,  3,540;  in 
1860,  8,025;  in  1870,  14,685;  in  1875,  21,868. 
It  borders  S.  W.  on  Cambridge.  The  surface 
is  uneven ;  the  principal  elevations  are  Pros 
pect,  Spring,  Central,  and  Winter  hills.  A 
public  park  of  about  16  acres  has  been  laid  out 
in  the  N".  E.  part  of  the  city.  It  is  lighted  with 
gas  and  supplied  with  water  from  Mystic  pond. 
It  is  connected  with  Boston  by  three  lines  of 
horse  cars  and  four  steam  railroads.  A  large 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  do  business  in  Bos 
ton.  The  principal  manufacturing  establish 
ments  are  live  brick  yards,  a  bleachery  and 
dye  works,  a  leather-currying  establishment, 
an  iron  fouhdery,  an  art  foundery,  several 
carriage  factories,  two  manufactories  of  glass 
ware,  and  one  each  of  earthenware,  grate  bars, 
ice  tools,  ladders,  mats,  spikes,  brass  and  cop 
per  tubes,  steam  boilers,  &c.  The  city  is  di 
vided  into  four  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  8  aldermen,  and  16  councilmen.  The 
valuation  of  property  in  1874  was  $30,837,- 
700,  and  the  funded  debt  at  the  close  of  the 
year  was  $1,419,854.  There  are  18  public 
school  houses,  including  a  high  school,  under 
the  control  of  a  committee  of  three  members 
from  each  ward ;  average  attendance  in  1874, 
3,022  ;  expenditures,  $86,705  13,  of  which 
$55,990  62  were  for  teachers'  wages.  The 
free  public  library  contains  about  5,000  vol 
umes.  There  are  two  weekly  newspapers  and 
15  churches,  viz.  :  3  Baptist,  3  Congregational, 
2  Episcopal,  4  Methodist,  1  Roman  Catholic, 
1  Unitarian,  and  1  Universalist.  The  McLean 
asylum  for  the  insane  is  in  the  E.  part  of  the 
city. — Somerville  was  set  off  from  Charlestown 
in  1842,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1872. 


162 


SOMERVILLE 


SOMNAMBULISM 


SOMERVILLE,  Mary,  a  British  physicist,  born 
in  Jedburgh,  Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  Dec. 
26,  1780,  died  in  Naples,  Italy,  Nov.  29,  1872. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Vice  Admiral  Sir 
William  Fairfax,  and  chiefly  through  her  own 
efforts  acquired  a  thorough  education,  partic 
ularly  in  mathematics  and  landscape  paint 
ing.  In  1804  she  married  Samuel  Greig,  then 
Russian  consular  agent  in  London,  where  she 
went  to  reside.  Left  a  widow  in  1807,  she 
returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  in  1812  married 
her  cousin  William  Somerville,  M.  D.,  who  in 
1816  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  army 
medical  board,  and  removed  to  London.  Here 
she  attracted  attention  by  some  experiments 
on  the  magnetic  influence  of  the  violet  rays 
in  the  solar  spectrum,  the  results  of  which 
were  published  in  the  "Philosophical  Transac 
tions"  of  1826;  and  Lord  Brougham  suggested 
that  she  should  prepare  for  the  "  Library  of 
Useful  Knowledge"  a  summary  of  the  Meca- 
nique  celeste  of  Laplace,  which  proved  too  vo 
luminous  for  its  original  destination,  and  was 
published  under  the  title  "Mechanism  of  the 
Heavens"  (8vo,  Cambridge,  1831).  This  work 
led  to  her  election  as  an  honorary  member  of 
the  royal  astronomical  society,  and  her  bust  by 
Chantrey  was  placed  in  their  hall.  In  1834 
she  published  "  The  Connection  of  the  Physi 
cal  Sciences"  (9th  ed.,  1858).  In  1835  she 
received  a  pension  of  £200,  subsequently  in 
creased  to  £300.  Soon  afterward  she  went 
to  Italy  on  account  of  the  health  of  her  hus 
band,  and  there  resided  during  the  rest  of  her 
life,  principally  in  Florence,  Rome,  and  Na 
ples.  Her  next  work  was  "  Physical  Geogra 
phy"  (2  vols.,  1848;  6th  ed.,  1870),  a  history 
of  the  earth  in  its  whole  material  organization, 
and  of  animal  and  vegetable  life ;  and  her  last, 
"  Molecular  and  Microscopic  Science"  (2  vols., 
1869).  She  was  a  member  of  many  foreign 
societies,  and  in  1869  received  the  Victoria 
medal  of  the  royal  geographical  society,  and  in 
the  same  year  the  first  gold  medal  ever  award 
ed  by  the  Italian  geographical  society.  She 
warmly  favored  what  are  popularly  known  as 
"  women's  rights,"  and  was  a  member  of  the 
general  committee  for  woman  suffrage  in  Lon 
don.  In  her  92d  year  she  read  books  in  the 
higher  mathematics  four  or  five  hours  daily, 
solved  the  problems,  and  to  the  day  of  her 
death  was  occupied  in  the  revision  and  com 
pletion  of  a  treatise  on  the  "Theory  of  Differ 
ences."  During  her  last  few  years  she  noted 
down  some  recollections  of  her  life,  which 
have  been  published  under  the  title  "Personal 
Recollections,  from  Early  Life  to  Old  Age,  of 
Mary  Somerville,"  by  her  daughter,  Martha 
Somerville  (8vo,  London,  1873). 

SOMERVILLE,  William,  an  English  poet,  born 
at  Edstone,  Warwickshire,  in  1692,  died  July 
19,  1742.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester 
school  and  New  college,  Oxford,  and  settled 
on  a  paternal  estate  in  Warwickshire.  He 
lived  beyond  his  means,  and  finally  became 
intemperate.  His  "  Chase,"  in  blank  verse, 


has  often  been  reprinted.  He  wrote  "Field 
Sports,"  describing  hawking,  and  "  Hobbinol, 
or  Rural  Games,"  a  mock  heroic  poem. 

SOMME,  a  N.  department  of  France,  in  Pi- 
cardy,  bordering  on  the  departments  of  Pas- 
de-Calais,  Le  Nord,  Aisne,  Oise,  and  Seine-In- 
ferieure,  and  the  English  channel;  area,  2,379 
sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1872,  557,015.  The  surface 
is  generally  level,  but  occasionally  diversified. 
It  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  portions 
by  the  river  Somme,  which  flows  through  it 
in  a  W.  N.  W.  direction.  The  soil  is  careful 
ly  cultivated,  but  not  naturally  fertile.  Cider 
is  an  important  product.  Cotton,  linen,  and 
woollen  goods,  iron  ware,  and  beet  sugar  are 
manufactured.  It  is  divided  into  the  arron- 
dissements  of  Amiens,  Abbeville,  Doullens, 
Montdidier,  and  Peronne.  Capital,  Amiens. 

SOMMERLXG,  Samuel  Thomas  YOU,  a  German 
physiologist,  born  in  Thorn,  Jan.  18,  1755, 
died  in  Frankfort,  March  2,  1830.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Gottingen,  and  became  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Cassel  in  1778,  and  at  Mentz  in 
1784.  In  1790  he  began  to  practise  medicine 
at  Frankfort,  and  returned  to  that  city  in  1820 
after  spending  15  years  in  Munich  as  physician 
to  the  king  of  Bavaria,  who  ennobled  him. 
His  works  include  Vom  Baue  des  menschlichen 
Korpers  (5  vols.,  1791-'I6 ;  new  ed.,  9  vols., 
1839-'44) ;  De  €>orporis  Humani  Fcibrwa  (6 
vols.,  1794-1801);  and  Ueber  das  Organ  der 
Secle  (1796),  teaching  that  the  soul  has  its  seat 
in  a  vapor-like  fluid  in  the  cavities  of  the  brain. 

SOMNAMBULISM  (Lat.  somnus,  sleep,  and  am- 
tmlare,  to  walk),  literally,  the  act  of  walking  in 
sleep,  but  usually  applied  to  all  the  movements 
of  a  person  who  while  in  a  condition  of  sleep 
acts  his  dreams.  There  are  three  kinds  of 
somnambulism,  viz. :  1,  simple,  where  the  som 
nambulist  is  apparently  in  ordinary  health,  but 
rises  from  his  bed,  walks,  runs,  or  climbs,  or 
sometimes  talks  or  writes,  while  asleep ;  2, 
morbid,  where  there  is  a  diseased  condition, 
which  admits  the  manifestation  of  the  duality 
of  the  human  system,  the  somnambulist  some 
times  being  alternately  in  the  natural  and  the 
morbid  condition,  and  frequently  while  in  the 
latter  performing  acts  of  which  while  awake  he 
is  incapable ;  and  3,  artificial,  which  is  treated 
under  ANIMAL  MAGXETISM.  The  first  class  of 
somnambulists  are  usually  persons  of  nervous 
temperament,  and  the  phenomena  are  generally 
induced  in  them  either  by  some  violent  excite 
ment,  or  oftener  by  a  morbid  condition  of  the 
stomach,  late  suppers,  indigestible  food,  or  the 
like.  Some  writers  advise  the  placing  a  wet 
cloth  before  their  beds,  on  which  they  may 
step,  or  waking  them  suddenly  in  some  other 
way ;  but  such  a  course  is  fraught  with  great 
danger,  as  the  shock  may  prove  fatal,  or  at 
least  permanently  injurious. — Morbid  somnam 
bulism  is  a  condition  concerning  which  we 
have  little  positive  knowledge,  but  the  phe 
nomena  of  which  are  often  very  striking.  A 
shy,  diffident  girl  of  14,  for  instance,  of  a  ner 
vous  temperament,  but  who  has  exhibited  no 


SOMNAUTH 


SONE 


163 


extraordinary  intellectual  powers,  and  has  had 
but  very  ordinary  education,  becomes  languid, 
listless,  and  pale;  complains  of  pain  in  the 
side,  and  perhaps  of  an  unpleasant  feeling  in 
the  frontal  region ;  after  a  while,  falling  asleep 
in  the  daytime,  she  will  rise  from  her  chair, 
and,  imagining  herself  a  preacher  to  a  large 
audience,  go  through  the  preliminary  exercises 
of  a  religious  service,  and  deliver  an  extempore 
sermon,  the  arrangement  and  language  of 
which  far  transcend  her  waking  capacity ;  and 
this  performance  may  be  repeated  daily  or 
every  other  day.  In  the  case  we  are  descri 
bing,  which  in  its  general  features  is  similar  to 
a  considerable  number  which  have  occurred  in 
recent  times,  the  subject  recovered  her  health, 
and  the  phenomena  ceased  after  two  or  three 
years.  In  some  instances  they  have  been  fol 
lowed  by  the  death  of  the  somnambulist. — The 
development  of  the  double  existence  is  another 
of  the  phenomena  of  morbid  somnambulism, 
not  less  remarkable  than  the  preceding,  and 
equally  well  authenticated.  The  history  of  the 
celebrated  seeress  of  Prevorst,  by  Dr.  Kerner, 
will  be  readily  recalled ;  and  in  many  cases  the 
two  states  are  strongly  marked,  and  the  sub 
ject  remains  in  each  for  some  weeks,  being  ut 
terly  unconscious  while  in  the  one  of  any  event 
which  has  occurred  while  in  the  other.  Though 
resembling  it  in  some  particulars,  these  cases 
are  not  to  be  confounded  with  those  in  a  state 
of  ecstasy  (see  CATALEPSY),  there  being  none 
of  the  physical  insensibility  or  muscular  rigid 
ity.  The  causes  and  cure  of  this  form  of  som 
nambulism  are  alike  obscure. — See  Dr.  A.  J. 
Kerner,  Geschiclite  zweier  Somnambulen  (Carls- 
ruhe,  1824:),  and  "The  Seeress  of  Prevorst," 
translated  into  English  by  Mrs.  Catharine 
Crowe  (N"ew  York,  1845) ;  Macnish's  "  Philos 
ophy  of  Sleep  "  (1830)  ;  Abercrombie  "  On  the 
Intellectual  Powers  "  (1830) ;  Deleuze's  "  Crit 
ical  History  of  Animal  Magnetism "  (revised 
ed.,  New  York,  1816) ;  Colquhoun's  "  Animal 
Magnetism "  (1851)  ;  Reichenbach's  "  Ani 
mal  Magnetism  ;"  Dr.  Sonderis's  "  Narrative 
of  the  Religious  Excitement  in  Sweden  ;"  and 
Dr.  Gibson's  "  Year  of  Grace,  an  Account  of 
the  great  Irish  Revival  in  1859  "  (1860). 

SOMNAUTH,  or  Soamath  Pattan,  a  walled  town 
of  British  India,  in  the  peninsula  of  Catty- 
war,  in  the  political  agency  of  the  same  name 
under  the  Bombay  government,  on  the  N.  E. 
shore  of  the  Arabian  sea,  28  m.  TV.  N.  TV.  of 
Cape  Diu,  and  about  200  m.  1ST. TV.  of  Bombay; 
pop.  about  5,000.  Somnauth  is  celebrated  in 
the  mythological  legends  of  ancient  Hindos- 
tan,  and  is  now  chiefly  remarkable  as  the  site 
of  a  magnificent  temple  dedicated  to  Siva, 
which  formerly  attracted  many  pilgrims,  and 
was  supported  by  the  revenues  of  10,000  vil 
lages.  It  was  stormed  and  robbed  of  immense 
treasure  by  Mahmoud  of  Ghuzni  in  1024-,  and 
its  gates  were  carried  away  as  a  trophy.  They 
were  brought  back  to  India  in  1842  by  the 
English,  on  the  evacuation  of  Afghanistan,  and 
deposited  in  the  magazine  at  Agra. 


SOMOGT  (Ger.  ScMmegli),  a  county  of  S.  TV. 
Hungary,  bordering  on  the  counties  of  Zala, 
Veszpr6m,  Tolna,  and  Baranya,  and  on  Croatia 
and  Slavonia;  area,  2,538  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
289,555.  It  is  mountainous,  and  is  drained  in 
the  south  by  the  Drave.  Lake  Balaton  on  the 
northwest  is  partly  within  its  limits.  The  pro 
ducts  include  grain,  wine,  tobacco,  and  timber. 
Capital,  Kaposvar. 

SONATA,  a  form  of  musical  composition  con 
sisting  of  several  independent  movements, 
each  of  which  is  developed  in  accordance  with 
certain  accepted  rules.  The  great  body  of  in 
strumental  music  is  based  upon  the  sonata 
form.  When  first  used,  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  IGth  century,  the  word  simply  signified 
a  composition  for  instruments,  and  conveyed 
no  idea  of  any  determined  form.  Gradually 
composers  applied  it  to  a  composition  for  one 
or  two  instruments,  consisting  of  three  move 
ments  of  contrasted  character  and  time.  Philipp 
Emmanuel  Bach  contributed  greatly  to  the  de 
velopment  of  the  sonata.  His  works  of  this 
class  consisted  of  a  first  movement,  allegro, 
a  second,  adagio,  and  a  third,  rondo,  which 
was  more  vivacious  than  the  others.  Haydn 
adopted  Bach's  general  plan,  though  in  his 
44  sonatas  he  developed  the  movements  in  a 
broader  manner.  Mozart  arid  Beethoven  com 
posed  some  of  their  best  works  in  this  form ; 
in  their  day  it  was  the  favorite  kind  of  piano 
forte  composition.  It  has  also  been  used  by 
Von  TVeber,  Schubert,  Schumann,  and  other 
later  composers.  Haydn  added  a  fourth  move 
ment,  the  minuetto,  and  this,  or  its  equivalent 
the  scherzo,  with  the  three  previously  existing 
movements,  constitutes  the  form  upon  which 
all  the  quartet  and  quintet  music  for  stringed 
instruments  and  the  symphony  are  based. 

SONDERSHAISEN.     See   SCIIWAEZBUEG  -  Sox- 

DERSHAUSEX. 

SONDRIO,  a  N".  province  of  Italy,  in  Lombar- 
dy,  bounded  N.  TV.  and  N.  by  Switzerland,  N. 
E.  by  Tyrol,  and  S.  by  Brescia,  Bergamo,  and 
Como ;  area,  1,262  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  111,- 
241.  It  includes  the  valleys  of  the  Yaltellina 
( Val  Tellina),  45  m.  long,  and  its  continua 
tion  the  former  county  of  Bormio,  and  the 
valley  of  Chiavenna,  and  forms  only  one  dis 
trict.  It  is  surrounded  by  branches  of  the 
Rhastian  Alps,  including  some  of  their  high 
est  summits,  and  the  carriage  roads  over  tho 
Spltigen,  Bernina,  and  Stelvio  passes,  the  last 
the  highest  of  the  Alpine  roads,  run  through 
the  province.  The  province  abounds  in  pic 
turesque  localities.  The  principal  river  is  the 
Adda.  Excepting  along  the  marshes  near  the 
lake  of  Como,  the  country  is  exceedingly  fer 
tile  in  grain  and  fruit,  and  especially  in  wine. 
The  cheese  is  among  the  best  in  Lombardy. 
Iron  and  marble  abound.  The  principal  towns 
are  Chiavenna,  Bormio,  and  Sondrio,  the  cap 
ital,  which  has  a  population  of  about  5,000, 
and  a  fine  cathedral.  (See  VALTELLIXA.) 

SONE,  a  river  of  British  India,  a  southern 
tributary  of  the  Ganges,  rises  in  the  high- 


164 


SONNEBERG 


SONOMA 


lands  of  the  Central  Provinces,  in  lat.  22°  41' 
N.,  Ion.  82°  7'  E.,  near  the  source  of  the  Ner- 
budda,  and  falls  into  the  Ganges  28  m.  above 
Patna,  after  a  course  of  upward  of  450  m. 
The  general  direction  of  its  flow  is  northeast 
erly,  through  Jubbulpore,  Rewah,  and  Behar. 
All  its  important  tributaries  come  from  the 
south.  In  the  highlands  it  flows  through  nar 
row  valleys,  but  lower  down  they  widen  into 
alluvial  plains,  which  are  well  cultivated,  and 
yield  cotton,  indigo,  and  sugar  cane.  It  is 
about  3  in.  wide  at  its  junction  with  the  Ganges, 
but  the  navigation  is  of  little  importance  above 
Daudnugur,  about  60  m.  from  that  point,  where 
the  river  is  10  or  12  ft.  deep  in  the  rainy  sea 
son,  but  at  other  times  nearly  dry.  Coal  is 
found  upon  the  banks  of  its  upper  course,-  and 
agates  and  carnelians  occur.  Work  is  now 
(1876)  in  progress  on  the  Sone  irrigation  pro 
ject  for  supplying  water  to  about  2,000,000 
acres  in  the  Patna  division  of  Bengal,  by  a 
dam  across  the  river,  and  other  works. 

SOMEBERG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Saxe- 
Meiningen,  35  m.  S.  E.  of  Meiningen;  pop.  in 
1871,  6,764.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  important 
manufacturing  district,  and  has  a  fine  church, 
a  new  town  hall,  and  a  new  government  build 
ing.  Dolls  and  toys  of  wood  and  papier  mach6, 
china  goods,  cotton  hose,  and  kid  gloves  are 
made  here  in  great  perfection.  The  shipments 
to  the  United  States  amounted  in  1873-'4  to 
$938,332  in  gold.  In  the  vicinity  are  marble 
and  other  quarries,  and  there  are  many  brew 
eries.  An  American  consul  is  stationed  here. 

SONNET  (It.  sonetto\  a  poem  consisting  of 
14  iambic  decasyllabic  or  endecasyllabic  lines, 
rhyming  in  a  peculiar  manner.  The  first  8 
lines  make  two  quatrains,  and  the  remaining 
6  two  tercets.  There  are  two  rhymes  in  the 
quatrains,  the  1st,  4th,  5th,  and  8th  lines  rhy 
ming  together,  and  also  the  2d,  3d,  6th,  and  7th. 
This  is  the  best  arrangement,  as  the  Italians 
hold,  but  others  occur,  and  sometimes,  even  in 
Petrarch,  the  rhymes  are  alternate.  In  the 
tercets  great  liberty  is  allowed  ;  the  rhymes 
may  be  either  two  or  three,  and  they  may  be 
arranged  at  the  will  of  the  poet,  but  never  in 
couplets.  There  are  but  few  Italian  prece 
dents  for  the  form  which  the  English  poets 
prior  to  Milton  gave  to  the  sonnet.  From  the 
difficulty  of  continuing  the  same  rhyme,  they 
made  it  consist  of  three  quatrains  and  a  final 
couplet,  each  quatrain  usually  having  its  own 
two  alternate  and  independent  rhymes.  The 
Anacreontic  sonnet  is  composed  of  octo-sylla- 
bic  lines.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  sonnet 
was  the  invention  of  the  Italians,  or  was  de 
rived  by  them  from*  earlier  Provencal  poets. 
The  oldest  extant  specimens  are  in  Italian,  by 
Lodovico  Vernaccia  (about  A.  D.  1200),  and 
by  Piero  delle  Vigne,  chancellor  of  the  em 
peror  Frederick  II.,  who  flourished  early  in 
the  13th  century;  the  first  who  gave  to  it  the 
arrangement  which  was  subsequently  adopted 
as  its  legitimate  form  was  Guittone  d'Arezzo 
(died  in  1294) ;  and  it  was  carried  to  its  high 


est  excellence  by  Petrarch.  The  Italian  son 
net  was  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  marquis 
of  Santillana  in  the  15th  century,  and  during 
the  two  following  centuries  it  was  regarded 
there  with  extravagant  favor.  It  never  found 
much  favor  in  France,  and  fell  into  ridicule  in 
the  17th  century  through  the  louts  rimes,  or 
blank  sonnets,  in  which  the  rhyming  words 
were  first  chosen  and  arranged,  while  the  sub 
ject  was  to  be  selected  and  the  body  of  the 
sonnet  to  be  written  afterward.  In  Germany 
the  sonnet  has  been  chiefly  cultivated  by  the 
poets  of  the  romantic  school.  The  earlier 
English  form  of  the  sonnet  was  introduced  by 
Surrey  and  Wyatt  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ; 
and  there  are  numerous  sonnets  by  Sidney, 
Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Daniel,  Drayton,  Drum- 
mond,  and  others.  Milton  returned  to  the 
genuine  Italian  form,  but  did  not  always  ad 
here  to  it.  From  the  time  of  Milton  for  near 
ly  a  century  few  sonnets  were  written  in  Eng 
land.  It  was  revived  in  the  Italian  form  by 
Edwards,  Gray,  and  T.  Wharton,  while  Bowles, 
Charlotte  Smith,  and  Helen  Maria  Williams 
reverted  to  the  easier  form  of  the  old  English 
sonnets. — See  "The  Sonnet:  its  Origin,  Struc 
ture,  and  Place  in  Poetry,  with  original  Trans 
lations  from  the  Sonnets  of  Dante  and  Pe 
trarch,"  by  Charles  Tomlinson  (London,  1874). 

SONNINI  DE  MANONCOIRT,  Charles  Nicolas  Si- 
gisbert,  a  French  naturalist,  born  in  Luneville, 
Feb.  1,  1751,  died  in  Paris,  May  29,  1812. 
Being  commissioned  as  a  marine  engineer,  he 
spent  several  years  in  Cayenne  and  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Africa,  afterward  passed  some  time 
with  Buffon,  and  in  1777  joined  the  African 
expedition  under  Baron  de  Tott.  After  visit 
ing  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  he  returned 
to  France  in  1780.  He  contributed  to  Buf- 
f on's  Ilistoire  naturelle  13  volumes  of  fishes,  1 
of  cetacea,  and  with  Latreille  4  of  reptiles. 
He  lost  his  fortune  by  the  revolution,  and 
afterward  edited  a  BibUotltcque  pJiysico-eco- 
nomique  (1801-'12),  and  Kouxcau  dictionnaire 
cVMstoire  naturelle  (24  vols.  8vo,  1803  et  seq.}, 
and  published  accounts  of  his  travels. 

SONOMA,  a  N".  W.  county  of  California,  bound 
ed  S.  E.  by  San  Pablo  bay  and  W.  by  the  Pa 
cific  ocean,  and  watered  by  Russian,  Santa  Rosa, 
Petalnma,  and  Sonoma  rivers;  area,  1,400  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  19,819,  of  whom  473  were 
Chinese.  The  N.  part  is  mountainous,  being 
traversed  by  spurs  of  the  Coast  range,  which 
are  generally  well  timbered.  The  valleys  are 
very  fertile,  and  Sonoma  valley  is  celebrated 
f orbits  vineyards.  In  the  N.  E.  part  of  the 
county  are  the  geysers,  a  collection  of  hot 
springs.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  quicksilver,  and 
coal  occur,  but  not  generally  in  paying  quan 
tities.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  San 
Francisco  and  North  Pacific  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  618,425  bush 
els  of  wheat,  145,792  of  Indian  corn,  323,961 
of  oats,  195,456  of  barley,  369,154  of  potatoes, 
308,496  gallons  of  wine,"  230,394  Ibs.  of  wool, 
1,060,266  of  butter,  246,900  of  cheese,  and 


SONORA 


SOODAN 


165 


35,571  tons  of  hay.  There  were  10,616  horses, 
1,110  mules  and  asses,  14,960  milch  cows, 
16,592  other  cattle,  58,387  sheep,  and  28,588 
swine  ;  4  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wag 
ons,  5  of  cooperage,  5  of  cabinet  furniture,  1 
of  iron  castings,  5  of  wine,  13  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  2  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  8  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  5  flour  mills,  4 
tanneries,  3  currying  establishments,  3  brew 
eries,  and  18  saw  mills.  Capital,  Santa  Rosa.' 

SOflORA,  a  N.  W.  state  of  Mexico,  bounded 
N.  by  the  United  States,  E.  by  Chihuahua,  S. 
by  Sinaloa,  and  "W.  by  the  gulf  of  California 
and  Lower  California;  area,  81,022  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1869,  109,388.  The  eastern  portion 
of  the  state  is  extremely  mountainous,  being 
traversed  by  a  branch  of  the  Sierra  Madre ; 
the  western  is  composed  mainly  of  extensive 
plains.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Mayo, 
Yaqui,  and  San  Jose\  the  second  having  a 
course  of  450  m.,  and  all  three  emptying  into 
the  gulf  of  California.  The  most  important 
mineral  productions  are  gold  and  silver,  of 
which  there  were  144  mines  in  1870  ;^the  coin 
age  of  the  mints  of  Ilermosillo  and  Alamos  in 
1869  amounted  to  $1,116,397.  Copperas  oc 
curs  in  some  places,  as  do  also  amianthus,  ala 
baster,  and  jasper ;  and  carbonate  of  soda  and 
nitrate  of  potash  are  found.  The  climate  is 
hot  on  the  coast,  mild  in  the  central  portions, 
and  cool  in  the  elevated  region  of  the  east. 
Much  of  the  soil  is  fertile,  but  agriculture  is 
chiefly  confined  to  the  southern  districts  wa 
tered  by  the  Mayo  and  Yaqui  rivers.  The 
staple  productions  are  wheat,  maize,  barley, 
oats,  beans,  sugar,  cotton,  and  tobacco ;  coffee 
is  raised,  and  fruits  are  very  abundant.  There 
are  extensive  forests,  but  little  of  the  timber 
is  suitable  for  building ;  copal,  gum  arabic, 
archil  moss,  cochineal,  and  many  other  dyes 
and  drugs  are  produced.  Seals,  turtles,  oys 
ters  (including  pearl  oysters),  and  fish  of  good 
quality  are  found  in  inexhaustible  quantities. 
There  are  seven  steam  and  a  large  number  of 
other  flour  mills  ;  coarse  cotton  fabrics  are 
manufactured  in  a  mill  of  60  looms  at  San 
Miguel,  the  only  factory  of  any  kind  in  the 
state  ;  and  large  quantities  of  cigars  are  made. 
Cattle  rearing  is  extensively  carried  on,  despite 
the  depredations  of  the  Apache  and  other  In 
dians.  The  exports  include  hides,  gold  and 
silver  coin  and  bullion,  ores,  hog  skins,  pep 
per  and  gum,  flour,  and  cigars.  In  1870  there 
were  105  schools,  with  an  attendance  of  3,871. 
The  state  is  divided  into  eight  districts :  Ures, 
Ilermosillo,  Guaymas,  Alamos,  Montezuma,  Za- 
guarita,  Arispe,  Altar,  and  Magdalena.  The 
capital  is  Ures ;  the  chief  seaport,  Guaymas. 

SOATAG,  Henriette,  Countess  Rossi,  a  German 
singer,  born  in  Coblentz,  Jan.  3,  1806,  died  in 
Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  June  18,  1854.  She  ap 
peared  upon  the  stage  in  children's  parts  as 
early  as  her  sixth  year,  at  15  made  her  debut 
at  Prague  in  Boieldieu's  "John  of  Paris,"  and 
soon  rose  to  a  foremost  place  among  Euro 
pean  vocalists.  In  1828  she  privately  married 


Count  Rossi,  an  Italian  nobleman,  and  in  1830 
retired  from  the  stage.  She  was  induced  by 
her  husband's  pecuniary  misfortunes  to  resume 
her  profession  in  1849,  sang  for  several  sea 
sons  in  Europe,  then  made  a  successful  tour 
in  the  United  States,  and  died  while  returning 
from  a  professional  visit  to  Mexico. 

SOO€HOW,  or  Sncliau,  a  city  of  China,  in  the 
^province  of  Kiangsu,  on  a  lake  through  which 
the  imperial  canal  passes,  112  m.  E.  S.  E.  of 
Nanking,  and  53  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Shanghai ; 
pop.  variously  estimated  from  500,000  to 
2,000,000.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper, 
surrounded  by  a  wall  10  m.  in  extent,  and  four 
extensive  suburbs.  Silk,  linen,  cotton  hard 
ware,  and  glass  are  manufactured.  There  are 
many  beautiful  gardens  in  the  neighborhood. 
It  suffered  severely  during  the  Taeping  rebel 
lion,  the  insurgents  occupying  it  and  driving 
out  the  merchants  and  wealthy  inhabitants. 
It  succumbed  with  other  cities  of  the  delta  to 
the  imperialists  in  1864,  and  since  then  has 
recovered  much  of  its  prosperity. 

SOOBAN,  or  Soudan  (Arab.  Biled  es-Sudan, 
the  country  of  the  blacks).  I.  A  vast  conti 
nental  belt  of  territory  (also  called  Nigritia), 
stretching  nearly  across  Africa,  mainly  between 
the  6th  and  loth  parallels  of  N.  latitude,  from, 
the  Nile  provinces  of  Egypt  on  the  east  to 
the  Mandingo  country  and  Senegambia  on  the 
west.  In  Waday  and  near  Timbuctoo  its  north 
erly  boundary  is  not  far  from  lat.  17°  N.  This 
region  is  occupied  by  a  large  number  of  na 
tive  states,  of  which  the  most  important  are 
Adamawa,  Baghirmi,  Bambarra,  Bornoo,  Dar- 
foor,  Gando,  Iloussa,  Sackatoo,  and  Waday, 
each  described  under  its  own  title.  The  alti 
tude  of  Soodan  and  the  aspect  of  the  surface 
vary  greatly  in  the  different  districts.  The 
portion  W.  of  the  Niger  is  bounded  S.  by  the 
Kong  mountains,  which  curve  northward  into 
the  highlands  of  Senegambia,  forming  the  W. 
boundary.  The  region  enclosed  within  the 
great  bend  of  the  Niger  is  of  moderate  eleva 
tion,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  well  watered 
and  fertile  plains,  in  some  places  densely  pop 
ulated.  The  central  portion  of  the  country  ex 
tends  E.  from  the  river  as  far  as  Lake  Tchad, 
in  which  centres  the  hydrographic  system  of 
this  part  of  Soodan.  The  surface  is  hilly  ex 
cept  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lake,  but  the  alti 
tude  is  believed  not  to  exceed  2,000  ft.,  and 
probably  does  not  average  more  than  half  as 
much.  Among  the  hills  are  numerous  torrent 
beds  filled  only  in  the  rainy  season.  There  are 
swamps  in  the  lower  districts,  and  an  abun 
dant  forest  growth,  but  the  cleared  area  is  suffi 
cient  to  render  central  Soodan  both  populous 
and  productive.  Lake  Tchad,  which  is  inter 
sected  by  the  14th  parallel  of  N.  latitude  and 
the  15th  meridian  of  E.  longitude,  is  bordered 
N.  E.  by  the  native  state  of  Kanem,  beyond 
which  lies  the  Sahara,  S.  E.  by  Baghirmi,  and 
on  all  other  sides  by  Bornoo.  It  is  about  840 
ft.  above  the  sea  level,  and  its  numerous  af- 
i  fluents  drain  the  vast  alluvial  plain  surrounding 


1G6 


SOODAN 


SOOLOO 


it,  which  slopes  gently  toward  its  shores.  (See 
TCHAD,  LAKE.)  The  principal  tributary  is  the 
Shary,  flowing  into  the  lake  from  the  south. 
The  plain  is  subject  to  frequent  inundation  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  streams,  but  is  fertile  and 
thickly  inhabited.  In  Waday,  which  borders  it 
on  the  east,  the  country  becomes  hilly  again, 
and  so  continues  some  distance  beyond  the  con 
fines  of  Darfoor.  The  Nyam-Nyam  country, 
lying  principally  S.  of  lat.  5°  30'  N.  and  E.  of 
the  25th  meridian,  is  drained  by  the  westward- 
moving  river  Welle,  discovered  by  Schwein- 
furth,  and  belongs  geographically  to  Soodan, 
if  that  stream  is  connected  with  the  system  of 
Lake  Tchad. — The  geology  of  Soodan  is  but 
little  understood,  and  the  mineral  wealth  seems 
limited  to  iron,  which  appears  to  be  widely 
diffused,  and  gold,  which  is  found  in  the 
rivers.  The  climate  is  everywhere  charac 
terized  by  extreme  heat  and  moisture.  The 
maximum  temperature  is  attained  in  the  level 
region  of  central  Soodan,  where  the  annual 
mean  is  over  83°  F.,  while  the  more  western 
hilly  country  is  remarkable  for  its  excessive 
moisture  and  a  greater  range  of  the  thermom 
eter.  The  rainy  season,  which  abounds  in 
thunder  storms  and  tornadoes,  lasts  from  the 
middle  of  May  or  June,  varying  with  the  re 
gion,  to  November,  when  the  northerly  winds 
set  in,  and  the  weather  becomes  fair  and  dry. 
The  natural  products  comprise  palm  oil,  cocoa- 
nuts,  dates,  figs,  and  many  other  tropical  fruits. 
The  chief  cultivated  crops  are  maize,  millet, 
yams,  rice,  wheat,  beans,  tobacco,  cotton,  in 
digo,  and  various  vegetables.  The  fauna  of 
Soodan  embraces  the  larger  mammalia,  such 
as  the  elephant,  hippopotamus,  and  rhinoceros; 
the  lion,  leopard,  and  spotted  hyaena,  among 
the  carnivorous  animals  ;  numerous  species  of 
antelopes ;  and  the  ostrich,  on  the  borders  of 
the  desert.  Domestic  animals  are  extensively 
raised,  including  several  breeds  of  horses  and 
innumerable  cattle,  as  well  as  goats,  sheep, 
asses,  and  poultry.  The  honey  made  by  wild 
bees  is  gathered  in  large  quantities,  and  forms 
an  important  article  of  native  traffic.  The 
external  trade  of  Soodan  is  carried  on  princi 
pally  by  means  of  caravans,  which  journey  to 
and  from  Algeria  and  Morocco.  The  exports 
comprise  attar  of  roses,  gold  dust,  gum  arabic, 
indigo,  ivory,  and  ostrich  feathers  and  skins, 
of  which  about  £1,500,000  worth  annually 
reaches  Algeria  ;  the  imports  from  that  coun 
try  average  about  the  same  amount,  mainly  in 
cotton  goods,  cutlery,  and  weapons.  Inferior 
iron  utensils  and  coarse  cotton  cloth  are  the 
only  noteworthy  articles  of  native  manufac 
ture.  The  population  consists  chiefly  of  ne 
groes,  hut  in  the  west  the  Mandingoes  predomi 
nate,  and  the  Foolahs  are  the  ruling  people  in 
Gando,  Sackatoo,  and  Adamawa.  In  many 
parts  of  the  country  the  Arabs  are  extremely 
influential. — Soodan  has  yet  to  be  thoroughly 
and  exhaustively  explored  throughout.  Among 
the  more  prominent  European  travellers  who 
have  visited  or  traversed  some  portion  of  the 


co.untry  are  Mungo  Park,  Denham  and  Clap- 
perton,  Caillie,  Lander,  Earth,  Vogel,  Rohlfs, 
and  Nachtigal  (1869-'74).  The  last  nam'ed 
entered  Borneo  from  the  Sahara  N.  of  Lake 
Tchad,  and  made  his  way  thence  eastward 
through  Waday  and  Darfoor  to  the  Nile,  an 
undertaking  never  before  accomplished.  The 
explorations  of  Petherick  and  Schweinfurth 
relate  to  regions  S.  of  the  limits  usually  as 
signed  to  Soodan.  II.  A  province  of  Egypt, 
distinguished  from  the  preceding,  of  which  it 
is  but  a  continuation  eastward,  by  prefixing 
the  definite  article  (the  Soodan).  It  comprises 
Kordofan,  Nubia  proper,  Sennaar,  Taka  on  the 
east,  and  some  Nile  districts  further  south ;  pop. 
estimated  by  Sir  Samuel  Baker  at  over  1,000,000. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  would  be  productive 
under  just  rule,  but  the  exactions  of  the  gov 
ernment  have  been  so  excessive  as  greatly  to 
retard  the  development  of  the  province.  The 
khedive  has  undertaken  the  construction  of  a 
railway  from  Shendy,  N.  of  Khartoom,  the 
capital,  down  the  Nile  a  distance  of  about  220 
m.,  to  a  point  below  the  second  cataract.  The 
products  of  the  Soodan  have  hitherto  found 
their  way  to  Cairo  mainly  by  means  of  cara 
vans  occupying  four  months  on  the  journey. 
According  to  an  official  statement  of  such  pro 
ducts  sold  in  that  city  in  1873-'4,  they  were 
valued  at  £1,550,000,  and  comprised  ostrich 
feathers  (worth  £824,013),  gums,  ivory,  calf 
skins,  coffee,  senna,  wax,  tamarinds,  and  many 
other  articles.  This  statement  did  not  include 
exports  from  the  Soodan  through  the  Red  sea 
ports.  The  province  has  been  gradually  an 
nexed  by  Egypt  since  1821. 

SOOFEES.     See  Suns. 

SOOLOO,  or  Snln,  the  general  name  of  a  pic 
turesque  chain  of  islands  in  the  Indian  archi 
pelago,  known  also  as  the  Sooloo  archipel 
ago,  extending  about  250  m.  from  S.  W.  to  N. 
E.,  between  Borneo  and  Mindanao,  from  lat. 
4°  40'  to  6°  45'  N.,  and  from  Ion.  119°  to  122°  20' 
E.,  separating  the  Celebes  sea  on  the  south  from 
the  Sooloo  or  Mindoro  sea  on  the  north  ;  esti 
mated  area,  1,300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  200,000. 
They  lie  outside  the  volcanic  belt  of  the  Indian 
archipelago.  The  entire  number  of  islands  is 
about  150,  most  of  which  are  small  and  unin 
habited.  There  are  three  large  islands :  Tawi, 
near  the  coast  of  Borneo ;  Basilan,  close  to  the 
S.  W.  extremity  of  Mindanao ;  and  Sooloo, 
about  midway  between  them.  Each  is  about 
40  m.  long  and  from  6  to  20  m.  wide,  richly 
clothed  with  tropical  vegetation,  and  rising 
into  peaks  of  considerable  height,  those  in 
Sooloo  being  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The 
island  of  Cagayan  Sooloo,  140  m.  N.  W.  of  the 
main  chain,  is  sometimes  included  within  the 
Sooloo  archipelago,  although  it  does  not  prop 
erly  belong  to  it.  Balambangan  island,  further 
w^est,  near  Maludu  bay  in  Borneo,  is  noted  for 
the  two  unsuccessful  attempts  of  the  British 
to  establish  themselves  there.  It  was  ceded 
to  England  in  1763,  but  the  fortifications  were 
destroyed  by  the  Spaniards  in  1775  ;  it  was  re- 


SOONGAKIA 


SOPHOCLES 


167 


settled  in  1803,  but  abandoned  in  1804.  The 
Sooloo  archipelago  lies  within  the  influence 
of  the  monsoons.  The  thermometer  ranges 
between  75°  and  87°.  The  chief  productions 
consist  of  teak  and  sandal  wood,  rice,  tortoise 
shell,  pearls'  mother  of  pearl,  fish,  tripang, 
and  edible  birds'  nests.  According  to  Mr.  St. 
John,  this  archipelago  furnishes  probably  a 
greater  number  of  valuable  oyster  beds  than 
any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  islands  are 
subject  to  the  sultan  of  Sooloo,  and  are  gov 
erned  by  numerous  petty  chiefs.  The  forti 
fied  town  of  Sugh  or  Sooloo,  on  the  island 
of  the  same  name,  is  the  capital  and  chief 
port  of  the  group,  and  carries  on  considerable 
trade  with  the  other  islands  and  Manila.  Its 
population  is  about  6,000,  and  that  of  the 
whole  island  is  estimated  at  100,000.  The  in 
habitants  are  Mohammedan  Malays,  and  were 
renowned  .for  their  piratical  habits  prior  to 
the  repression  of  piracy  in  these  waters  by  the 
Spanish  in  1851.  They  write  their,  language, 
which  appears  to  resemble  the  Philippine 
tongue,  in  the  Arabic  character. 

SOONGARIA,  or  Dznngaria.     See  TUEKISTAN. 

SOOMA.     See  SUNXA. 

SOOSOO,  or  Souson,  the  native  name  of  the 
dolphin  of  the  Ganges,  a  fresh-water  cetacean 
of  the  genus  plalanista  (F.  Cuv.).  In  this,  the 
only  described  species  (P.  Gtangetica,  F.  Cuv.), 


Soosoo,  or  Dolphin  of  the  Ganges  (Platanista  Gangetica). 

the  body  is  from  20  to  24  ft.  long,  thickest  in 
front  and  gradually  tapering  to  the  tail ;  the 
head  obtuse ;  the  jaws  nearly  equal,  almost 
straight,  slender,  compressed  at  the  sides,  ex 
panded  at  the  end,  and  from  3  to  4  ft.  long ; 
the  teeth  are  f£lf£,  conical,  projecting  from 
the  gums,  largest,  nearest  together,  and  most 
curved  in  front,  interlocking  in  the  two  jaws, 
and  laterally  near  together  in  the  lower  jaw ; 
the  symphysis  very  long  ;  the  blow-hole  a  lon 
gitudinal  fissure,  an  unusual  form ;  eyes  very 
small,  shining  black,  deeply  sunk,  and  4  in. 
above  the  angle  of  the  mouth  ;  auditory  fora 
mina  open  but  small ;  the  pectorals  fan-shaped, 
1^  ft.  long  and  1  ft.  broad  posteriorly  ;  dorsal 
much  depressed  and  nearest  the  tail;  caudal 
2-J-  ft.  wide  and  festooned.  The  color  is  shi 
ning  pearly  gray,  with  a  few  lighter  colored 
spots  ;  the  fat  under  the  skin  is  highly  prized 
by  the  Hindoos  as  an  external  application  in 
painful  diseases.  It  is  carnivorous,  feeding 
principally  on  fish,  in  the  pursuit  of  which  it 
is  very  active,  but  at  other  times  is  rather  slow. 


It  inhabits  the  Ganges  as  far  as  the  head  of 
navigation,  but  is  most  abundant  where  its 
numerous  mouths  open  into  the  sea. 

SOOTHSAYER.     See  MANTIS. 

SOPHIA  (Bulg.  Triaditea),  a  town  of  Euro 
pean  Turkey,  m  Bulgaria,  on  a  small  affluent 
of  the  Isker,  310  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Constanti 
nople;  pop.  estimated  from  18,000  to  30,000, 
including  Bulgarians,  Turks,  Greeks,  and  Ar 
menians.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  road 
to  Belgrade  and  surrounded  by  mountains. 
The  old  castle  was  fortified  in  1854.  The  prin 
cipal  mosque  was  formerly  the  magnificent 
church  of  St.  Sophia.  A  Greek  archbishop 
and  a  Catholic  bishop  reside  here.  S.  of  the 
city  are  extensive  ruins  of  the  ancient  Sardica 
or  Ulpia  Sardica,  an  important  town  of  Moesia, 
in  which  a  council  was  held  in  347.  Sophia 
was  founded  by  Justinian,  and  conquered  by 
the  Bulgarians  in  809  and  by  the  Turks  in  1382. 
For  a  long  time  it  was  the  capital  of  Bulgaria. 

SOPHIA  ALEXEIE\TVA.     See  PETER  I. 

SOPHIA  DOROTHEA,  crown  princess  of  Han 
over,  born  Sept.  15,  1GG6,  died  Nov.  13,  1720. 
She  was  a  daughter  of  Duke  George  William 
of  Brunswick,  of  the  Liineburg-Celle  line ;  her 
mother  was  a  French  lady.  In  1676  she  was 
affianced  to  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Brunswick, 
who  died  in  the  same  year.  She  was  married 
in  1682  to  her  cousin,  the  future  George  I.  of 
England,  and'became  the  mother  of  George  II. 
and  of  the  queen  of  Frederick  William  I.  of 
Prussia.  She  lived  unhappily  with  her  hus 
band,  from  whom  she  was  divorced  in  Decem 
ber,  1694,  after  being  suspected  of  an  intrigue 
with  Count  Konigsmark.  The  latter  had  dis 
appeared  in  the  night  of  July  1-2  of  that  year 
on  leaving  Sophia's  apartment,  and  it  was  gen 
erally  believed  that  he  had  been  assassinated  at 
her  father-in-law's  instigation.  She  was  ban 
ished  for  the  rest  of  her  life  to  the  castle  of 
Ahlden,  near  Celle,  whence  her  popular  desig 
nation  as  princess  of  Ahlden. 

SOPHISTS.  See  PHILOSOPHY,  vol.  xiii.,  p. 
437. 

SOPHOCLES,  a  Greek  tragic  poet,  born  in  the 
Attic  village  of  Colonus  in  496  or  495  B.  C., 
died  probably  in  406.  He  was  about  30  years 
younger  than  yEschylus,  and  15  years  older 
than  Euripides.  Having  gained  the  prize  of  a 
garland  both  in  music  and  gymnastics,  he  was 
selected  for  his  beauty  and  musical  skill  in  his 
16th  year  to  lead,  naked,  anointed,  and  with 
lyre  in  hand,  the  chorus  which  danced  and 
sang  around  the  trophy  in  the  celebration  of 
the  victory  of  Salamis.  In  468  he  first  came 
forward  as  a  competitor  in  a  dramatic  contest, 
having  zEschylus  for  his  rival.  The  represen 
tation  was  at  the  great  Dionysia,  presided  over 
by  the  first  archon;  the  judges  were  Cimon 
and  his  colleagues  who  had  just  returned  from 
the  conquest  of  Scyros,  bringing  with  them 
the  bones  of  Theseus ;  the  play  presented  by 
Sophocles  was  probably  the  "  Triptolemus," 
celebrating  the  Eleusinian  hero  as  a  patriot 
and  civilizer ;  the  public  interest  and  expecta- 


1G8 


SOPHOCLES 


SOBBONNE 


tion  were  strongly  excited ;  and  the  first  prize, 
which  for  a  whole  generation  had  belonged 
to  JEschylus,  was  now  awarded  to  his  youth 
ful  rival.  From  this  time  to  441  he  is  said  to 
have  written  31  plays.  In  440  "Antigone," 
his  earliest  extant  drama,  gained  the  prize,  and 
so  delighted  the  Athenians  that  they  elected 
him  one  of  the  ten  strategi  for  the  ensuing 
year,  lie  engaged  as  the  colleague  of  Peri 
cles  in  the  Sainian  expedition,  but  neither 
achieved  nor  sought  military  reputation.  He 
was  familiar  with  Herodotus,  and  wrote  a 
poem  in  his  honor.  Kuhnken  supposes  that 
it  was  not  the  poet,  but  an  orator  of  the  same 
name,  who  after  the  destruction  of  the  Sicil 
ian  army  in  413  favored  the  oligarchical  move 
ment  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  ten  irp6- 
povhoi.  Sophocles  refused  repeated  invitations 
to  leave  Athens  and  reside  at  foreign  courts. 
During  the  34  years  following  the  success  of 
"  Antigone  "  he  produced  81  dramas.  Con 
tending,  besides  yEschylus,  with  Euripides, 
Choerilus,  Aristias,  Agathon,  and  his  own  son 
lophon,  he  gained  the  first  prize  20  or  24  times, 
and  the  second  in  all  other  cases.  At  an  ad 
vanced  age  he  filled  the  office  of  priest  to  the 
native  hero  Ilalon.  There  is  no  certain  au 
thority  for  any  of  the  accounts  of  his  death, 
that  he  was  choked  by  a  grape,  that  he  sus 
tained  his  voice  so  long  in  publicly  reading 
the  "Antigone"  as  to  lose  his  breath  and  life 
together,  or  that  he  died  of  joy  on  obtaining 
a  dramatic  victory.  It  has  been  said  that  he 
combined  all  the  qualities  which,  in  the  judg 
ment  of  a  Greek,  would  make  up  a  perfect 
character :  beauty  and  symmetry  of  person, 
mastery  alike  in  music  and  gymnastics,  spon 
taneity  of  genius  andfaultlessness  of  taste,  con 
stitutional  repose,  a  habit  of  tranquil  medita 
tion,  a  ready  wit,  and  an  amiable  demeanor. — 
Sophocles  is  placed  by  the  universal  consent 
of  ancient  and  modern  critics  at  the  head  of 
the  Greek  drama.  His  tragedies  hold  the  just 
mean  between  the  vague  and  solemn  sublimity 
of  yEschylus  and  the  familiar  scenes  and  rhe 
torical  pathos  of  Euripides,  presenting  the  char 
acters  of  men  worthy  of  sympathy  and  admi 
ration,  while  the  former  delighted  in  religious 
themes  fit  to  inspire  awe,  and  the  latter 
abounds  in  unpoetical  disquisition  and  immoral 
vehemence  of  passion.  He  illustrates  the  age 
of  Pericles,  intervening  between  that  of  the 
heroes  of  Marathon  and  Salamis  and  that  of 
the  sophists.  Of  all  his  dramas  only  seven  have 
been  preserved,  to  which  Miiller  assigns  the 
following  chronological  order:  "Antigone," 
"  Electra,"  "  Trachinian  Women,"  "  King  (Edi- 
pus,"  "Ajax,"  "  Philoctetes,"  and  "  (Edipus  at 
Colonus."  They  all  belong  to  the  latter  period 
of  his  life  and  reveal  his  art  in  its  full  maturity, 
and  several  of  them  were  esteemed  by  the  an 
cients  among  his  greatest  works.  The  "  (Edi 
pus  at  Colonus  "  was  first  brought  out  by  his 
grandson  after  his  death.  There  are  also  frag 
ments  and  titles  of  his  lost  plays.  The  editio 
princeps  of  Sophocles  is  that  of  Aldus  (1502). 


The  text  of  Turnebus's  edition  (1533)  served  as 
a  basis  for  the  subsequent  editions  of  Henry 
Stephens  (1568),  Canterus  (1579),  and  others, 
until  the  edition  of  Brunck  (2  vols.,  Strasburg, 
1786),  which  is  the  basis  of  all  later  editions. 
Among  the  best  are  those  of  Hermann  (4th 
ed.,  Leipsic,  1851),  Dindorf  (new  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1867),  Tourneur  (Paris,  1873),  Schneidewin 
(4th  ed.  by  Nauck,  Berlin,  1873),  Campbell 
(Oxford,  1873-'4),  Blaydes  (London,  1873-'4), 
and  White  (Boston,  1874).  The  best  transla 
tions  are :  in  German,  by  Jordan  (Berlin,  1862), 
Scholl  (new  ed.,  Leipsic,  1871),  and  Conner 
(7th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1873);  in  French,  by  Fay  art 
(Paris,  1849),  Artaud  (6th  ed.,  1862),  and  Per- 
sonneaux  (2d  ed.,  1874) ;  and  in  English,  by 
Adams  (London,  1729),  Franklin  (1758-'9), 
Potter  (1788),  Dale  (1824),  Buckley  (Bonn's 
"  Classical  Library,"  1849),  Plumptre  (1866- 
'71),  Collins  ("Ancient  Classics  for  English 
Readers,"  London  and  Philadelphia,  1873), 
and  Campbell  (1874). 

SOPHOCLES,  Erangeliims  Apostolides,  an  Ameri 
can  scholar,  born  near  Mt.  Pelion,  in  Thessaly, 
March  8, 1807.  He  studied  in  the  convent  on  Mt. 
Sinai,  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  entered 
Amherst  college  in  1829,  taught  school,  and  was 
tutor  in  Greek  in  Harvard  college  in  1842-'5 
and  1847-'59.  He  was  then  appointed  assistant 
professor  of  Greek  there,  and  in  1860  professor 
of  ancient,  Byzantine,  and  modern  Greek.  He 
received  the  degree  of  A.  M.  from  Yale  college 
in  1837  and  from  Harvard  college  in  1847,  and 
that  of  LL.  D.  from  the  Western  Reserve  col 
lege  in  1862  and  from  Harvard  college  in  1868. 
He  has  published  "  A  Greek  Grammar  "  (Hart 
ford,  1838;  3d  ed.,  1847);  "First  Lessons  in 
Greek  "  (1839)  ;  "  Greek  Exercises  "  (1841 ;  3d 
ed.,  1848);  "A  Romaic  Grammar"  (1842;  2d 
ed.,  Boston,  1857,  and  London,  1866)  ;  "  Greek 
Lessons  for  Beginners"  (Hartford,  1843); 
"Catalogue  of  Greek  Verbs"  (1844);  "His 
tory  of  the  Greek  Alphabet,  with  Remarks  on 
Greek  Orthography  and  Pronunciation"  (Cam 
bridge,  1848;  2d  ed.,  1854);  "A  Glossary  of 
Later  and  Byzantine  Greek"  (4to,  Boston, 
1860,  forming  vol.  vii.,  new  series,  of  the 
"Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy  ") ;  and 
"  Greek  Lexicon  of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine 
Periods"  (8vo,  Boston,  1870),  his  chief  work. 

SOPHOMSBA.     See  MASIXISSA. 

SORACTE  (now  Monte  di  San?  Oreste,  and 
sometimes  Monte  di  San  Silvestro),  a  moun 
tain  of  ancient  Etruria,  in  the  territory  of  the 
Falisci,  visible  from  and  about  25  m.  N.  of 
Rome.  It  rises  in  an  abrupt  mass  to  a  height 
of  about  2,250  ft.  It  was  consecrated  to 
Apollo,  Avho  had  a  temple  on  its  summit, 
where  the  present  monastery  of  San  Silvestro 
stands. 

SORBOME,  the  principal  school  of  theology 
in  the  ancient  university  of  Paris.  It  was 
founded  in  1253  by  Robert  de  Sorbonne  or 
Sorbon,  so  called  from  his  birthplace  in  Cham 
pagne.  He  had  been  a  poor  student,  but  be 
came  chaplain  to  Louis  IX.  in  1252,  and  found- 


SORBONNE 


SORGHUM 


169 


ed  with  the  king's  aid  a  collegiate  school 
for  the  gratuitous  education  of  poor  students 
in  theology.  He  secured  the  services  of  three 
secular  professors,  Guillaume  de  Saint- Amour, 
Eudes  de  Douai,  and  Laurent  Langlois,  and 
formed  with  them,  and  16  poor  students  under 
his  own  direction,  a  community  which  served 
as  a  model  for  similar  collegiate  schools  in 
the  universities  of  France  and  England.  The 
charter  granted  in  1253  by  Louis  IX.  was  con 
firmed  and  enlarged  by  Pope  Clement  IV.  in 
1268%  Before  1253  theological  instruction  was 
given  in  the  bishop's  school  near  the  cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame;  thenceforward  it  was  given 
exclusively  at  the  Sorbonne.  Robert  also 
founded  near  the  college  a  preparatory  semi 
nary  called  "the  little  Sorbonne,"  which  was 
destroyed  in  1635,  when  the  present  church  of 
the  Sorbonne  was  erected  on  its  site.  He  pro 
vided  a  library  of  1,000  volumes,  which  was  in 
creased  by  subsequent  benefactors,  especially 
by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  The  members  of  the 
college  (maison  de  Sorbonne)  were  divided  into 
fellows  (sodi)  and  commoners  (hospites).  The 
fellows,  composing  the  faculty,  were  all  secu 
lar  priests,  doctors  or  bachelors  in  divinity, 
selected  for  their  eminent  learning,  after  un 
dergoing  the  test  of  a  severe  public  examina 
tion,  a  triple  ballot,  and  teaching  a  course  of 
mental  philosophy.  Besides  the  strict  neces 
saries  of  life  provided  in  the  college,  the  poor 
est  among  them  received  a  trifling  stipend. 
The  commoners  were  required  to  be  bachelors 
in  divinity,  were  chosen  from  among  the  most 
talented  of  their  class  after  the  most  rigorous 
ordeal,  and  were  maintained  by  the  college, 
but  had  no  voice  in  its  government.  The  fel 
lows  were  nominated  for  life,  and  were  offi 
cially  designated  "  fellows  or  bachelors  of  the 
house  and  society  of  the  Sorbonne;"  the  com 
moners  were  styled  "  bachelors  of  the  house 
of  the  Sorbonne,"  and  their  membership  ceased 
on  their  graduating  as  doctors.  The  college 
property  was  vested  in  the  fellows,  and  all 
business  was  managed  in  their  name.  A  per 
fect  equality  reigned  among  them  ;  the  holding 
of  office  implied  no  superiority  or  power  of 
one  over  another.  No  member  of  a  religious 
order  was  admitted  into  their  body,  and  a  fel 
lowship  was  forfeited  by  entering  such  an  or 
der.  The  exceeding  rigor  exercised  in  the  se 
lection  both  of  fellows  and  of  commoners  was 
for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  high  standard 
of  intellectual  culture  among  the  secular  priest 
hood.  But  the  vast  lecture  halls  attached  to 
the  college  were  open  to  all  poor  scholars  in 
discriminately,  and  the  professors  were  pledged 
never  to  refuse  to  teach  any  such,  while  stu 
dents  who  had  means  were  required  to  pay  the 
usual  university  fees.  From  1253  to  1789  at 
least  six  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  were  con 
stantly  employed  in  giving  gratuitous  instruc 
tion.  The  high  standard  of  excellence  thus 
maintained  by  the  faculty,  and  the  large  num 
ber  of  distinguished  scholars  who  went  out 
from  the  Sorbonne  to  fill  the  highest  ecclesias 


tical  and  civil  offices  in  every  European  conn- 
try,  raised  this  celebrated  school  to  an  unri- 
valledpitchof  fame  and  influence  all  through  the 
middle  ages  and  down  almost  to  its  suppression. 
Its  controlling  power  was  felt  in  the  contests 
between  the  university  of  Paris  and  the  mendi 
cant  orders,  Guillaume  de  Saint- Am  our  being 
the  chosen  advocate  of  the  former  and  the  un 
compromising  foe  of  the  friars  ;  the  Sorbonne 
was  appealed  to  in  the  disputes  between  the 
civil  powers  and  the  papacy,  and  in  the  great 
theological  controversies  and  long  schisms  that 
divided  the  church.  It  opposed  the  claims  of 
ultramontanism,  decided  against  the  divorce 
of  Henry  VIII.  from  Catharine  of  Aragon,  con 
demned  the  docrines  of  Luther,  Calvin,  Baius, 
Jansenius,  and  Quesnel,  sustained  the  Catholic 
league  against  Henry  of  Navarre,  and  declared 
in  1588  that  Henry  III.  had  forfeited  the 
crown.  The  Sorbonne  was  specially  favored 
by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  rebuilt  on  a  mag 
nificent  scale  the  college,  lecture  halls,  and 
church,  besides  enlarging  the  library.  The 
first  works  printed  in  France  were  from  the 
presses  of  the  Sorbonne.  These  were  estab 
lished  in  1409  by  Jean  de  la  Pierre,  prior  of 
the  Sorbonne,  and  Guillaume  Fichet,  rector  of 
the  university.  In  1470  they  published  Oas- 
parini  Pergamensis  Epistolarum  Liber,  fol 
lowed  by  other  publications  in  Latin,  French, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew.  The  Sorbonne  was  sup 
pressed  in  1789,  and  at  the  organization  of  the 
modern  university  of  France  by  Napoleon  I. 
its  buildings  became  the  seat  of  the  faculties 
of  science,  letters,  and  theology  of  the  acade- 
mie  iinivcrsitaire ;  but  the  faculty  of  theolo 
gy  is  scarcely  a  shadow  of  its  predecessor. 

SOREL,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  Richelieu 
co.,  Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the 
Richelieu  river,  at  its  mouth  in  the  St.  Law 
rence,  45  m.  below  Montreal;  pop.  in  1861, 
4,778;  in  1871,  5,636.  It  occupies  the  site  of 
a  fort  built  by  the  French  in  1065,  and  was 
for  many  years  the  summer  residence  of  the 
governors  of  Canada.  Nearly  all  the  shipping 
plying  between  Quebec  and  Montreal  winters 
here.  Ship  building  is  largely  carried  on.  The 
town  contains  manufactories  of  engines,  mill 
machinery,  stoves,  ploughs,  leather,  bricks,  &c., 
several  saw  and  grist  mills,  two  branch  banks, 
a  tri- weekly  (French)  and  two  weekly  (one 
French)  newspapers,  a  monthly  periodical 
(French),  and  three  or  four  churches. 

SOREL,  Agnes.     See  AGXES  SOREL. 

SORGHUM,  a  genus  of  grasses,  of  the  tribe 
andropogonem,  and  by  some  authors  included 
in  androporjon.  In  grasses  of  this  genus  the 
flowers  are  in  open  panicles,  the  spikelets  two 
or  three  together,  the  lateral  ones  sterile,  or 
reduced  to'  mere  pedicels,  the  central  or  ter 
minal  one  fertile;  the  stems  not  hollow,  as 
in  most  grasses.  A  single  species,  8.  nutans, 
known  as  Indian  grass  and  wood  grass,  having 
a  stalk  3  to  5  ft.  high,  and  a  panicle  of  shining 
russet-brown  flowers,  is  common  throughout 
most  of  the  states.  The  name  sorghum  is  in 


170 


SORGHUM 


common  use  for  a  sugar-producing  grass  which 
is  a  variety  of  $.  vulgar e.  Sugar  cane,  sac- 
charum  otficinarum,  is  a  grass  closely  related 
to  sorghum,  and  neither  plant  is  known  in  the 
wild  state.  The  common  sorghum,  S.  vulgare, 
is  a  poorly  defined  species,  and  presents  varie 
ties  so  marked  that,  did  not  intermediate  forms 
connect  them,  it  would  he  difficult  to  regard 
them  as  belonging  to  the  same  species.  One 
form,  known  as  Indian  millet,  and  in  the  East 
as  durra,  is  cultivated  in  southern  Europe,  and 
in  Asia  'Minor,  India,  and  other  parts  of  the 
East,  where  it  takes  the  place  of  the  cereals  of 
northern  climates ;  the  abundant  round,  hard 
seeds  afford  a  very  white  flour,  which  makes 
good  bread  ;  the  seeds  are  also  used  for  feeding 
domestic  animals.  In  the  West  Indies  it  is 
cultivated  as  food  for  laborers  under  the  name 
of  Guinea  corn,  but  the  grass  called  by  that 
name  in  our  southern  states  belongs  to  a  differ 
ent  species.  The  Indian  millet  is  sometimes 
cultivated  in  this  country  as  food  for  poultry  ; 
half  a  century  ago  it  was  introduced  as  chocolate 
corn,  its  seeds  being  roasted  and  used  as  a  sub 
stitute  for  coffee  ;  and  the  seeds  are  sometimes 
offered  by  speculators  as  Egyptian  wheat,  or 
with  some  other  attractive  name,  at  high  prices. 
Another  variety,  with  long  straight  branches 
to  the  panicle  and  small  seeds,  is  the  broom 
corn.  The  variety  generally  known  as  sor 
ghum  (also  called  sorgho  and  Chinese  sugar 
cane),  is  S.  rulgare,  var.  saccharatum,  and  is 
remarkable  for  its  very  sweet  juice ;  this  has 
been  in  cultivation  in  China,  and  especially  in 
Africa,  from  very  early  times  ;  in  Africa,  where 
it  is  called  imphee,  there  are  numerous  sub- 
varieties  known  to  the  natives  by  such  names 
as  mm-'bis^chu-a-pa,  nce-a-za-na,  oom-see-a-na, 
&c.,  differing  in  size,  productiveness,  and  shape 
of  seed  cluster,  much  as  do  our  varieties  of 
maize.  An  attempt  was  made  to  introduce 
sorghum  into  Europe  as  early  as  1780,  by  Prof. 
Arduino  of  Florence,  but  it  did  not  receive 
much  attention  until  1851,  when  Count  de 
Montigny,  French  consul  at  Shanghai,  sent 
seeds  to  Paris  ;  it  is  said  that  only  one  seed 
out  of  this  lot  germinated,  and  the  product  of 
this  supplied  all  the  seed  sown  at  first  in  Eu 
rope  and  America.  In  1856  some  of  this  seed 
was  obtained  from  France  by  the  United  States 
patent  office,  and  distributed ;  but  a  much 
greater  dissemination  was  made  by  Mr.  Orange 
Judd  of  N"ew  York,  who  imported  a  large  quan 
tity  and  distributed  25,000  packets  to  the  sub 
scribers  to  his  paper,  the  "American  Agricul 
turist,"  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  In  1857 
Mr.  Leonard  Wray,  an  Englishman,  arrived  in 
New  York  with  the  seeds  of  several  varieties 
of  imphee  from  the  south  of  Africa,  some  of 
which  are  named  above ;  they  were  tested  by 
several  persons,  especially  in  the  southern 
states,  and  were  found  to  be  a  promiscuous  and 
carelessly  collected  lot,  which  at  once  brought 
all  kinds  of  imphee  into  disrepute ;  and  though 
one  or  two  selections  from  these  varieties 
have  been  cultivated,  the  main  crop  is  of  the 


Chinese  variety.  The  plant  grows  from  8  to 
18  ft.  high,  and  before  the  seed  cluster  shows 
has  much  the  appearance  of  maize.  In  some 
varieties  the  branches  of  the  panicle  are  long, 
slender,  and  spreading,  in  others  short  and 
erect,  and  in  some  long  and  drooping  to  one 
side ;  the  color  of  the  seed  varies  from  white, 
through  shades  of  brown,  to  nearly  black ;  in 
the  true  Chinese  the  panicle  is  pyramidal,  with 
long,  not  crowded  branches,  and  the  clear 
brown  seeds  enclosed  in  a  shining  black  hull. 
It  will  grow  wherever  Indian  corn  can  be  cul 
tivated,  but  it  does  not  usually  ripen  its  seeds 


Chinese  Sugar  Cane  (Sorghum  vulgare,  var.  saccharatum). 

north  of  lat.  41°  ;  it  does  best  on  a  light  warm 
soil,  which  should  be  well  fertilized,  but  not 
with  coarse  manures :  it  is  sown  in  drills  or  in 
hills  the  same  as  corn,  and  the  crop  should  be 
kept  clean  in  the  same  manner;  the  plants 
when  they  first  come  up  are  small,  and  may 
be  mistaken  for  some  worthless  grass.  The 
stalks  are  cut  up  at  the  ground  before  hard 
frosts,  stripped  of  their  leaves  by  the  use  of  a 
fork  or  machine  made  for  the  purpose,  and 
taken  to  the  mill,  or  stored  until  they  can  be 
pressed.  Its  sugar,  at  least  soon  after  pressing, 
is  almost  wholly  a  form  of  glucose,  and  the 
yield  of  cane  sugar,  at  least  in  the  plant  as 


SORIA 


SORREL 


171 


grown  in  this  country,  is  much  too  small  to 
make  its  extraction  profitable;  and  the  plant 
is  now  cultivated  for  the  sirup  or  molasses. 
Well  ripened  canes  yield  about  one  half  their 
weight  in  juice,  of  which  from  5  to  10  gallons, 
according  to  the  soil  and  climate,  will  make 
one  gallon  of  sirup ;  the  yield  of  sirup  aver 
ages  from  150  to  175  gallons  to  the  acre,  though 
in  exceptional  cases  the  returns  are  much 
larger.  The  sirup  varies,  according  to  the 
care  and  skill  given  to  its  manufacture,  from 
a  dark  greenish  brown  color  with  a  repulsive 
grassy  flavor,  to  a  fine  amber-colored,  honey- 
like  fluid,  which,  having  no  characteristic  fla 
vor,  is  preferred  by  many  to  any  other  sirup. 
The  evaporators  now  in  use  allow  the  juice 
to  be  concentrated  without  undue  exposure 
to  heat,  while  the  scum  is  readily  removed; 
lime  is  used  in  correcting  the  acidity  of  the 
juice,  which  for  the  finest  product  is  filtered 
through  animal  charcoal.  The  total  produc 
tion  of  sorghum  molasses  in  the  United  States 
was  6,749,123  gallons  in  1860,  and  16,050,- 
089  in  1870.  Of  the  latter  amount  Indiana 
produced  2,026,212  gallons,  Ohio  2,023,427, 
Illinois  1,960,473,  Kentucky  1,740,453,  Mis 
souri  1,730,171,  Tennessee  1,254,701,  and  Iowa 
1,218,635.  As  fodder  it  is  not  always  relished 
by  cattle,  and  it  is  now  regarded  as  less  valu 
able  than  maize.  The  seeds  are  fed  to  poul 
try,  cattle,  and  hogs,  and  bread  has  been  made 
from  the  flour.  The  begasse,  or  refuse  from 
the  press,  has  been  used  to  make  the  coarser 
kinds  of  wrapping  paper ;  the  scum  and  wash 
ings  of  the  evaporators  are  converted  into 
vinegar.  In  France  sorghum  has  been  culti 
vated  as  a  source  of  alcohol. 

SORIA*  I.  A  N.  province  of  Spain,  in  Old 
Castile,  bordering  on  Burgos,  Logrono,  Sara- 
gossa,  Guadalajara,  and  Segovia;  area,  3,836 
sq.  ra. ;  pop.  in  1870  (estimated),  158,699. 
Mountains  border  three  sides,  and  the  surface 
is  broken.  The  Douro  rises  near  the  N".  boun 
dary,  and  flows  first  mainly  S.  and  then  W. 
into  the  province  of  Burgos.  There  are  large 
forests  of  pine,  oak,  and  beech.  The  roads  are 
mere  tracks,  only  practicable  for  mules.  II. 
A  city,  capital  of  the  province,  on  an  irregular 
eminence  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Douro,  113 
m.  N.  E.  of  Madrid  ;  pop.  about  5,500.  It  is 
surrounded  by  old  walls.  The  site  of  ancient 
Numantia  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  few 
miles  N.  of  Soria,  but  no  positive  traces  of  it 
remain. 

SORREL,  the  plant  rumex  acetosn,  a  native 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  arctic  America,  which 
has  long  been  in  cultivation.  The  genus  ru 
mex  (the  ancient  Latin  name)  belongs  to  the 
polygonacecR  or  buckwheat  family,  and  consists 
of  more  than  100  species,  several  of  which, 
either  indigenous  or  introduced,  are  found  all 
over  this  country  and  are  popularly  known 
as  docks.  Sorrel  is  a  perennial,  with  a  tuft 
of  radical  leaves  which  are  4  in.  or  more 
long,  and  arrow-shaped  at  the  base ;  its  flower 
stalks  are  2  ft.  or  more  high,  bearing  leafless 


panicles  of  unisexual,  dioecious,  or  sometimes 
monoecious  flowers,  which  are  apetalous,  small, 
and  greenish,  often  turning  red ;  the  calyx 
deeply  six-cleft,  the  three  inner  segments  en- 


Sorrel  (Eumex  acetosa)— the  variety  called  "Belleville." 

larging  in  fruit,  orbicular,  and  somewhat  petal- 
like,  enclosing  the  triangular  nut.  The  leaves 
are  pleasantly  sour,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
the  acid  oxalate  of  potash.  In  France  half  a 
dozen  varieties  of  this  are  cultivated,  of  which 
the  Belleville  is  the  most  popular.  Though 
sorrel  is  rarely  eaten  by  the  English,  the 
French  regard  it  as  one  of  the  necessaries  of 
life.  It  is  used  in  salads  and  in  soups,  but 
more  commonly  it  is  dressed  in  the  same  man 
ner  as  spinach ;  if  too  strongly  acid  when 
pure  to  suit  the  taste,  it  is  mixed  with  spin 
ach  or  patience  dock.  While  it  is  compara 
tively  little  known  in  this  country,  its  use  is 
increasing,  and  it  is  now  quite  regularly  found 
in  the  markets. — Sheep  sorrel  belongs  to  the 


Sheep  Sorrel  (Eumex  acetosella). 

same  genus,  and  is  E.  acetosella,  introduced 
from  Europe,  and  one  of  the  well  known  weeds 
of  agriculture;  it  grows  from  a  few  inches 
to  a  foot  or  more  high ;  the  lower  leaves  are 


172 


SORRENTO 


SOULE 


halberd-shaped;  its  dioecious  flowers  in  slen 
der  panicles,  the  fertile  ones  turning  reddish. 
The  herbage  of  this  is  also  sour,  and  where  it 
is  abundant  and  luxuriant  is  sometimes  used 
by  Europeans  as  a  substitute  for  the  garden 
sorrel ;  children  often  eat  the  pleasantly  sour 
leaves.  In  some  countries  the  juice  of  this,  as 
well  as  of  the  preceding,  is  used  to  curdle 
milk.  As  a  weed  the  plant  is  most  abundant 
upon  worn-out  soils.  Wood  sorrel  is  described 
under  OXALIS.  (See  also  TREE  SORREL.) 

SORRENTO  (anc.  Surrentum),  a  city  of  S.  It 
aly,  in  the  province,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  gulf, 
and  16  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Naples;  pop. 
about  4,300,  besides  many  strangers  attracted 
by  the  climate  and  the  picturesque  situation. 
Deep  ravines  around  the  city  are  excavated  in 
the  volcanic  tufa.  In  the  vicinity  are  sea  baths, 
curious  grottoes,  and  relics  of  antiquity,  the 
principal  of  which  is  a  reservoir  still  used. 
Sorrento  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has 
a  fine  cathedral.  The  house  in  which  Tasso 
was  born,  on  the  cliff  overhanging  the  sea,  is 
now  a  favorite  hotel.  Celebrated  inlaid  wood 
work  and  silk  and  other  goods  are  made  here. 
— Under  the  Romans  Surrentum  was  chiefly 
known  as  a  fashionable  resort,  and  for  its  pot 
tery  and  medicinal  wines.  In  A.  I).  79  the  erup 
tion  of  Vesuvius  caused  great  damage  to  it.  In 
the  middle  ages  it  had  considerable  commerce. 
The  geology  of  Sorrento  has  been  described 
by  Puggaard  (Copenhagen  and  Leipsic,  1858). 

SOTHERN,  Edward  Askew,  an  American  actor, 
born  in  Liverpool,  Eng.,  April  1,  1830.  He 
first  appeared  on  the  stage  in  the  United  States 
as  Dr.  Pangloss  at  the  Boston  National  theatre, 
in  September,  1852.  lie  was  a  stock  actor  in 
Barnum's  museum,  New  York,  till  1854,  when 
he  joined  Wallack's  company.  For  years  he 
was  known  as  Douglas  Stewart,  and  it  was  not 
till  1858  that  he  used  his  own  name.  On  Oct. 
18,  1858,  in  Tom  Taylor's  comedy  u  Our  Amer 
ican  Cousin,"  the  character  of  Lord  Dundreary 
was  assigned  to  Sothern.  The  part  as  origi 
nally  written  consisted  of  a  few  lines,  and  was 
assumed  by  Sothern  under  protest;  but  his 
lisp,  drawl,  peculiar  skip,  and  many  absurdities 
were  very  successful,  and  the  part  being  en 
larged,  the  play  ran  for  140  consecutive  nights. 
On  Nov.  11,  1861,  he  appeared  as  Lord  Dun 
dreary  at  the  Haymarket  theatre,  London,  and 
repeated  the  part  496  consecutive  nights,  lie 
returned  to  the  United  States,  and  for  many 
months  performed  Dundreary  in  the  leading 
cities.  On  Oct.  10,  1874,  he  reappeared  in  the 
Ilaymarket,  and  during  a  short  engagement 
presented  the  part  of  "  Brother  Sam,"  written 
for  him  by  John  Oxenford.  He  returned  to 
New  York  for  the  season  of  1 874-^5,  playing 
Dundreary  and  Garrick  in  Wallack's  theatre. 

SOTO.    'See  DE  SOTO. 

SOTWELL,  Nathaniel.     See  SOUTHWELL. 

SOUBISE.  I.  Benjamin  de  Rohan,  seigneur  de,  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  La  Rochelle  in  1583, 
died  in  London,  Oct.  9,  1642.  He  was  a  son 
of  Rene  II.  de  Rohan  by  Catharine  Parthenay, 


the  heiress  of  the  house  of  Soubise,  and  the 
brother  of  Henri  de  Rohan  (1579-1638),  the 
celebrated  Huguenot  leader.  After  serving  in 
Holland  under  Maurice  of  Nassau  he  was  ap 
pointed  in  1621,  by  the  Protestant  assembly  at 
La  Rochelle,  commander  of  Poitou,  Brittany, 
and  Anjou.  When  the  other  chiefs  had  laid 
down  their  arms,  he  boldly  but  unsuccessfully 
defended  St.  Jean  d'Angely  ;  and  his  attempts 
to  renew  the  war  during  the  winter  of  1622, 
and  his  mission  to  England  to  obtain  help  from 
James  I.,  were  equally  abortive.  In  1625,  af 
ter  taking  a  royal  squadron  and  keeping  at  bay 
for  several  weeks  the  united  French  and  Dutch 
fleets,  he  was  defeated  by  Duke  Henry  II.  of 
Montmorency  and  driven  from  the  islands  of 
Re  and  Oleron  (Sept.  15),  which  he  had  occu 
pied  for  some  time.  Having  secured  through 
the  medium  of  Charles  II.  the  hollow  peace  of 
April  6,  1626,  he  joined  in  1627  the  English  in 
the  fruitless  attempt  to  relieve  La  Rochelle,  and 
some  time  after  the  surrender  of  that  strong 
hold  he  went  to  England,  although  permitted 
to  remain  in  France.  He  was  buried  in  West 
minster  abbey.  II.  Charles  de  Rohan,  prince  de, 
a  French  soldier,  a  descendant  of  the  prece 
ding,  born  in  Paris,  July  16,  1715,  died  there, 
July  4,  1787.  He  was  notorious  for  his  dis 
sipation,  and  was  a  favorite  of  Louis  XV.  and 
his  adjutant  in  Flanders,  where  he  was  ap 
pointed  governor  in  1748.  In  1751  his  gover 
norship  was  extended  over  Hainaut.  Through 
the  influence  of  Mme.  de  Pompadour  he  be 
came  in  1753  allied  to  the  royal  family  by  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter  to  the  prince  de  Con- 
de,  who  obtained  for  him  a  high  command 
in  the  army  of  the  Rhine  (1756).  He  was  sur 
prised  and  routed  at  Gotha  with  8,000  men  by 
Seydlitz  with  1,500  troops,  and  soon  after  ward 
he  was  ignominiously  defeated  by  Frederick 
the  Great  at  Rossbach  (Nov.  5,  1757),  where 
he  commanded  the  united  French  and  allied 
armies.  Nevertheless  he  was  appointed  to 
other  high  commands  and  offices,  and  after  va 
ried  successes  and  quarrels  with  fellow  com 
manders,  especially  with  the  duke  de  Broglie, 
over  whom  he  triumphed  through  his  influ 
ence  at  court,  his  career  in  the  army  ended  dis 
astrously  with  his  loss  of  Cassel,  Nov.  1,  1761. 

SOILANGES,  a  W.  county  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
on  the  N.  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  above 
Montreal ;  area,  137  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  10,- 
808,  of  whom  9,724  were  of  French  and  732 
of  Scotch  origin.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Grand 
Trunk  railway.  Capital,  Coteau  Landing. 

SOULE,  Joshua,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Bristol,  Me.,  Aug,  1,  1781,  died  in  Nash 
ville,  Tenn.,  March  6,  1867.  He  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1798,  joined  the  Methodist  con 
ference  in  1799,  was  ordained  in  1802,  and 
in  1804  appointed  presiding  elder  of  the  Maine 
district,  which  embraced  13  circuits  and  one 
station.  In  1808,  at  the  general  conference  in 
Baltimore,  he  drew  up  the  plan  of  a  delegated 
general  conference  which  now  appears  in  the 
"Discipline."  After  presiding  over  various 


SOULS 


SOULT 


173 


other  districts  in  Maine  and  Massachusetts,  he 
was  elected  in  1816  book  agent  and  editor  of 
the  "Methodist  Magazine."  In  1820  he  was 
stationed  in  the  city  of  New  York;  in  1821 
he  was  preacher  in  charge  of  the  station  in 
that  city,  and  in  1822-'3  of  the  Baltimore  city 
station.  In  1824  he  was  elected  bishop.  He 
was  delegate  from  the  general  conference  to 
the  British  Wesleyan  Methodist  conference  in 
1842;  and  afterward  he  travelled  extensively 
in  the  British  islands  and  in  France.  On  the 
division  of  the  church,  Bishop  Soule  adhered 
to  the  southern  portion,  and  removed  from 
Lebanon,  O.,  to  Nashville,  Tenn.  In  1853-'4 
he  made  an  episcopal  tour  in  California. 

SOULE,  Pierre,  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Castillon,  France,  in  1801,  died  in  New  Or 
leans,  March  16,  1870.  He  studied  in  the  Jesu 
its'  college  at  Toulouse,  was  implicated  in  a 
plot  against  the  Bourbons,  fled  to  a  village  in 
Navarre,  and  became  a  shepherd.  He  was 
afterward  an  advocate  in  Paris,  and  for  an  at 
tack  upon  the  ministry  in  the  Nain  newspaper 
he  was  fined  10,000  francs  and  sentenced  to 
prison.  He  escaped  to  England,  and  in  1825 
emigrated  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  rose  to 
eminence  at  the  bar.  In  1847  he  was  elected 
United  States  senator  from  Louisiana  to  fill  a 
vacancy,  and  in  1849  was  reflected  for  a  full 
term.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  minister  to 
Spain,  where  he  fought  a  duel  with  M.  Turgot, 
the  French  ambassador,  and  wounded  him. 
He  participated  in  the  Ostend  conference  in 
1854  (see  BUCHANAN,  JAMES),  and  came  home 
in  1855.  In  1861  he  visited  Europe  as  diplo 
matic  agent  of  the  confederate  government, 
and  in  1862  was  arrested  in  New  Orleans  by 
Gen.  Butler,  and  imprisoned,  but  was  released 
on  condition  of  leaving  the  country.  He  re 
turned  to  New  Orleans  shortly  before  his  death. 

SOCLIE,  Melchior  Frederic,  a  French  novelist, 
born  at  Foix,  Dec.  23,  1800,  died  at  Bievre, 
near  Paris,  Sept.  23,  1847.  He  was  expelled 
from  the  law  school  in  Paris  on  account  of  his 
radicalism,  and  after  publishing  in  1824:  Amours 
fmn?ais,  an  unsuccessful  volume  of  poems,  he 
supported  himself  as  the  foreman  of  an  uphol 
sterer  till  1828,  when  his  drama  Romeo  et  Ju 
liette  proved  successful  at  the  Odeon.  Most  of 
his  subsequent  pieces  failed,  excepting  Clotilde 
in  1832.  He  achieved  greater  celebrity  as  a 
novelist,  especially  by  Diane  et  Louise  (1836), 
which  he  dramatized  under  several  titles.  He 
published  more  than  150  volumes  of  novels,  in 
cluding  Le  mcdtre  d'ecole  (1839),  Si  jeunesse 
savait,  si  vieillesse  pouvait  (1842),  and  his  Me- 
moires  du  diable  (1844),  which  had  a  prodi 
gious  circulation.  His  monument  in  Pore  La- 
chaise  was  unveiled  Feb.  20,  1875. 

SOCLOUQUE,  Faustin,  a  Haytian  emperor  under 
the  title  of  Faustin  I.,  born  in  the  district  of 
Petit  Goave,  in  the  southern  peninsula  of  Hayti, 
about  1785,  died  there  in  July,  1867.  He  was 
born  a  slave,  but  became  free  by  the  decree 
of  1790,  took  part  in  the  negro  insurrection 
against  the  French  in  1803,  served  as  captain 


under  President  Boyer  in  1820,  as  colonel  un 
der  Herard  in  1844,  as  brigadier  general  under 
Guerrier  in  1845,  and  was  commander  of  a 
division  at  the  time  of  the  death  of  Riche  in 
February,  1847.  While  the  generals  Souffran 
and  Paul  were  disputing  and  plotting  for  the 
succession,  the  senate  unexpectedly  elected  Sou- 
louque  to  the  presidency,  March  1,  1847.  He 
belonged  to  the  party  of  the  mulattoes,  but, 
jealous  of  their  power,  he  began  to  attach  the 
blacks  to  his  interest,  and  to  pursue  a  system 
of  terror  toward  the  citizens,  whom  he  deci 
mated  in  1848  by  confiscations,  proscriptions, 
and  executions.  Like  his  predecessors  he  vain 
ly  sought  to  subjugate  the  republic  of  Do 
minica.  In  1849  he  caused  the  restoration  of 
monarchy,  ostensibly  by  the  will  of  the  people 
and  the  action  of  the  chambers,  was  almost 
unanimously  chosen  emperor  (Aug.  26),  as 
sumed  the  title  of  Faustin  I.,  surrounded  him 
self  with  a  numerous  court,  founded  a  military 
and  civil  order  and  an  order  of  nobility,  and 
issued  a  constitution,  reserving  to  himself  the 
right  at  any  juncture  to  rule  as  he  pleased.  He 
was  crowned  in  1850,  and  a  second  time,  with 
greater  pomp,  on  April  18,  1852.  In  1855  he 
repeated  his  attempt  to  conquer  the  neighbor 
ing  republic,  and  took  the  field  with  a  consid 
erable  army,  but  was  so  completely  defeated 
by  a  few  hundred  Dominicans  under  Santana 
that  he  barely  escaped  capture,  and  his  trea 
sure  and  throne  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  ene 
my.  A  campaign  in  the  following  year  also 
terminated  in  his  defeat.  A  commercial  crisis 
in  1858  increased  the  general  discontent,  and 
Gen.  Geffrard  led  a  revolt,  and  was  recognized 
as  president  of  the  republic  of  Hayti.  Sou- 
louque  was,  however,  allowed  to  depart  (Jan. 
15,  1859)  with  his  wife  and  child  for  Jamaica. 
After  the  fall  of  Geffrard  in  1807,  he  returned 
to  Hayti. 

SOL'LT,  Nicolas  Jean  de  Dien,  duke  of  Dalmatia, 
a  French  soldier,  born  at  St.  Amans-la-Bastide, 
Guienne,  March  29,  1769,  died  there,  Nov.  26, 
1851.  He  enlisted  in  1785,  became  a  captain 
in  1793,  and  reached  in  one  year  the  rank  of 
brigadier  general  after  the  battle  of  Fleurus 
(June  26,  1794).  In  1799  he  was  made  general 
of  division  by  Massena,  with  whom  he  distin 
guished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Zurich,  Sept. 
25,  which  saved  France  from  invasion,  and  at 
the  siege  of  Genoa,  during  which  he  was  sur 
rounded  and  captured  by  the  Austrians,  May  15, 
1800,  but  was  speedily  exchanged,  after  the 
battle  of  Marengo.  In  1804  Napoleon  made 
him  a  marshal.  In  1805  he  increased  his  repu 
tation  at  the  head  of  the  fourth  corps  in  Ger 
many,  especially  at  Austerlitz,  Dec.  2,  where 
Napoleon  declared  him  to  be  the  first  strate 
gist  of  Europe.  In  1806-'7  he  won  additional 
fame  in  the  campaign  against  Prussia,  and  final 
ly  occupied  Konigsberg  (June  16,  1807),  and 
after  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  he  was  made  governor 
of  Berlin  and  duke  of  Dalmatia.  Next  appoint 
ed  commander  of  the  second  corps  in  Spain,  he 
nearly  annihilated  the  Spanish  army  at  Burgos, 


SOUND 


Nov.  10,  1808,  took  from  the  English  Corunna 
(where  he  had  been  at  first  defeated)  and  Fer- 
rol,  and  occupied  Oporto  and  the  northern  part 
of  Portugal,  whence  he  was  expelled  by  Wel 
lington.  After  his  retreat  to  Spain  he  gained 
several  advantages,  and  on  March  11,  1811,  he 
obtained  possession  of  Badajoz  through  the 
treachery  of  the  Spanish  commander;  but  he 
was  defeated  by  Beresford  at  Albuera,  May 
16,  and  Wellington  carried  Badajoz  by  assault 
with  fearful  loss  on  the  night  of  April  6,  1812. 
Disapproving  of  King  Joseph's  proceedings, 
Soult  asked  to  be  relieved ;  but  soon  after 
reaching  France  Napoleon  ordered  him  to  as 
sume  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in  Spain, 
and  retrieve  Joseph's  crushing  defeat  at  Vito- 
ria,  June  21,  1818.  But  despite  his  wonderful 
efforts,  after  various  engagements  in  the  moun 
tain  passes  with  the  main  body  of  the  allies,  he 
was  cut  off  from  Bayonne  by  Wellington,  de 
feated  at  Orthez,  Feb.  27,  1814,  and  forced 
back  to  Toulouse,  which  was  taken  by  Wel 
lington,  April  10.  Soult  offered  a  heroic  re 
sistance,  and  consented  only  to  an  honorable 
capitulation  after  the  full  confirmation  of  Na 
poleon's  first  abdication,  and  led  his  troops  safe 
ly  out  of  the  city.  His  conduct  during  this 
memorable  campaign  received  the  warm  com 
mendation  of  Napier,  the  English  historian 
of  the  peninsular  war;  and  Avhen  26  years 
later  Soult  officially  attended  the  coronation  of 
Queen  Victoria,  he  was  most  cordially  received 
by  Wellington  and  his  other  former  adversa 
ries.  Under  the  first  restoration  he  was  for  a 
short  time  minister  of  war;  but  as  he  rejoined 
Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Elba,  and  served 
as  major  general  at  Waterloo,  lie  was  banished 
from  1816  to  1819.  In  1820  he  was  reinstated 
as  a  marshal  and  received  a  pension  of  200,000 
francs,  and  in  1827  he  became  a  peer.  Under 
Louis  Philippe  he  was  minister  of  war  in  1830- 
'31,  prime  minister  in  1832-'4,  and  again  (with 
the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs  in  1839-'40,  and 
of  war  in  1840-'45)  from  1839  till  1847,  when 
the  extraordinary  title  of  marshal-general  was 
given  to  him  on  his  retirement.  He  left  me 
moirs,  of  which  only  the  first  part  was  pub 
lished  (3  vols.,  1854)  by  his  son  Napoleon  llec- 
tor,  who  died  in  1857. 

SOUND,  the  sensation  peculiar  to  the  organ 
of  hearing.  This  sensation  is  the  final  effect 
of  a  closely  connected  series  of  mechanical 
actions,  which  have  their  origin  in  some  rapid 
ly  vibrating  body,  whence  they  are  propagated 
progressively  through  the  air  to  the  membrane 
of  the  drum  of  the  ear,  and  thence,  through  a 
series  of  small  articulated  bones,  into  the  in 
ner  cavity.  This  cavity,  tunnelled  in  the  hard 
petrous  bone,  is  filled  with  liquid  and  contains 
the  delicate  terminal  fibrils  of  the  auditory 
nerve.  Each  of  these  fibrils  appears  to  be  at 
tached  to  the  centre  of  a  delicate  rod  or  chord. 
These  chords  are  stretched,  and  being  of  dif 
ferent  lengths  and  diameters  are  generally  sup 
posed  to  be  tuned  to  sounds  extending  through 
a  range  of  several  octaves.  By  the  sympa 


thetic  vibrations  of  these  tuned  bodies  they 
shake  their  attached  nerve  fibrils  and  thus  give 
rise  to  sensations  peculiar  to  sounds  of  various 
pitch.  From  the  foregoing  we  see  that  the 
subject  of  sound  is  naturally  divided  into  three 
parts.  In  the  first  division  we  shall  consider 
the  manner  of  production  of  sound,  and  the 
nature  of  those  vibrations  which  cause  sono 
rous  sensations.  In  the  second  part  we  shall 
explain  the  manner  in  which  these  vibrations 
are  propagated  through  the  elastic  medium 
existing  between  the  vibrating  body  and  the 
ear.  In  the  third  part  we  shall  consider  the 
manner  in  which  the  ear  perceives  a  simple 
sound  and  analyzes  a  composite  sound  into  its 
elementary  sonorous  sensations. — At  the  place 
of  origin  of  every  sound  there  is  always  some 
solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous  body  in  a  state  of  rapid 
vibration.  This  vibrating  body  imparts  its 
motions  to  any  elastic  medium  with  which  it 
may  be  in  contact,  and  the  vibrations  thus 
given  to  the  contiguous  medium  are  propa 
gated  in  all  directions.  The  contiguous  elastic 
medium  may  be  a  solid,  a  liquid,  or  a  gas. 
Proofs  of  the  above  statements  are  readily 
afforded  by  the  following  simple  experiments. 
A  sounding  tuning  fork  is  drawn  over  a  piece 
of  smoked  glass,  so  that  the  point  of  a  piece 
of  foil,  attached  to  one  of  its  prongs,  may  just 
touch  the  glass.  After  this  experiment  we 
observe  that  the  point  attached  to  the  fork  has 
laid  bare  the  glass  in  a  sinuous  line,  as  seen  in 
fig.  1,  thus  showing  that  when  the  fork  causes 


FIG.  l. 

a  sound  its  prongs  are  swinging  to  and  fro  in 
a  direction  perpendicular  to  its  length.  That  a 
liquid  may  be  the  vibrating  body  at  the  source 
of  the  sound,  is  shown  by  placing  a  "siren" 
under  water  and  forcing  through  it  a  current 
of  water.  If  we  take  an  organ  pipe  with  glass 
sides  and  sprinkle  in  its  interior  a  small  portion 
of  precipitated  silica,  we  shall,  on  sounding  the 
pipe,  observe  this  very  light  powder  rise  in  thin 
delicate  vertical  plates  in  certain  portions  of 
the  pipe,  while  in  intermediate  places  the  silica 
remains  at  rest.  Neither  the  tone  of  the  pipe 
nor  the  positions  of  the  plates  of  silica  are 
altered  in  the  least  by  pressure  on  the  walls  of 
the  pipe;  thus  showing  that  the  real  vibrating 
body  in  an  organ  pipe  is  its  contained  column 
of  air.  It  now  remains  to  show  that  the  me 
dium  through  which  the  sonorous  vibrations 
are  propagated  outward  from  the  vibrating 
body  may  be  either  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous. 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  experiments  in 
acoustics  was  invented  by  Sir  Charles  Wheat- 
stone,  and  shows  that  sounds,  even  the  most 
complex,  may  be  transmitted  through  solids 
as  readily  as  through  the  air.  In  the  lower 


SOUND 


175 


room  of  a  house,  or  in  a  tightly  closed  box 
lined  with  felt,  he  placed  a  musical  box.  On 
the  top  of  the  musical  box  rests  the  end  of  a 
long  light  wooden  rod  which  reaches  to  one  of 
the  rooms  above.  The  rod  is  insulated  from 
the  floor  of  the  rooms  by  India  rubber.  No 
sound  is  perceived  in  the  upper  room  until  we 
place  on  the  top  of  the  rod  a  violin,  a  guitar, 
or  any  instrument  with  a  sounding  board,  when 
the  sounds  of  the  musical  box  till  the  upper 
room  and  appear  to  emanate  from  the  musical 
instrument  on  the  rod.  That  a  liquid  may  be 
the  medium  for  the  transmission  of  sonorous 
vibrations  is  readily  proved  by  placing  on  a 
resonant  box  a  long  cylindrical  vessel  filled 
with  water,  and  then  bringing  in  contact  with 
the  surface  of  the  water  a  disk  of  wood  at 
tached  to  the  foot  of  a  vibrating  tuning  fork. 
The  vibrations  of  this  instrument  are  sent 
through  the  water,  and  reaching  the  top  of 
the  resonant  box  throw  the  latter  into  vibra 
tions  of  the  same  period  as  those  of  the  fork. 
That  the  air,  a  gaseous  body,  vibrates  while  it 
is  transmitting  sonorous  pulses,  can  be  shown 
by  placing  in  the  path  of  these  vibrations  a 
delicate  membrane  strewn  with  a  light  dry 
powder.  The  powder  dances  on  the  mem 
brane  while  the  sound  is  perceived.  The  vi 
brations  of  the  air  can  also  be  detected  by 
means  of  the  so-called  "  sensitive  flames," 
which  are  formed  of  jets  of  gas,  issuing  from 
cylindrical  orifices  under  such  great  pressure 
that  they  are  just  on  the  point  of  flaring,  or 
roaring.  These  flames  are  so  sensitive  to  aerial 
vibrations  that  the  slightest  sound,  if  of  the 
proper  pitch,  will  cause  them  suddenly  to  con 
tract  greatly  in  their  lengths,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  give  forth  roaring  sounds.  These 
flames  are  generally  most  sensitive  to  acute 
sounds,  such  as  a  hiss  or  the  jingling  of  a 
bunch  of  keys.  (See  PYKOPHONE.) — An  anal 
ysis  of  sonorous  sensations  reduces  them  to 
three  kinds:  pitch,  intensity,  and  tim*bre.  1. 
Pitch  and  the  Determination  of  the  Number 
of  Vibrations  of  a  Sounding  Body.  Pitch  is 
that  quality  of  sound  by  which  we  distinguish 
the  position  of  sounds  in  the  musical  scale. 
One  sound  is  thus  said  to  be  higher  or  lower 
than  another.  Pitch  depends  on  the  number 
of  vibrations  in  a  second  which  enter  the  ear. 
The  pitch  rises  with  the  increase  of  the  num 
ber  of  vibrations.  In  England,  Germany,  and 
America  a  vibration  is  understood  to  be  a  mo 
tion  to  and  fro,  while  in  France  it  is  a  motion 
to  or  fro.  The  sound  having  the  lowest  pitch  is 
caused  by  40  vibrations  in  a  second ;  a  smaller 
number  of  vibrations  than  this  does  not  cause 
a  continuous  sonorous  sensation.  The  highest 
audible  sound  is  caused  by  about  40,000  vibra 
tions  in  a  second;  vibrations  of  greater  fre 
quency  than  this  are  not  generally  audible, 
though  the  limit  of  audibility  of  the  highest 
sounds  is  different  for  different  persons.  Thus 
some  cannot  hear  the  chirrup  of  the  cricket, 
while  others  perceive  sounds  one  or  two  oc 
taves  above  it.  Dr.  "Wollaston  discovered  this 
VOL.  xv. — 12 


FIG.  2. 


variation.  The  pitch  of  a  sound  may  be  deter 
mined  by  several  methods,  some  of  the  most 
precise  of  which  are:  1.  By  means  of  an  in 
strument  called  a  "siren,"  fig.  2,  invented  by 
Cagniard  de  Latour.  It  consists  of  a  metal 
cylinder  the  bottom  of  which  is  perforated  by 
a  tube  through 
which  air  is 
blown  into  the 
cylinder.  The 
top  of  the  cyl 
inder  is  perfora 
ted  with  a  num 
ber  of  holes. 
Just  over  this 
top  and  nearly 
touching  it  ro 
tates  a  metallic 
disk  on  a  verti 
cal  axis.  This 
disk  is  perfora 
ted  with  the 
same  number 
of  holes  as  are 
in  the  cylinder. 
The  form  of  the 
holes  is  shown 
in  the  section 
in  the  figure. 
They  do  not 
pass  perpendic 
ularly  through 
the  plates,  but 
slope  contrary  ways,  so  that  the  air  when 
forced  through  the  holes  in  the  top  of  the 
cylinder  impinges  upon  one  side  of  the  holes 
in  the  rotating  plate,  and  thus  blows  it  round 
in  a  definite  direction.  The  disk  in  making 
one  revolution  opens  and  shuts  the  holes  as 
many  times  as  there  are  holes  in  the  disk  and 
cylinder,  and  hence  the  wind  escapes  from 
the  cylinder  in  successive  puffs,  the  frequen 
cy  of  which  depends  upon  the  rate  of  rota 
tion.  A  sound  is  thus  produced  having  a  pitch 
which  rises  with  the  increase  of  velocity  of 
rotation.  The  vertical  axis  has  a  screw  cut 
on  it  which  works  in  a  notched  wheel  at 
tached  to  a  dial,  which  shows  the  number  of 
rotations  of  the  disk.  To  determine  the  pitch 
of  a  sound  by  means  of  this  instrument,  we 
gradually  increase  the  rotation  of  the  disk 
until  the  sound  emitted  approaches  the  pitch 
of  the  sound  the  number  of  vibrations  of 
which  we  would  determine.  When  the  two 
sounds  are  quite  near  in  pitch,  the  ear  will 
perceive  distinct  beats  produced  by  the  joint 
action  of  the  two  sounds  on  the  air.  The 
velocity  is  now  cautiously  increased  until  the 
beats  disappear.  At  this  moment  the  counter 
is  put  in  operation,  and  the  disk  is  allowed  to 
run  for  a  known  number  of  seconds ;  then  the 
counter  is  thrown  out  of  action  and  the  num 
ber  of  revolutions  of  the  disk  read  off.  On 
multiplying  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the 
disk  by  the  number  of  its  holes,  and  dividing 
this  product  by  the  number  of  seconds  during 


176 


SOUND 


which  the  disk  was  connected  with  the  counter, 
we  have  the  number  of  vibrations  per  second 
corresponding  to  the  given  sound.  2.  The 
number  of  vibrations  per  second  of  a  tuning 
fork,  or  of  any  rod  or  plate,  can  be  determined 
very  precisely  by  the  following  plan.  The 
tuning  fork  or  rod  has  attached  to  it  a  piece 
of  delicate  foil,  which  just  touches  the  smoked 
surface  of  paper  covering  a  metallic  cylinder. 
If  the  cylinder  is  turned  while  the  fork  vibrates, 
it  is  evident  that  the  point  attached  to  the  fork 
will  trace  a  sinuous  line  on  the  cylinder.  Now, 
if  by  any  means  we  can  mark  off  seconds  of 
time  on  this  sinuous  trace,  we  shall  have  only 
to  count  the  number  of  sinuosities  between 
two  successive  second  marks  to  have  the  num 
ber  of  swings  made  by  the  fork  in  a  second. 
The  above  conditions  are  attained  in  the  follow 
ing  manner :  A  break-circuit  clock  is  placed  in 
the  primary  or  battery  circuit  of  an  induction 
coil;  one  of  the  terminal  wires  of  the  secon 
dary  circuit  of  this  induction  coil  is  connect 
ed  with  the  tuning  fork,  while  the  other  ter 
minal  wire  is  connected  with  the  revolving 
cylinder.  At  each  second  the  break-circuit 
clock  sends  a  spark  from  the  point  attached  to 
the  vibrating  point,  through  the  smoked  paper, 
to  the  revolving  metallic  cylinder.  It  is  evi 
dent  that  on  counting  the  number  of  flexures 
contained  between  two  successive  spark  holes 
in  the  fork's  trace  we  have  the  number  of 
half  vibrations  made  by  the  fork  in  a  second. 
When  we  have  thus  determined  the  exact  num 
ber  of  vibrations,  at  a  known  temperature, 
given  by  a  tuning  fork,  we  may  use  the  num 
ber  of  vibrations  of  this  fork  as  a  point  of 
departure  in  determining  the  number  of  vibra 
tions  of  any  rod,  plate,  chord,  or  membrane, 
by  means  of  a  very  simple  and  ingenious  meth 
od  recently  devised  by  Prof.  O.  N.  Rood,  and 
described  by  him  in  the  "  American  Jour 
nal  of  Science,"  August,  1874.  Let  us  sup 
pose  that  it  is  required  to  ascertain  whether 
two  tuning  forks  are  in  unison,  or  to  deter 
mine  the  difference  in  the  number  of  vibra 
tions  executed  by 
them  in  a  second. 
For  this  purpose  a 
short  piece  of  fine 
steel  wire  is  at 
tached  to  each  of 
the  forks,  and  they 
are  supported  in 
positions  so  that 
their  vibrations 
shall  be  at  right 
angles  to  each  oth 
er,  as  indicated  in 
fig.  3.  The  wires 
may  have  a  diam 
eter  of  one  or  two  tenths  of  a  millimetre,  or 
even  less,  and  are  to  be  attached  with  the  least 
possible  amount  of  soft  wax  or  varnish.  They 
may  be  brought  quite  near  to  each  other,  or 
may  if  necessary  be  several  inches  apart.  If 
the  forks  are  now  set  into  vibration  and  the 


FIG. 


intersection  of  the  wires  viewed  against  a 
bright  background  with  a  small  telescope,  it 
will  be  seen  that  an  optical  figure  is  developed, 
which  is  partly  due  to  the  same  well  known 
conditions  that  give  rise  to  the  acoustic  figures 
of  Lissajous,  and  partly  to  the  circumstance 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  4. 


that  the  wires  move  with  less  velocity  when 
near  their  maximum  deviation  from  the  line  of 
rest.  Hence,  if  the  difference  in  phase  is  zero, 
an  appearance  like  fig.  4  is  produced,  which 
changes  into  fig.  5  when  the  difference  in  phase 
has  increased  to  one  half  a  complete  vibration. 
Fainter  indications  of  the  same  figures  are 
shown  in  all  cases,  except  when  the  difference 
in  phase  is  one  fourth,  three  fourths,  &c.,  of 
a  vibration,  or  nearly  so.  This  figure  is  char 
acteristic  then  of  forks  in  unison,  and  the  fact 
of  its  constancy  will  be  the  evidence  of  per 
fect  unison.  If  the  forks  are  not  exactly  in 
unison,  fig.  4  will  after  some  time  change  into 
fig.  5,  and  the  number  of  seconds  necessary 
for  this  change  will  measure  the  interval  re 
quired  by  one  of  the  forks  in  gaining  or  losing 
half  of  a  complete  vibration.  The  focal  length 
of  the  object  glass  of  the  telescope  used  was 
120  millimetres  for  parallel  rays,  and  when  the 
aperture  was  reduced  to  two  millimetres,  suffi 
ciently  distinct  vision  of  both  wires  could  bo 
obtained,  even  when  their  distance  apart  was 
several  centimetres.  With  this  limited  aper 
ture,  the  light  from  a  white  cloud  answered 
quite  well.  If  the  forks  differ  by  an  octave,  an 
almost  equally  distinct  and  well  marked  figure 
will  be  produced,  such  as  is  seen  in  figs.  6  and 
7,  which  represent  the  characteristic  appear 
ances  in  this  case.  This  figure  is  quite  as 
useful  for  purposes  of  investigation  as  for 
that  of  unison.  Somewhat  less  distinct  and 
more  complicated  figures  are  given  by  the 
quint,  the  duodecime,  and  the  double  octave. 
From  the  foregoing  it  is  evidently  easy  with 
this  method  to  bring  a  vibrating  string  into 


FIG.  6. 


FIG. 


unison  with  a  given  tuning  fork,  or  to  adjust 
it  so  that  the  interval  shall  be  a  quint,  octave, 
twelfth,  or  double  octave,  above  or  below.  It 
is  also  easy  to  ascertain  the  number  of  vibra 
tions  made  by  a  string  in  a  given  case,  by  the 
aid  of  a  bridge  and  a  properly  selected  fork 
making  a  known  number  of  vibrations,  the 
string  being  shortened  till  it  furnishes  one 
of  the  above  mentioned  figures,  and  therefore 


r  N  i  v  »•'• 


ITV    01' 


SOUND 


executes  a  known  number  of  vibrations,  after 
which  the  number  of  vibrations  made  by  its 
whole  length  can  readily  be  calculated  by  a 
well  known  law.  3.  The  following  method 
of  determining  the  number  of  vibrations  of  a 
sounding  body  is  applicable  to  all  cases,  whether 
the  body  be  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous.  After  we 
have  determined,  by  the  method  already  de 
scribed,  the  precise  number  of  vibrations  of  a 
given  fork,  we  make  another  fork  higher  in 
pitch  than  the  former,  which  makes  with  the 
first  eight  beats  a  second  ;  a  third  fork  is  then 
tuned  until  it  gives  eight  beats  with  the  second 
fork,  or  sixteen  with  the  first.  Thus  a  series 
containing  many  forks  is  formed,  any  fork  of 
which  makes  eight  vibrations  more  in  a  second 
than  the  fork  next  below  it  in  pitch.  On  each 
fork  is  stamped  its  number  of  vibrations.  To 
determine  with  these  forks  the  pitch  of  a  given 
sound,  we  find  in  the  series  of  forks  one  which 
makes  with  this  sound  eight  beats  or  fewer 
than  eight  beats  in  a  second,  and  we  count  the 
number  of  these  beats  given  during  one  minute 
or  more.  Dividing  the  number  of  beats  found 
by  the  number  of  seconds  during  which  the 
observation  lasted,  we  have  the  number  of 
beats  made  in  one  second  by  the  fork  and  the 
given  sound,  and  as  the  number  of  beats  per 
second  is  always  equal  to  the  difference  in  the 
number  of  vibrations  per  second  of  the  two 
sounds,  it  follows  that  we  at  once  know  how 
many  vibrations  per  second  the  fork  exceeds 
or  falls  short  of  those  of  the  sound.  To  ascer 
tain  whether  the  fork  makes  more  or  less  than 
the  sound  in  a  second,  we  place  a  small  piece 
of  wax  on  a  prong  of  the  fork,  and  observe 
whether  this  causes  the  number  of  beats  to 
increase  or  to  diminish.  If  the  number  of 
beats  increases,  then  the  fork  was  lower  in 
pitch  than  the  sound,  while  if  the  beats  are 
less  frequent  the  fork  was  higher  in  pitch  than 
the  given  sound.  The  series  of  forks  just  de 
scribed  is  called  after  its  inventor  a  Scheibler's 
tonometer.  2.  The  Intensity  of  Sound.  The 
intensity  of  sound  depends  on  the  energy  of  the 
aerial  vibrations  contiguous  to  the  ear.  For 
sounds  of  the  same  pitch  the  intensity  varies  as 
the  square  of  the  amplitude  of  the  aerial  oscilla 
tions.  The  plans  generally  used  are  unworthy 
the  designation  of  measures,  being  only  rough 
comparisons.  The  writer  first  succeeded  in 
measuring  the  relative  intensities  of  sounds  of 
the  same  pitch,  and  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  publication  on  the  subject  in  the  "Amer 
ican  Journal  of  Science  "  for  February,  1SY3. 
The  principle  of  the  method  depends  on  the 
fact  that  if  two  sonorous  impulses  meet  in 
traversing  an  elastic  medium,  and  if  at  their 
place  of  meeting  the  molecules  of  the  medium 
remain  at  rest,  then  at  this  place  of  quiescence 
the  two  impulses  must  have  opposite  phases 
of  vibration  and  be  of  equal  intensities.  By 
means  of  an  appropriate  apparatus  the  above 
conditions  are  brought  about  in  the  union  of 
the  two  sounds  whose  intensities  we  would 
compare.  We  then  measure  the  distances  from 


the  place  of  meeting  of  the  two  sounds  to  the 
points  of  origin  of  these  sounds.  The  relative 
intensities  of  the  sounds  will  be  as  the  inverse 
ratio  of  the  squares  of  these  distances.  But  to 
determine  the  relative  or  absolute  intensities 
of  sounds  of  different  pitch  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  of  experimental  problems.  The  writer 
has  recently  succeeded  in  reaching  approxi 
mate  measures  of  the  absolute  intensities  of 
sounds  by  measuring  the  amounts  of  heat  pro 
duced  when  the  sound  vibrations  are  absorbed 
by  India  rubber.  By  knowing  the  exact  frac 
tion  of  the  whole  energy  of  the  sound  absorbed 
and  the  specific  heat  of  the  rubber,  the  mechan 
ical  equivalent  of  the  entire  sonorous  vibra 
tions,  in  fractions  of  a  Joule's  unit,  can  be  cal 
culated.  It  was  thus  shown  that  the  aerial  vi 
brations  produced  by  a  treble  0  fork,  mounted 
on  its  resonant  box  and  vibrated  during  ten 
seconds,  will,  if  entirely  converted  into  heat, 
raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water 
To-oVoT  of  a  degree ;  or,  in  mechanical  effect, 
will  raise  54  grains  one  foot  high.  3.  Timbre 
of  Sound,  and  Analysis  of  Sounds.  Timbre  is 
a  term  used  to  designate  those  special  charac 
ters  by  which  we  distinguish  between  two  or 
more  sounds  having  the  same  pitch  and  equal 
intensities.  Thus,  sounding  the  same  note  on 
a  flute,  a  violin,  a  clarinet,  and  a  piano,  the 
ear  at  once  distinguishes  the  instrument  pro 
ducing  the  note.  Some  preliminary  knowl 
edge  as  to  the  differences  between  a  simple  and 
a  composite  sound  is  necessary  before  giving 
an  explanation  of  the  cause  of  timbre.  A  sim 
ple  sound  is  a  sound  which  has  only  one  pitch. 
Such  a  sound  is  produced  when  a  tuning  fork, 
mounted  on  a  resonant  box,  is  gently  vibrated 
by  drawing  a  bow  across  one  of  its  prongs. 
All  simple  sounds  are  alike  in  timbre;  the 
only  differences  existing  between  them  are 
differences  of  pitch  and  of  intensity.  Thus, 
if  simple  sounds  alike  in  pitch  and  in  intensity 
were  produced  by  four  instruments  differing 
even  very  much  in  construction,  the  ear  could 
not  give  us  the  information  by  which  we  could 
distinguish  one  instrument  from  another.  On 
examining  closely  into  the  nature  of  the  aerial 
vibrations  which  produce  a  simple  sonorous 
sensation,  we  find  that  this  sensation  is  only 
experienced  when  the  aerial  particles  swing  to 
and  fro  with  the  same  character  of  reciproca 
ting  motion  as  pertains  to  a  freely  swinging 
pendulum.  But  there  are  other  sounds  which 
are  not  simple  but  composite,  being  formed  of 
the  combination  of  several  simple  sounds  of 
various  pitch  and  intensities.  Thus,  by  atten 
tive  listening  one  can  distinguish  several  sounds 
of  various  pitch  in  the  sound  of  a  piano  string, 
or  in  that  of  a  reed  organ  pipe.  On  analyzing 
these  composite  sounds,  by  methods  presently 
to  be  described,  we  find  that  they  can  always 
be  separated  into  two  or  more  simple  sounds, 
and  that  if  we  call  the  number  of  vibrations 
producing  the  lowest  in  pitch  unity,  then  the 
remaining  sounds  will,  in  order  of  ascending 
pitch,  bear  to  the  first  the  vibration  ratios  of 


178 


SOUND 


1 :  2,  1 :  3,  1 :  4,  1 :  5,  &c.  The  lowest  sound 
perceived  is  generally  the  most  intense,  and  is 
called  the  "fundamental."  This  is  the  sound 
which  is  indicated  in  musical  notation,  and 
which  designates  the  pitch  of  the  composite 
sound.  But  really  when  we  produce  one  of 
the  sounds  indicated  by  musical  notation,  we 
generally  at  the  same  time  evolve  a  long  series 
of  sounds  bearing  to  each  other  the  vibration 
relations  of  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  &c.  This  series  of 
sounds  is  called  the  harmonic  series,  and  is 
sometimes  designated  as  the  series  of  overtones 
of  the  fundamental  sound.  But  the  members 
of  this  series  do  not  always  all  coexist ;  thus 
the  sounds  of  the  clarinet  only  contain  the 
odd  numbers  of  the  series,  viz.,  1,  3,  5,  V,  &c. 
It  is  evident  from  the  above  facts  that  an  in 
definite  number  of  different  composite  sounds 
can  be  formed  by  combining  simple  sounds 
and  giving  to  them  various  relative  intensities ; 
and  that  each  of  these  composite  sounds  will 
be  characterized  by  its  own  peculiar  timbre. 
This  great  discovery,  that  all  simple  sounds 
have  one  and  the  same  timbre,  and  that  the 
characteristic  timbre  of  any  other  sound  is  due 
alone  to  the  number  and  relative  intensities  of 
the  harmonics  or  overtones  forming  the  sound, 
was  made  by  Helmholtz ;  he  not  only  succeed 
ed  first  in  proving  this  by  the  experimental 
analysis  of  various  composite  sounds,  but  also 
by  reproducing  these  composite  sounds  with 
their  characteristic  timbres  by  simultaneously 
sounding  their  simple  sonorous  components 
with  their  proper  relative  intensities.  This  ex 
planation  of  timbre,  as  Helmholtz  has  shown, 
has  a  dynamic  basis,  and  is  the  direct  conse 
quence  of  the  celebrated  theorem  of  Fourier, 
which  may  thus  be  rendered  in  the  language  of 
dynamics:  Every  periodic  vibratory  motion 
can  always,  and  always  in  one  manner,  be  re 
garded  as  the  sum  of  a  certain  number  of  pen 
dulum  vibrations. — There  are  various  methods 
of  analyzing  a  composite  sound.  They  are 
generally  founded  on  the  fact  that  if  we  have 
two  bodies  which  give  exactly  the  same  num 
ber  of  vibrations  in  a  second,  and  vibrate  one 
of  them,  the  other,  although  somewhat  distant 
from  the  first,  will  be  thrown  into  vibration  by 
the  action  of  the  aerial  pulses  which  have  em 
anated  from  the  first  body.  This  must  neces 
sarily  follow,  for  the  pulses  which  the  second 
body  receives  from  the  air  synchronize  with 
the  number  of  vibrations  in  a  second  which  this 
body  alone  can  give.  This  phenomenon  may 
be  called  "  co-vibration."  Helmholtz  in  his  in 
vestigations  generally  used  as  co-vibrating  bod 
ies  masses  of  air  contained  in  hollow  spheres 
of  various  sizes.  These  spheres  are  called  reso 
nators,  and  one  of  them,  as  made  by  Konig  of 
Paris,  is  shown  in  fig.  8.  These  spherical  mass 
es  of  air  are  so  graduated  in  volume  that  a 
series  of  resonators  is  formed,  and  each  re 
sonator  will  resound  only  to  the  number  of 
vibrations  in  a  second  which  is  stamped  on  it. 
The  manner  of  using  these  resonators  is  as  fol 
lows:  The  compound  sound  falls  upon  the 


open  mouth  of  the  resonator,  while  the  nipple- 
shaped  tube  opposite  the  mouth  is  placed  in 
one  ear,  and  the  other  ear  is  closely  stopped 
with  beeswax.  If  the  sound,  to  which  the 


FIG.  8. 

mass  of  air  contained  in  this  resonator  enters 
into  co- vibration,  exists  in  the  composite  sound, 
then  the  ear  will  perceive  this  sound  with 
some  intensity,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other 
component  sounds.  Thus  by  placing  to  the  ear 
each  resonator  of  the  series  and  noting  those 
which  resound,  we  can  readily  ascertain  the 
simple  sounds,  whose  union  forms  the  com 
posite  sound  which  we  have  analyzed.  The 
writer  has  often  replaced  the  resonators  ap 
plied  to  the  ear  by  tuning  forks  mounted  on 
resonant  boxes.  If  the  mouth  of  one  of 
these  boxes,  like  fig.  9,  be  placed  near  a  sound 
ing  reed  pipe,  and  if  the  note  of  the  fork 
on  the  resonant  box  exists  in  the  composite 
sound  of  the  reed,  then  this  fork  will  be  set  in 
vibration  and  will  continue  to  vibrate  after  the 
reed  has  ceased  to  sound ;  for  the  mass  of  air 
in  the  box  acts  like  a  resonator,  and  is  set  in 
vibration  by  the  pulses  of  that  harmonic  of 
the  reed  which  is  in  unison  with  it.  But,  as 
the  fork  is  also  in  unison  with  the  mass  of  air 
in  the  resonant  box,  it  follows  that  it  also  is 
set  in  motion  by  the  latter,  so  that,  after  the 
composite  sound  ceases,  we  find  that  the  fork 
sings  out  alone,  and  thus  shows  that  it  has 
selected  from  a  chorus  of  harmonics  that  one 


FIG.  9. 


which  is  in  unison  with  its  own  tone.  It 
has  thus  been  easy,  by  using  one  fork  after 
another  of  the  harmonic  series  of  the  reed, 
to  show  the  composition  of  its  sound  to  a 


SOUND 


179 


large  audience.  We  have  also  succeeded  with 
the  following  experiment.  Forcibly  sound 
the  reed  pipe  and  place  around  its  mouth  eight 
or  more  forks  of  the  harmonic  series  of  the 
sound  given  by  the  reed,  with  the  mouths  of 
their  resonant  boxes  toward  the  reed  pipe. 
After  the  reed  has  sounded  for  a  few  seconds, 
stop  it,  and  we  shall  find  that  all  of  the  forks 
are  in  vibration;  and  thus  singing  together, 
they  approximately  reproduce  the  sound  of 
the  reed.  This  experiment  requires  the  reso 
nant  boxes,  the  forks,  and  the  harmonics  of 
the  reed  to  be  in  exquisite  unison.  The  reader 
may  convince  himself  of  the  composite  nature 
of  the  sound  given  by  a  piano  string,  by  the 
following  simple  experiments.  If  we  sound 
on  the  piano  the  0  below  the  middle  or  treble 
0,  if  we  call  this  note  C2,  the  harmonics  of  this 
sound  will  be  03,  G3,  C4,  E4,  G4,  B^,  C8,  &c. 
But  the  seventh  harmonic,  or  B^,  is  want 
ing,  because  the  hammers  of  the  piano  strike 
the  strings  at  points  about  one  seventh  of 
their  length,  and  hence  this  harmonic  cannot 
appear.  If  it  did,  it  would  cause  harshness  of 
timbre,  for  the  seventh  harmonic  forms  dis 
sonant  combinations  with  the  other  harmon 
ics  of  the  series.  To  show  that  all  of  the  re 
maining  harmonics  exist  in  the  sound  of  Cg, 
depress  slowly  and  firmly  the  key  of  C3 ;  the 
hammer  will  rise,  press  against  the  string,  and 
fall  from  it,  but  the  damper  of  this  string  will 
remain  raised.  Now  strike  strongly  the  key 
of  Oa,  and  after  holding  it  for  a  few  seconds 
stop  its  sound.  We  shall  now  hear  the  sound 
of  C3  very  distinctly,  showing  that  it  has  been 
set  into  vibration  by  the  vibrations  of  C3  which 
exist  in  the  compound  sound  designated  as  Oa. 
In  like  manner  one  can  show  that  G3,  C4,  E4, 
G4,  05,  &c.,  exist  as  components  of  the  com 
posite  sound  of  the  string  of  Oa.  The  reader 
who  desires  further  information  on  the  subject 
of  sonorous  analysis  will  find  descriptions  of 
six  experimental  methods  in  "^Researches  in 
Acoustics,"  paper  No.  5,  "American  Journal 
of  Science  "  for  August  and  September,  1874. 
— Reproduction  of  Sonorous  Vibrations  fr.om 
the  Curves  made  by  Vibrating  Bodies.  Experi 
ment  has  established  that  the  sensation  of  a 
simple  sound  is  alone  produced  when  the  aerial 
molecules  vibrate  with  the  same  reciprocating 
motion  as  pertains  to  a  freely  swinging  pendu 
lum.  If  we  obtain  the  sinuous  trace  of  a  vi 
brating  tuning  fork  or  of  a  long  elastic  rod  on 
a  plate  of  smoked  glass,  fig.  10,  we  shall  find, 
on  making  measures  on  these  curves,  that  they 
are  sinusoids  or  curves  of  sines,  and  hence  can 
alone  be  produced  by  pendulum  motions.  But 
the  curve  produced  by  the  fork  can  be  made  to 
reproduce  the  motions  of  the  fork,  only  much 
slower,  in  the  following  manner:  Cut  a  fine 
slit  in  a  piece  of  paper,  and  slide  it  over  the 
curve  from  right  to  left,  as  shown  in  fig.  10  ; 
then  we  shall  see  the  portion  of  the  curve  ex 
posed  in  the  slit  vibrating  upward  and  down 
ward  with  the  same  kind  of  motion  as  rules 
the  oscillations  of  a  pendulum.  The  aerial 


molecules  and  a  point  on  the  membrane  of  the 
drum  of  the  ear  vibrate  thus  when  we  experience 
the  sensation  of  a  simple  sound.  The  majority 


FIG.  10. 

of  sounds,  however,  are  composite.  It  is  evi 
dent  that  a  molecule  of  air  or  a  point  on  the 
tympanic  membrane  can  have  only  one  direc 
tion  of  motion  at  one  and  the  same  instant, 
and  therefore  that  a  composite  sonorous  vibra 
tion  will  give  to  the  molecule  of  air  a  motion 
which  must  be  the  resultant  of  the  combined 
motions  of  all  the  pendulum  motions '  of  its 
simple  sonorous  components.  Hence  we  may 
suppose  a  molecule  of  air,  animated  with  a  re 
sultant  motion  like  the  above,  to  trace  a  curve 
which  evidently  will  be  the  resultant  of  all 
the  simple  sinusoidal  curves  belonging  to  the 
sonorous  elements  of  the  composite  sonorous 
vibration.  We  can  obtain  this  resultant  curve 
as  follows,  and  then  we  can  reproduce  from  it 
the  motions  of  a  molecule  of  air,  or  of  a  point 
on  the  tympanic  membrane,  when  these  points 
are  acted  on  by  a  compound  sonorous  vibra 
tion.  Draw  on  the  axis  a  &,  fig.  11,  sinusoidal 
curves  having  lengths  related  to  each  other 
as  1:2:3:4:5:6.  These  curves  will  then 
be  the  separate  traces  of  the  first  six  harmon 
ics  contained  in  a  composite  vibration  which 
causes  a  musical  sound,  such  as  the  sound  of 
a  piano  string.  Another  axis  c  d  is  now  drawn 
below  a  &,  and  500  equidistant  lines,  perpen 
dicular  to  a  b  and  c  d,  are  drawn  through  the 
curves  on  a  &  and  extended  below  the  line 


FIG.  11. 

c  d.  The  algebraic  sums  of  the  ordinates  of 
the  curves  on  a  5  are  now  transferred  to  the 
corresponding  ordinates  on  c  d,  and  through 


180 


SOUND 


points  thus  found  is  drawn  the  curve  having 
the  line  c  d  for  its  axis.  This  curve  may  be 
regarded  as  the  trace  of  the  composite  vibra 
tion  of  a  molecule  of  air,  or  of  a  point  of  the 
tympanic  membrane,  on  a  surface  which  moves 
near  these  points.  Hence  if  we  slide  this  curve 
along,  in  the  direction  of  its  axis,  under  a  slit 
in  a  screen  which  allows  only  one  point  of  the 
curve  to  appear  at  once,  we  shall  reproduce 
in  this  slit  the  vibratory  motion  of  the  aerial 
molecule  and  of  the  point  on  the  tympanic 
membrane.  The  writer  has  exhibited  this  mo 
tion  in  a  continuous,  or  rather  recurring  man 
ner,  as  follows :  On  a  piece  of  Bristol  board 
he  drew  a  circle,  and  in  one  quadrant  of  this 
circle  he  drew  500  equidistant  radii.  On  these 
radii,  as  ordinates,  lie  transferred  the  corre 
sponding  values  of  the  same  ordinates  of  the 
resultant  curve  of  fig.  11,  diminished  to  one 
fourth  of  their  lengths.  He  thus  deflected  the 
axis  of  the  curve  of  fig.  11  into  one  fourth  of 
a  circle  curve ;  and  this,  repeated  four  times  on 


FIG.  12. 

the  Bristol  board,  rendered  the  curve  continu 
ous  and  four  times  recurring,  as  shown  in  fig. 
12.  He  now  cut  this  figure  out  of  the  board 
and  used  it  as  a  template.  He  placed  the  lat 
ter  centred  on  a  glass  disk  20  in.  in  diameter. 
This  disk  was  coated  on  one  side  with  opaque 
black  varnish,  and  with  the  template  and  the 
separated  points  of  a  pair  of  spring  dividers  he 
removed  from  the  glass  disk  a  sinuous  band,  as 
shown  in  fig.  12.  The  glass  disk  was  now 
mounted  on  a  horizontal  axis  and  placed  in 
front  of  a  lantern,  the  diameter  of  whose  con 
densing  lens  was  somewhat  greater  than  the 
amplitude  of  the  curve.  The  image  of  that 
portion  of  the  curve  which  was  in  front  of 
the  condenser  was  now  projected  on  a  screen, 
and  then  a  piece  of  cardboard  having  a  nar 
row  slit  cut  in  it  was  placed  close  to  the  disk, 
in  the  direction  of  one  of  its  radii.  On  re 
volving  the  disk  he  reproduced  on  the  screen 
the  vibratory  motion  of  a  molecule  of  air, 
or  of  a  point  on  the  tympanic  membrane, 
when  these  are  acted  on  by  the  joint  impulses 
of  the  first  six  harmonic  or  pendulum  vibra 
tions,  forming  a  musical  sound.  On  slowly 


rotating  the  disk  one  can  readily  follow  the 
compound  vibratory  motion  of  the  spot  of 
light ;  but  on  a  rapid  revolution  of  the  disk, 
persistence  of  visual  impressions  causes  the 
vibrating  spot  to  appear  elongated  into  a  band. 
This  band  is  not  equally  illuminated ;  it  has 
six  distinct  bright  spots  in  it,  beautifully  re 
vealing  the  six  inflections  in  the  curve.  By 
sticking  a  pin  in  the  centre  of  fig.  12,  as  an 
axis  about  which  revolves  a  piece  of  paper 
having  a  fine  slit,  the  reader  can  gain  some  idea 
of  the  complex  motion  we  have  described.  Of 
course  it  is  understood  that  in  the  above  ex 
periment  the  amplitudes  of  the  vibrations  are 
enormously  magnified  when  compared  with  the 
wave  lengths,  and  that  it  is  really  only  when 
the  amplitudes  of  the  elementary  pendulum 
vibrations  are  infinitely  small  that  the  resul 
tant  curves  we  have  given  can  be  rigorously 
taken  as  representing  what  they  purport  to  ; 
for  the  law  of  "  the  superposition  of  displace 
ments  "  depends  on  the  condition  that  the 
force  with  which  a  molecule  returns  to  its 
position  of  equilibrium  is  directly  proportional 
to  the  amount  of  displacement,  and  this  condi 
tion  only  exists  in  the  case  of  infinitely  small 
displacements ;  yet  the  law  holds  good  for  the 
majority  of  the  phenomena  of  sound.  It  is  also 
to  be  remarked  that  in  order  to  simplify  the 


FIG.  13.— Eesultant  Curve  formed  by  combining  the  curve 
of  a  musical  note  \vith  that  of  its  octave.    A  :  A' : :  1 :  J. 

consideration  of  the  curves,  they  are  all  rep 
resented  with  the  same  phase  of  initial  vibra 
tion.  Of  course  the  resultants  have  an  infinite 


F IG.  14. — Resultant  Curve  formed  by  combining  the  curve 
of  a  musical  note  with  that  of  its  fifth.    A  :  A' ::  1  :  f. 

variety  of  form,  depending  on  the  differences 
in  their  initial  phases,  and  on  the  amplitude  of 
the  harmonic  elements.  In  figs.  13,  14,  and 


SOUND 


181 


15,  we  have  drawn  the  resultant  curves  formed 
by  combining  the  curves  of  musical  sounds 
corresponding  to  the  various  consonant  in 
tervals  indicated  below  the  figures.  As  these 


FIG.  15.— Resultant  Curve  formed  by  combining  the  curve  of 
a  musical  note  with  that  of  its  major  third.    A  :  A  : :  1 :  f . 

curves  are  the  resultants  formed  by  the  com 
bination  of  the  curves  of  composite  musical 
sounds,  it  follows  that  the  components  of  these 
curves  are  not  simple  sinusoidal  curves,  as  in 
the  case  of  fig.  11,  but  are  derived  from  the 
resultant  of  fig.  11  by  reducing  to  one  fourth 
the  amplitude  of  that  curve,  and  by  taking 
wave  lengths  corresponding  to  intervals  indi 
cated  below  the  figures.  From  the  curves  of 
figs.  13,  14,  and  15  can  be  reproduced  their 
generating  motions  in  the  same  manner  as  we 
have  done  in  the  case  of  the  curve  of  fig.  11. 
As  a  periodic  or  recurring  vibration  can  alone 
produce  in  the  ear  the  sensation  of  sound,  and 
as  the  duration  of  the  period  is  always  equal 
to  the  least  common  multiple  of  the  periods  of 
the  pendulum  vibrations  of  the  components,  it 
follows  that  in  the  case  of  a  sound  formed  of  a 
harmonic  series  the  period  equals  the  time  of 
one  vibration  of  the  fundamental ;  but  in  the 
cases  of  other  combinations  the  duration  of  the 
period  increases  with  the  complexity  of  the 
ratio  of  the  times  of  vibration  of  the  compo 
nents  ;  thus,  the  durations  of  the  periods  of  the 
following  combinations  are  placed  after  them 
in  fractions  of  a  second:  03  +  04=^-5-6-;  Cs  +  Ga 
=T|¥;  Cs  +  Es^V;  Ot+E.  +  G.sjfv;  03  + 
£3  +  03  +  04=^  of  a  second.  (Oa  stands  for 
the  treble  0 ;  C4  is  the  0  of  the  octave  above 
it.) — Transmission  of  Sound.  If  air  were  in 
compressible,  a  motion  produced  at  any  point 
of  its  mass  would  instantaneously  be  trans 
mitted  to  every  other  point  of  the  atmosphere. 
Thus,  if  we  imagine  a  long  tube,  open  at  one 
end  and  closed  at  the  other  by  a  piston  which 
moves  in  the  tube  without  friction,  it  is  evident 
that  if  this  piston  were  pushed  into  the  tube 
a  certain  distance,  the  air  would  at  the  same 
time  move  out  of  the  tube  at  the  open  end. 
But  air  is  compressible  and  elastic,  and  after 
the  piston  has  been  pushed  into  the  cylinder, 
a  measurable  interval  of  time  will  have  elapsed 
before  the  air  moves  out  of  the  open  end  of 
the  tube.  This  interval  is  the  time  taken  by 
sound  to  traverse  the  length  of  the  tube.  The 
velocity  of  sound  is  1,090  ft.  in  a  second  at  32° 
F.,  and  it  increases  almost  exactly  one  foot  in 
velocity  for  each  degree  of  elevation  of  tem 
perature  above  32°.  Now  imagine  the  piston 
to  move  forward  into  the  tube  over  a  minute 


fraction  of  an  inch,  and  that  it  occupied  -^  of 
a  second  in  making  this  forward  motion ;  then 
the  length  of  air  compressed  at  the  instant  the 
piston  has  come  to  rest  will  be  equal  to  ^fS 
or  109  ft.  If  the  piston  makes  its  movement 
in  Ti7  and  in  -j-^Vo  °f  a  second,  the  length  of 
air  compressed  in  the  tube  will  be  respectively 
10-9  and  T09  ft.  But  such  a  compressed  por 
tion  of  air  cannot  remain  at  rest,  by  reason  of 
its  elasticity.  It  immediately  expands,  and  in 
so  doing  presses  forward  on  the  undisturbed 
air  in  front  of  it  and  on  the  interior  wall  of 
the  tube.  The  column  of  compressed  air  in 
thus  regaining  its  natural  density  has  com 
pressed  an  air  column  of  equal  depth  in  front 
of  it ;  this  in  its  turn  reacts  on  the  back  col 
umn  and  prevents  it  from  rarefying,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  has  compressed  another  col 
umn  of  equal  depth  in  front  of  it,  and  so 
on.  Thus  the  sonorous  pulse,  as  it  is  called,  is 
transmitted  through  the  whole  length  of  the 
tube.  A  beautiful  illustration  of  the  manner 
in  which  a  sound  pulse  is  propagated  is  afford 
ed  by  attaching  to  a  sounding  board  a  long, 
elastic  spiral  spring  of  brass,  while  the  other 
end  is  held  in  the  hand.  On  separating  two 
of  the  coils  of  the  spring  with  a-finger  nail, 
and  then  allowing  them  suddenly  to  come  to 
gether,  a  pulse  or  compression  will  be  thrown 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  spring  to  its 
further  end,  where  striking  on  the  sounding 
board  it  will  cause  a  sharp  rap.  This  action 
against  the  board  will  be  reflected  from  the 
board  to  the  hand,  and  again  from  the  hand 
to  the  board,  and  so  on  several  times  in  succes 
sion.  When  the  piston  above  spoken  of  makes 
a  backward  movement,  it  creates  a  vacant 
space  in  the  tube,  into  w^hich  the  air  rushes 
by  virtue  of  its  elasticity,  and  thus  a  certain 
depth  of  air  is  rarefied ;  this  first  cylinder  of 
rarefied  air  in  retracting  to  its  natural  dimen 
sions  causes  rarefaction  in  an  equal  depth  of  air 
in  front  of  it ;  this  second  rarefied  cylinder  of 
air  now  reacts  on  the  first,  brings  it  to  rest,  and 
causes  rarefaction  in  a  third  equal  column  of 
air,  and  so  on.  Thus  the  rarefaction,  like  the 
compression,  is  transmitted  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  tube.  "When  a  compression  trav 
erses  the  tube  it  successively  brings  the  mole 
cules  of  air  nearer  together,  while  a  rarefac 
tion  in  its  progress  separates  the  aerial  mole 
cules  ;  hence,  if  we  imagine  the  piston  to  move 
backward  and  forward  with  a  regular  vibratory 
motion  we  have  rarefaction  succeeding  com 
pression  in  regular  order,  and  the  effect  on  any 
one  molecule  of  air  is  to  give  it  a  like  regular 
motion  backward  and  forward.  In  the  above 
discussion  we  have,  for  simplicity,  supposed 
the  piston  to  have  a  uniform  velocity  during 
its  motions ;  but  this,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
is  not  the  case  with  freely  vibrating  elastic 
bodies,  for  they  have  the  same  character  of 
reciprocating  motion  as  that  of  a  freely  swing 
ing  pendulum.  To  explain  what  will  be  the 
effect  on  the  air  of  such  a  motion,  we  will 
suppose  that  the  piston  vibrates  through  a 


182 


SOUND 


very  small  distance,  a  a',  fig.  16,  making  equal 
excursions  on  one  side  and  the  other  of  the 
position  of  equilibrium  m  m' ;  and  as  the  pis 
ton  vibrates  like  a  pendulum,  it  will  increase 


FIG.  1G. 

in  velocity  as  it  goes  from  a  or  from  a'  to 
m  m',  and  diminish  in  velocity  as  it  goes  from 
m  m1  to  a  or  to  a'.  Let  T  be  the  time  taken 
by  the  piston  to  make  a  semi-vibration,  that 
is  to  say,  a  motion  from  a  to  a'  or  from  a'  to 
a.  Divide  this  time  T  into  exceedingly  small 
and  equal  parts  £,  during  which  the  piston 
will  also  go  over  very  small  but  unequal  spaces, 
increasing  with  the  velocity  from  a  to  m  m', 
and  diminishing  with  the  velocity  as  the  pis 
ton  goes  from  m  m'  to  a'.  The  first  very  small 
displacement  of  the  piston,  accomplished  du 
ring  the  time  £,  will  produce  in  a  very  thin 
layer  of  air,  which  touches  the  piston,  a  very 
feeble  degree  of  compression,  and  this  com 
pression  will  progress  forward  into  the  air  of 
the  tube.  The  very  small  succeeding  motion 
of  the  piston  during  the  next  succeeding  t 
will  produce  a  slightly  greater  condensation, 
which  will  travel  behind  the  former  conden 
sation  with  the  same  velocity.  The  third  dis 
placement  of  the  piston  will  produce  a  still 
greater  condensation,  and  so  on,  until  the  dis 
placement  which  brings  the  piston  to  the  po 
sition  m  m',  which,  being  the  greatest  of  all, 
will  produce  the  greatest  condensation.  If 
the  piston  continues  its  motion  to  «',  with  a 
velocity  which  is  now  gradually  decreasing,  a 
new  series  of  condensations  will  take  place, 
less  and  less  in  degree,  which  will  travel  be 
hind  those  of  the  first  scries.  These  two  se 
ries  will  be  symmetrically  placed  on  one  side 
and  the  other  of  the  maximum  condensation, 
if  we  suppose  that  the  two  semi-oscillations 
of  the  piston  are  equal,  and  if  we  neglect  the 
very  small  amplitude  of  oscillation  a  a'.  If 
a  A!  is  the  space  through  which  the  first  con 
densation  progresses  in  the  time  T,  then  all 
the  condensations  which  have  succeeded  it 
during  the  movement  of  the  piston  from  a  to 
a'  will  be  distributed  in  the  space  a'  A'.  If 
we  represent  by  ordinates  these  condensations 
at  the  moment  when,  the  piston  having  ar 
rived  at  a',  the  first  condensation  is  at  A', 
we  will  form  a  curve  af  a  A',  whose  maxi 
mum  ordinate  M  a  will  represent  the  conden 
sation  produced  by  the  piston  at  the  moment 
of  its  passage  through  m  m'.  Let  us  now  sup 
pose  that  the  vibrating  piston  returns  on  its 
path,  it  will  produce  by  this  motion  a  series 
of  increasing  dilatations  during  the  time  |-T, 
and  then  decreasing  dilatations  until  the  in 
stant  when  the  piston  reaches  a.  These  dila 


tations  will  travel  behind  the  condensations, 
and  when  the  piston  has  returned  to  «,  in 
which  case  the  series  of  condensations  will 
have  reached  the  position  A'  a  A,  these  dila 
tations  will  be  distributed  in  the  space  a  A', 
and  the  diminution  of  density  of  the  lay 
ers  of  air  can  be  represented  by  the  nega 
tive  ordinates  of  the  curve  a  /?  A',  below  the 
axis  of  the  curve  a  A'.  The  state  of  air  in 
the  tube  at  the  instant  when  the  vibrating 
piston,  departing  from  «,  arrives  at  n  p,  m  m' , 
n1  p\  a',  is  indicated  by  the  curves  n  N",  m  M, 
n'  N',  a'  A!.  If  the  piston  makes  another  com 
plete  vibration  from  a  to  a'  and  from  a'  to  a, 
a  new  series  of  condensations  and  of  dilata 
tions,  distributed  in  a  space  equal  to  a  A,  will 
travel  behind  the  first  series  already  described. 
The  dilatation  and  condensation  contained  in 
a1  A,  and  produced  by  a  complete  vibration 
of  the  body  at  the  origin  of  sound,  i.  e.,  by 
an  oscillating  motion  from  a  to  a'  and  back 
from  a'  to  a,  is  called  a  sonorous  wave.  A 
sonorous  wave  is  always  formed  of  two  parts, 
one  half  of  air  in  a  state  of  condensation,  the 
other  half  of  rarefied  air.  The  sum  of  all  the 
condensations  in  the  condensed  half  of  the 
wave  is  represented  by  the  area  of  the  curve 
a'  a  A';  and  if  we  divide  this  by  the  interval 
T  of  a  half  vibration  of  the  body,  we  have  the 
mean  condensation  of  the  half  wave.  This 
mean  condensation  can  be  calculated,  and  it 
has  been  found  that  for  the  sound  given  by 
250  vibrations  per  second,  which  corresponds 
nearly  with  the  lowest  0  of  the  violin,  this 
compression  gives  for  the  compressed  half  of 
the  wave  an  increase  of  -$$•$  to  the  ordinary 
density  of  the  atmosphere.  The  length  of  a 
wave  is  evidently  the  distance  through  which 
the  air  has  been  affected  the  moment  after  the 
first  complete  vibration  of  the  sonorous  body 
has  been  made.  If  we  designate  this  length 
by  Z,  we  can  calculate  the  wave  length  by  di 
viding  the  velocity  v  of  sound  in  a  second  by 
w,  the  number  of  vibrations  the  sounding  body 

makes  in  a  second ;  or,  Z—  -.     By  a  sonorous 

wave  surface  is  understood  that  surface  which 
is  at  such  a  distance  from  the  point  or  points 
of  origin  of  the  sound  that  all  points  in  that 
surface  have  the  same  phase  of  vibration  at 
the  same  instant  of  time.  Thus,  it  is  evident 
that  if  we  have  a  small  sphere  of  air  which 
successively  and  rapidly  increases  and  dimin 
ishes  its  volume,  we  shall  have  alternate  spher 
ical  shells  of  compressed  and  of  rarefied  air 
surrounding  the  vibrating  sphere.  If  we  view 
a  surface  in  one  of  these  shells,  in  every  part 
of  which  surface  the  particles  of  air  are  mov 
ing  in  the  same  direction  with  the  same  ve 
locity,  we  shall  have  the  sonorous  wave  sur 
face.  The  acoustic  wave  lengths  and  wave 
surfaces  are  not  mere  creations  of  the  imagi 
nation,  but  have  a  real  existence.  The  author 
of  this  article  first  devised  a  method  by  which 
one  can  readily  detect  the  phases  of  vibration 
in  the  air  surrounding  a  sounding  body,  and 


SOUND 


183 


thereby  has  succeeded  in  measuring  directly  in 
the  vibrating  air  the  length  of  sonorous  waves, 
and  has  determined  in  the  air  surrounding  the 
vibrating  body  the  form  of  the  wave  surface. 
("American  Journal  of  Science,"  November, 
1872.)  It  is  evident  that  the  ultimate  effect 
of  the  passage  of  sonorous  waves  through  the 
atmosphere  will  be  to  cause  the  molecules  of 
the  air  to  swing  to  and  fro  with  the  motions 
of  pendulums.  It  is  also  apparent  that  all  the 
characteristics  of  the  periodic  motion  at  the 
source  of  the  sound  will  be  impressed  on  the 
surrounding  air  and  transmitted  through  it 
to  a  distance. — Reflection  of  Sound.  It  fol 
lows  from  the  very  nature  of  sound  pulses  that 
if  a  sonorous  wave  meet  a  hard  smooth  sur 
face,  or  encounter  the  surface  of  separation  of 
two  media  of  unequal  elasticity,  reflection  of 
sound  will  take  place,  and  the  laws  of  reflec 
tion  will  be  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  light, 
viz. :  the  angle  of  reflection  will  equal  the  an 
gle  of  incidence,  and  both  the  incident  and 
reflected  ray  will  lie  in  the  same  plane,  which 
is  at  right  angles  to  the  reflecting  surface. 
These  laws  admit  of  a  ready  experimental 
proof.  If  two  concave  parabolic  mirrors, 
formed  of  metal  backed  with  hard  wood  or 
plaster  of  Paris,  be  placed  opposite  each  other 
at  a  distance  of  10  or  15  ft.  with  the  axis  of 
the  mirrors  in  the  same  line,  and  a  watch  be 
placed  in  the  focus  of  one  of  the  mirrors,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  sonorous  pulses  emana 
ting  from  the  watch  will  be  reflected  from  the 
first  mirror  upon  the  surface  of  the  second 
mirror,  and  here  by  a  second  reflection  will 
be  conveyed  to  the  focus.  This  fact  can  be 
ascertained  by  leading  to  the  focus  a  tube  ter 
minated  at  one  end  by  a  small  funnel,  while 
the  ear  is  applied  to  the  other  end  of  the  tube. 
In  the  article  OPTICS  it  has  been  shown  that 
the  action  just  described  is  a  necessary  conse 
quence  of  the  laws  of  reflection  given  above. — 
Refraction  of  Sound.  Sound  waves  are  also 
refracted,  and  their  refraction  is  due  to  the 
same  cause  which  produces  refraction  of  the 
rays  of  light ;  i.  e.,  to  the  change  in  velocity 
which  occurs  when  the  sonorous  beam  enters 
a  refracting  medium.  When  the  sonorous 
wave  surface  falls  upon  the  refracting  medi 
um  so  that  it  is  parallel  to  the  refracting  sur 
face,  there  will  be  no  refraction,  or  change  in 
the  direction  of  the  sound,  but  only  a  change 
of  velocity.  But  when  the  sonorous  wave 
surface  forms  an  angle  with  the  surface  of 
the  refracting  medium,  the  change  in  velo 
city  causes  the  refraction  of  the  sonorous 
beam,  so  that  if  the  velocity  of  the  sound  is 
less  in  the  refracting  medium  than  it  was 
before  it  entered  it,  the  sound  will  be  re 
fracted  toward  the  perpendicular  to  the  re 
fracting  surface.  The  refraction  will  be  away 
from  the  perpendicular  when  the  velocity  of 
the  sound  is  greater  in  the  refracting  medium 
than  it  was  before  it  entered  it.  It  follows 
from  the  above  action,  that  for  the  same  me 
dia  there  will  be  a  constant  ratio  existing  be 


tween  the  sines  of  the  angles  of  incidence  and 
refraction,  and  also  that  the  incident  and  re 
fracted  ray  will  be  in  the  same  plane  at  right 
angles  to  the  refracting  surface.  (See  LIGHT, 
vol.  x.,  p.  439.)  The  experimental  verification 
of  these  laws,  however,  is  not  so  easy  as  in  the 
similar  phenomena  of  light.  The  experiment 


best  adapted  for  this  purpose  is  one  devised 
by  Sondhaus  and  represented  in  fig.  17.  He 
constructed  a  lens,  L,  of  sheets  of  collodion, 
having  the  form  of  portions  of  a  sphere,  and 
united  these  sheets  to  the  opposite  sides  of  a 
metal  ring.  On  inflating  the  envelope  thus 
formed  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  a  lenticular 
form  was  given  to  it.  A  watch  was  placed  at 
W,  on  the  axis  of  the  lens,  and  it  was  found 
that  the  sound  waves  were  refracted  to  the 
conjugate  focus  of  the  lens  at  F.  If  at  F  we 
place  a  bent  pipe  with  a  funnel-shaped  mouth, 
and  replace  the  watch  at  W  by  a  small  organ 
pipe,  the  refraction  is  detected  by  seeing  grains 
of  a  light  powder  dance  on  the  membrane  clo 
sing  the  upper  mouth  of  the  bent  pipe  at  c. 
— Interference  of  Sound.  Another  necessary 
consequence  of  the  nature  of  sound  vibrations. 
and  of  the  manner  of  their  propagation  is, 
that  if  the  condensed  half  of  a  sonorous  wave 
meet  the  rarefied  half  of  another  sonorous 
wave,  and  these  waves  have  the  same  length 
and  the  same  energy  of  vibration,  there  can  be 
no  vibratory  motion  at  their  place  of  meeting, 
for  the  directions  of  the  vibrations  in  the  two 
half  waves  are  opposed,  and  the  intensities  of 
these  opposed  vibratory  motions  are  equal. 
These  conditions  are  fulfilled  in  various  well 
known  experiments,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best 
established  facts  in  acoustics  that  two  sound 
vibrations  may  meet  and  produce  silence  at 
the  place  of  their  meeting ;  this  is  known  as 
the  phenomenon  of  the  interference  of  sound. 
Dr.  Thomas  Young  studied  this  phenomenon 
attentively,  and  its  contemplation  led  to  his 
great  discovery  of  the  similar  phenomena  of 
the  interference  of  light,  which  formed  the 
basis  of  his  reasoning  in  establishing  the 
undulatory  theory  of  light.  To  Dr.  Young  we 
owe  one  of  the  simplest  known  means  of  ex 
hibiting  and  studying  the  phenomena  of  inter 
ference  of  sound.  If  a  vibrating  tuning  fork 
be  held  in  a  vertical  position  at  a  short  dis 
tance  from  the  ear,  and  then  rotated  around 
its  vertical  axis,  it  may  be  observed,  when  the 


SOUND 


surfaces  of  the  prongs  of  the  fork  are  oppo 
site  the  ear,  that  sound  will  he  perceived ;  but 
when  the  edges  of  the  fork  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  those  surfaces  are  opposite  the 
ear,  it  will  be  found  that  no  sound,  but  entire 
silence,  occurs.  This  phenomenon  is  readily 
explained.  First,  it  is  necessary  to  know  that 
the  prongs  of  a  vibrating  fork  alternately  ap 
proach  to  and  recede  from  each  other,  as  is 
readily  seen  when  we  obtain  on  a  piece  of 
smoked  glass  the  trace  of  two  delicate  wires 
attached  to  the  ends  of  the  prongs  qf  the  vi 
brating  fork.  A  trace  thus  made  is  accurate 
ly  shown  in  fig.  18.  When  the  prongs  recede 


FIG.  18. 

from  each  other,  condensations  will  be  pro 
duced  in  the  air  opposite  the  faces  c  c'  (see  fig. 
19,  which  represents  a  plan  of  the  ends  of  the 
prongs)  ;  but  while  these  condensations  are  thus 
formed  rarefactions  are  produced  in  the  air  op 
posite  the  opening  between  the  prongs  at  r  r'. 
The  reverse  of  these  actions  occurs  when  the 
prongs  approach  each  other.  The  result  of 
the  actions  will  be  evident  from  the  figure, 
where  the  full  lines  show  the  centres  of  shells 


FIG.  19. 

of  condensed  air,  and  the  dotted  lines  the  cen 
tres  of  shells  of  rarefied  air.  These  shells  al 
ternate,  and  meeting  along  the  planes  p,  p,  p,  p, 
passing  through  the  vertical  edges  of  the  fork, 
they  neutralize  each  other's  action.  "W.  Weber 
has  shown  that  the  points  of  quiescence  in  this 
case  must  lie  in  hyperbolic  sheets.  This  must 
be  so,  for  the  difference  in  the  distance  of 
every  point  of  quiescence  from  two  fixed  points 
must  be  a  constant  quantity,  which  in  this  ex 
periment  will  be  equal  to  the  half  of  the  wave 
length  given  by  the  fork.  The  writer  has  used 
this  experiment  of  Young  to  show  the  reflec 
tion  of  sound  from  flames  and  from  sheets  of 


cold  and  heated  gases,  such  as  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  hydrogen.  Two  resonators  were  placed 
as  in  fig.  20  with  the  planes  of  their  mouths  at 


FIG.  20. 

a  right  angle,  and  in  this  angle  was  firmly  fixed 
the  fork  to  whose  note  the  resonator  resound 
ed.  The  broad  face  of  one  of  its  prongs  faced 
the  mouth  of  one  resonator,  while  the  space 
between  the  prongs  faced  the  mouth  of  the 
other  resonator.  By  trial  the  two  planes  of 
the  fork  are  placed  at  such  distances  from  the 
resonators  that  complete  interference  of  the  vi 
brations  issuing  from  their  mouths  is  obtained, 
and  the  only  sound  that  reaches  the  ear  is  the 
faint  one  given  by  the  action  of  the  fork  on  the 
air  outside  the  angle  included  by  the  mouths  of 
the  resonators.  If  in  these  circumstances  we 
place  before  tbe  mouth  of  one  of  the  resona 
tors  a  flat  coal-gas  flame,  we  shall  find  that  this 
flame  reflects  part  of  the  sound  which  falls 
upon  it,  and  thus  partially  screens  the  resona 
tor,  so  that  sonorous  vibrations  of  diminished 
intensity  now  enter  this  resonator,  and  there 
fore  the  balance  of  interference  no  longer 
exists,  and  a  sound  issues  from  the  resonator 
which  has  not  the  gas  flame  opposite  its  mouth. 
But  if  a  piece  of  French  tracing  paper  be  placed 
before  the  mouth  of  the  latter  resonator,  the 
balance  of  interference  will  be  restored,  thus 
showing  that  the  reflecting  power  of  a  gas 
flame  is  equal  to  that  of  tracing  paper.  In  a 
similar  manner  the  writer  has  shown  and  ap 
proximately  measured  the  reflecting  power  of 
sheets  of  cold  carbonic  acid  and  hydrogen  gas 
es. —  Change  of  Pitch  caused  ~by  Translation  of 
the  Sounding  Body.  One  of  the  most  remark 
able  phenomena  is  the  change  in  pitch  caused  by 
the  motion  of  a  sounding  body  to  or  from  the 
ear;  or,  what  is  the  same,  by  the  motion  of  the 
ear  to  or  from  the  source  of  sound.  When  the 
sounding  body  and  the  ear  approach,  we  per 
ceive  a  rise  in  the  pitch ;  when  they  recede  from 
each  other,  a  fall  in  pitch  occurs.  This  is  a  fact 
known  to  all  Avho  have  listened  to  the  rapid 
change  in  pitch  of  a  locomotive  whistle  which 


SOUND 


185 


occurs  at  the  instant  it  passes  us;  the  same 
phenomenon  is  yet  more  marked  when  the 
listener  is  on  a  train  which  passes  another  go 
ing  in  the  opposite  direction  while  the  whistle 
of  the  latter  is  sounding.  If  we  suppose  each 
train  moving  at  the  rate  of  30  m.  an  hour,  and 
the  pitch  of  the  whistle  while  the  trains  are 
approaching  to  be  that  of  the  0  next  above  the 
treble,  the  pitch  will'  fall  by  about  a  semitone 
while  the  trains  are  receding  from  each  other. 
The  following  simple  considerations  will  afford 
the  means  of  calculating  the  change  in  wave 
length  produced  by  a  known  velocity  given  to 
a  sounding  body  of  a  given  pitch,  and  will  also 
serve  to  solve  the  inverse  problem,  viz.,  the 
velocity  of  the  sounding  body  which  causes 
an  observed  change  in  its  pitch.  If  the  sound 
ing  body  moves  toward  the  ear  over  a  space 
S  in  one  second,  it  is  evident  that  in  these  con 
ditions  more  vibrations  or  wave  lengths  will 
enter  the  ear  by  the  number  of  wave  lengths 
contained  in  S.  If  I  represent  the  wave  length 
produced  by  the  vibrating  body  when  it  is  sta 
tionary,  and  I'  the  wave  length  when  it  moves 
toward  the  ear,  N  the  number  of  vibrations 
per  second  of  the  sounding  body,  and  V  the 
velocity  of  sound  per  second,  we  shall  have 

N"=y,  and  I'— ?  (y^g) ;  and  S,  the  velocity 
of  the  sounding  body  per  second,  will  be  S=V 
(~y~)' — Perception  of  Sounds  and  their  Anal 
ysis  ~by  the  Ear.  The  ear  may  be  divided  into 
three  portions :  the  outer,  the  middle,  and  the 
inner  ear.  (See  EAE.)  The  organ  of  Corti  is 
enclosed  in  the  ductus  cochlearis  of  the  inner 
ear,  a  canal  of  triangular  section  which  forms 
an  ascending  spiral  of  two  and  a  half  turns 
around  the  modiolus.  It  is  bounded  on  two 
of  its  sides  by  the  scala3,  and  on  its  third  by 
the  membranes  lining  the  outer  wall  of  the 
cochlea.  The  upper  wall  of  the  ductus  coch 
learis  is  formed  by  the  membrana  Reissneri, 
which  separates  it  from  the  scala  vestibuli, 
and  its  lower  wall  is  the  lamina  spiralis  and 
the  elastic  membrana  basilaris,  which  sepa 
rate  it  from  the  scala  tympani.  The  ductus  is 
closed  at  its  upper  end,  and  at  its  lower  end  it 
communicates  with  the  sacculus  hemisphericus 
by  a  fine  duct.  The  arch  of  Corti  rests  upon  the 
membrana  basilaris,  which  extends  beyond  the 
base  of  the  arch  to  the  membranous  outer  wall 
of  the  cochlea ;  and  over  the  arch  spreads  the 
membrana  tectoria,  covering  the  rods  of  Corti 
and  the  hair-cell  chords  as  with  a  roof,  but  leav 
ing  the  outer  portion  of  the  elastic  membrana 
basilaris  exposed.  The  effect  of  theee  anatom 
ical  relations  is  to  bring  the  sound  vibrations 
to  act  with  the  greatest  advantage  on  the  hair- 
cell  chords,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  parts 
of  the  inner  ear  that  are  tuned  to  the  range  of 
sounds  appreciated  as  musical  by  the  human 
ear.  If  a  simple  sonorous  vibration  enter  the 
inner  ear,  then  one  of  these  chords,  vibrating 
synchronously  with  it,  will  shake  the  nerve 
fibril  attached  to  this  chord,  and  thus  give  the 


sensation  of  a  simple  sound;  but  if  a  com 
posite  sonorous  vibration  enter  the  ear,  several 
chords  will  enter  into  vibration,  each  vibrating 
to  one  of  the  definite  simple  vibrations  form 
ing  the  components  of  the  compound  sound. 
These  hair-cell  chords  may  be  compared  to  the 
tuned  strings  in  a  pianoforte,  which  readily 
respond  to  a  note  sung  over  them.  If  the  note 
be  formed  of  a  simple  sound,  then  only  one 
string  of  the  piano  will  answer  back.  If  the 
sound  be  composite,  the  strings  will  decom 
pose  it  into  its  simple  component  sounds,  and 
the  position  of  these  simple  sounds  in  the 
musical  scale  can  be  determined  by  observing 
which  of  the  strings  of  the  piano  have  en 
tered  into  vibration.  This  experiment  shows 
how  the  ear  is  supposed  to  appreciate  a  sim 
ple  sound,  and  to  decompose  a  compound 
sound  into  its  simple  sonorous  sensations.  The 
relation  of  the  various  parts  of  the  inner  ear 
is  such  as  to  cause  the  chords  of  the  organ 
of  Corti  and  their  attached  nerve  filaments 
to  make  half  as  many  vibrations  in  a  given 
time  as  are  made  in  the  same  time  by  the 
membrane  of  the  drum  of  the  ear.  The  rela 
tions  which  the  form  of  the  scake  bears  to  the 
sonorous  waves  traversing  them  will  be  modi 
fied  according  to  the  existence  or  non-existence 
of  a  communication  between  the  scala).  On 
this  point  there  seems  to  be  some  difference  of 
opinion ;  but  in  explaining  the  functions  of  the 
scalar,  first  on  the  supposition  that  the  scalaa 
are  continuous,  and  then  on  the  assumption 
that  they  are  not  continuous,  but  closed  at  the 
place  where  the  passage  called  the  helicotrema 
is  supposed  to  exist,  it  will  be  made  highly 
probable  that  no  communication  exists  between 
the  scalar,  or  at  least  if  one  exist  it  must  be  by 
a  very  contracted  passage.  E.  Weber  was  the 
first  to  point  out  the  peculiar  molecular  actions 
which  exist  when  the  dimensions  of  a  body  are 
very  small  compared  with  the  length  of  the 
sonorous  waves  which  traverse  it ;  and  Helm- 
holtz  based  his  investigations  on  "  The  Mech 
anism  of  the  Ossicles  of  the  Ear  "  on  the  theory 
of  Weber,  which  Helmholtz  gives  in  these 
words :  "  The  difference  in  displacement  of  two 
oscillating  particles,  whose  distance  from  one 
another  is  infinitely  small  compared  with  the 
wave  length,  is  itself  infinitely  small  compared 
with  the  entire  amplitude  of  displacement." 
It  is  evident  that  the  sonorous  compressions 
and  dilatations  which  may  exist  in  any  body 
depend  entirely  on  the  differences  in  the  phases 
of  the  vibrations  constituting  the  sonorous 
wave,  and  when  the  body  has  a  depth  equal  to 
half  a  wave  length  it  can  embrace  the  maximum 
amounts  of  condensation  and  of  rarefaction. 
But  condensation  and  rarefaction  can  alone 
produce  lateral  action  on  the  walls  of  a  straight 
canal  traversed  by  sonorous  vibrations;  and 
hence,  if  the  length  of  the  canal  be  but  a  small 
fraction  of  the  wave,  there  exists  throughout 
the  canal  but  little  difference  in  phase  of  vibra 
tion,  and  therefore  but  little  lateral  action. 
The  united  length  of  the  scales  is  but  a  small 


186 


SOUND 


fraction  of  the  mean  length  of  the  sonorous 
waves  which  traverse  it ;  for  if  we  take  4£ 
metres  as  the  mean  length  of  the  waves  which 
are  propagated  through  the  scalas,  and  59  mil 
limetres  as  the  length  of  the  united  scales,  it 
follows  that  the  latter  is  only  ^  of  the  mean 
wave  length.  ISTow  if  we  imagine  the  scales 
straightened,  and  as  forming  one  continuous 
tube  with  a  free  communication  at  the  helico- 
trema,  then  the  mean  wave  traversing  them 
will  cause  only  ^  of  the  lateral  action  which 
this  same  wave  would  produce  if  the  scalar  had 
the  length  of  one  half  of  the  wave ;  and  it  fol 
lows  that  the  whole  liquid  of  the  scala3  will 
vibrate  forward  and  backward  almost  as  an 
incompressible  mass,  approaching  in  character 
the  oscillations  of  a  solid  piston  in  a  cylinder ; 
therefore,  the  action  against  the  walls  of  the 
ductus  cochlearis  will  be  very  slight.  But  now 
consider  the  change  in  effect  on  the  ductus 
which  takes  place  when  it,  together  with  the 
scalao,  is  wound  up  into  such  an  ascending 
spiral  as  really  exists  in  the  ear.  The  mole 
cules  of  the  liquid  in  the  scalas,  thrown  forward 
and  backward  by  the  vibrations  of  the  stirrup 
bone,  tend  to  move  in  straight  lines,  but  the 
curved  form  of  the  scala)  causes  them  to  press 
against  the  outer  or  peripheral  part  of  the 
upper  wall  (membrana  lieissneri)  of  the  duc 
tus  cochlearis  and  against  the  outer  part  of 
the  lower  wall  (membrana  basilaris)  when  the 
stirrup  bone  moves  inward,  and  when  it  moves 
outward  this  action  of  compression  is  relieved 
from  the  two  opposite  walls  of  the  ductus. 
But  these  actions  on  the  walls  of  the  ductus, 
produced  by  the  vibrations  of  the  stirrup  bone, 
are  opposed  to  each  other,  and  since  they  take 
place  simultaneously  and  with  about  the  same 
intensity  (by  reason  of  the  assumption  of  the 
free  communication  of  the  scalaa),  the  hair-cell 
chords  cannot  vibrate,  but  will  only  experience 
compressions  and  dilatations  like  the  fluid  in 
which  they  are  immersed.  Therefore,  there 
appears  a  physical  basis  for  the  opinion  that 
either  there  is  no  communication  between  the 
scalce,  or  if  one  exist  it  must  be  through  a  very 
constricted  passage.  Indeed,  if  we  adopt  the 
latter  view,  then  everything  works  to  produce 
the  maximum  effect  upon  the  co-vibrating 
chords  of  the  organ  of  Corti;  for,  when  the 
stirrup  bone  moves  inward,  the  pressure  is 
thrown  upon  the  outer  border  of  the  upper 
wall  or  roof  of  the  ductus,  thence  across  to  the 
peripheral  portion  of  the  basilar  membrane. 
This  action,  we  may  say,  takes  place  simulta 
neously  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the 
ductus,  moves  downward  the  floor  of  the  basi 
lar  membrane,  and  thus  presses  the  fluid  of 
the  scala  tympani  against  the  sound  membrane 
and  moves  this  membrane  outward.  But  when 
the  stirrup  bone  moves  outward,  the  pressure 
is  relieved  from  the  elastic  basilar  membrane 
which  is  now  moved  upward,  while  the  round 
membrane  moves  inward.  There  are  also 
other  anatomical  facts  besides  the  inclination 
of  the  membraiia  Reissneri  to  the  plane  of  the 


membrana  basilaris,  and  the  inclination  of  both 
these  membranes  to  the  plane  perpendicular  to 
the  axis  of  the  cochlea,  which  favors  an  opinion 
that  the  outer  or  peripheral  part  of  the  basilar 
membrane  receives  the  main  part  of  the  vibra 
tions  which  enter  the  ductus  cochlearis.  The 
auditory  nerve  fibrils  are  not  attached  to  the 
Corti  rods  or  pillars,  as  was  formerly  imagined ; 
and  hence  these  bodies  cannot  be  the  co-vibra 
ting  parts  of  the  ductus ;  but  the  Corti  pillars 
appear  to  act  as  supports  for  the  lamina  reticu- 
laris,  between  which  and  the  basilar  membrane 
are  steadily  and  tensely  stretched  the  hair-cell 
chords,  and  to  these  chords  are  attached  the 
auditory  nerve  fibrils.  The  very  fact  that  the 
number  of  these  hair-cell  chords  increases  with 
the  higher  development  of  the  ear,  shows  their 
important  functions;  for,  wiiile  in  man  they 
are  arranged  alternately  in  five  rows  and  num 
ber  18,000,  in  other  mammalia  there  are  only 
two  or  three  rows.  These  hair-cell  chords  are 
more  perpendicular  to  the  basilar  membrane 
than  the  Corti  rods,  and  are  also  different  in 
their  forms,  having  swellings  in  the  middle  of 
their  lengths.  These  swellings  must  cause  them 
to  act  like  loaded  strings,  and  thus  each  hair- 
cell  chord  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  co-vi 
brate  with  only  one  special  sound.  And  these 
hair-cell  chords  are  so  directed  in  reference  to 
the  sound  pulses  which  enter  the  ductus  that 
their  lengths  are  in  the  direction  of  these 
pulses,  and  therefore  they  cannot  be  directly 
set  in  motion  by  these  vibrations.  Indeed, 
they  appear  to  hold  the  same  relation  to  those 
vibrations  as  the  antennal  fibrils  of  the  mos 
quito  bear  to  sound  vibrations  which  exist  in 
the  directions  of  these  fibrils.  The  writer  has 
shown  by  direct  experiment  ("  American  Jour 
nal  of  Science,"  August,  1874)  that  in  these 
conditions  the  fibrils  of  the  mosquito  remain  at 
rest,  although  when  the  same  sound  pulses  fall 
athwart  the  fibril  it  may  be  set  into  energetic 
vibrations.  The  hair-cell  chords,  therefore, 
cannot  be  set  into  vibration  by  the  action  of 
the  feeble  pulses  which  may  reach  them  direct 
ly  through  the  membrana  Eeissneri  from  the 
scala  vestibuli ;  and  furthermore,  the  shielding 
influence  of  the  membrana  tectoria  tends  to 
prevent  this  direct  action  on  the  chords.  If 
this  view  be  correct,  that  these  chords  receive 
their  vibrations  from  the  basilar  membrane,  to 
which  their  ends  are  attached,  and  not  directly 
from  the  impulses  sent  into  the  ductus,  it  ne 
cessarily  follows  that  these  chords  bear  to  the 
membrane  to  which  they  are  stretched  the  same 
relation  as  stretched  strings  bear  to  the  vibra 
ting  tuning  forks  to  which  they  are  stretched  in 
directions  perpendicular  to  the  lengths  of  the 
forks.  Hence  it  follows  that  a  chord  in  the 
ductus  will  vibrate  only  half  as  often  as  the 
basilar  membrane  to  which  it  is  fastened.  As 
the  basilar  membrane,  the  tympanic  membrane, 
and  the  air  contiguous  to  the  latter  vibrate  to 
gether,  it  follows  that  the  auditory  nerve  fibrils 
vibrate  as  frequently  as  the  tympanic  mem 
brane  and  the  molecules  of  air  outside  of  the 


SOUND 


187 


head.  The  following  experiment  illustrates 
very  well  the  foregoing  explanation  of  the  mode 
of  audition.  A  membrane,  loosely  stretched 
on  a  frame,  is  placed  in  a  vertical  position  near 
a  reed  pipe,  which,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
gives  a  highly  composite  sound.  Strings  of 
various  lengths  and  diameters,  loaded  at  their 
centres,  are  fastened  to  the  membrane  and 
stretched  to  a  fixed  support.  On  sounding 
the  reed  pipe,  only  those  strings  in  tune  with 
the  harmonics,  or  simple  sounds,  existing  in 
the  sound  of  the  reed  pipe,  will  enter  into 
vibration ;  similarly,  when  the  sound  of  the 
same  reed  pipe  enters  the  ear  and  vibrates  the 
basilar  membrane,  the  only  hair-cell  chords 
which  enter  into  vibration  are  those  which 
are  in  tune  with  the  elementary  vibrations 
existing  in  the  composite  sonorous  vibration 
produced  by  the  reed  pipe.  And  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  as  the  loaded  string  makes  one 
vibration  to  two  of  the  membrane,  so  the  hair- 
cell  chord  makes  only  one  vibration  to  two 
of  the  basilar  membrane  or  of  the  membrane 
of  the  drum  of  the  ear.  If  it  be  true  that 
when  simple  vibrations  impinge  on  the  ear 
the  tympanic  and  basilar  membranes  vibrate 
twice,  while  the  co-vibrating  body  only  vibrates 
once,  it  follows  that  if  the  same  simple  vibra 
tions  be  sent  directly  to  the  co-vibrating  parts 
of  the  ear,  without  the  intervention  of  the 
basilar  membrane,  we  shall  perceive  a  sound 
which  is  the  octavo  of  the  one  experienced 
when  the  same  simple  vibrations  entered  the 
ear  through  the  tympanic  membrane.  Hence 
it  appears  that  this  hypothesis  can  be  brought 
to  the  test  of  experiment  in  the  following 
manner:  If  we  vibrate  a  fork  near  the  ear, 
and  closely  apprehend  the  character  of  its 
sound,  we  experience  a  sensation  which  cer 
tainly  does  not  contain  that  corresponding  to 
the  higher  octave  of  the  fork.  Now  press 
the  foot  of  the  fork  firmly  against  the  zygo- 
matic  process,  close  to  the  ear,  directing  it 
somewhat  backward,  and  we  shall  distinctly 
hear  the  higher  octave  of  the  fork  singing  in 
concert  with  its  real  note.  If  the  auditory 
canal  be  now  closed  by  gently  placing  the  tip 
of  the  finger  over  it,  we  shall  perceive  the 
higher  octave  with  an  intensity  almost  equal 
to  that  of  the  fundamental  note.  The  same 
sensation,  though  less  intense,  may  be  obtained 
by  placing  the  fork  on  any  part  of  the  tem 
poral  bone.  One  can  also  perceive  distinctly 
the  higher  octave  when  the  fork  is  placed  on 
the  parietal  bone,  about  two  inches  in  front 
and  an  inch  or  so  to  the  side  of  the  foramen, 
with  its  foot  directed  toward  the  opposite  in 
ner  ear,  while  the  auditory  canal  of  this  ear 
is  gently  closed  with  the  finger.  In  these  cir 
cumstances  the  higher  octave  is  often  heard, 
with  some  persons,  to  the  almost  entire  ex 
clusion  of  the  lower,  or  of  the  proper  note  of 
the  fork.  These  experiments  have  been  made 
on  the  ears  of  several  accomplished  musicians, 
and  the  results  have  invariably  agreed  with 
those  described  above. — Duration  of  residual 


Sonorous  Sensations.  For  a  long  time  it  has 
been  known  that  the  sensation  of  light  en 
dures  an  appreciable  time  after  the  cessation 
of  the  entrance  of  light  into  the  eye.  The  du 
rations  of  the  residual  sensations  correspond 
ing  to  lights  of  different  colors  and  intensi 
ties  have  been  generally  determined  by  find 
ing  the  number  of  flashes  of  a  given  light  in 
a  second  required  to  blend  and  produce  a  con 
tinuous  sensation.  The  durations  of  the  resid 
ual  sonorous  sensations  had  never  been  made 
the  subject  of  investigation  until  the  writer 
began  the  study  of  these  phenomena,  and  suc 
ceeded  in  determining  the  law  connecting  the 
pitch  of  a  sound  with  the  duration  of  its  re 
sidual  sonorous  sensation.  The  manner  of 
determining  the  data  of  this  law  is  similar  to 
the  method  employed  in  the  study  of  the  ana 
logical  phenomena  of  light.  Intermittent  so 
norous  pulses  were  sent  into  the  ear  by  means 
of  perforated  revolving  disks,  and  the  rota 
tion  of  the  disk  was  brought  just  to  that  ve 
locity  required  to  blend  the  separated  pulses. 
It  was  thus  found  that  if  we  represent  by  N" 
the  number  of  vibrations  per  second  producing 
a  given  sound,  and  by  D  the  duration  of  the 
residual  sonorous  sensation  of  this  sound,  then 
the  law  connecting  the  pitch,  or  number  of 
vibrations  per  second,  with  the  duration  of 
the  sonorous  sensation,  will  be  expressed  by 


D=j         +  24)  -0001.     This  is  the  expression 

of  the  law  given  in  the  article  HARMONY. 
Besides  the  application  of  this  law  to  the  elu 
cidation  of  the  fundamental  facts  of  musical 
harmony,  there  are  other  and  new  classes  of 
phenomena  which  it  has  served  to  point  out. 
For  instance,  as  the  duration  of  the  residual 
sonorous  sensation  is  less  as  the  pitch  of  the 
sound  is  higher,  it  follows  that  at  the  instant 
of  the  cessation  of  the  aerial  vibration,  pro 
ducing  a  given  composite  sound,  the  timbre  of 
this  sound  must  instantty  begin  to  change  ;  for 
the  residual  sensations  of  the  higher  harmonics 
will  disappear  one  after  another,  in  the  order 
of  descending  pitch,  until  there  remains  in  the 
ear  only  the  sensation  corresponding  to  that 
of  the  lowest  or  fundamental  harmonic.  The 
knowledge  of  the  law  given  above  led  to  a 
new  method  of  analyzing  a  composite  sound 
by  means  of  a  perforated  rotating  disk.  Thus, 
on  rotating  with  great  velocity  a  large  disk, 
with  sections  cut  out  of  it,  before  a  reed  pipe, 
and  placing  the  ear  close  to  the  disk,  we  have 
the  composite  sound  reaching  the  ear  in  a  series 
of  impacts  which  succeed  each  other  so  rapidly 
that  even  those  of  the  highest  harmonic  of  the 
reed  blend  into  a  continuous  sensation  ;  but  on 
gradually  lowering  the  .velocity  of  rotation, 
the  impacts  of  this  highest  harmonic  can  no 
longer  blend,  and  we  perceive  this  harmonic 
beating  alone  on  the  ear.  This  fact  can  more 
readily  be  confirmed  by  the  aid  of  the  resonator 
corresponding  to  this  harmonic.  A  further 
slight  lowering  of  the  velocity  of  rotation 
brings  out  the  beats  of  the  next  lower  har- 


188 


SOUND 


SOUTHAMPTON 


monic,  and  so  on,  until  the  velocity  has  been 
so  diminished  that  the  beats  of  the  lowest  or 
fundamental  harmonic  are  perceived.  Then 
all  the  component  sounds  of  the  reed  are  beat 
ing  on  the  ear  in  unison,  but  the  effects  they 
severally  produce  on  the  ear  are  very  differ 
ent  ;  for  the  higher  harmonics,  notwithstanding 
their  feebler  intensities,  must  be  heard  more 
distinctly,  beeause  their  intermittences  are  the 
furthest  removed  from-  the  number  that  cause 
the  blending  of  their  separate  impulses.  In 
other  words,  the  number  of  impacts  of  the 
highest  harmonics  approaches  nearer  than  the 
lower  to  the  number  of  beats  required  to  cause 
them  to  give  their  greatest  dissonant  effects ;  it 
having  been  determined  that  it  requires  about 
-^0-  of  the  number  of  sonorous  impacts,  which 
blend  into  a  continuous  sound,  to  produce  the 
most  dissonant  sensation  that  can  be  obtained 
by  a  series  of  separated  beats  falling  on  the 
ear. — The  following  are  the  most  important 
works  on  sound  :  Chladni,  Traite  d\icoustique 
(Paris,  1809);  Peirce,  "An  Elementary  Trea 
tise  on  Sound"  (Boston,  1836),  which  contains 
an  excellent  catalogue  of  works  and  memoirs 
on  the  subject;  Airy,  "  On  Sound  and  Atmos 
pheric  Vibrations,  with  the  Mathematical  Ele 
ments  of  Music"  (London,  1868);  Donkin, 
"Acoustics"  (Oxford,  1870);  Acoustique,  in 
Daguin's  Traite  de  physique  (Paris,  1870) ; 
Akmtili,  in  vol.  i.  of  Wtillner's  Lchrbuch  der 
Experimentalphysik  (Leipsic,  1870);  Helm- 
holtz,  Die  Lehre  von  den  Tonempfindungen 
(Brunswick,  3d  ed.,  1870;  English  translation, 
by  A.  J.  Ellis,  1875);  Sedley  Taylor,  "Sound 
and  Harmony"  (1873);  Tyndall,  "On  Sound" 
(new  ed.,  1875);  and  A.  Guillemin,  Leson:  no 
tions  a"1  acoustique  physique  et  musicale  (1875). 

SOUND,  The,  a  narrow  strait,  forming  one  of 
the  passages  between  the  Cattegat  and  the  Bal 
tic,  and  separating  the  Danish  island  of  See- 
land  from  the  coast  of  Sweden.  In  its  larg 
est  sense  it  extends  N.  and  S.  66  m.,  and  oppo 
site  Copenhagen  it  is  about  15  m.  wide.  But 
the  name  is  properly  confined  to  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  passage,  which  between  Elsinore 
and  Ilelsingborg  is  not  more  than  3  m.  wide. 
The  Great  Belt  gives  a  wider  and  deeper  com 
munication  between  the  Cattegat  and  the  Bal 
tic,  but  the  Sound  is  most  frequented  because 
shorter  and  favored  with  better  winds.  The 
depth  ranges  from  4  to  20  fathoms.  The 
Danisli  kings  formerly  owned  the  territory  on 
both  sides  of  the  strait,  and  from  time  im 
memorial  levied  duties  on  all  vessels  passing 
through  it;  but  this  is  done  no  longer,  the 
right  having  been  bought  off  by  other  nations, 
under  treaties  concluded  in  1857. 

SOUNDING.  See  ATLANTIC  OCEAN,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
69,  and  DKEDGIXG,  DEEP-SEA. 

SOUR  GUM.     See  TUPELO. 

SOUTH,  Robert,  an  English  clergyman,  born  at 
Hackney,  Middlesex,  in  1633,  died  in  London, 
July  8,  1710.  He  graduated  at  Christ  Church 
college,  Oxford,  in  1655,  was  ordained  in  1658, 
was  elected  public  orator  of  the  university  in 


1660,  soon  afterward  became  chaplain  to  the 
chancellor  Clarendon,  and  was  made  a  pre 
bendary  of  Westminster  in  1663,  and  a  canon 
of  Christ  church,  Oxford,  in  1670.  He  was 
a  zealous  champion  of  passive  obedience  and 
the  divine  right,  and  was  opposed  alike  to 
Protestant  dissent  and  to  Roman  Catholicism. 
When  Sherlock  published  his  "Vindication  of 
the  Holy  and  Ever  Blessed  Trinity,"  South 
attacked  him  for  inculcating  tritheism  (1693). 
His  sermons  have  passed  through  many  edi 
tions  (6  vols.,  1692  ;  5  vols.  additional,  1744  ; 
4  vols.,  London,  1843  ;  2  vols.  royal  8vo,  Ed 
inburgh,  1843  ;  abridged,  London,  1851  and 
1859)  ;  and  a  volume  of  his  posthumous  works 
appeared  in  1717. 

SOUTH  ADAMS.     See  ADAMS,  Mass. 

SOUTH  AMERICA.     See  AMERICA. 

SOUTHAMPTON,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bordering  on  North  Carolina,  bounded  E.  by 
the  Blackwater  river  and  S.  W.  by  the  Meher- 
rin,  and  intersected  by  the  Nottaway ;  area, 
600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,285,  of  whom 
6,795  were  colored.  The  surface  is  nearly 
level  and  diversified  by  large  forests  of  cypress 
and  pine,  and  the  soil  is  tolerably  productive. 
Tar  and  turpentine  are  largely  exported.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Seaboard  and  Roanoke  and 
the  Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and  Ohio  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  218,858 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  13,683  of  oats,  24,927 
of  sweet  potatoes,  3,587  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  18,- 
660  of  butter.  There  were  909  horses,  1,385 
milch  cows,  3,308  other  cattle,  2,576  sheep, 
and  12,978  swine.  Capital,  Jerusalem. 

SOUTHAMPTON,  a  seaport  town  of  Hamp 
shire,  England,  and  a  county  of  itself,  on  the 
peninsula  formed  by  the  estuary  of  the  river 
Itchen  and  the  larger  estuary  of  the  Test, 
called  the  Southampton  water,  70  m.  S.  W.  of 
London;  pop.  in  1871,  63,741.  The  South 
ampton  water  varies  in  breadth  from  1^  to  2 
m.,  and  extends  inland  from  Calshot  castle,  7 
m.  below  Southampton,  to  Red  Bridge,  4  m. 
above.  The  entrance  is  well  sheltered  by  the 
isle  of  Wight,  and  the  channel  is  deep  and 
straight,  with  good  anchorage.  It  has  the  ad 
vantage  of  four  tides  in  the  24  hours  ;  a  pecu 
liarity  caused  by  the  isle  of  Wight  intercept 
ing  a  portion  of  the  tidal  wave  in  its  progress 
both  ways  through  the  English  channel.  The 
mean  rise  of  the  spring  tides  is  18  ft.,  and  of 
the  neap  tides  8  ft.  The  town  is  well  built, 
and  supplied  with  pure  spring  water  from  an 
artesian  well  910  ft.  deep.  It  has  a  well 
wooded  park  of  365  acres,  5  parish  churches, 
13  other  churches,  a  public  library  and  mu 
seum,  and  several  charitable,  literary,  and  sci 
entific  institutions.  Among  the  noteworthy 
public  buildings  are  the  custom  house,  the 
ordnance  survey  office,  the  royal  Victoria  hos 
pital  for  1,200  invalid  soldiers,  and  the  royal 
southern  yacht  club  house.  For  many  years 
Southampton  was  mainly  a  watering  place, 
but  since  the  opening  of  the  docks  in  1842  it 
has  become  the  principal  port  of  departure 


SOUTHAMPTON 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 


189  . 


for  several  East  and  West  India,  China,  Aus 
tralia,  North  German,  and  American  steam 
ship  lines,  besides  having  a  large  trade  coast 
wise  and  with  the  continent.  There  are  live 
docks,  paved  with  granite  and  lined  with  ware 
houses,  viz.:  one  of  10  acres,  two  of  16  acres 
each,  and  two  of  22  acres  each ;  and  further 
shipping  accommodations,  begun  in  1873,  in 
clude  a  quay  1,500  ft.  long  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Itchen,  which  is  ultimately  to  form  the 
E.  arm  of  a  dock  of  30  acres.  The  entrances 
in  1873  were  6,920  British  vessels,  tonnage 
852,461,  and  578  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  376,- 
964;  clearances,  6,839  British  vessels,  tonnage 
832,617,  and  543  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  347,- 
710.  The  total  value  of  exports  was  £11,459,- 
889.  The  principal  industries  are  brewing, 
sugar  refining,  iron  casting,  coach  building, 
and  ship  building ;  many  large  steamships  have 
been  built  here.  The  annual  cattle  fair  is  im 
portant. — Southampton  is  a  very  ancient  place. 
Remains  of  the  Roman  camp  Clausentum,  1 
ra.  N.  E.  of  the  present  town,  are  still  seen. 
The  bar  across  High  street  and  the  W.  and  S. 
gates,  now  standing,  are  parts  of  the  Saxon 
walls  around  the  old  town.  In  980  the  Danes 
sacked  the  place.  After  1016  it  was  the  oc 
casional  residence  of  Canute,  and  the  shore  is 
said  to  be  the  scene  of  his  rebuke  to  his  cour 
tiers.  The  town  was  destroyed  by  French, 
Spanish,  and  Genoese  allies  in  1338,  was  re 
built  and  fortified  by  Richard  II.,  and  was 
erected  into  a  county  of  itself  by  Henry  VI. 

SOUTHAMPTON,  Henry  Wriothesley,  third  earl 
of,  an  English  statesman,  born  Oct.  6,  1573, 
died  in  Holland,  Nov.  10,  1624.  When  he  was 
20  years  old  Shakespeare  dedicated  to  him  his 
poem  of  "  Venus  and  Adonis,"  and  in  the  next 
year  "  The  Rape  of  Lucrece."  Sir  Edwin  San 
dys  converted  him  to  Protestantism.  In  1596 
he  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the  earl  of 
Essex  against  Cadiz.  In  1599,  accompanying 
Essex  to  Ireland,  he  was  made  general  of  horse. 
From  that  command  he  was  recalled  by  the 
queen,  and  went  speedily  into  the  Netherlands. 
On  his  recall  from  that  country  he  confeder 
ated  with  Essex  and  appeared  with  him  in  the 
insurrection  which  he  then  made  in  London. 
On  his  trial  for  treason  he  protested  that  he 
had  never  entertained  a  thought  against  the 
queen;  sentence  of  death  and  attainder  was 
passed  against  him,  but  he  was  immediately 
relieved  of  the'former  by  the  queen,  and  in  the 
first  year  of  James  I.  the  attainder  was  re 
moved  by  act  of  parliament.  As  an  assign  of 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  he  took  part  in  colonizing 
America,  and  in  1602  sent  out  the  Concord  un 
der  Gosnold.  He  interested  those  connected 
with  him,  Lord  Arundel,  his  brother-in-law, 
and  Cecil  Calvert,  afterward  Lord  Baltimore, 
who  was  Lord  Arundel's  son-in-law.  In  1605, 
in  conjunction  with  Lord  Arundel,  he  de 
spatched  Waymouth  to  New  England.  The 
secretary  of  Virginia  ascribes  to  him  the  prin 
cipal  part  in  obtaining  the  first  charter  for  the 
London  company  of  Virginia,  though  his  name 


does  not  appear  in  the  charter  itself.  In  the 
second  charter  his  name  stands  next  to  those 
of  the  high  officers  of  state.  The  firm  friend  of 
Sir  Edwin  Sandys,  when  the  latter  retired  from 
the  office  of  treasurer  (governor)  of  the  com 
pany,  Southampton  was  unanimously  chosen  in 
his  stead,  and  he  remained  in  the  chair  till  the 
charter  was  taken  away.  In  parliament  he  was 
one  of  the  firmest  supporters  of  liberty.  In 
June,  1621,  he  was  committed  to  close  custody 
by  the  king,  and  he  asked  to  know  the  charges 
against  him  and  to  see  his  accusers.  The  ten 
dency  of  his  mind  in  religious  affairs  appears 
from  the  charge  made  against  him  of  corre 
sponding  with  the  Independents.  The  duke  of 
Buckingham  visited  him  in  prison  and  caused 
him  to  be  set  free,  but  he  was  watched  till 
near  the  end  of  August,  when  by  the  king's 
direction  Sir  George  Calvert  as  secretary  of 
state  gave  him  his  liberty.  After  the  suppres 
sion  of  the  Virginia  company  he  went  to  the 
Netherlands  to  fight  for  Dutch  independence, 
and  took  command  of  a  regiment.  In  their 
winter  quarters  at  Rozendaal  he  and  his  son 
were  both  seized  with  burning  fever.  The 
son  died ;  the  father  recovered  enough  to  de 
part  from  Rozendaal  with  the  intention  to 
bring  his  son's  body  to  England,  but  died  at 
Bergen-op-Zoom.  lie  is  the  only  man  from 
whom  Shakespeare  acknowledges  having  re 
ceived  a  benefit. 

SOUTHAMPTOXSHIRE.     See  HAMPSIIIEE. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA,  a  British  colony  in  Aus 
tralia,  comprising  all  of  the  continent  between 
the  129th  and  138th  meridians  of  E.  longitude 
N.  of  lat.  24°  S.,  and  between  the  129th  and 
141st  meridians  S.  of  that  latitude,  bounded 
N.  by  the  gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  the  Indian 
ocean,  E.  by  Queensland,  New  South  Wales, 
and  Victoria,  S.  by  the  S.  Pacific  ocean,  and 
W.  by  Western  Australia ;  area,  according  to 
latest  estimates,  about  900,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
(exclusive  of  about  3,000  aborigines)  in  1871, 
185,626;  in  1874  (estimated),  202,185.  Capi 
tal,  Adelaide.  In  the  article  AUSTRALIA,  South 
Australia  and  the  Northern  Territory  are  treat 
ed  as  distinct;  but  the  latter  is  now  an  inte 
gral  part  of  South  Australia,  or  rather  a  sub- 
colony,  as  it  is  governed  directly  by  the  execu 
tive  of  that  colony  and  has  no  representation 
in  its  parliament.  It  embraces  the  larger  and 
almost  uninhabited  half  of  the  colony,  N.  of  lat. 
24°.  Within  the  limits  of  South  Australia  are 
included  Kangaroo  island,  about  100  m.  long 
and  30  broad,  on  the  S.  coast,  and  Melville 
island,  1,800  sq.  m.,  and  several  smaller  islands, 
on  the  N.  coast. — The  S.  coast,  which  forms  the 
E.  and  a  part  of  the  N.  shore  of  the  Great 
Australian  bight,  has  a  general  N.  W.  and  S.  E. 
direction.  Its  principal  inlets  are  Encounter 
bay,  St.  Vincent  gulf,  in  the  mouth  of  which 
lies  Kangaroo  island,  and  Spencer  gulf,  which 
extends  more  than  200  m.  inland.  It  has  many 
good  harbors,  of  which  Port  Lincoln  on  Spencer 
gulf  is  the  best.  The  N.  coast,  as  far  as  Cape 
Arnhem,  forms  the  W.  shore  of  the  gulf  of 


190 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 


Carpentaria.  Beyond  that  the  chief  inlets  are 
Arnhem  bay,  Castlereagh  bay,  Mt.  Morris  bay, 
Port  Essington,  Van  Diemen's  gulf,  Port  Dar 
win,  Anson  bay,  and  Queen's  channel.  South 
Australia  contains  a  great  variety  of  soils  and 
scenery,  almost  every  kind  of  landscape  being 
found  within  its  limits.  Much  of  it,  particu 
larly  in  the  north,  is  sterile  and  uninviting,  con 
sisting  largely  of  scrub  and  rock,  but  at  least  a 
third  of  its  surface  is  agricultural  and  pas 
toral  land,  and  another  third  wooded  ranges 
suitable  for  pasturage.  The  scrub  land  is  valu 
able  only  for  its  mineral  wealth,  some  of  the 
richest  mines  having  been  discovered  in  it. 
The  principal  chain  of  mountains  is  the  Flin 
ders  range,  which  extends  from  Cape  Jervis 
northward  to  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Blanche, 
about  lat.  29°  ;  its  highest  peak  is  Mt.  Ee- 
markable,  3,179  ft.  The  Gawler  range,  in  the 
peninsula  W.  of  Spencer  gulf,  has  a  height  in 
its  W.  part  of  about  2,000  ft.  N.  of  this  are 
the  Warburton  and  Stuart  ranges,  and  there 
are  many  others  stretching  across  the  continent 
to  the  N.  coast. — The  Murray  river  enters  the 
colony  about  lat.  34°  S.,  and  after  a  course  of 
about  250  m.,  all  of  which  is  navigable,  flows 
into  Lake  Alexandrina,  and  thence  into  En 
counter  bay  by  a  narrow  opening  called  the 
Murray  mouth.  The  Wakefield  and  Gawler 
rivers  flow  W.  into  the  gulf  of  St.  Vincent. 
From  the  Torrens,  which  loses  itself  in  reed 
swamps,  the  city  of  Adelaide  derives  its  sup 
ply  of  water.  On  the  N.  coast  the  principal 
rivers  are  the  Liverpool,  the  East  and  the 
South  Alligator,  the  Adelaide,  the  Daly,  and 
the  Victoria.  The  Roper,  which  flows  into 
the  gulf  of  Carpentaria,  is  navigable  for  large 
vessels  for  nearly  100  m.  There  are  many 
lakes,  particularly  in  the  S.  E.  part,  which  is 
called  the  lake  district.  Lakes  Eyre,  Torrens, 
and  Gairdner  are  large  bodies  of  salt  water, 
each  more  than  150  m.  long.  Lake  Eyre  is 
only  70  ft.  above  the  sea,  while  Gairdner, 
which  lies  N.  of  the  Gawler  range,  is  360  ft. 
high.  Lake  Alexandrina  is  about  30  m.  long 
and  15  m.  wide.  From  its  E.  side  a  narrow 
lagoon,  called  the  Coorong,  extends  about  85 
m.  parallel  to  the  coast,  from  which  it  is  sepa 
rated  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land. — South  Aus 
tralia  is  rich  in  mineral  resources.  Iron  ore 
abounds,  but  copper  constitutes  its  chief  wealth. 
The  famous  Burra-Burra  mine,  near  Kooringa, 
about  100  m.  N".  by  E.  of  Adelaide,  was  dis 
covered  in  1844  and  opened  in  the  same  year. 
From  10,000  to  13,000  tons  of  ore  are  raised 
annually,  yielding  about  2,500  tons  of  pure 
copper.  In  1860  the  Wallaroo  mines  were 
opened  near  Kadina,  on  the  shore  of  Spencer 
gulf,  91  m.  N.  W.  of  Adelaide.  In  3861  the 
Moonta  mines,  about  12  m.  distant,  were  dis 
covered.  They  yield  25  per  cent,  of  pure 
copper;  in  the  first  half  of  1874  11,000  tons 
of  ore  were  raised  from  them.  In  1872  61 
copper  mines  were  worked,  giving  an  aggregate 
annual  yield  of  more  than  150,000  tons.  Gold 
has  been  discovered  in  several  places,  and  438 


reefs  were  registered  in  1870,  giving  an  annual 
yield  of  10,500  oz.  Many  small  diamonds  have 
been  found  near  Echunga ;  and  jasper,  chal 
cedony,  and  opal  abound.  Silver,  lead,  and 
bismuth  have  also  been  found,  and  salt  is 
abundant. — The  climate  of  the  inhabited  part 
of  the  country  is  very  fine,  but  that  of  the 
scrub  land  in  the  north  is  exceedingly  hot  and 
dry.  In  the  southeast  the  seasons  are  the  wet 
and  the  dry ;  the  latter  begins  about  the  end 
of  August  and  continues  till  the  end  of  March. 
In  December  and  January  the  heat  is  very 
great,  and  when  the  wind  blows  from  the  north 
the  thermometer  often  rises  to  115°.  These 
winds  are  accompanied  by  clouds  of  dust,  but 
seldom  last  more  than  a  few  hours,  when  they 
shift  to  the  southwest  and  south,  and  the  tem 
perature  falls.  The  average  temperature  is 
67°,  and  the  lowest  in  the  level  country  44°. 
The  average  annual  rainfall  is  about  21  inches. 
Between  March  and  August  heavy  rain  falls, 
and  the  country  becomes  covered  with  luxu 
riant  verdure ;  but  during  the  summer  months 
the  ground  is  completely  parched  and  the  grass 
withered.  The  settled  parts  of  South  Austra 
lia,  however,  are  not  subject  to  the  long  con 
tinued  droughts  which  are  sometimes  so  de 
structive  in  New  South  Wales.  No  epidemic 
diseases  prevail,  affections  of  the  lungs  are 
infrequent,  and  scrofulous  complaints  are  rare ; 
but  diseases  of  the  eyes  are  common  in  summer. 
— The  forests  contain  much  large  timber,  but 
wood  for  cabinet  and  other  fine  work  is  im 
ported.  There  are  many  species  of  eucalypti 
and  acacias,  and  the  pandanus,  cycas,  and  Adan- 
sonia  or  gouty  stem  tree,  the  fruit  of  the  last  of 
which  is  eaten  by  the  natives.  In  the  northern' 
parts  three  kinds  of  wild  fig,  a  species  of  wild 
grape,  and  wild  yams  have  been  found.  Native 
wheat  and  oats,  rye  grass,  and  rice  grass  also 
grow  in  the  north.  All  the  fruits  common  to 
temperate  climates  succeed  remarkably  well, 
and  particularly  the  grape,  many  varieties  of 
which  are  cultivated.  Agriculture  has  made 
great  advances  of  late,  and  the  colony  prom 
ises  to  become  a  large  grain-producing  coun 
try,  enough  wheat  being  grown  in  some  years 
to  supply  the  neighboring  colonies  and  to  ship 
many  cargoes  to  England,  where  it  brings  high 
prices.  The  extent  of  land  under  cultivation 
in  the  year  ending  March  31,  1873,  was  1,164,- 
846  acres,  an  increase  of  120,190  acres  over 
the  preceding  year.  The  number  of  acres  in 
wheat  in  the  same  year  was  759,811,  and  in 
the  year  ending  in  March,  1874,  784,784 ;  the 
product  in  the  last  named  year  was  6,178,816 
bushels.  In  1873  there  were  5,424  acres  of 
vineyards,  and  2,901  in  orchards.  The  return 
of  live  stock  in  1873  was:  sheep,  4,900,687; 
cattle,  151,662  ;  horses,  82,215  ;  goats,  17,492; 
pigs,  98,436 ;  poultry,  513,883.  The  kangaroo 
dog,  a  cross  between  the  greyhound  and  the 
English  bulldog,  often  exceeding  3  ft.  in  height, 
is  valuable  to  the  inhabitants  of  this  as  well  as 
the  other  Australian  colonies.  Much  damage 
is  sometimes  done  to  the  green  crops  by  locusts. 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


191 


For  the  indigenous  fauna  see  ATJSTEALIA. — The 
government  of  South  Australia  consists  of  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  crown,  an  execu 
tive  council,  and  two  houses  of  legislature,  one 
called  the  legislative  council  and  the  other  the 
house  of  assembly.  The  legislative  council  is 
composed  of  18  members,  elected  by  general 
vote  for  twelve  years,  one  third  retiring  every 
four  years.  The  president  is  elected  by  the 
members.  The  governor  has  no  power  to  dis 
solve  the  council.  The  house  of  assembly  has 
now  46  members,  who  are  elected  for  three 
years.  This  body  is  liable  to  dissolution  by 
the  executive.  The  revenue  of  the  colony  in 
1873  was  £972,818,  and  the  expenditure  £839,- 
152.  The  colonial  debt  on  Dec.  31,  1873,  was 
£2,174,900.— In  1871  there  we're  3,372  abo 
rigines,  who  are  of  the  same  general  type  as 
those  of  other  parts  of  Australia,  but  four 
different  dialects  are  spoken  by  them  within 
the  limits  of  the  colony,  three  of  which  are 
not  intelligible  to  the  natives  of  the  country 
about  the  mouth  of  the  Murray  river.  The 
tribes  within  the  settled  districts  are  inof 
fensive,  and  some  of  the  boys  are  employed  as 
herdsmen.  The  leading  religious  denomina 
tions  in  1871  were:  Church  of  England,  50,849 ; 
Roman  Catholics,  28,668;  Wesleyans,  17,075; 
Lutherans,  15,412;  Presbyterians,  13.371 ;  Bap 
tists,  8,731;  Primitive  Methodists,  8,207;  Con- 
gregationalists,  7,969;  Bible  Christians,  7,758; 
and  several  others  were  represented.  The  ag 
gregate  number  of  churches  and  chapels  in  the 
colony  in  1872  was  607,  with  seats  for  119,087 
persons.  The  educational  system  is  under  the 
control  of  a  central  board  consisting  of  seven 
members.  The  total  number  of  licensed  schools 
at  the  close  of  1872  was  307 ;  the  number  of 
scholars  on  the  rolls  was  15,123.  A  university 
is  about  to  be  established  at  Adelaide. — The 
exports  of  South  Australia  consist  of  grain, 
flour,  wool,  tallow,  bark,  fruit,  wine,  spirits, 
hides,  beef,  copper  ore,  copper,  lead,  and  gold; 
their  value  in  1873  was  £4,285,191.  .The  im 
ports  consist  principally  of  manufactured  goods 
and  articles  of  luxury  ;  they  amounted  in  the 
same  year  to  £3,829,831.  The  entrances  in 
1873  were  457  vessels  of  190,036  tons,  and  the 
clearances  363  vessels  of  160,414  tons.  In 
1873  about  200  m.  of  railway  had  been  com 
pleted,  the  principal  line  being  the  north  line 
from  Adelaide  to  Burra,  about  100  m.,  with  a 
branch  line  of  48  m.  to  Kapunda.  A  line  con 
necting  Narracoorte  with  Kingston  is  now  con 
structing,  and  several  others  (one  from  Kadina 
to  Port  Wakefield,  32  m.)  are  authorized.  There 
is  telegraphic  communication  with  the  princi 
pal  places  in  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  and 
Queensland,  and  by  the  great  overland  line 
with  Port  Darwin  on  the  N.  coast,  which  is 
connected  with  Java  by  a  submarine  cable. 
The  aggregate  length  of  the  lines  in  1873 
was  1,718  m. — In  1835  a  company,  styled  the 
"  South  Australian  Colonization  Association," 
obtained  a  grant  from  the  British  government 
of  the  great  tract  of  land  which  forms  the  col- 
VOL.  xv.— 13 


ony  of  South  Australia,  and  their  first  settle 
ment  was  formed  in  December,  1836.  Their 
operations  gave  rise  to  speculation  in  the  lands 
of  the  colony,  both  there  and  in  England,  town 
allotments  which  had  been  originally  sold  at 
£2  10*.  an  acre  soon  rising  to  £2,000  or  £3,000, 
and  country  sections  from  £1  to  £100  an  acre. 
Building  speculations  equally  extravagant  were 
carried  on,  and  laborers'  wages  rose  to  15s.  and 
£1  a  day.  In  1839  a  reaction  took  place  which 
brought  about  the  ruin  of  the  land  owners  and 
most  of  the  small  moneyed  settlers.  Emigra 
tion  turned  to  the  other  colonies,  and  South 
Australia  became  greatly  depressed  ;  but  soon 
afterward  the  discovery  of  copper  caused  a 
reaction,  and  the  colony  prospered  till  1851, 
when  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Victoria  drew 
off  thousands  of  its  population  and  again  re 
tarded  its  growth.  Since  1855  it  has  gradually 
recovered,  and  it  is  now  once  more  prosperous. 

SOUTH  BEND,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
St.  Joseph  co.,  Indiana,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
St.  Joseph  river,  at  its  most  southern  bend, 
130  m.  N.  of  Indianapolis  and  85  m.  E.  by  S. 
of  Chicago  ;  pop.  in  1850,  1,652  ;  in  1860, 
3,832;  in  1870,  7,206;  in  1875,  estimated  by 
local  authorities  at  11,000.  It  is  regularly  laid 
out  and  substantially  built,  and  is  noted  for  its 
salubrity.  It  is  well  drained,  and  lighted  with 
gas,  and  has  water  works  and  a  good  fire  de 
partment.  The  court  house  is  one  of  the  finest 
buildings  in  the  state.  The  river  is  navigable 
to  this  point,  and  affords  good  water  power. 
The  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  the 
Michigan  Central,  and  the  Chicago  and  Lake 
Huron  railroads  meet  here.  An  active  trade 
is  carried  on  in  produce,  lumber,  and  manu 
factured  articles.  Manufacturing  is  the  chief 
interest;  there  were  2,183  hands  employed 
in  1874,  producing  articles  to  the  value  of 
$4,318,722.  The  principal  items  were:  flour, 
$385,000;  carriages,  wagons,  Arc.,  $1,266,000; 
farm  machinery,  $145,500;  furniture,  $256,- 
000  ;  doors,  sash,  and  blinds,  $163,000;  foun- 
dery  products,  $440,620  ;  sewing  machines, 
$1,100,000;  woollens,  $80,000;  paper,  $330,- 
402 ;  brick,  $75,000.  The  city  has  two  nation 
al  banks,  a  savings  bank,  and  a  life  insurance 
company.  There  are  six  public  school  houses, 
with  a  high  school;  attendance  in  1874,  about 
1,400.  Other  educational  institutions  are  the 
university  of  Notre  Dame  and  St.  Mary's  acad 
emy  in  the  outskirts,  and  St.  Joseph's  acad 
emy  within  the  city  limits;  these  are  Roman 
Catholic  institutions,  the  last  two  for  females. 
Three  daily  and  four  weekly  (one  German) 
newspapers  and  a  monthly  periodical  are  pub 
lished.  There  are  11  churches.  South  Bend 
was  laid  out  in  1831. 

SOITH  CAROLINA,  one  of  the  original  states 
of  the  American  Union,  lying  between  lat.  82° 
and  35°  10'  N.,  and  Ion.  78°  25'  and  83°  19'  W. 
It  has  the  form  of  an  irregular  triangle,  with 
the  coast  line  for  its  base,  and  Georgia  and 
North  Carolina  for  its  converging  sides.  Its 
extreme  length,  from  Little  River  inlet  on  the 


192 


SOUTH  CAPvOLINA 


east  to  Chattooga  river  on  the  west,  is  about 
275  ra.,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  the  mouth 
of  Savannah  river  on  the  south  to  the  North 
Carolina  line  on  the  north,  about  210  m. ;  area, 
about  34,000  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  N.  and  N.  E. 
by  North  Carolina,  S.  E.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean, 


I 


State  Seal  of  South  Carolina. 

and  S.  TV.  by  Georgia,  from  which  it  is  sepa 
rated  by  the  Savannah  river  and  its  upper 
branches.  It  is  divided  into  32  counties  (called 
districts  prior  to  1808),  viz. :  Abbeville,  Ai- 
ken,  Anderson,  Barnwell,  Beaufort,  Charles 
ton,  Chester,  Chesterfield,  Clarendon,  Colle- 
ton,  Darlington,  Edgefield,  Fairfield,  George 
town,  Greenville,  Horry,  Kershaw,  Lancaster, 
Laurens,  Lexington,  Marion,  Marlborough, 
Newberry,  Oconee,  Orangeburg,  Pickens,  Kich- 
land,  Spartariburg,  Sumter,  Union,  Williams- 
burg,  and  York.  The  chief  city  is  Charles 
ton,  which  had  48,956  inhabitants  in  1870 
and  56,541  in  1875.  Columbia  (pop.  in  1870, 
9,298;  in  1875,  14,449)  is  the  capital.  The 
chief  towns  having,  according  to  the  census  of 
1870,  from  1,000  to  3,000  inhabitants  are  Abbe 
ville,  Greenville,  Aiken,  Georgetown,  Newber 
ry,  Sumter,  Beaufort,  Anderson,  Pickensville, 
Winnsborough,  Spartanbnrg,  and  Camden. 
Other  less  important  towns  are  Rock  Hill, 
Cheraw,  Cokesbury,  Conwayborough,  Edge- 
field,  Greenwood,  Lancaster,  Marion,  Pendle- 
ton,  Walterboro,  and  Walhalla.  The  popula 
tion  of  the  state  at  decennial  periods  since 
1790,  according  to  the  federal  census,  and  in 
1875  as  reported  by  the  state  census,  and  its 
rank  in  the  Union,  have  been  as  follows: 


YEARS. 

White. 

Free  colored. 

Slave. 

Aggregate. 

Rank. 

1790  .  . 

140,178 

1,801 

107.094 

249.073 

7 

1800  .  .  . 

190,255 

8.185 

140.151 

345.591 

(5 

1810  .  .  . 

214.11)6 

4,554 

190.805 

415.115 

6 

1820   .. 

287,440 

6.826 

258.475 

502.741 

8 

1880  .  .  . 

257.863 

7,921 

315.401 

581.185 

9 

1840  .... 

259.084 

8.276 

327.038 

594.398 

11 

1850  .... 

274.563 

8,960 

884,984 

668.507 

14 

1860  .... 

291.800 

9.914 

402,406 

703,708 

18 

1870.... 

239,6(57 

415.814 



705,006 

22 

1S75  .... 

350,721 

572,726 

928,447 

Included  in  the  aggregate  of  1860  were  88  In 
dians,  and  in  that  of  1870  124  Indians  and  1 
Chinaman.  Of  the  total  population  in  1870, 
343,902  were  males  and  361,704  females ;  697,- 
532  were  of  native  and  8,074  of  foreign  birth. 
Of  the  natives,  678,708  were  born  in  the  state, 
8,282  in  North  Carolina,  3,254  in  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia,  2,874  in  Georgia,  and  945  in 
New  York;  246,066  persons  born  in  the  state 
were  living  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Of  the  foreigners,  3,262  were  born  in  Ireland, 
2,754  in  Germany,  617  in  England,  and  310  in 
Scotland.  The  density  of  population  was  20'75 
to  a  square  mile.  There  were  151,105  families, 
with  an  average  of  4*67  persons  to  each,  and 
143,485  dwellings,  with  an  average  of  4'92  to 
each.  There  were  233,915  persons  from  5  to 
18  years  of  age,  120,150  males  from  18  to  45, 
and  146,614  male  citizens  21  years  old  and  up 
ward.  The  increase  of  population  from  1860 
to  1870  was  -27  per  cent.  There  were  265,892 
persons  10  years  old  and  over  who  could  not 
read,  and  290,379  unable  to  write;  of  the  lat 
ter,  55,167  were  white  and  235,164  colored, 
137,246  males  and  153,085  females,  and  179,- 
145  were  21  years  old  and  over.  The  number 
of  paupers  supported  during  the  year  ending 
June  1,  1870,  was  2,343,  at  a  cost  of  $224,805. 
Of  the  total  number  (2,071)  receiving  support 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  965  were  white  and 
1,106  colored.  The  number  of  persons  con 
victed  of  crime  during  the  year  was  1,399.  Of 
the  732  persons  in  prison  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  148  were  white  and  584  colored.  The 
state  contained  451  blind,  212  deaf  and  dumb, 
333  insane,  and  465  idiotic.  Of  the  total  pop 
ulation  (503,763)  10  years  old  and  over,  there 
were  engaged  in  all  occupations  263,301 ;  in 
agriculture,  206,654,  of  whom  163,528  were 
laborers  and  42,546  farmers  and  planters;  in 
professional  and  personal  services,  34,383,  in 
cluding  553  clergymen,  16,214  domestic  ser 
vants,  10,654  laborers  not  specified,  387  law 
yers,  789  physicians  and  surgeons,  and  1,074 
teachers  not  specified ;  in  trade  and  transporta 
tion,  8,470;  and  in  manufactures  and  mechan 
ical  and  mining  industries,  13,794.  The  total 
number  of  deaths  from  all  causes  was  7,380, 
being  T05  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population; 
from  consumption,  657,  there  being  11 '2  deaths 
from  all  causes  to  one  from  this  disease.  There 
were  255  deaths  from  cholera  infantum,  273 
from  measles,  709  from  pneumonia  (or  10'4 
deaths  from  all  causes  to  one  from  this  dis 
ease),  367  from  intermittent  and  remittent 
fevers,  515  from  enteric  fever,  and  537  from 
diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  enteritis. — The  topog 
raphy  of  the  state  resembles  that  of  North 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  The  coast  for  about 
100  m.  inward  is  flat  and  sandy,  with  a  light 
soil,  covered  by  pitch-pine  forests,  traversed 
by  sluggish  streams,  and  interspersed  with  nu 
merous  swamps.  This  portion  of  the  state  is 
of  alluvial  formation.  Beyond  this  plain  is  a 
belt  of  low  sand  hills  called  the  middle  coun 
try,  which  is  moderately  productive.  West  of 


SOUTH   CAROLINA 


the  middle  country  is  a  belt  called  the  ridge, 
where  the  land  rises  abruptly,  and  thence  con 
tinues  to  ascend,  exhibiting  beautiful  alterna 
tions  of  hill  and  dale,  till  it  terminates  at  the  ex 
treme  N.  W.  part  of  the  state  in  the  Blue  Ridge, 
the  highest  peak  of  which  in  South  Carolina 
is  Table  mountain,  4,000  ft.  above  the  Atlantic. 
The  coast  line  extends  from  Little  River  inlet, 
in  a  S.  W.  direction,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Sa 
vannah  river,  about  200  m.  The  coast  presents 
numerous  inlets,  bays,  shallow  sounds  and  la 
goons,  and  a  few  good  harbors.  Winyaw  bay, 
the  easternmost  harbor  of  any  note,  is  14  m. 
long  and  about  2  in.  wide.  Georgetown  is  at 
the  head  of  this  bay,  to  which  vessels  of  light 
draught  ascend.  Passing  S.  W.,  Bull's  bay  is 
next  in  order,  then  Charleston  harbor,  St. 
Helena  sound,  and  Beaufort  harbor,  or  Port 
Royal  entrance,  besides  a  number  of  small  in 
lets.  Beaufort  harbor,  which  admits  vessels 
of  24  ft.  draught,  is  one  of  the  best  in  the 
southern  states.  Stono  inlet,  a  few  miles  S. 
of  Charleston,  admits  vessels  drawing  9  or  10 
ft.  of  water.  St.  Helena  sound  is  a  spacious 
opening  10  m.  long  and  3  m.  broad.  Small 
islands  skirt  the  S.  portion  of  the  coast,  shut 
off  from  the  mainland  by  narrow  channels, 
which  afford  inland  steamboat  communication 
between  Charleston  and  Savannah.  These  isl 
ands  are  low  and  flat,  and  produce  sea  island 
cotton.  Rice  is  also  here  produced  in  large 
quantities,  and  tropical  fruits  flourish. — Savan 
nah  river,  which  forms  the  boundary  between 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  is  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  the  Tugaloo  and  Keowee,  which 
rise  in  the  mountains  near  the  line  of  North 
Carolina  and  unite  at  Anderson,  in  the  W. 
part  of  South  Carolina;  flowing  thence  in  a 
S.  S.  E.  direction  450  m.,  it  empties  into  the 
Atlantic  18  in.  below  Savannah,  near  lat.  32° 
N.  and  Ion.  81°  W.  The  Savannah  is  navi 
gable  for  large  vessels  to  the  city  of  Savannah, 
and  for  steamers  of  150  tons  to  Augusta,  230 
m.  further,  and  by  means  of  a  canal  round  the 
falls  at  Augusta  smaller  boats  ascend  150  m. 
further.  The  other  principal  rivers  are  the 
Great  Pedee,  the  Santee,  and  the  Edisto.  The 
first,  which  rises  in  the  Blue  Ridge,  flows  E. 
S.  E.  and  S.  S.  E.  through.  North  Carolina, 
where  it  is  called  the  Yadkin,  passes  through 
the  E.  portion  of  South  Carolina,  receives 
the  Black  river  and  Lynch's  creek  on  the 
right,  and  the  Little  Pedee  and  Waccamaw 
on  the  left,  and  empties  into  Winyaw  bay. 
It  is  navigable  for  steamboats  to  Cheraw,  a 
distance  of  about  150  m.,  above  which  navi 
gation  is  obstructed  by  a  fall.  The  Santee  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Congaree  and 
"Wateree,  which  by  their  tributaries  rise  in 
the  Blue  Ridge  (W.  part  of  North  Caro 
lina),  flow  S.,  and  unite  in  the  central  part  of 
South  Carolina ;  the  stream  thus  formed,  flow 
ing  upward  of  120  m.  in  a  S.  E.  direction, 
reaches  the  Atlantic  by  two  mouths,  North 
and  South  Santee,  a  few  miles  S.  W.  of  Win- 
yaw  bay.  The  principal  tributaries  of  the 


Congaree  are  the  Saluda  and  Broad  rivers. 
The  Santee  is  navigable  for  its  entire  length, 
and  its  tributaries,  the  Wateree  and  Congaree, 
by  aid  of  canals,  are  navigable  for  small  boats 
nearly  to  the  mountains,  about  200  or  300  m. 
from  the  ocean.  The  Edisto  and  Combahee 
rise  in  the  interior,  and  flowing  S.  reach  the 
Atlantic  near  the  southernmost  point  of  the 
state.  These  streams  are  navigable  for  very 
small  boats.  The  state  is  remarkably  well 
watered,  and  almost  every  county  abounds  in 
good  water  power. — Geologically  South  Caro 
lina  is  nearly  equally  divided  between  the 
primitive  and  the  alluvial  formations;  the  for 
mer  prevailing  in  the  upper  portion,  the  latter 
along  the  coast.  Among  the  beautiful  gran 
ites  of  the  state,  the  porphyritic  granite  of 
Camden  and  Buffalo  creek,  and  the  red  gran 
ite  near  Columbia,  are  conspicuous.  Of  the 
syenites,  those  found  in  Abbeville,  Fairfield, 
and  Lexington  counties  are  the  most  beauti 
ful.  The  first  resembles  the  Quincy  granite, 
and  the  last  is  remarkable  for  its  white  feld 
spar,  contrasting  so  strikingly  with  the  black 
crystals  of  hornblende.  White  and  variega 
ted  marbles  are  found  in  Spartanburg  and 
Laurens.  Gneiss,  sufficiently  slaty  to  be  split 
into  flagging  stones,  has  been  discovered  in 
Pickens  and  in  the  lower  part  of  York.  Por 
celain  earth  abounds  through  the  primary 
regions,  wherever  the  feldspathic  granite  is 
found  in  a  state  of  disintegration.  Soapstone 
of  fine  quality  exists  in  several  localities.  Red 
and  yellow  ochres  abound  in  Chesterfield  co. 
Limestone  is  most  abundant  in  Laurens  and 
Spartanburg,  while  the  white  feldspathic  sand 
stone,  buhrstone,  and  flagstone  are  found  in 
many  of  the  upper  counties.  Manganese  oc 
curs  in  nearly  every  county  N.  of  Columbia. 
Coal  is  found  in  Chesterfield  and  Marlboro. 
The  gold-bearing  rocks  of  the  Atlantic  slope 
extend  through  the  N.  W.  corner  of  South 
Carolina,  the  metal  being  found  in  Abbeville, 
Edgefield,  Lancaster,  Pickens,  Spartanburg, 
Union,  and  York  counties.  There  are  mines 
in  Abbeville,  Edgefield,  and  Union.  The  first 
mint  deposits  from  South  Carolina  were  $3,- 
500  in  1827;  the  aggregate  of  such  deposits 
to  June  30,  1874,  was  $1,379,077.  In  several 
cases  large  nuggets  of  pure  gold  have  been 
found,  and  gold-bearing  veins  have  been  suc 
cessfully  worked ;  but  the  largest  quantities  of 
gold  have  been  obtained  from  surface  wash 
ings.  Copper  occurs  in  some  counties,  while 
iron  ore  is  found  in  the  N.  part  of  the  state, 
above  the  King's  mountain  range,  but  no  ex 
tensive  efforts  have  been  made  to  develop  the 
deposits.  Lead  is  found  in  Pickens  co.,  bis 
muth  in  Chesterfield  and  Lancaster,  and  black 
lead  in  Spartanburg  and  Pickens.  The  lime 
stones  of  the  Blue  Ridge  may  be  used  as  fertil 
izers,  while  the  richest  deposits  of  bone  phos 
phates  on  the  continent,  if  not  in  the  world, 
have  recently  been  discovered  in  Charleston 
co.,  near  the  Ashley  and  Cooper  rivers.  These 
deposits  underlie  many  square  miles  of  surface 


194: 


SOUTH   CAROLINA 


continuously,  at  a  depth  ranging  from  6  in. 
to  12  ft.,  and  exist  in  such  quantities  that  from 
500  to  1,000  tons  underlie  each  acre.  In  fact,  it 
seems  there  are  no  rocks  in  this  section  which 
are  not  phosphates.  In  1870  it  was  officially 
estimated  that  $2,500,000  capital  was  invested 
in  the  business  of  converting  the  phosphates 
into  forms  available  to  agriculturists.  The 
production  of  crude  phosphates  from  1867  to 
1872  was  valued  at  about  $1,700,000.— Among 
the  natural  curiosities,  the  most  prominent  is 
Table  mountain,  20  m.  from  Greenville,  4,000 
ft.  above  the  sea,  which  looms  up  perpendicu 
larly  on  one  of  its  faces  1,100  ft.  above  the 
surrounding  country.  "  Caesar's  Head,"  a  rock 
projection  resembling  a  human  skull,  near 
Table  mountain,  is  a  place  of  summer  resort. 
Glenn's  Spring,  the  waters  of  which  are  im 
pregnated  with  magnesia  and  sulphur,  is  a 
watering  place  of  some  note  in  Spartanburg. 
The  falls  of  the  Saluda  among  the  mountains 
have  a  descent  of  from  300  to  400  ft.,  and  the 
region  presents  much  grand  and  picturesque 
scenery.  Aiken  has  since  the  war  become  a 
place  of  resort  for  consumptives  and  other 
invalids,  on  account  of  its  comparatively  dry 
and  equable  climate.  The  mean  temperature 
of  Charleston  (lat.  32°  45',  Ion.  79°  57')  is: 
spring,  05-8°;  summer,  80-6° ;  autumn,  68-1°; 
winter,  51*7°  ;  year,  66*6°.  The  average  rain 
fall  is:  spring,  8*60  inches;  summer,  18*68; 
autumn,  11-61 ';  winter,  9'40  ;  year,  48'29.  Pre 
vailing  wind,  S.  W.  The  following  tables  ex 
hibit  the  result  of  observations  taken  at  Aiken, 
Aiken  co.,  120  m.  X.  W.  of  Charleston,  in  lat. 
33°  30',  Ion.  81°  40',  and  Gowdeysville,  Union 
co.,  during  the  year  1870  : 

MEAN    TEMPERATURE. 


PLACES. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Aiken  
Gowdeysville.. 

6o-4° 
GJ-6 

79-1° 
79'7 

63-7° 
03-5 

46-4° 
44  -3 

63-1^ 
62-5 

RAINFALL    IN    INCHES. 

Aikon  
Gowdeysville.. 

11-97 

15-05 

13-89 

10-67 

7-34 
7-55 

7-16 

14-00 

40-30 
47-27 

The  maximum  temperature  at  Aiken  was  96° 
in  July;  minimum,  10°  in  December  and  15° 
in  February ;  maximum  at  Gowdeysville,  94° 
in  July  and  August ;  minimum,  7°  in  Decem 
ber  and  16°  in  February.  Yellow  fever  occa 
sionally  occurs  as  an  epidemic  at  Charleston. 
— South  Carolina  has  very  little  waste  land, 
and  produces  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  maize,  oats, 
rye,  barley,  sweet  and  Irish  potatoes,  peas, 
beans,  &c.  The  soil  comprises  six  varieties: 
1,  tide  swamp,  appropriated  to  the  culture 
of  rice  ;  2,  inland  swamp,  to  rice,  cotton, 
corn,  peas,  &c. ;  3,  salt  marsh,  to  long  cotton ; 
4,  oak  and  pine,  to  long  cotton,  corn,  pota 
toes,  &c. ;  5,  oak  and  hickory,  to  short  cotton, 
corn,  &c. ;  6,  j)ine  barren,  to  fruits,  vegetables, 
&c.  The  pine  lands,  embracing  about  6,000,- 
000  acres,  are  perhaps  the  most  neglected  sec 


tion  of  the  state.  The  swamps,  covering  2,000 
sq.  m.  (1,280,000  acres),  of  inexhaustible  fer 
tility,  are  capable  of  drainage.  The  soil  of 
much  the  larger  portion  of  the  state  is  clay, 
which,  except  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
ocean,  is  almost  the  universal  substratum.  In 
the  1ST.  part  of  the  state,  particularly  that  por 
tion  bordering  on  the  Blue  Ridge,  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  and  barley  flourish,  while  cotton  is  liable 
to  suffer  from  early  frosts.  This  region  is 
also  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  apples, 
pears,  peaches,  plums,  grapes,  and  other  small 
fruits.  The  central  and  lower  portions  of  the 
state  are  better  fitted  to  the  culture  of  cotton, 
corn,  and  rice.  Strawberries  are  abundant. 
The  English  walnut  and  Spanish  mavson  tfhest- 
nut  bear  good  crops,  beginning  to  produce  six 
or  seven  years  after  planting.  On  the  sea  isl 
ands  grow  the  live  oak  and  palmetto.  In  1870 
the  state  contained  in  farms  3,010,539  acres 
of  improved  land,  6,443,851  of  woodland,  and 
2,650,890  of  other  unimproved  land.  The 
total  number  of  farms  was  51,889 ;  average 
size,  233  acres.  There  were  10,286  contain 
ing  from  3  to  10  acres,  9,146  from  10  to  20, 
16,415  from  20  to  50,  8,148  from  50  to  100, 
7,112  from  100  to  500,  465  from  500  to  1,000, 
and  418  of  1,000  and  over.  The  cash  value  of 
farms  was  $44,808,763  ;  of  farming  implements 
and  machinery,  $2,282,946;  total  amount  of 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  including  value 
of  board,  $7,404,297;  total  (estimated)  value 
of  all  farm  productions,  including  betterments 
and  additions  to  stock,  $41,909,402  ;  orchard 
products,  $47,960  ;  produce  of  market  gardens, 
$127,459 ;  forest  products,  $167,253 ;  home 
manufactures,  $312,191  ;  animals  slaughtered 
or  sold  for  slaughter,  $2,507,149  ;  value  of  live 
stock,  $12,443,510.  There  were  44,105  horses, 
41,327  mules  and  asses,  98,693  milch  cows, 
17,685  working  oxen,  132,925  other  cattle, 
124,594  sheep,  and  395,999  swine.  The  pro 
ductions  were  317,700  bushels  of  spring  and 
465,910  of  winter  wheat,  36,165  of  rye,  7,614,- 
207  of  Indian  corn,  613,593  of  oats,  4,752  of 
barley,  460,378  of  peas  and  beans,  83,252  of 
Irish  and  1,342,165  of  sweet  potatoes,  5,830 
of  clover  seed,  10,665  tons  of  hay,  224.500 
bales  of  cotton,  3.2,304,825  Ibs.  of  rice,  34^805 
of  tobacco,  1,461,980  of  butter,  194,253  of 
honey,  11,404  of  wax,  1,055  hogsheads  of  cane 
sugar,  1-3,179  gallons  of  wine,  241,815  of  milk 
sold,  436,882  of  cane  and  183, 585  of  sorghum 
molasses.  The  production  of  cotton  in  1873 
-'4  amounted  to  438,194  bales  of  46"8-lhs.  each, 
including  8,759  bales  of  sea  island. — The  total 
number  of  manufacturing  establishments  in 
1870  was  1,584,  having  210  steam  engines  of 
4,537  horse  power,  and  700  water  wheels  of 
10,395  horse  power,  and  employing  8,141 
hands,  of  whom  7,099  were  males  above  16, 
578  females  above  15,  and  464  youth.  The 
capital  invested  amounted  to  $5,400,41 8 ;  wages 
paid  during  the  year,  $1,543,715  ;  value  of  ma 
terials  used,  $5,855,736  ;  of  products,  $9,858,- 
981.  The  leading  industries  were  as  follows  : 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


195 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of 
estab 
lish 
ments. 

No.  of 
hands 
em 
ployed. 

Capital. 

Value  of 
products. 

Blacksmithing  

147 
17 
G4 
77 
12 
2 

624 
2 
7 
34 
81 

227 
21 
1 
2 

11 

2 

J 

20 

12 
3 

346 

71 
431 

288 
1,123 

825 

1,133 
15 
85 
72 
55 
19 
1,212 
415 
24 
43 

1G4 
18 

27 
876 

63 

40 
13 

#59,960 
30,200 
286.135 
81.820 
1,337,000 
350,000 

835,814 
20.000 
64/251 
24.125 
16^75 
19.000 
5  ,3.425 
443,702 
40.000 
109,000 

102550 
27,000 

2C..800 
205,425 

37,650 

17.200 
8,700 

$151.329 
142,045 
313,350 
186,114 
1,529,937 
425,000 

3,180,247 
22.190 
119,750 
85,778 
80.247 
35,000 
1,197,005 
496.425 
27,200 
79,000 

237.930 
19,225 

45,650 
774,077 

87,294 

21,259 
13,200 

Bread  crackers,  &c  

Carpentering  and  building.  . 
Carriages  and  wagons  
Cotton  goods  

Fertilisers  . 

Flouring  and  grist-mill  prod 
ucts                                  .   . 

"     castings  
Leather,  tanned  
"      .  curried  
Lumber,  planed  
"        sawed  

Oil.  cotton-seed  
Paper,  printing  
Printing     and      publishing, 
newspapers  
Printing,  job  
Ship  building,  repairing,  and 
ship  materials 

Tar  and  turpentine 

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 
ware  
"Wool-carding     and      cloth- 
dressing  

Woollen  goods  

The  number  of  cotton  mills  in  1874  was  18, 
having  1,238  looms  and  62,872  spindles;  the 
amount  of  cotton  used  during  the  year  was 
7,134,558  Ibs.  South  Carolina  has  three  United 
States  customs  districts,  indicated  in  the  fol 
lowing  statement  of  foreign  commerce  for  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1875,  with  the  number  of 
vessels  registered,  enrolled,  and  licensed : 


PORTS  OF  ENTRY. 


Charleston.. 
Georgetown. 


Total.. 


Vessels. 

Tons. 

$122.318 
680,343 

$1,047,257 
19,655,9(!6 
17  635 

16 
185 
25 

2,104 
12,051 
3  288 

$802,661 

$20,720,853 

226 

17,443 

The  chief  article  of  export  is  cotton.  During 
the  fiscal  year  259,053  bales  were  exported 
from  Charleston,  valued  at  $17,930,603,  be 
sides  6,357  bales  of  sea  island,  valued  at  $779,- 
346.  The  shipments  of  cotton,  rice,  naval 
stores,  phosphates,  and  lumber  to  ports  of  the 
United  States  constitute  an  extensive  trade. 
The  amount  of  shipping  in  1875  was  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

FOREKJN    PORTS. 

COASTWISE. 

ENTERED. 

CLEARED. 

ENTERED. 

CLEARED. 

Vessels. 

Tons. 

Vessels. 

Tons. 

Vessels. 

Tons. 

Vessels. 

Tons, 

Beaufort  

so 

236 
1 

32,862 
102.0-23 
174 

88 
26,3 

7 

39,516 
119,274 
2,394 

44 

504 
55 

25,852 
332,018 
14,356 

27 
461 
6 

17,875 

328,266 
1,408 

Charleston  ... 

Georgetown 

Total  .  .  . 

317 

135.059 

363 

161.184         603 

422.226 

494 

347.549 

The  state  had  204  m.  of  railroad  in  1845,  759 
in  1855, 1,007  in  1865,  and  1,298  in  1875.     The 


following  table  shows  the  railroads  lying  whol 
ly  or  partly  within  the  state  : 


NAMES  OF  CORPORATIONS. 

TERMINI.                                                          Miles  in 
operation  in 

Total  length 
of  line  when 
different  from 
preceding. 

FROM 

TO                              lina  in  1875. 

Atlanta  and  Richmond  Air  Line  
Charlotte,  Columbia,  and  Augusta  

Atlanta,  Ga  

Charlotte,  N.  C  
Florence 

Charlotte,  N.  C.                          125 

265 

195 

"80  ' 

'l04 
'i89 

Augusta  Ga                               183 

Cheraw  and  Darlington  

Cheraw  '          40 
Yorkville  j          22 
Salisbury  1ST  C                   i          12 

Chester  and  Lenoir 

Cheraw  and  Salisbury  

Cheraw  . 

Greenville  and  Columbia. 

Greenville 

Columbia  !        143 
Abbeville  12 
Walhalla                                        43 

Branch       

Cokesbury  

Belton 

Leased,  Blue  Ridge  

Northeastern  

Charleston 

Florence  i        102 
Augusta,  Ga  !        Ill 
Charleston                   96 

Port  Royal. 

Port  Royal  Harbor  
Savannah   Ga 

Savannah  and  Charleston  
South  Carolina  

Charleston 

Augusta  Ga                       ]        111 

Branches  j 

Branch  ville  

Columbia  33 

Spartanburg  and  Union.  . 

Alston 

Wilmington,  Columbia,  and  Augusta  

Wilmington,  N.  C  

Columbia                         •            124 

The  Santee  canal,  22  m.  long,  connects  Charles 
ton,  through  Cooper  river,  with  the  Santee. 
There  are  also  several  short  canals,  having  an 
aggregate  length  of  about  30  m.  At  the  begin 
ning  of  1875  there  were  12  national  banks  in 
operation,  with  a  capital  stock  of  $3,135,000; 
circulation,  $2,167,420;  circulation  per  capita, 
$3  07;  ratio  of  circulation  to  the  wealth  of 
the  state,  1  per  cent. ;  to  bank  capital,  69'1  per 
cent. — The  government  is  administered  under 


the  constitution  adopted  in  1868,  which  pro 
vides  that  slavery  shall  never  exist  in  the  state  ; 
that  every  citizen  owes  paramount  allegiance 
to  the  United  States ;  that  the  state  shall  ever 
remain  a  member  of  the  American  Union ; 
no  property  qualification  shall  be  necessary  to 
eligibility  to  office ;  distinctions  on  account 
of  race  or  color  shall  be  prohibited,  and  all 
citizens  shall  enjoy  all  common  public,  legal, 
and  political  privileges ;  no  debt  contracted  by 


196 


SOUTH   CAROLINA 


the  state  in  behalf  of  the  rebellion  shall  ever  be 
paid ;  presidential  electors  shall  be  elected  by 
the  people  ;  the  distinction  between  actions  at 
law  and  suits  in  equity  is  abolished.  The  right 
of  suffrage  is  bestowed  upon  every  male  citi 
zen  of  the  United  States,  21  years  old  and  up 
ward,  who  has  resided  in  the  state  one  year, 
and  in  the  county  where  he  shall  offer  to  vote 
60  days  preceding  the  election.  Elections  are 
by  ballot,  and  a  plurality  only  of  the  votes 
cast  is  necessary  to  a  choice.  Qualified  elec 
tors,  who  acknowledge  the  existence  of  the 
Supreme  Being,  are  entitled  to  hold  office, 
with  unimportant  exceptions.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly,  con 
sisting  of  a  senate  composed  of  one  member 
from  each  county  except  Charleston,  which 
elects  two  senators,  and  a  house  of  124  repre 
sentatives  apportioned  among  the  counties  ac 
cording  to  population,  each  county  having  at 
least  one.  The  senators  hold  office  for  four 
years  and  the  representatives  for  two.  They 
receive  $6  a  day  during  the  session,  and  20 
cents  a  mile  for  travel  to  and  from  the  capital. 
The  sessions  of  the  legislature  are  annual,  be 
ginning  on  the  fourth  Tuesday  of  November. 
The  state  election  is  held  on  the  third  Wednes 
day  of  October  in  even  years.  The  executive 
power  is  vested  in  a  governor  (annual  salary 
$3,500  with  a  furnished  residence)  and  a  lieu 
tenant  governor  ($2,500),  ex  officio  president 
of  the  senate,  who  hold  office  for  two  years ;  a 
comptroller  general  ($3,000),  treasurer  ($2,500), 
secretary  of  state  ($3,000),  and  attorney  gen 
eral  ($3,000),  who  hold  office  for  four  years;  a 
superintendent  of  education  ($2,500),  and  an 
adjutant  and  inspector  general  ($2,500).  These 
officers  are  elected  by  the  people.  The'  gover 
nor  and  lieutenant  governor  must  have  been 
two  years  resident  in  the  state.  The  gover 
nor's  veto  may  be  overcome  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  the  legislature.  The  judicial  power  is 
vested  in  a  supreme  court,  circuit  courts  (each 
of  which  is  subdivided  into  a  court  of  com 
mon  pleas  with  civil  jurisdiction,  and  a  court 
of  general  sessions  with  criminal  jurisdiction), 
probate  courts,  and  courts  of  justices  of  the 
peace.  The  supremo  court  consists  of  a 
chief  and  two  associate  justices,  elected  by 
joint  vote  of  the  two  houses  of  the  legislature 
for  six  years.  The  chief  justice  receives  an 
annual  salary  of  $4,000,  and  the  associates 
$3,500  each.  The  state  is  divided  into  eight 
circuits,  for  each  of  which  a  judge  is  elected 
by  joint  vote  of  the  legislature  for  four  years; 
each  receives  a  salary  of  $3,500  a  year.  The 
supreme  court  has  in  general  appellate  juris 
diction  only.  The  courts  of  common  pleas 
have  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  matters  of  di 
vorce,  exclusive  original  jurisdiction  in  civil 
cases  not  cognizable  by  justices  of  the  peace, 
and  appellate  jurisdiction  in  cases  provided 
for  by  law.  The  courts  of  sessions  have  ex 
clusive  jurisdiction  in  criminal  cases  not  other 
wise  provided  for  by  law.  A  judge  of  probate 
is  elected  for  each  county  by  the  people  for 


two  years.  Trial  justices  appointed  by  the 
governor  have  jurisdiction  of  civil  cases  where 
the  amount  involved  does  not  exceed  $100,  and 
of  criminal  proceedings  for  minor  offences.  A 
homestead  not  exceeding  $1,000  in  value  is 
exempt  from  sale  under  execution,  to  every 
head  of  a  family.  A  poll  tax  not  exceeding  $1 
may  be  levied  for  school  purposes.  Provision 
is  made  for  taking  decennial  censuses,  beginning 
in  1875.  The  property  of  a  married  woman  is 
not  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband,  and 
she  may  deal  with  it  in  all  respects  as  if  un 
married.  Before  the  adoption  of  the  present 
constitution,  divorce  was  unknown  in  the  state. 
Divorces  are  now  granted  for  adultery  or  de 
sertion  for  two  years ;  and  the  one  deserting 
may  obtain  a  divorce  if  the  desertion  is  justi 
fied  by  cruel  treatment,  or  by  neglect  of  the 
husband  to  provide  maintenance.  The  death 
penalty  is  abolished,  except  in  cases  of  wilful 
murder.  Arson  and  rape  are  punishable  by 
imprisonment  for  life  or  for  a  period  not  less 
than  10  years;  the  penalty  of  manslaughter 
and  of  burglary  is  imprisonment  for  a  period 
not  exceeding  30  years.  The  legal  rate  of  in 
terest,  in  the  absence  of  agreement,  is  7  per 
cent.,  but  any  rate  may  be  contracted  for.  A 
convention  to  revise  the  constitution  may  be 
called  by  vote  of  the  people,  the  question  hav 
ing  been  submitted  to  them  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  house  of  the  legislature.  Specific 
amendments  must  be  proposed  by  two  thirds 
of  each  house,  voted  for  by  a  majority  of  the 
people  at  the  next  general  election,  and  after 
ward  ratified  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each 
house  of  the  next  general  assembly.  Tlje  state 
has  two  senators  and  five  representatives  in 
congress,  and  is  therefore  entitled  to  seven 
votes  in  the  electoral  college. — The  state  debt 
on  Nov.  1,  1874,  was  reported  at  $17,017,651, 
including  $9,540,750  bonded  debt,  $2,679,293 
floating  debt,  and  $4,797,608  contingent  liabili 
ties.  Not  included  in  this  statement  are  bonds 
to  the  amount  of  $5,965,000  issued  under  the 
act  of  March  23,  18(59,  for  the  conversion  of 
state  securities,  which  have  been  declared  by 
the  legislature  to  have  been  issued  without  au 
thority,  and  to  be  therefore  null  and  void ;  but 
the  statement  includes  interest  on  these  bonds, 
amounting  to  $894,750,  which  it  is  asserted  is 
illegal  and  should  be  deducted  from  the  state's 
liabilities.  The  bonded  debt  falls  due  at  differ 
ent  dates  between  1877  and  1893;  the  rate  of 
interest  on  most  of  it  is  6  per  cent.  The  float 
ing  debt  consists  of  unpaid  appropriations  and 
over-due  interest.  The  contingent  liabilities 
were  created  by  the  indorsement  by  the  state 
of  the  following  railroad  bonds,  the  state  being 
secured  by  mortgages  on  the  roads: 

South  Carolina  railroad $2,093,812 

Northeastern 92,000 

Charleston  and  Savannah 505.000 

Savannah  and  Charleston 245.750 

Laurens 75,000 

Spartanburp  and  Union 850,000 

Greenville  and  Columbia ...                               1,486,546 


Total $4,797,608 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


197 


The  receipts  from  all  sources  during  the  year 
ending  Oct.  31,  1874,  amounted  to  $1,712,268, 
and  the  expenditures  to  $1,599,232.  The  as 
sessed  valuation  of  taxable  property  in  1874 
was  $141,624,952,  viz.:  real  estate,  $87,794,- 
305;  personal  property, -$43,944,070;  railroad 
property,  $9,886,577.  The  total  valuation  in 
1873  was  $176,956,502.  The  rate  of  the  tax 
levy  for  state  purposes  in  1874  was  10;?  |  mills. 
— The  constitution  of  1868  provides  for  a  uni 
form  system  of  free  common  schools  to  be  sup 
ported  by  a  tax  on  property  and  polls,  and  for 
the  establishment  of  a  state  normal  school,  a 
state  reform  school,  a  state  university,  and  ed 
ucational  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
and  the  blind.  It  also  declares  that  all  public 
schools,  colleges,  and  universities,  supported 
wholly  or  partly  by  the  public  funds,  shall 
be  free  to  all  the  children  of  the  state  without 
regard  to  color ;  but  separate  schools  are  gener 
ally  provided.  Provision  was  made  for  the 
compulsory  attendance  upon  public  or  private 
schools  of  all  children  between  the  ages  of  6 
and  16  years,  but  no  law  for  this  purpose  has 
yet  (1876)  been  passed  by  the  legislature.  The 
state  superintendent,  who  is  elected  by  the 
people  for  four  years,  has  general  supervision 
of  the  public  schools.  The  state  board  of  edu 
cation  consists  of  the  superintendent  and  the 
several  county  school  commissioners.  There 
are  32  of  the  latter  officers  (one  in  each  county), 
elected  for  two  years  by  the  people,  at  an  an 
nual  salary  of  $1,000,  except  in  Charleston 
county,  where  the  salary  is  $1,200.  Each 
county  has  a  board  of  school  examiners,  com 
posed  of  the  commissioner  and  two  members 
appointed  by  him ;  their  chief  duties  are  the 
examination  of  teachers  and  the  appointment  of 
district  trustees.  There  are  no  graded  schools 
except  in  Charleston.  The  sources  of  school 
revenue  are:  1,  state  school  tax;  2,  poll  tax; 
3,  district  taxes.  The  common  school  statis 
tics  for  1873-'4  were  as  follows: 

School  population,  6  to  16  years  of  age,  inclusive. .  230.102 

White  males  ' 43,474 

"      females 41,501 

Colored  males 73.442 

females 71,685 

Number  of  school  districts 429 

"        of  schools 2,353 

School  attendance , 104,738 

"White  45,774 

Colored 58,964 

Number  of  teachers 2,627 

Males 1,625 

Females 1,002 

White 1,772 

Colored 855 

Average  monthly  wages,  males $32  73 

"             '•      females $30  43 

Average  length  of  schools 5  months 

Number  of  school  houses 2,228 

Value  of         "           "      $274,803 

Expenditures  for  schools $448,251 

Total  school  revenue $512,924 

From  state  tax $300,000 

"     poll     " $59.514 

"     local    " $110,735 

"     other  sources $42.675 

Net  school  revenue $483,145 

The  state  normal  school  was  opened  in  Colum 
bia  in  September,  1874,  with  two  instructors 
and  32  students.  The  course  of  study  oc 


cupies  two  years.  In  1874  there  were  ten 
teachers'  institutes  held  in  eight  counties.  The 
university  of  South  Carolina,  in  Columbia,  has 
preparatory,  academical,  law,  and  medical  de 
partments,  which  are  open  to  white  and  col 
ored  pupils.  In  1874-'5  there  were  166  stu 
dents,  viz. :  17  in  the  law,  4  in  the  medical, 
and  79  in  the  preparatory  school,  64  in  the 
academical  department,  and  2  in  a  special 
course.  State  scholarships  were  established 
in  the  university  in  1874,  and  $6,400  appro 
priated  for  that  purpose.  In  1874-'5  57  stu 
dents  were  holding  state  scholarships.  The 
state  appropriations  for  the  university  during 
the  year  ending  Oct.  31,  1874,  amounted  to 
$41,750.  The  library  of  the  university  in 
1875  had  30,000  volumes.  Clafiin  university, 
at  Orangeburg,  was  opened  in  1870  for  the 
education  of  colored  persons  of  both  sexes. 
In  1872  the  state  college  of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts  was  established  in  connection 
with  this  institution,  which  was  then  named 
"  Claflin  University  and  South  Carolina  Agri 
cultural  College  and  Mechanical  Institute."  The 
departments  which  have  been  organized  are : 
1,  common  English;  2,  classical  preparatory 
and  higher  English ;  3,  agricultural  and  scien 
tific.  In  1874-'5  there  were  5  instructors  and 
188  students,  including  65  pursuing  scientific, 
agricultural,  and  military  studies.  Furman 
university  (Baptist),  opened  in  1851  at  Green 
ville,  in  1874-'5  had  5  professors  and  55  stu 
dents  in  the  collegiate  department.  The  in 
stitution  has  an  endowment  of  $200,000,  con 
tributed  by  the  Baptists  of  South  Carolina; 
and  for  ten  years  from  Jan.  1,  1876,  tuition  is 
to  be  free.  Newberry  college  (Lutheran),  at 
Walhalla,  Oconee  co.,  opened  in  1858,  in  1874 
-'5  had  6  instructors  and  101  pupils,  including 
70  in  the  preparatory  department.  Wofford 
college  (Methodist  Episcopal  church,  South), 
opened  in  1853,  is  at  Spartanburg  Court 
House ;  it  has  collegiate  and  preparatory  de 
partments,  and  in  1874-15  there  were  7  in 
structors.  The  principal  institutions  for  the 
higher  instruction  of  women  are  Columbia 
female  college  in  Columbia,  which  in  1874-'5 
had  7  teachers  and  97  students ;  Due  West 
female  college,  at  Due  West,  Abbeville  co., 
with  9  teachers  and  113  pupils;  the  Greenville 
Baptist  female  college,  at  Greenville,  with  10 
teachers  and  117pnpils;  and  the  Williamston 
female  college,  at  Williamston,  with  8  instruc 
tors  and  119  pupils.  The  Southern  Baptist 
theological  seminary  at  Greenville,  established 
in  1859,  in  1874-'5  had  5  professors  and  66 
students.  The  theological  seminary  of  the 
general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
in  the  United  States  was  opened  at  Lexington, 
Ga.,  in  1829,  and  was  removed  to  Columbia, 
its  present  seat,  in  1830.  It  has  a  library  of 
about  19,000  volumes,  and  endowments,  not 
including  buildings  and  library,  amounting  to 
$164,000.  In  1873-'4  there  were  5  instructors 
and  57  students.  The  medical  college  of  the 
state  of  South  Carolina,  in  Charleston,  was 


193 


SOUTH   CAROLINA 


opened  in  1832,  and  in  1875  had  8  instructors 
and  60  students. — The  state  institution  for  the 
education  of  the  deaf,  dumb,  arid  blind  is  at 
Cedar  Springs  in  Spartanburg  co. ;  but  it  is 
now  (1876)  suspended.  The  state  orphan  asy 
lum,  in  Columbia,  had  in  1874  an  average  of 
80  inmates,  of  whom  88  were  girls.  The  legis 
lature  appropriated  $25,000  for  this  institu 
tion  in  1874;  the  expenditures  amounted  to 
$18,900.  The  state  lunatic  asylum,  in  Colum 
bia,  opened  in  1828,  had  an  average  of  312 
patients  during  the  year  ending  Oct.  31,  1874, 
and  311  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  average 
annual  cost  of  maintenance  is  $250  for  each 
patient;  $65,000  was  appropriated  for  it  in 
1874,  and  the  expenditures  were  $71,590.  The 
state  penitentiary,  in  Columbia,  had  in  1874 
an  average  of  250  prisoners,  who  were  chief 
ly  employed  upon  public  buildings  on  account 
of  the  state;  their  earnings  amounted  to  $23,- 
774.  The  expenses  of  the  institution  were 
$69,838;  the  state  appropriation  was  $50,000. 
Religious  exercises  are  held  on  Sunday.  There 
is  a  day  school  for  all  convicts,  and  a  reforma 
tory  school  for  those  under  18  years  of  age,  who 
are  kept  separate  from  the  other  convicts. — 
The  total  number  of  libraries  reported  by  the 
census  of  1870  was  1,663,  containing  546,244 
volumes.  Of  these,  922  with  397,020  volumes 
were  private,  and  741  with  149,224  volumes 
other  than  private ;  among  the  latter  were  one 
state  library,  with  2,700  volumes;  3  court  and 
law,  6,324 ;  4  school,  college,  &c.,  20,800 ;  647 
Sunday  school,  93,200;  84  church,  25,100; 
and  2  circulating,  1,100.  The  total  number 
of  newspapers  and  periodicals  was  55,  having 
an  aggregate  circulation  of  80,900  and  issuing 
annually  8,901,400  copies.  Of  these,  5  were 
daily,  with  an  aggregate  circulation  of  16,100; 
4  tri-weekly,  circulation  9,600 ;  42  weekly, 
44,000;  3  monthly,  10,000;  and  1  quarterly, 
1,200.  In  1875  there  were  reported  7  daily, 
3  tri-weekly,  3  semi-weekly,  '62  weekly,  1  bi 
weekly,  2  semi-monthly,  4  monthly,  and  2 
quarterly;  total,  84.  The  total  number  of  re 
ligious  organizations  in  1870  was  1,457,  hav 
ing  1,308  edifices,  with  491,425  sittings  and 
property  valued  at  $3,276,982.  The  denomi 
nations  were  represented  as  follows : 


DENOMINATION'S. 

Organi 
zations. 

Edi 
fices. 

Sittings. 

Property. 

518 

4G(5 

190  750 

$688  R82 

"       other  

5 

5 

2 

800 

200 

1,600 
400 

Congregational  
Episcopal,  Protestant  .... 
Friends 

1 

83 
i 

1 
81 
1 

300 
35.350 
300 

10,000 

720,600 
500 

Jewish  
Huguenot  

Lutheran 

3 

1 
49 

3 
1 
44 

900 

400 
17  900 

91,200 
10.000 
137450 

Methodist  
Presbyterian,  regular  
other  
Eeformed  church  in  Amer 
ica  (late  Dutch  Reformed) 
Roman  Catholic  

Gil 
148 
16 

2 
12 

532 
13<> 
17 

2 
13 

164.050 
61,450 
5,650 

300 
10,775 

652.100 
587,900 
33,500 

4,000   » 
271,500 

Unitarian  

Universalist.. 

1 
3 

1 

2 

750 

850 

20.000 
58350 

Unknown  (local  mission).. 

1 

1 

700 

10,000 

— The  first  attempt  to  colonize  the  territory 
now  comprised  in  South  Carolina  was  made 
by  Jean  Kibault,  a  Frenchman.  (See  Ri- 
BAULT.)  The  province  of  Carolina  wras  created 
by  Charles  II.  in  1663.  (See  NOETH  CAEOLI- 
NA.)  The  first  permanent  settlement  in  South 
Carolina  was  made  on  the  banks  of  the  Ash 
ley  river  in  1670  by  English  colonists,  who  re 
moved  in  1680  to  the  present  site  of  Charles 
ton.  Under  the  name  of  Carolina,  both  the 
present  states  of  North  and  South  Carolina 
were  held  as  a  proprietary  government,  nomi 
nally  under  the  celebrated  model  constitution 
prepared  by  John  Locke,  till  July,  1729,  when 
the  king  bought  out  the  proprietors,  and 
formed  the  Carolinas  into  two  royal  colonies. 
In  1685  a  large  number  of  French  Huguenots 
settled  in  South  Carolina,  and  subsequently 
there  were  considerable  settlements  of  Swiss, 
Irish,  and  German  emigrants.  The  colony  at 
various  times  suffered  severely  from  Indian 
depredations,  and  with  Georgia  was  engaged 
under  Oglethorpe  in  a  contest  with  the  Span 
ish  settlements  in  Florida.  South  Carolina 
was  the  scene  of  severe  warfare  during  the 
revolutionary  struggle,  hotly  contested  bat 
tles  being  fought  at  Fort  Moultrie,  Charleston, 
Camden,  King's  Mountain,  Cowpens,  Eutaw 
Springs,  &c.  The  British  held  the  country  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  years  1780  and  1781. 
The  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  September,  1781, 
between  Gen.  Greene  and  Col.  Stuart,  in  which 
both  sides  claimed  the  victory,  was  the  last 
engagement  of  any  importance  during  the  rev 
olution.  A  state  constitution  was  first  adopt 
ed  on  March  26,  1776;  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  was  ratified  by  South  Carolina 
on  May  23,  1788.  Immediately  after  the  pres 
idential  election  of  1832,  a  convention  of  the 
people  of  South  Carolina  was  called  to  meet  at 
Columbia,  to  take  action  on  the  high  tariff  of 
1828  and  1832.  The  convention  met  on  Nov. 
19,  unanimously  adopted  the  "nullification  or 
dinance,"  which  pronounced  the  tariff  "null, 
void,  and  no  law,  nor  binding  on  this  state, 
its  officers  and  citizens,"  and  prohibited  the 
payment  of  duties  on  imports  imposed  by  that 
law  within  the  state  after  Feb.  1  ensuing. 
The  ordinance  contemplated  an  act  of  the 
legislature  nullifying  the  tariff,  and  declared 
that  no  appeal  should  be  made  to  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  against  the  validity 
of  such  act.  It  was  also  declared  that  should 
the  general  government  attempt  to  enforce 
the  law  thus  nullified,  or  to  interfere  with 
the  foreign  commerce  of  the  state,  the  peo 
ple  of  South  Carolina  would  "hold  them 
selves  absolved  from  all  further  obligation  to 
maintain  or  preserve  their  political  connec 
tion  with  the  people  of  the  other  states." 
This  action  was  approved  by  the  governor, 
Robert  Y.  Hayne,  in  his  message  to  the  legis 
lature,  and  measures  were  adopted  by  that 
body  to  give  practical  effect  to  the  ordinance. 
In  view,  of  the  threatened  emergency,  Presi 
dent  Jackson  ordered  Gen.  Scott  to  Charles- 


SOUTH   CAROLINA 


199 


ton  for  the  purpose  of  "superintending  the 
safety  of  the  ports  of  the  United  States  in 
that  vicinity,"  and  soon  after  the  meeting  of 
congress  in  December  issued  a  proclamation 
in  which  he  held  that  nullification  was  treason 
and  should  be  punished  as  such.  During  the 
session  of  this  congress  the  compromise  tariff 
was  passed,  which  being  acceptable  to  South 
Carolina,  the  course  threatened  by  that  state 
was  not  pursued.  In  April,  18GO,  the  South 
Carolina  delegates  to  the  national  democratic 
convention  in  session  at  Charleston  withdrew 
from  that  body  because  the  convention  did  not 
expressly  deny  in  its  platform  "  the  power 
either  of  the  federal  government,  or  its  agent, 
the  territorial  government,  to  abolish  or  legis 
late  against  property  in  slaves  by  either  direct 
or  indirect  legislation."  South  Carolina  was 
the  first  of  the  southern  states  to  institute 
active  measures  for  withdrawing  from  the 
Union  on  the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln,  and  the 
first  to  pass  an  ordinance  of  secession.  On 
Nov.  7,  1860,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  legisla 
ture  calling  a  state  convention.  On  the  same 
day  the  United  States  officials  in  Charleston 
resigned,  and  on  the  10th  the  South  Carolina 
senators  withdrew  from  the  United  States  sen 
ate.  An  election  of  delegates  having  been  held 
on  Dec.  6,  the  convention  assembled  in  Charles 
ton  on  the  18th,  and  passed  the  ordinance  of 
secession  on  the  20th  without  a  dissenting 
vote.  Commissioners  were  appointed  to  go  to 
Washington  to  treat  with  President  Buchanan 
for  the  possession  of  federal  property  within 
the  limits  of  South  Carolina,  while  others  were 
sent  to  the  slaveholding  states  to  invite  their 
cooperation  in  the  formation  of  a  southern 
confederacy.  On  the  24th  the  representatives 
in  congress  withdrew  from  that  body,  and  on 
the  same  day  Gov.  Pickens  proclaimed  the 
dissolution  of  the  union  between  South  Caro 
lina  and  the  other  states.  On  the  27th  Fort 
Moultrie  and  Castle  Pinckney  were  'seized 
by  the  state.  The  bombardment  and  cap 
ture  of  Fort  Sumter,  April  12,  13,  by  Gen. 
Beauregard  (see  SUMTER,  FORT),  was  the  be 
ginning  of  open  hostilities,  and  caused  great 
excitement  throughout  the  country.  The  ports 
of  the  seceded  states  were  declared  blockaded 
by  President  Lincoln  on  April  19.  Hilton 
Head  and  Bay  Point  were  captured  on  Nov. 
7  by  an  expedition  under  Admiral  Du  Pont 
and  Gen.  T.  W.  Sherman.  On  April  7,  1863, 
Admiral  Du  Pont  made  an  unsuccessful  at 
tempt  to  reduce  the  defences  of  Charleston 
harbor,  losing  one  of  his  vessels  in  the  engage 
ment.  A  land  attack  was  made  in  July  by 
Gen.  Q.  A.  Gillmore,  who  took  possession  of 
Morris  island,  but  was  repulsed  with  great  loss 
in  an  assault  upon  Fort  Wagner.  That  work 
was  reduced  by  bombardment,  Sept.  7,  and 
shells  were  thrown  into  the  city  itself.  In  the 
latter  part  of  January,  1865,  Gen.  W.  T.  Sher 
man's  army  began  its  march  from  Savannah 
through  South  Carolina,  having  Goldsboro, 
N.  C.,  as  an  objective  point,  and  threatening 


Charleston  and  Augusta  at  the  same  time. 
Columbia  was  surrendered  on  Feb.  17,  arid 
Charleston  and  all  its  defences  were  evacuated 
on  the  same  day.  (See  CHARLESTON,  and  COLUM 
BIA.)  Gen.  Sherman,  resuming  his  march  from 
Columbia,  and  destroying  railroads,  bridges, 
&c.,  reached  Cheraw  on  the  Great  Pedee,  March 
3,  whence  he  moved  to  Fayetteville,  N.  C.  B. 
F.  Perry  was  appointed  provisional  governor 
of  South  Carolina,  June  30,  1865.  On  Sept.  4 
delegates  were  chosen  to  a  convention,  which 
assembled  in  Columbia,  Sept.  13,  repealed  the 
ordinance  of  secession,  and  declared  slavery 
abolished.  James  L.  Orr  was  chosen  governor 
at  a  general  election  held  on  Oct.  18.  At  the 
same  time  a  legislature  was  elected,  which  met 
before  the  close  of  the  month.  Gov.  Orr  as 
sumed  the  duties  of  his  office  on  Nov.  29,  but 
it  was  not  till  Dec.  25  that  the  provisional 
governor  was  relieved  and  the  authority  in  the 
state  restored  to  the  officers  elected  by  the 
people.  This  government  continued  in  force 
until  supplanted  by  the  military  government 
provided  by  congress  in  March,  1867,  when 
Gen.  Sickles  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  second  military  district,  embracing  North 
and  South  Carolina.  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
beginning  of  September- by  Gen.  Canby.  A 
registration  of  voters  was  now  held,  prelim 
inary  to  an  election  to  ascertain  the  will  of 
the  people  in  reference  to  calling  a  state  con 
vention  to  frame  a  constitution  and  civil  gov 
ernment,  and  78,982  colored  and  46,346  white 
voters  were  registered.  At  the  election,  held 
on  Nov.  19  and  20,  68,876  colored  and  130 
white  persons  voted  for  a  convention,  and 
2,081  whites  against  it.  Of  the  delegates 
chosen,  34  were  white  and  63  colored.  The 
convention  assembled  on  Jan.  14,  1868,  and 
adopted  a  constitution,  which  was  ratified  by 
the  people,  April  14,  15,  and  16,  by  a  vote  of 
70,758  to  27,288.  At  the  same  time  state 
officers,  members  of  the  legislature  (of  whom 
72  were  white  and  85  colored),  and  representa 
tives  to  congress  were  chosen.  The  legislature 
assembled  on  July  6,  and  on  the  9th  Gov.  Scott 
was  inaugurated.  The  state  became  entitled 
to  representation  in  congress  by  the  ratifica 
tion  (108  to  10)  of  the  fourteenth  amend 
ment  to  the  federal  constitution,  and  recon 
struction  was  practically  completed  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  military  authorities  on  the 
13th.  The  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  fed 
eral  constitution  was  ratified  by  the  legisla 
ture  on  March  11.  1869,  by  a  vote  of  18  to 
1  in  the  senate  and  88  to  3  in  the  house. 
At  the  presidential  election  in  1868,  62,916 
votes  were  cast  for  Grant  (republican)  and 
45,237  for  Seymour  (democrat).  This  was 
the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  state  that 
the  people  had  voted  for  president  and  vice 
president ;  previously  the  presidential  electors 
had  been  chosen  by  the  legislature.  During 
1868  and  subsequently  disorders  alleged  to 
have  been  committed  by  masked  outlaws  called 
"Ku-klux"  were  reported  in  this  state,  espe- 


200 


SOUTHCOTT 


SOUTHEY 


cially  in  the  N.  W.  counties.  In  the  latter  part 
of  1871  and  the  beginning  of  1872  numerous 
arrests  were  made  under  an  act  of  congress 
for  the  suppression  of  these  outrages,  and 
many  persons  were  convicted  in  the  United 
States  courts  and  punished. 

SOUTHCOTT,  Joanna,  an  English  religious  en 
thusiast,  born  at  Gittisham,  Devonshire,  about 
1750,  died  in  London,  Dec.  27,  1814.  Until 
nearly  40  years  of  age  she  was  a  domestic 
servant,  and  for  some  years  was  a  member 
of  the  established  church,  but  shortly  before 
promulgating  her  peculiar  notions  she  united 
with  the  Wesleyans.  In  1792  she  began  to  at 
tract  attention  by  claiming  supernatural  pow 
ers  and  narrating  remarkable  revelations  made 
to  her  in  dreams.  She  published  prophecies 
and  warnings  in  extravagant  prose  and  rude 
doggerel,  challenged  the  clergy  to  investiga 
tion  and  discussion,  and  labored  with  so  much 
energy  and  zeal  that  her  sect  at  the  time  of 
her  death  was  estimated  at  100,000  persons. 
When  upward  of  CO  years  old  she  announced 
that  she  was  pregnant  and  would  give  birth 
to  a  second  Shiloh.  Shortly  before  her  death 
she  expressed  the  conviction  that  "if  she  was 
deceived,  she  had  at  all  events  been  misled  by 
some  spirit,  good  or  evil."  A  post  mortem  ex 
amination  disclosed  the  fact  that  dropsy  was 
mistaken  by  her  for  pregnancy.  Before  her 
death  a  communication,  said  to  be  from  her, 
directed  her  followers  to  hold  no  more  meet 
ings  until  after  the  birth  of  Shiloh.  Little  was 
heard  of  the  sect  till  1825,  when  a  man  named 
Twort  professed  to  be  the  Shiloh  promised. 
One  George  Turner  made  a  like  claim.  In 
the  census  of  1851  there  were  reported  in 
England  four  congregations  of  her  followers. 
John  Wroe  became  their  leader  in  1822,  and 
in  1857  opened  a  mansion  at  Wenthorp  for  a 
community  of  Southcottians. 

SOUTHERN,  Thomas,  a  British  dramatist,  born 
at  Oxmantown,  Ireland,  about  1660,  died  in 
Westminster,  May  26,  1746.  After  spending 
two  years  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  he  en 
tered  in  1678  the  Middle  Temple,  London,  but 
soon  gave  up  the  law  for  literature.  Of  the 
ten  plays  which  he  wrote,  the  best  known  are 
"  Isabella,  or  the  Fatal  Marriage,"  in  which 
Mrs.  Siddons  won  her  first  laurels,  and  "  Oro- 
nooko,"  in  which  he  denounced  slavery  and 
the  slave  trade.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  appeared  in  1774  (3  vols.  12mo). 

SOUTHERNWOOD.     See  ARTEMISIA. 

SOUTHEY.  I.  Robert,  an  English  author,  born 
in  Bristol,  Aug.  12,  1774,  died  at  Greta  hall, 
near  Keswick,  March  21,  1843.  In  his  14th 
year  he  was  placed  at  Westminster  school,  the 
expenses  being  borne  by  a  maternal  uncle.  For 
publishing  in  "  The  Flagellant,"  a  periodical 
started  by  him  and  his  associates,  a  satirical 
article  on  corporal  punishment,  he  was  ex 
pelled  in  1792.  He  entered  Balliol  college,  Ox 
ford,  in  January,  1793,  accepted  with  enthu 
siasm  the  liberal  ideas  to  which  the  French 
revolution  had  given  currency,  and  began  his 


career  of  unparalleled  industry  as  a  man  of 
letters.  He  wrote  in  1793  the  dramatic  poem 
of  "Wat  Tyler,"  first  published  surreptitiously 
in  1817,  which  was  assailed  in  the  house  of 
commons  as  seditious.  With  Coleridge  and 
Lovell  he  formed  the  abortive  plan  of  a  panti- 
socracy,  or. perfect  society,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Susquehanna.  He  left  the  university  in  1794, 
published  in  connection  with  Lovell  a  volume 
of  "  Poems"  (1794),  and  received  from  Cottle 
50  guineas  for  his  "Joan  of  Arc"  (1795),  an 
epic  poem,  which  was  favorably  received.  In 
1795-'6  he  spent  six  months  with  his  uncle  in 
the  Peninsula,  and  published  "Letters  written 
during  a  Short  Residence  in  Spain  and  Portu 
gal  "  (1797).  In  1797  he  went  to  London  to 
study  law,  but  soon  took  lodgings  for  most 
of  the  time  in  the  country,  and  continued  his 
literary  pursuits.  He  was  the  editor  and  prin 
cipal  writer  of  the  "  Annual  Anthology  "  for 
1799  and  1800.  His  health  failing,  he  again 
visited  Portugal  in  1800,  and  collected  mate 
rials  for  a  history  of  that  country.  For  his 
second  epic  poem,  "  Thalaba,  the  Destroyer  " 
(2  vols.  12mo,  1801),  he  received  100  guineas. 
The  post  of  secretary  to  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  for  Ireland  was  offered  to  him  with 
a  salary  of  £350,  but  he  soon  resigned  what 
he  termed  "a  foolish  office  and  a  good  salary." 
In  1804  he  settled  at  Greta,  near  Keswick, 
where  Coleridge  was  living,  and  about  14  m. 
from  Wordsworth  at  Grasmere.  From  this 
time  he  appears  in  his  writings  as  an  uncom 
promising  monarchist  and  churchman,  and  his 
life  was  marked  by  untiring  and  cheerful  labor, 
and  by  repeated  acts  of  generosity.  He  re 
ceived  as  permanent  inmates  of  his  house  the 
wives  of  Lovell  and  Coleridge,  sisters  of  his 
own  wife,  assisted  in  editing  the  works  of 
Chatterton  for  the  benefit  of  the  sister  of  that 
poet,  and  extended  his  kindness  to  several 
unfortunate  poets,  among  whom  was  Henry 
Kirke  White,  whose  "  Remains "  he  edited 
with  a  biography.  He  visited  and  formed  a 
life-long  intimacy  with  Sir  Walter  Scott  in 
1805  ;  became  an  occasional  contributor  to 
the  "Quarterly  Review;"  received  in  1807  a 
pension  of  £160  ;  undertook  in  1809  the  his 
torical  department  of  the  "  Edinburgh  An 
nual  Register;"  was  appointed  poet  laureate 
in  1813  ;  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from 
the  university  of  Oxford  in  1821 ;  visited  Hol 
land  in  1825,  and  remained  three  weeks  at 
Leyden  in  the  house  of  Bilderdijk ;  declined 
the  offer  of  a  baronetcy  in  1835,  but  accepted 
an  addition  of  £300  to  his  pension ;  and  made 
a  tour  in  Normandy  and  Brittany  in  1837. 
His  intense  and  protracted  activity  had  now 
resulted  in  mental  prostration  ;  his  memory 
failed,  and  his  recognition  of  time  and  place 
gave  way,  and  during  the  last  year  there  was 
an  utter  extinction  of  his  faculties.  He  left 
at  his  death  one  of  the  most  remarkable  pri 
vate  libraries  in  England,  which  was  sold  by 
auction  in  London. — There  is  scarcely  a  de 
partment  of  literature  in  which  Southey  did 


SOUTH  SEA  SCHEME 


SOUTHWELL 


201 


not  engage.  His  three  best  poems  are  "  Tha- 
laba,  the  Destroyer"  (1801),  an  Arabian  tale, 
"The  Curse  of  Kehama"  (1810),  founded  upon 
fables  of  the  Hindoo  mythology;  and  "Rod 
erick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths"  (1814),  the  sub 
ject  of  which  is  the  fall  of  the  Gothic  domin 
ion  in  Spain.  "  Madoc,"  one  of  his  longer 
poems,  is  founded  on  traditions  of  Welsh  voy 
ages  to  America.  His  principal  prose  works, 
besides  his  translations  of  "Amadis  de  Gaul" 
and  the  "  Chronicle  of  the  Cid  "  from  the  Span 
ish,  and  of  "  Palmerin  of  England"  from  the 
Portuguese,  are:  "History  of  Brazil"  (3  vols. 
4to,  1810-'19);  "Life  of  Nelson"  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1813)  ;  "  Life  of  John  Wesley"  (2  vols.,  1820)  ; 
"  History  of  the  Peninsular  War"  (3  vols.  4to, 
1822-'32) ;  "  Book  of  the  Church  "  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1824) ;  "  Sir  Thomas  More,  or  Colloquies  on 
the  Progress  and  Prospects  of  Society  "  (2  vols., 
1829)  ;  "  Life  of  John  Bunyan"  (1830) ;  "  Es 
says,  Moral  and  Political"  (2  vols.,  1832)  ;  and 
"The  Doctor"  (7  vols.,  1834-7;  best  ed.,  1 
vol.,  London,  1850).  His  curious  erudition  is 
happily  shown  in  the  last,  and  also  in  his  "  Com 
monplace  Book,"  of  which  four  volumes  were 
edited  after  his  death  by  his  son-in-law,  the 
Rev.  J.  W.  Warter.  Southey  collected  his  poet 
ical  works  (10  vols.,  1837-'8),  and  Mr.  Warter 
has  published  four  volumes  of  his  "Letters" 
(1856).  His  life  was  written  by  his  son,  the 
Rev.  C.  C.  Southey,  in  which  is  interwoven 
his  correspondence  with  many  distinguished 
men  of  his  time  (6  vols.,  1849-'50).  II.  Caro 
line  Anne  Bowles,  second  wife  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Buckland,  Hampshire,  Dec.  6,  1787, 
died  July  20,  1854.  She  was  the  only  child 
of  Capt.  Charles  Bowles,  a  retired  officer.  She 
published  "  Ellen  Fitz- Arthur,"  a  poem  (1820)  ; 
"  The  Widow's  Tale,  and  other  Poems"  (1822) ; 
"  Solitary  Hours,  Prose  and  Verse  "  (1826) ;  and 
"Chapters  on  Churchyards"  (2  vols.,  1829). 
In  1839  she  married  Robert  Southey,  between 
whom  and  herself  a  long  friendship  had  existed. 
They  had  planned  to  write  many  works  to 
gether  ;  but  only  two  or  three  fragmentary 
volumes  appeared  as  their  joint  production. 

SOUTH  SEA  SCHEME  (often  called  the  South 
sea  bubble),  a  financial  delusion  of  the  early 
part  of  the  18th  century.  In  1711  Robert  liar- 
ley,  earl  of  Oxford,  then  lord  treasurer,  pro 
posed  to  fund  a  floating  debt  of  about  £10,000,- 
000,  the  interest,  about  £600,000,  to  be  secured 
by  rendering  permanent  the  duties  upon  wines, 
tobacco,  wrought  silks,  &c.  Purchasers  of  this 
fund  were  to  become  also  shareholders  in  the 
South  sea  company,  a  corporation  to  have  the 
monopoly  of  trade  with  Spanish  South  Ameri 
ca,  a  part  of  the  capital  stock  of  which  was  to 
be  the  new  fund.  After  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 
however,  Spain  refused  to  open  her  commerce 
to  England,  and  the  privileges  of  the  South  sea 
company  became  worthless.  As  many  men  of 
wealth  were  among  its  shareholders  and  direc 
tors,  the  corporation  continued  to  flourish  as 
a  monetary  institution.  The  bad  success  of  its 
trading  operations  was  concealed,  and  accounts 


of  the  riches  of  Chili  and  Peru,  together  with 
false  reports  of  intended  concessions  by  the 
king  of  Spain,  were  skilfully  used  to  increase 
its  credit.  The  breaking  out  of  the  Spanish 
war  in  1718  did  not  shake  the  popular  confi 
dence  in  its  promises.  The  stock  of  the  com 
pany  was  in  great  request,  and  the  directors 
determined  to  enter  upon  the  same  career  that 
John  Law  was  then  running  in  France.  In 
April,  1720,  parliament  by  large  majorities  in 
both  houses  accepted  their  plan  for  paying  the 
national  debt,  that  of  the  bank  of  England  be 
ing  rejected.  Walpole  was  almost  the  only  emi 
nent  man  who  protested  against  the  measure. 
The  South  sea  company  took  upon  itself  the 
whole  debt  of  the  state,  £30,981,712,  in  con 
sideration  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum  secured 
to  them  for  four  years,  after  that  to  be  re 
deemable  by  the  government,  and  the  interest 
to  be  4  per  cent.  Hereupon  a  frenzy  of  specu 
lation  seized  the  whole  nation.  Shares  of  the 
South  sea  company,  which  at  the  passing  of 
the  bill  sold  at  £300,  soon  began  to  rise  rapidly ; 
and  an  enormous  traffic  in  them  sprung  up,  in 
which  all  classes  engaged.  By  May  29  two 
thirds  of  the  government  annuitants  had  ex 
changed  the  securities  of  the  government  for 
those  of  the  company.  Not  even  the  collapse 
of  Law's  scheme  at  the  end  of  May  checked 
the  popular  .infatuation  ;  South  sea  stock  kept 
on  rising  until  early  in  August,  when  it  reached 
its  maximum,  £1,000.  Soon  afterward  it  be 
came  known  that  Sir  John  Blunt,  the  chair 
man,  and  some  others  had  sold  out,  and  the 
stock  began  to  fall.  Toward  the  close  of  Sep 
tember,  in  spite  of  great  efforts  both  of  the 
government  and  of  the  bank  of  England  to 
save  its  credit,  the  company  stopped  payment, 
and  thousands  were  beggared.  An  investiga 
tion  ordered  by  parliament  disclosed  much 
fraud  and  corruption,  in  which  many  promi 
nent  persons  were  implicated.  Some  of  the 
directors  were  imprisoned,  and  all  of  them 
were  fined  to  an  aggregate  amount  of  over 
£2,000,000  for  the  benefit  of  the  stockhold 
ers.  A  great  part  of  the  valid  assets  of  the 
company  was  also  distributed  among  them, 
yielding  a  dividend  of  about  33  per  cent. — See 
Coxe's  "Memoirs  of  Walpole"  (2  vols.,  1798), 
and  "  Memoirs  of  Extraordinary  Popular  De 
lusions,"  by  Charles  Mackay  (London,  1850). 

SOUTHWELL,  or  Sotwell,  Nathaniel,  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  the  county  of  Norfolk  about 
1600,  died  in  Rome,  Dec.  2,  1676.  He  was 
educated  in  the  English  college  at  Rome,  be 
came  a  Jesuit,  and  in  1624  was  sent  as  a  mis 
sionary  priest  to  England,  lie  returned  to 
Rome  in  1627,  and  from  1637  to  1668  was  sec 
retary  general  of  his  order.  lie  revised,  re- 
edited,  and  completed  the  Bibliotheca  Scripto- 
rum  Socictatis  Jesu,  begun  by  Ribadeneira  and 
continued  by  Alegambe  (fol.,  Rome,  1676 ;  new 
ed.  by  the  Jesuit  Oudin,  Rome,  1745;  with 
supplements,  Rome,  1814,  1816).  He  was  also 
the  author  of  "A  Journal  of  Meditations  for 
Every  Day  in  the  Year"  (London,  1669). 


202 


SOUTHWELL 


SOY 


SOUTHWELL,  Robert,  an  English  author,  born 
at  Horsham  St.  Faith's,  Norfolk,  in  1500,  exe 
cuted  at  Tyburn,  Feb.  21,  1595.  He  was  edu 
cated  at  Douai,  became  a  Jesuit  at  Rome  in 
1578,  was  appointed  rector  of  the  English  col 
lege  there  in  1585,  and  in  1586  was  sent  as  a 
missionary  to  England.  He  ministered  secret 
ly  to  the  scattered  Roman  Catholics,  residing 
principally  as  chaplain  in  the  household  of  the 
countess  of  Arundel.  In  1592  he  was  impris 
oned  in  the  tower,  and  was  ten  times  subject 
ed  to  the  torture  to  make  him  disclose  a  plot 
against  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was  much  re 
vered  among  Roman  Catholics  for  his  gentle 
ness  and  purity  of  life,  and  his  cause  has  been 
lately  introduced  for  canonization  in  the  Ro 
man  ecclesiastical  courts.  His  most  important 
poems  are  contained  in  "  St.  Peter's  Complaint 
and  other  Poems  "  (4to,  London,  1595  ;  last  ed. 
with  sketch  of  his  life  by  W.  J.  Walter,  1817),' 
and  "Msenonioj,  or  Certaine  excellent  Poems 
and  Spiritual!  Hymnes  "  (4to,  1595).  His  chief 
prose  works  are  :  "  The  Triumph  over  Death  " 
(1595);  "Epistle  of  Comfort  to  those  Catho 
lics  who  lie  under  Restraint"  (Svo,  1005); 
and  "Marie  Magdalen's  Funeral  Teares"  (4to, 
1009;  new  ed.,  1823).  Collective  editions  of 
his  works  were  published  in  1020,  1630,  1634, 
1637,  and  1828;  and  a  complete  edition  of  his 
poetical  works  in  1856. 

SOITHWORTH,  Emma  D.  E.  (NEVITT),  an 
American  authoress,  born  in  Washington,  D. 
C.,  Dec.  26,  1818.  She  was  married  in  1841, 
and  two  years  later,  being  thrown  upon  her 
own  resources,  she  resorted  to  her  pen  for  sup 
port.  She  wrote  for  the  "  National  Era,"  a 
newspaper  published  in  Washington,  and  in 
1849  republi  shed  from  it  her  first  novel,  "Ret 
ribution."  Her  later  works  are  very  numer 
ous,  including  "  The  Deserted  Wife,"  "  Shan- 
nondale,"  "  The  Curse  of  Clifton,"  -  The  Lost 
Heiress,"  "  The  Discarded  Daughter,"  "  Cruel 
as  the  Grave,"  "Tried  for  her  Life,"  "A  Beau 
tiful  Fiend  "  (1873),  and  "  The  Spectre  Lover  " 
(1875).  An  edition  of  her  works  was  pub 
lished  at  Philadelphia  in  1872,  in  35  vols. 

SOUVESTRE,  Emile,  a  French  author,  born  in 
Morlaix,  April  15,  1806,  died  in  Paris,  July  5, 
1854.  After  failing  to  get  his  first  drama  per 
formed  in  Paris,  he  became  in  1820  a  publish 
er's  clerk  at  Nantes,  and  finally  a  journalist  and 
litterateur,  settling  in  Paris  about  1836.  After 
the  revolution  of  1848  he  received  a  professor 
ship  in  the  new  school  of  administrative  sci 
ence,  and  delivered  popular  lectures  there  and 
subsequently  in  Switzerland,  which  were  pub 
lished  under  the  title  of  Cause.rics  Jiistoriques 
ct  litteraires  (2  vols.,  1854).  He  excelled  as  a 
writer  of  didactic  novels  and  tales.  His  Ph  ilo- 
soplie  sous  les  toits  received  in  1851  an  academi 
cal  prize.  Shortly  after  his  death  the  Lambert 
prize  for  the  most  beneficent  works  was  given 
on  his  behalf  to  his  widow,  who  also  wrote 
and  translated  various  works.  His  sketches 
of  life  in  Brittany  include  Les  derniers  Bre 
tons  (4  vols.,  1835-'7).  In  1868  an  English 


translation  of  his  "Legends  of  Brittany"  ap 
peared  in  New  York,  and  one  of  "Pleasure 
of  Old  Age  "  in  London. 

SOWERBY.  I.  James,  an  English  naturalist, 
born  in  Lambeth,  March  21,  1757,  died  Oct. 
25,  1822.  In  early  life  he  was  a  painter  of 
portraits  and  miniatures,  and  later  took  up 
natural  history  in  connection  with  his  art.  He 
published  "  English  Botany,  or  colored  Figures 
of  all  the  Plants  Natives  of  Great  Britain," 
with  descriptions  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  M.  D. 
(36  vols.  royal  8vo,  1792-1807;  supplement  by 
his  son  James  De  Carle  Sowerby,  4  vols., 
1815-'49;  new  ed.  by  J.  T.  B.  Syme,  10  vols., 
1863-'70) ;  "  Colored  Figures  of  English  Fungi 
or  Mushrooms,  with  Descriptions  "  (3  vols.  fol., 
1797-1809);  "British  Mineralogy"  (5  vols. 
8vo,  1804-'17)  ;  "Exotic  Mineralogy  "  (2  vols. 
roy.  8vo,  1811-'17);  "British  Miscellany" 
(animal  subjects,  12  parts,  1804-'6) ;  and 
"  Mineral  Conchology  of  Great  Britain  "  (6 
vols.,  GOO  colored  plates,  1812-'41 ;  vols.  v.  and 
vi.  by  his  son  James  De  Carle).  He  was  a  fel 
low  of  the  Linnrean  and  geological  societies. 
II.  George  Brettingham,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Lambeth,  Aug.  12,  1788,  died  July  20, 
1854.  He  assisted  his  father  in  the  entomo 
logical  portion  of  his  works,  and  published 
"  Genera  of  Recent  and  Fossil  Shells"  (42  parts 
8vo,  204  colored  plates,  1822-'34;  drawings 
and  engravings  by  his  father  and  his  brother 
James  De  Carle),  and  "  Species  Conchylio- 
rum,  or  Original  Descriptions  and  Observations 
of  all  the  Species  of  Recent  Shells  with  their 
Varieties"  (4to,  1830,  unfinished).  III.  George 
Kivtlinzliiim,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  March 
25,  1812.  He  has  published  "  Manual  of  Con 
chology,"  with  upward  of  050  figures  of  shells 
on  24  copper  plates  (8vo,  1839  ;  4th  ed.,  re 
vised,  1852)  ;  "  Conchological  Illustrations"  (6 
vols.  Svo,  1841) ;  "  Thesaurus  Conchyliorum, 
or  Figures  and  Descriptions  of  Shells"  (30 
parts  imp.  8vo,  1842-'71);  "Popular  British 
Conchology"  (16mo,  1854;  ne\v  ed.,  1866); 
"Popular  History  of  the  Aquarium"  (16mo, 
1857;  new  ed.,  1865);  "Illustrated  Compan 
ion  to  Kingsley's  Glaucus "  (1858);  "Illus 
trated  Index  of  British  Shells  "  (royal  Svo,  24 
plates,  1859);  and  "Labels  for  the  recognized 
Species  of  British  Shells"  (1861).  He  also 
furnished  drawings  for  Reeve's  "  Elements  of 
Conchology"  and  "  Land  and  Fresh-water  Mol- 
lusks  of  tlie  British  Isles." 

SOY  (Japanese,  soojd),  a  sauce  prepared  in  Ja 
pan  and  China  from  the  seeds  of  a  plant  former 
ly  called  sojfc  Jiispida,  but  now  glycine  fiispida. 
The  plant  is  erect,  much  branched,  and  roughly 
hairy,  has  pea-like  flowers  in  axillary  racemes, 
and  hairy  pods  with  two  to  five  compressed 
seeds.  In  preparing  the  soy  the  seeds  are 
boiled  with  water  nearly  to  dryness,  then  put 
in  wide-mouthed  jars  with  water  and  sugar, 
and  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air.  Every  day 
they  are  well  stirred ;  and  when  the  fermenta 
tion  is  completed  the  mixture  is  strained,  salted, 
and  boiled,  and  skimmed  until  clarified.  Soy 


SOYER 


SPAIN" 


203 


is  in  general  use  as  a  condiment  throughout 
Cochin-China,  China,  and  other,  eastern  coun 
tries  ;  the  Japanese  is  considered  the  best.  It 
has  a  peculiar  flavor,  neither  too  salt  nor  sweet ; 
a  thick  consistence  and  clear  brown  color ;  and 
leaves  when  shaken  in  a  glass  a  coat  of  bright 
yellowish  brown  upon  the  sides.  It  is  imported 
to  be  used  with  fish.  The  Chinese  name  for 
the  sauce,  according  to  Archer,  is  kit  jap,  from 
which  our  word  catsup  or  ketchup  is  derived. 

SOYER,  Alexis,  a  French  cook,  born  about 
1800,  died  in  England,  Aug.  5,  1858.  For  sev 
eral  years  anterior  to  1850  he  was  chief  cook 
at  the  Reform  club,  London.  During  the  Cri 
mean  war  he  introduced  among  the  troops  at 
Constantinople  an  intelligent  system  of  cook 
ing.  He  published  "  Cookery  for  the  People," 
Delassements  culinaires  (8vo,  London,  1845), 
''Gastronomic  Regenerator"  (1847),  "The 
Modern  Housewife"  (1849),  &c. 

SPA,  or  Spaa,  a  watering  place  of  Belgium, 
in  the  province  and  10  in.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of 
Liege,  in  a  beautiful  valley  of  the  Ardennes ; 
pop.  about  5,000.  It  is  well  built,  and  has 
several  squares  and  a  fine  bathing  establish 
ment,  erected  in  1865.  The  Pouhon  or  prin 
cipal  spring  is  under  a  colonnade  built  in 
honor  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  was  here  re 
stored  to'  health.  The  waters  are  chalybeate, 
and  150,000  bottles  are  exported  yearly.  The 
annual  number  of  visitors  exceeds  16,000. 

SPADA,  Lionello,  an  Italian  painter,  born  in 
Bologna  in  1576,  died  in  Parma  in  1622.  He 
received  his  earliest  education  in  the  school  of 
the  Carracci,  where  he  was  employed  while 
a  boy  as  a  color  grinder ;  subsequently  he  be 
came  a  pupil  of  Caravaggio.  After  executing 
important  works  in  Reggio,  Modena,  and  Par 
ma,  he  entered  the  service  of  Ranuccio,  duke 
of  Parma.  His  masterpiece  is  "  San  Domenico 
burning  the  proscribed  Books  of  the  Heretics." 

SPAGXOLETTO,  a  Spanish  painter,  whose  real 
name  was  Jose  Ribera,  born  in  San  Felipe  de 
Jativa,  Jan.  12,  1588,  died  in  Naples  in  1656. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Caravaggio,  whose  peculiar 
style  he  followed  with  enthusiasm,  and  settled 
in  Naples  about  1612.  He  excelled  in  chiaro 
scuro,  and  delighted  in  gloomy  subjects.  His 
chief  works  are  in  Spain,  but  Naples  possesses 
his  "Martyrdom  of  St.  Januarius,"  "St.  Je 
rome  and  St.  Bruno,"  and  "Descent  from  the 
Cross."  Among  his  pupils  was  Salvator  Rosa, 

SPAIX  (anc.  Iberia;  Lat.  Hispania ;  Span. 
Espann\  a  kingdom  of  S.  TV.  Europe,  forming 
with  Portugal  the  Pyrenean  or  Iberian  pen 
insula.      The  name   Hispania  came  into   use 
among  the  Romans  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Carthaginian  power  in  the  peninsula.     It  lies 
between  lat.  36°  and  43°  48'  N\,  and  Ion.  3° 
20' E.  and  9°  21' TV.     Its  greatest  extent  N". 
and  S.,  from  Cape  Penas  in  Asturias  to  Tarifa  j 
point  and  the  strait  of  Gibraltar,  is  about  540  j 
m. ;  E.  and  TV.,  from  Cape  Creus  in  Catalonia  ; 
to  near  Cape  Finisterre  in  Galicia,  about  630  m.  j 
It  is  bounded  X.  E.  by  France,  with  which  it  j 
is  connected  by  an  isthmus  about  240  m.  wide,  j 


and  TV.  partly  by  Portugal;  on  all  other  sides 
it  is  surrounded  by  water,  viz. :  E.,  S.  E.,  and 
S.  by  the  Mediterranean  and  the  strait  of  Gib 
raltar,  which  separates  it  from  Africa,  S.  TV. 
and  TV.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  N.  by  the 
bay  of  Biscay.  In  extent  it  holds  the  sixth 
rank  among  European  states,  being  surpassed 
by  Russia,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Austria,  Ger 
many,  and  France. — The  coast  line  of  Spain, 
which  forms  nearly  two  thirds  of  its  perimeter, 
is  about  1,370  m.  in  length,  of  which  about  600 
m.  belongs  to  the  bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Atlan 
tic,  and  770  m.  to  the  Mediterranean.  In  the 
north,  from  the  French  frontier  to  Cape  Or- 
tegal  and  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Minho, 
the  coast  is  rocky,  the  height  ranging  from 
40  to  300  ft.  In  the  southwest,  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Guadiana  to  that  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
the  shore  is  mostly  low,  sandy,  and  swampy; 
then  it  rises  gradually,  and  in  the  bay  of  Alge- 
siras  presents  suddenly,  the  magnificent  rock 
of  Gibraltar.  From  Gibraltar  to  Cape  Palos 
at  the  southeast  it  is  mostly  rocky,  but  of  lit 
tle  elevation.  The  E.  coast,  from  Cape  Palos 
to  the  French  frontier,  is  alternately  high  and 
low  ;  a  part  of  it  is  -lined  with  lagoons,  along 
which  numerous  salt  works  are  established. 
The  indentations  of  the  Spanish  coast  are  not 
considerable ;  the  greatest  are  the  bay  of  Rosas 
and  the  gulf  of  Ampolla  in  the  east,  and  the 
gulf  of  Almeria,  the  strait  and  bay  of  Gibral 
tar,  and  the  bay  of  Cadiz  in  tjie  south.  Among 
the  most  important  capes  are  Creus,  St.  Sebas 
tian,  St.  Martin,  and  Palos  in  the  east,  Gata 
and  Trafalgar  in  the  south,  Finisterre  in  the 
west,  and  Ortegal,  Penas,  and  Machichaco  in 
the  north.  There  are  few  islands  near  the 
Spanish  coast ;  the  most  important  are  the  Ba 
learic,  a  group  consisting  of  two  larger  (Ma 
jorca  and  Minorca)  and  a  number  of  smaller 
islands,  and  Iviza  and  Formentera  (the  Pity- 
usa3  of  the  ancients).  Other  small  islands  are 
the  Isla  de  Leon,  on  which  Cadiz  stands,  and 
the  Columbretes,  off  the  coast  of  Valencia. 
Excellent  harbors  are  found  in  the  northwest 
and  Avest,  of  which  those  of  Ferrol  and  Vigo 
are  conspicuous ;  the  southwest  has  the  almost 
unassailable  harbor  of  Cadiz,  and  the  northeast 
the  harbors  of  Barcelona  and  Rosas. — Spain 
has  230  rivers,  of  which  only  a  few  are  naviga 
ble.  From  the  general  direction  of  the  moun 
tain  ranges,  the  main  streams  flow  generally 
either  E.  or  TV.  The  principal  rivers  which 
water  the  basins  inclining  toward  the  Mediter 
ranean  are  the  Ebro,  Guadalaviar,  Jucar,  and 
Segura,  each  of  which  receives  several  afflu 
ents.  Five  large  rivers  run  into  the  Atlantic, 
the  Minho  (Sp.  Mmo\  Douro  (Duero),  Tagns 
(Tajo\  Guadiana,  and  Guadalquivir.  Two  of 
these  rivers,  the  Douro  and  the  Tagus,  have 
their  mouths  in  the  territory  of  Portugal,  and 
two  others,  the  Minho  and  Guadiana,  on  the 
confines  of  the  two  countries.  The  most  im 
portant  of  them  in  point  of  navigation  is  the 
Guadalquivir,  the  others  being  encumbered 
with  rocks,  shallows,  and  falls.  The  lakes  are 


204 


SPAIN" 


not  important ;  the  most  remarkable  is  that  of 
Alb uf era,  S.  of  Valencia. — Spain  is  eminently 
a  region  of  mountain  ridges  and  broad  eleva 
ted  plateaus.  From  near  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  Atlantic  the  whole  peninsula  is  traversed 
by  successive  mountain  belts,  including  be 
tween  them  high  lands  watered  by  numerous 
small  streams.  As  many  as  five  distinct  belts 
are  traced  across  the  peninsula,  the  most  prom 
inent  of  which,  ranging  along  the  northern 
border,  has  been  described  under  the  heads 
CANTABRIAN  MOUNTAINS  and  PYEENEES.  Each 
belt  is  marked  by  bold  precipitous  fronts  facing 
the  south  and  gentler  slopes  toward  the  north. 
The  second  belt,  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama 
(with  its  continuations  the  Sierras  de  Gredos 
and  de  Gata),  divides  Leon  and  Old  Castile 
from  Estremadura  and  New  Castile,  and  the 
waters  of  the  Douro  from  those  of  the  Tagus. 
Some  of  its  peaks,  as  the  Puerto  del  Pico  in 
the  province  of  Avila,  and  Peilalara  on  the 
border  of  Segovia  and  Madrid,  rise  to  a  height 
of  about  8,000  ft.  Toward  the  east,  on  the 
borders  of  Aragon,  this  belt  is  broken  up  into 
various  irregular  ranges  which,  under  the  name 
of  the  Iberian  chain,  including  in  this  designa 
tion  the  spur  from  the  Cantabrians  before  re 
ferred  to,  extend  in  a  S.  E.  direction  and  spread 
over  the  E.  coast.  The  third  range,  called  the 
mountains  of  Toledo,  separate  the  waters  of  the 
Tagus  from  those  of  the  Guadiana.  This  range 
is  less  marked  than  the  others.  The  next  is 
the  Sierra  Morena,  along  the  southern  slopes 
of  which  flow  the  branches  of  the  Guadalqui 
vir.  Under  various  names  this  important  belt 
is  traced  from  the  province  of  La  Mancha  on 
the  east  to  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  Portugal  at 
Cape  St.  Vincent.  The  name  Morena,  brown 
or  dark-colored,  is  said  to  be  given  to  the 
mountains  from  the  dingy  color  of  the  forests 
of  kermes  oak  along  the  southern  edge.  The 
southern  coast  range,  of  which  the  Sierra 
Nevada  forms  a  part,  and  which  is  spoken  of 
collectively  by  that  name,  runs  close  to  the 
Mediterranean,  through  southern  Murcia  and 
Andalusia,  from  Capo  Palos  to  Cadiz  by  one 
branch,  and  to  the  rock  of  Gibraltar  by  an 
other.  It  contains  the  Cerro  de  Mulhacen, 
the  highest  point  of  the  peninsula,  and  of  Eu 
rope  except  in  the  Alps  and  the  Caucasus, 
being  11,054  ft.  high,  and  the  peak  of  Veleta, 
11,375  ft.  Besides  these  there  are  numerous 
minor  ranges,  which  may  be  regarded  as  off 
shoots  or  continuations  of  the  principal  chains. 
— The  geological  formations  of  Spain  range 
with  the  mountains  E.  and  W.  across  the  pen 
insula,  and  consist  in  the  mountains  them 
selves  of  metamorphic  granites  and  crystalline 
schists,  and  on  their  flanks  are  represented  the  ! 
Silurian,  Devonian,  and  sometimes  the  carbon-  j 
iferous  formations.  In  Asturias  the  last  named  i 
are  met  with  in  highly  tilted  strata.  The  old 
er  palaeozoic  rocks  are  frequently  covered  by  | 
groups  of  the  tertiary,  some  of  the  most  recent 
of  which,  as  along  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Guadarrama,  lie  inclined  from  the  uplifting  of 


the  mountains,  and  in  Leon  along  the  Canta- 
brian  range  they  even  stand  in  a  vertical  posi 
tion  ;  but  back  from  the  mountains  over  the 
great  plains  of  Castile  the  same  strata  lie  hori 
zontally.  The  uplifting  of  the  Sierra  Morena 
appears  to  have  been  previous  to  the  deposi 
tion  of  the  miocene,  calcareous  beds  of  which, 
filled  with  fresh-water  shells,  are  seen  on  both 
sides  of  the  mountains  lying  horizontally  upon 
highly  inclined  Silurian  slates.  The  Iberian 
chain  is  in  great  part  made  up  of  the  newer 
secondary  formations.  Moncayo  on  the  west 
ern  borders  of  Aragon,  the  highest  mountain 
of  this  group,  is  referred  to  the  Jura,  and  many 
other  mountains  in  the  eastern  provinces  more 
than  5,000  ft.  high  are  composed  of  Jurassic 
or  cretaceous  rocks.  These  formations  extend 
around  on  the  S.  coast,  and  the  rock  of  Gibral 
tar  is  Jurassic  limestone.  The  trias  also  is 
traced  from  the  Pyrenees  to  Andalusia,  near  the 
Mediterranean,  in  beds  of  conglomerates,  sand 
stones,  limestones,  clays,  marl,  gypsum,  and  salt. 
— The  mineral  productions  of  Spain  are  vari 
ous  and  rich,  and  its  mines  of  lead,  mercury, 
tin,  iron,  silver,  copper,  salt,  &c.,  have  been 
worked  from  the  remotest  times.  Iron  ores 
are  very  generally  diffused,  but  the  production 
of  iron  is  comparatively  small.  Linares,  in  the 
province  of  Jaen,  and  the  Sierra  de  Gador,  a 
spur  of  the  Nevada,  possess  rich  mines  of  lead. 
The  little  copper  produced  in  Spain  is  chiefly 
from  the  mines  of  Linares  and  that  of  Eio 
Tinto  N.  "W.  of  Seville,  all  in  Andalusia.  Tin 
ores  are  found  only  in  Galicia,  and  are  worked 
to  a  very  moderate  extent.  Lead  and  copper 
are  also  found  here,  and  in  ancient  times  silver 
and  gold  were  produced  in  Galicia.  Antimo 
ny  was  formerly  extracted  from  the  mines  of 
La  Mancha.  Near  Cardona  in  Catalonia  are 
famous  mines  of  rot?k  salt  associated  with  beds 
of  gypsum  in  the  trias  formation.  Silver  is 
now  obtained  only  from  the  mines  of  Guadal 
canal,  in  the  province  of  Seville.  The  quick 
silver  mines  of  Almaden,  in  Ciudad  Eeal,  are 
the  richest  in  Europe.  Asturias  and  Aragon 
have  important  coal  mines. — The  climate  of 
Spain  is  divided  into  three  greatly  differing 
zones.  The  northern  zone,  which  extends  to 
the  Ebro  and  the  Minho,  comprises  Galicia, 
Asturias,  the  Basque  provinces,  Navarre,  Ca 
talonia  and  the  northern  part  of  Old  Castile, 
and  Aragon.  The  mountains  which  cover  this 
zone,  the  almost  perpetual  snows  of  the  Pyre 
nees,  together  with  the  N.  and  N.  E.  winds, 
lower  the  temperature,  increase  the  number 
and  supply  of  the  waters,  and  promote  vegeta 
tion.  Agriculture  is  therefore  the  principal 
occupation,  especially  of  the  Basques  and  Cata- 
lonians.  The  winters  in  this  zone  are  general 
ly  cold,  and  the  springs  moist;  but  the  climate 
is  on  the  whole  temperate.  The  middle  zone, 
which  embraces  northern  Valencia,  New  Cas 
tile,  southern  Old  Castile,  southern  Aragon, 
Leon,  and  Estremadura,  is  composed  of  vast 
and  elevated  plateaus,  the  uniform  and  monot 
onous  surface  of  which  is  swept  by  the  winds 


LIB R  A  R  Y 

U  N  I  V  K  U  (•;,  1  T  Y"   O  F 

VLIJM         LA. 


SPAIN 


205 


and  burned  by  the  sun.  Although  high  moun 
tain  ridges  line  and  traverse  this  region,  it  has 
few  rivers,  not  sufficient  to  fertilize  it.  The 
temperature  is  subject  to  extremes;  the  win 
ters  are  cold  and  the  summers  burning,  but 
the  spring  and  autumn  are  pleasant.  The 
southern  zone,  which  comprises  Andalusia, 
Murcia,  and  southern  Valencia,  is  exposed  to 
the  influence  of  the  burning  winds  from  Af 
rica,  and  to  the  reflection  of  the  rays  of  the 
sun  from  the  naked  and  rocky  mountain  walls. 
The  valleys  in  this  zone  are  deeper  and  the 
plateaus  less  extended  and  better  supplied  with 
water  than  in  the  middle  zone ;  the  soil  is 
more  diversified  and  better  adapted  for  agri 
culture.  The  temperature,  delicious  in  autumn 
and  in  spring,  is  tropical  in  summer,  and  more 
rainy  than  cold  in  winter.  Two  kinds  of 
winds  are  very  troublesome.  The  gallcgo,  a 
X.  and  N".  W.  wind,  blowing  from  Galicia,  is 
cold  and  piercing,  and  causes  painful  affections 
of  the  eye.  The  southern  provinces  are  visited 
by  the  solano,  the  sirocco  of  Italy. — Spain  is 
one  of  the  most  fruitful  countries  of  Europe. 
Wheat,  maize,  barley,  hemp,  and  flax  are  ex 
tensively  cultivated,  especially  in  the  eastern 
and  northern  provinces.  Saffron  and  other 
dye  plants  are  chiefly  found  in  the  interior. 
Mulberry  trees  are  largely  cultivated  for  rear 
ing  silkworms  in  Valencia,  Murcia,  and  Gra 
nada.  In  the  south  there  is  a  great  variety  of 
the  finer  fruits,  including  the  almond,  date,  fig, 
orange,  citron,  pomegranate,  pineapple,  and 
banana.  Large  forests,  especially  of  evergreen 
oaks,  including  the  cork  tree,  are  still  found  in 
Asturias,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Sierra  Morena,  and 
the  Sierra  Nevada ;  but  on  the  whole  Spain  has 
less  timber  than  any  other  of  the  large  coun 
tries  of  Europe,  owing  to  the  want  of  cultiva 
tion.  The  culture  of  the  vine  is  general ;  but 
only  the  coast  districts  of  Jerez,  Rota,  and  Mal 
aga,  in  Andalusia,  and  of  Benicarlo  and  Ali 
cante  in  Valencia,  furnish  considerable  quanti 
ties  for  exportation.  ~The  quadrupeds,  birds, 
reptiles,  and  insects  are  mostly  of  the  same 
kinds  as  those  of  S.  France.  Wolves,  lynxes, 
foxes,  and  wild  boars  are  still  to  be  found  on 
the  high  mountains ;  but  the  bear,  which  two 
centuries  ago  was  common,  is  only  to  be  met 
with  in  the  Pyrenees.  The  Barbary  ape,  the 
only  monkey  naturalized  in  Europe,  inhabits 
the  rock  of  Gibraltar.  Descended  from  breeds 
which  the  Moors  introduced,  the  Spanish  horse 
has  preserved  the  fire,  docility,  grace,  and  vig 
or  of  the  Arabian.  Those  of  Seville,  Granada, 
and  Estremadura  are  most  valued.  The  asses 
and  mules  are  superior ;  the  former  rival  those 
of  Egypt,  but  mules  are  preferred  for  trans 
portation.  The  bulls  used  for  bull  fights  are 
found  wild  in  the  Sierra  Morena.  Sheep  are 
everywhere  extensively  raised,  a  considera 
ble  proportion  belonging  to  the  merino  breed. 
Hogs  are  bred  in  large  numbers;  those"  of 
Estremadura,  Galicia,  and  Asturias  are  cele 
brated  for  the  delicacy  of  their  flesh.  There 
are  important  fisheries  on  the  coasts ;  the  fish 


of  the  Atlantic  are  preferred  to  those  of  the 
Mediterranean. — The  kingdom,  inclusive  of 
the  less  remote  islands,  is  divided  into  49  prov 
inces,  named  after  their  respective  capitals 
except  the  last  six  in  the  table,  viz. :  Navarre, 
capital  Pamplona^;  Biscay,  Bilbao ;  Guipvizcoa, 
St.  Sebastian  ;  Alava,  Vitoria  ;  Balearic  Isl 
ands,  Palma;  Canary  Islands,  Santa  Cruz  de 
Tenerife.  The  area  and  population  of  the 
provinces  and  of  the  ancient  divisions,  accord 
ing  to  official  estimates  in  1870,  are  given  in 
the  Almanack  de  Gotha  for  1875  as  follows  : 


PROVINCES. 

Area,  sq.  m. 

Population. 

NEW  CASTIiE. 

1.  Madrid 

2,997 

487,482 

2   Toledo. 

55^6 

34-2,272 

4  b<59 

20^  638 

4.  Cueuca.  .  . 

0,726 

233,731 

Total 

20,178 

1  277,123 

LA   MANCIIA. 

5.  Ciudad  Real..         .                  

7.S40 

264.649 

OLD   CASTILE. 

5651  • 

353,560 

7    Lo'Tono  

1.945 

182.941 

8    San  lander                                  

2,113 

241,581 

9.  Soria                                  

8,^36 

158.699 

10    tH"rovia.  .                           

2J14 

150.812 

11    A  vila 

2.9^2 

175,219 

12.  Valencia  

13    Valladolid 

3,1-26 
3,043 

1S4.663 
242,384 

Total                                 

25,409 

1,689,864 

LEON. 

14.  Leon     

C.I  07 

350,092 

15.  Zamora  

4,135 

250,963 

4  940 

280,870 

Total 

15,242 

881,930 

ASTURIAS. 

17   Oviedo 

4091 

610,853 

GALICIA. 

18   Corunna                   .         

3,079 

630.504 

3,787 

475.836 

2,789 

402.796 

21.  Pontevedra  

1,739 

480,145 

Total                    

11,344 

1,989,281 

ESTRE.MADUKA. 

8,633 

431,922 

23.  Caceres  

8,014 

302,455 

Total                               

16,702 

734,377 

ANDALUSIA. 

24   Seville                                 

5,295 

515.011 

25   Cadiz                          

2,809 

426,499 

26    Huelva                          

4,122 

196.469 

5.190 

382,652 

28.  Jaen  
20   Granada                            

5.184 
4.937 

392.100 
4-5.346 

3.302 

86U558 

31    Mali"*1! 

2,824 

505,010 

Total                         

33,663 

3.264,640 

MURCIA. 

32   Murcia                                     

447S 

439  067 

38   Albacetc             

5,972 

220,973 

Total 

10450 

660  040 

VALENCIA. 

34    Valencia 

4,352 

665.141 

35   Alicante                     

2,093 

440.470 

36   Castellon                   

2,447 

296,222 

Total  .  .  . 

8,897 

1,401,833 

206 


SPAIN 


PROVINCES. 

Area,  sq.  m. 

Population. 

CATALONIA. 

87   Barcelona  ..                       

2,985 

762.555 

2,451 

350,395 

8'»    Lerida 

4.775 

'   880.343 

40    Gerona       .         

2,272 

325.110 

Total                  

12,483 

1,768,403 

AEAGON. 
41.  Saragossa  
42.  lluesca         

fi,607 
5,878 

401,894 
274,023 

43.  Teruel.              

5,494 

252,201 

Total 

17979 

928,718 

N  AVAKRE. 

44.  Navarre  

BASQ1TE   PROVINCES. 

45.  Biscay  

4,046 

849 
728 

318,687 

187.926 
1  Si  1  743 

47.  Alava  

1,205 

103.320 

Total  

2,782 

471,989 

48   Balearic  Islands 

1  860 

9^0  005 

49.  Canary  Islands  
Total  of.  Spain  in  Europe  and 

2,b08 
195  774 

283,859 
16  ^35  506 

The  area  and  population  of  the  foreign  colo 
nies  of  Spain  according  to  the  latest  data  are 
as  follows : 


AMERICA. 

Cuba 

Porto  Rico . . . 


Are:i,  sq.  m.  I  Population. 


Total  . . 


45,883 
3,596 

49,479 


ASIA   AND    OCEANTCA. 

Philippines  (exclusive  of  independent 

parts) I  ()5.90« 

Carolines  and  Palaos i  916 

Ladrones  or  Marianas j  417 

Total. . .                                         !  67,241 


1.400.000 
625,000 

2,025,000 


(',000.000 

2S.OOO 

5.610 


The  Guinea 

AFRICA. 

islands                                            489 

35  000 

Total 

Spanish  colonies  117,209 

8,093,61  0 

The  Canary  islands,  which  geographically  he- 
long  to  Africa,  are  included  by  the  Spaniards 
in  their  European  possessions.  Besides  them, 
the  town  of  Ceuta,  on  the  coast  of  Morocco,  is 
included  in  the  European  province  of  Cadiz, 
and  the  Presidios,  likewise  on  the  N.  coast  of 
Africa,  are  included  in  the  European  province 
of  Granada.  In  population  Spain  ranks  sev 
enth  among  the  powers  of  Europe,  being  sur 
passed  by  Russia,  Germany,  France,  Austria, 
Great  Britain,  and  Italy.  The  increase  since 
1700  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


YEARS. 

Population. 

YEARS. 

I     Population. 

17001... 
1769 

8,000,000 
0  i  (JO  000 

1849.  .  . 
1857 

..!     14.216.219 
15454514 

1797  

1  0,541  '000 

1870 

16835506 

1834  

12,597,719 

The  increase  since  1834  has  been  about  equal 
ly  divided;    only  one  province,  Ciudad  Real, 


shows  a  small  decrease,  from  27V, 788  to  264,- 
649.  The  largest  ratio  of  increase  is  in  the 
eastern  provinces,  where  Lerida  has  advanced 
from  151,322  to  330,348,  Valencia  from  388,- 
759  to  665,141,  and  Barcelona  from  442,273  to 
762,555.  The  thinnest  population  is  found  in 
the  interior  provinces  of  Leon,  the  two  Cas- 
tiles,  and  Estremadura  ;  and  the  densest  in  the 
north,  Galicia,  Asturias,  the  Basque  provinces, 
Navarre,  Aragon,  and  Catalonia.  The  entire 
population  is  distributed  among  169  ciududes 
(cities),  4,707  villas  (towns),  30,386  lugares 
(villages),  and  10,788  aldeas  (hamlets).  The 
principal  cities  are  Madrid,  the  capital,  Barce 
lona,  Malaga,  Valencia, .  Seville,  Granada,  Ca 
diz,  and  Saragossa.  Spain  is  believed  to  have 
been  in  former  times  much  more  densely  in 
habited  than  during  the  last  two  centuries. 
Under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  the  popu 
lation,  according  to  some  calculations,  was  up 
ward  of  30,000,000 ;  and  in  the  14th  century 
it  is  believed  to  have  amounted  to  24,000,000. 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Spanish 
race,  a  mixture  of  the  descendants  of  the  old 
Iberians  and  Celts  with  the  Carthaginians, 
Romans,  Vandals,  Suevi,  Goths,  and  Moors, 
with  a  general  predominance  of  the  Roman 
element,  although  the  several  provinces  show 
in  some  respects  marked  differences  in  the 
national  character.  National  amusements  are 
music,  singing,  and  dancing,  the  last  named 
often  assuming,  especially  in  the  favorite  fan 
dango  and  bolero,  a  passionate  and  sensuous 
character.  From  the  Romans  the  Spaniards 
have  inherited  a  fondness  for  bull  fights,  which 
are  still  the  greatest  popular  festivities,  and 
equally  delight  all  classes.  The  men  are  gen 
erally  well  built,  and  have  a  dark  but  clear 
complexion,  black  hair,  eyes  full  of  fire,  sharp 
features,  and  gestures  measured  and  solemn.. 
The  women  are  well  formed  and  distinguished 
for  noble  carriage.  Besides  the  Spaniards 
proper,  there  are  three  other  races,  the  Basques, 
the  Modejars,  and  the  gypsies.  The  Basques, 
probably  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Ibe 
rians,  numbering  (besides  those  in  France) 
about  650,000,  and  forming  the  majority  of 
the  population  in  the  Basque  provinces  and 
in  Navarre,  have  retained  their  ancient  lan 
guage,  manners,  and  customs.  (See  BASQUES.) 
The  Modejars,  about  60,000  in  number,  are 
the  descendants  of  the  Moors  ;  they  are  chief 
ly  found  in  Granada  and  Castile,  and  many  of 
them  still  preserve  the  customs  of  their  fore 
fathers.  The  gypsies  or  Gitanos,  numbering 
about  50,000,  and  scattered  throughout  Spain, 
speak  a  peculiar  dialect  current  only  among 
themselves.  Spain  has  a  very  numerous  no 
bility  ;  according  to  some  they  form  the  21st, 
according  to  others  even  the  15th  part  of  the 
population.  The  higher  nobility  (titulados, 
grandes)  own  immense  possessions,  while  the 
lower  class  (hidalgos)  are  in  many  instances 
poor. — Agriculture,  although  still  very  imper 
fect,  has  made  of  late  considerable  progress. 
Wheat,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  . 


SPAIN 


207 


was  not  yet  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  for 
home  consumption,  forms  now  a  considerable 
article  of  export.  Wine  and  oil  constitute 
the  chief  riches  of  some  of  the  provinces. 
Agriculture  has  made  especial  progress  in  Bis 
cay,  Navarre,  and  Aragon,  and  all  the  arable 
ground  near  the  roads  has  been  cultivated. 
But  the  most  careful  cultivation  is  found  in 
the  huertfts  or  irrigated  lands  of  Granada, 
Murcia,  and  Valencia,  which  are  regarded  as 
the  gardens  of  Spain,  and  produce  all  kinds 
of  fruits,  vegetables,  and  plants.  The  farmers 
are  for  the  most  part  wretchedly  poor,  and 
are  obliged  to  obtain  money  at  exorbitant 
prices  by  mortgaging  their  crops.  Certain 
privileges,  very  injurious  to  the  interests  of 
agriculture*  are  enjoyed  by  the  proprietors 
(called  mestas)  of  large  migratory  flocks  of 
sheep,  especially  merinos.  They  are  not  only 
allowed  to  drive  their  flocks  over  village  pas 
tures  and  commons,  but  the  proprietors  of 
such  cultivated  lands  as  lie  in  their  way  are 
obliged  to  leave  for  them  a  wide  path ;  and 
no  new  enclosures  can  bo  made  in  the  line 
of  their  migrations,  nor  can  any  land  that 
has  once  been  in  pasture  be  again  cultivated 
till  it  has  been  offered  to  the  mesta  at  a  cer 
tain  rate.  Only  about  53  per  cent,  of  the 
soil  is  under  cultivation. — Manufacturing  in 
dustry  in  former  centuries  was  very  prosper 
ous.  In  the  middle  ages,  the  wool  and  silk 
tissues  of  Seville,  Granada,  and  Baeza,  the 
cloths  of  Murcia,  and  the  arms  of  Toledo  en 
joyed  a  high  reputation.  The  expulsion  of 
the  Moors  and  Jews,  the  monopoly  given  to 
the  royal  manufactories,  the  onerous  taxes 
weighing  down  private  industry  and  aggrava 
ted  by  the  avidity  of  the  fiscal  agents,  com 
bined  to  undermine  this  prosperity.  Seville 
in  1519  counted  10,000  silk  workshops,  em 
ploying  130,000  workmen  ;  in  1673  it  had  only 
405  manufactories.  The  manufactories  of  Se 
govia,  in  which  formerly  25,000  pieces  were 
annually  produced,  made  in  1788  only  400 
pieces.  In  recent  times  industry  has  greatly 
improved  again,  especially  by  the  influx  of 
foreign  capital,  as  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  former  property  of  the  clergy  has  passed 
into  the  hands  of  French  and  English  capital 
ists.  The  cotton  industry,  which  is  concen 
trated  chiefly  in  Barcelona  and  other  places 
in  Catalonia,  employs  1,200,000  spindles,  and 
supports  about  100,000  men.  Metallurgic  in 
dustry  has  been  developed  in  Guipuzcoa,  Bis 
cay,  Aragon,  Catalonia,  and  Granada;  silk 
goods  are  manufactured  at  Barcelona,  Man- 
resa,  Tarragona,  Toledo,  Seville,  and  Valen 
cia;  woollen  stuffs  at  Segovia,  Arevalo,  Col- 
menar  (on  the  Manzanares),  and  Alcoy ;  linen 
in  Galicia  and  Catalonia;  leather  at  Barce 
lona,  Cordova,  Burgos,  Toledo,  Granada,  and 
Madrid ;  and  glassware  at  Barcelona.  There 
are  manufactories  of  firearms  in  the  Basque 
provinces,  Catalonia,  and  Segovia,  and  can 
non  founderies  at  Seville,  Lierganes,  Trubia, 
and  Barcelona.  The  number  of  stock  corn- 

VOL.  XY. 14 


panies  has  greatly  increased  of  late  years.  At 
the  close  of  1866  there  were  65  credit  and 
other  commercial  and  industrial  associations, 
with  a  nominal  capital  of  $37,900,000.  In 
1867  there  were  27  railroad  and  other  public 
works  associations,  with  a  nominal  capital  of 
$204,480,000.  The  number  of  banks  was  23, 
capital  $35,600,000.  A  decree  of  March  19, 
1874,  founded  a  new  national  bank,  with  which 
the  old  privileged  Spanish  bank  and  the  pro 
vincial  banks  were  to  be  consolidated. — The 
first  railroad  in  Spain  was  opened  in  1848, 
from  Barcelona  to  Mataro,  18^  m.  Notwith 
standing  the  mountainous  nature  of  the  coun 
try,  their  extension  has  been  pursued  with 
some  vigor ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  wretch 
ed  state  of  Spanish  industry,  the  want  of  good 
inland  roads,  and  frequent  political  disturb 
ances,  the  financial  condition  of  the  railroads 
is  unsatisfactory,  and  their  progress  has  been 
less  rapid  lately  than  in  any  other  European 
country.  In  1867  only  26  m.  of  new  railroads 
were  opened ;  in  1868,  72  m. ;  in  1869,  6  m. ; 
in  1870,  36  m. ;  in  1871,  20  m. ;  in  1872  and 
1873,  60  m.  Some  of  the  main  lines  were  not 
yet  completed  in  1875.  The  aggregate  length 
of  the  railroads  on  Jan.  1,  1874,  was  3,364 
m.  In  1867  the  number  of  passengers  carried 
was  10,357,351.  The  total  length  of  telegraph 
lines  in  1871  was  7,287  m. ;  number  of  stations, 
193;  number  of  despatches,  996,912.  The 
number  of  post  offices  was  2,347;  of  letters, 
78,174,000.  There  are  several  canals,  some  of 
them  on  a  magnificent  scale,  but  mostly  un 
finished  and  unfit  for  navigation.  The  chief 
of  these  are  the  Imperial  canal,  begun  by 
Charles  V.,  and  extending  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ebro,  and  the  canals  of  Castile, 
Manzanares,  Murcia,  Albacete,  and  Guadarra- 
ma.  The  aggregate  length  of  the  canals  in 
1874  was  430m.,  of  which  131  m.  were  navi 
gable.  The  number  of  the  boats  on  the  lat 
ter  was  332. — The  most  important  articles  of 
export  are  wines,  specie,  metals,  especially 
lead,  raisins,  olive  oil,  flour,  cork,  soap,  wool,, 
brandies,  and  salt ;  and  the  imports  comprise 
sugar,  cotton  and  cotton  goods,  woollen,  silk,, 
and  linen  goods,  iron  in  bars,  codfish,  machines, 
cacao,  guano,  and  coal.  In  1849  a  protective 
tariff  was  adopted  in  place  of  the  former  pro 
hibitive  system.  A  decree  of  the  regency, 
dated  Aug.  1,  1869,  introduced  a  new  tariff, 
which  abolished  all  prohibitions  and  reduced 
considerably  the  duties  on  most  articles.  It 
provided  also  for  a  further  reduction  to  take 
place  on  July  1,  1875.  The  imports  and  ex 
ports  from  1867  to  1869  inclusive,  according 
to  official  reports,  were  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1867 

$76.800.000 
110.200,000 
84,900,000 

$56.600,000 
58.300,000 
51.200,000 

1S63 

1SG9  

The  trade  of  Spain  is  chiefly  with  France,  Great 
Britain,  and  Cuba.     In  1867  the  value  of  im- 

208 


SPAIN" 


ports  from  France  was  $33,648,000,  from  Great 
Britain  $26,112,000,  and  from  Cuba  $7,680,000 ; 
of  exports  to  France  $15,936,000,  to  Great 
Britain  $16,224,000,  and  to  Cuba  $9,936,000. 
The  merchant  navy  in  1867  consisted  of  4,363 
sailing  vessels,  tonnage  345,186,  and  151  steam 
ers,  tonnage  45,484;  total,  4,514  vessels,  of 
390,670  aggregate  tonnage.  In  the  same  year 
9,640  vessels,  of  1,532,000  aggregate  tonnage, 
entered  the  ports. — The  government  of  Spain, 
which  has  undergone  many  changes  since  1812, 
is  now  a  constitutional  monarchy.  The  consti 
tution  of  June  1, 1869,  vests  the  legislative  pow 
er  in  a  cortes,  as  representative  of  the  sovereign 
Spanish  nation.  The  king,  who  is  inviolable 
and  not  subject  to  responsibility,  sanctions  and 
promulgates  the  laws,  and  exercises  the  execu 
tive  power  through  the  state  ministry.  In  Jan 
uary,  1875,  the  ministry  was  composed  of  a 
president  and  eight  ministers,  the  departments 
being  foreign  affairs,  finance,  interior,  justice, 
commerce  and  public  works,  war,  marine,  and 
colonies.  The  cortes  is  divided  into  a  senate 
and  the  congress.  The  requirements  for  a  sen 
ator  are  to  be  a  Spaniard,  to  be  40  years  of  age, 
to  be  possessed  of  civil  rights,  and  either  to 
have  been  the  occupant  of  a  high  political,  ec 
clesiastical,  or  literary  position,  or  to  be  one 
of  the  large  taxpayers.  One  fourth  of  the 
senate  is  removed  each  time  that  general  elec 
tions  for  deputies  are  held.  The  lower  house, 
the  congress,  which  is  wholly  renewed  every 
three  years,  is  composed  of  at  least  one  depu 
ty  to  each  40,000  of  the  population.  To  be 
eligible  as  a  deputy  one  must  be  a  Spaniard, 
of  age,  and  in  possession  of  civil  rights.  The 
cortes  must  meet  for  at  least  four  months 
every  year.  Each  house  nominates  its  own 
officers.  The  provinces,  districts,  and  com 
munes  of  Spain  are  governed  by  their  own 
special  laws,  and  this  principle  of  provincial 
and  municipal  self-government  has  generally 
been  recognized  by  all  the  governments.  Every 
commune  of  at  least  60  members  has  its 
own  elected  ayuntamiento,  which  is  pre 
sided  over  by  an  alcalde.  Each  province  has 
its  own  parliament,  the  deputation  provin 
cial,  the  members  of  which  are  elected  by 
the  ayuntarnientos.  The  courts  of  justice 
comprise  the  supreme  tribunal  at  Madrid,  15 
audiencias  tcrritoriales  (courts  of  the  second 
resort),  and  499  courts  of  ordinary  jurisdic 
tion.  The  army  of  Spain,  according  to  the 
military  law  of  Feb.  17,  1873,  is  divided  into 
the  active  army  and  the  reserve.  The  former, 
the  numerical  strength  of  which  is  established 
annually  by  a  law,  is  recruited  wholly  by  vol 
unteers  from  19  to  40  years  of  age,  who  enlist 
for  a  term  of  at  least  two  years,  after  the  ex 
piration  of  which  they  may  reenlist  for  at 
least  one  year.  The  reserve  is  formed  of  all 
who  have  reached  their  20th  year,  excepting 
those  who  serve  in  the  active  army.  The  time 
of  service  is  three  years,  and  no  substitutes 
are  accepted.  The  reserve  of  a  province  may 
be  mobilized  by  a  decree  of  the  government, 


but  the  mobilization  of  the  entire  reserve  re 
quires  a  national  law.  "Whenever  the  number 
of  volunteers  is  insufficient  to  fill  the  active 
army,  the  reserve  may  be  mobilized.  In  1875 
the  Spanish  army  was  in  process  of  reorgani 
zation  on  the  basis  of  these  provisions.  The 
military  force  in  Spain  was  to  number  about 
216,000  men.  To  this  number  should  be  added 
about  60,000  men  in  Cuba,  9,400  in  Porto 
Rico,  and  9,000  in  the  Philippines;  total,  78,- 
400,  making  the  whole  strength  of  the  Spanish 
army  294,400.  As  it  has  been  common  with 
most  of  the  governments  which  have  followed 
each  other  in  rapid  succession  to  make  mili 
tary  appointments  for  political  reasons,  the 
number  of  officers  of  the  highest  military 
rank  is  disproportionately  large.  There  is  a 
school  of  infantry  cadets  at  Toledo,  a  school 
of  cavalry  cadets  (established  in  1851)  at  Al- 
cala  de  Ilenares,  a  special  school  of  artillerists, 
an  academy  of  engineers,  and  a  school  of  the 
general  staff  at  Madrid,  and  a  general  military 
school  at  Toledo.  Spain  has  125  fortified 
places,  among  which  are  25  of  the  first  order. 
The  navy,  which  in  former  times  commanded 
all  seas,  and  afterward  greatly  declined,  has 
only  recently  begun  to  improve  again.  The 
fleet  in  1874  consisted  of  20  vessels  of  the  first 
class  (7  ironclads,  10  screw  frigates,  and  3 
wheel  steamers),  21  vessels  of  the  second  class 
(10  wheel  steamers,  9  screw  steamers,  and  2 
screw  transports),  and  161  vessels  of  the  third 
class  (20  screw  steamers,  54  gunboats,  10  wheel 
steamers,  4  screw  transports,  and  73  brigs) ; 
total,  202  vessels  with  894  guns.  Besides 
these  are  the  following  vessels  not  classified : 
5  steamers  with  5  guns,  a  monitor  with  3 
guns,  2  despatch  boats  with  6  guns,  1  floating 
battery,  and  1  sailing  transport.  The  navy 
was  manned  in  1874  by  9,700  sailors  and  5,000 
marines. — The  finances  of  Spain  have  long 
been  in  a  wretched  condition,  and  there  is  no 
longer  any  hope  among  Spanish  statesmen  for 
a  permanent  improvement.  The  apparent  sur 
plus  of  receipts  which  appeared  in  several  of 
the  budgets  presented  to  the  cortes  was  gen 
erally  found  to  be  fictitious,  and  since  1867 
even  the  budget  estimates  have  invariably  left 
a  large  deficit  unprovided  for.  Even  the  ex 
tensive  sale  of  national  and  church  property 
has  failed  to  restore  the  equilibrium  and  to 
arrest  the  threatening  increase  of  the  national 
debt.  In  the  budget  for  187l-'2  the  revenue 
was  estimated  at  about  $113,500,000,  and  the 
expenditures  at  $121,000,000;  and  the  minis 
ter  of  finance  declared  that  the  state  was  on 
the  verge  of  bankruptcy,  which  could  be 
averted  only  "by  the  most  strenuous  exer 
tions,  devoted  both  to  raise  the  revenue  by  the 
imposition  of  new  taxes  and  otherwise,  and  to 
depress  the  expenditure  to  the  lowest  possible 
point."  A  report  of  the  minister  of  finance 
in  May,  1873,  estimated  the  public  debt  at 
$1,511,000,000.  The  payment  of  interest  on 
the  foreign  debt  was  suspended  on  July  1, 
1873.  According  to  the  Madrid  "  Official  Ga- 


SPAIN 


209 


zette"  the  total  revenue  for  1874-'5  was  $108,- 
960,000,  and  the  total  expenditure  $104,105,- 
000.  The  revenue  was  derived  chiefly  from 
direct  and  indirect  taxes,  stamps,  tobacco  and 
other  monopolies,  sales  of  national  property, 
and  exemptions  from  military  service.  The 
receipts  from  colonies  amounted  to  only  $595,- 
000.  The  chief  items  of  expenditure  were 
$55,800,000  for  war  and  marine,  and  $31,- 
195,000  for  the  other  ministries.  This  state 
ment  shows  a  slight  surplus  of  revenue,  but 
if  the  interest  on  the  public  debt  had  been 
paid  there  would  have  been  the  usual  deficit. 
— Of  the  coins  of  Spain,  the  real  is  equal  in 
value  to  about  5  cts.,  the  peseta  is  equal  to 
four  reales,  and  the  escudo  to  ten  reales.  The 
French  metric  system  was  introduced  Jan.  1, 
1859,  but  the  old  weights  and  measures  are 
still  much  used. — Nearly  the  whole  popula 
tion  of  Spain  belongs  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
church ;  and  before  the  establishment  of  the 
Spanish  republic  in  1868  no  other  religious 
denomination  was  recognized  by  law  or  en 
joyed  the  right  of  public  worship.  To  teach 
or  tp  embrace  Protestantism,  or  to  circulate, 
buy,  or  sell  'Protestant  books,  was  also  punish 
able  by  law.  Oaly  a  few  congregations  of 
foreign  Protestants  and  Jews  were  allowed  to 
worship  according  to  the  rites  of  their  respec 
tive  religions.  A  few  natives  were  known  to 
profess  Protestant  opinions,  and  they  gradually 
came  to  be  tolerated  as  long  as  they  did  not 
assemble  for  public  worship.  After  the  expul 
sion  of  Queen  Isabella  Protestant  congrega 
tions  were  formed  in  all  the  large  and  in  some 
of  the  small  towns ;  they  were  soon  organized 
into  a  Spanish  evangelical  synod,  and  a  con 
sistory  was  appointed  in  Madrid  for  adminis 
trative  purposes.  Besides  the  congregations 
connected  with  this  synod,  there  are  a  few 
Baptist,  Scotch  Presbyterian,  and  Anglican 
churches.  The  whole  number  of  Protestants 
in  1874  was  variously  estimated  from  30,000 
to  120,000.  The  Ptoman  Catholic  church  in 
Spain  is  divided  into  54  dioceses,  9  of  which 
are  archbishoprics,  viz. :  Burgos,  Santiago,  Gra 
nada,  Saragossa,  Toledo,  Tarragona,  Seville, 
Valencia,  and  Valladolid.  In  the  Spanish  pos 
sessions  out  of  Europe,  there  are  in  America 
one  archbishopric  (Santiago  de  Cuba)  and  two 
bishoprics ;  in  Asia,  one  archbishopric  (Manila) 
and  four  bishoprics.  The  archbishop  of  To 
ledo  is  primate  of  Spain.  In  1830  the  clergy 
and  religious  orders  counted  152,305  members, 
including  30,900  monks  and  24,700  nuns  in 
1,940  convents.  In  1835-'6  nearly  all  the  con 
vents  were  suppressed ;  but  subsequently  va 
rious  female  communities,  mostly  devoted  to 
teaching  and  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  and  a  few 
male  orders,  were  reestablished  by  permission 
of  the  government.  In  1860  there  were  32 
male  convents  with  719  monks,  and  866  female 
convents  with  12,990  nuns.  The  number  of 
priests  in  1867  was  43,948.  In  former  times 
the  church  owned  immense  possessions,  but 
in  1835  they  were  declared  national  property 


and  confiscated,  and  the  clergy  indemnified  by 
fixed  salaries.  Up  to  1839  the  ecclesiastical 
property  which  had  been  sold  amounted  to 
$78,000,000.  A  concordat,  concluded  Aug.  25, 
1859,  and  promulgated  Jan.  14,  1860,  stipu 
lated  that  the  church  should  remain  in  the  pos 
session  of  all  the  property  not  yet  disposed  of, 
and  should  have  in  future  the  right  of  acqui 
ring  property  of  any  kind. — The  organization 
of  public  instruction  dates  from  1845.  At  the 
head  of  educational  affairs  is  a  royal  council 
subdivided  into  six  sections,  viz.  :  primary  in 
struction,  philosophy,  ecclesiastical  sciences, 
jurisprudence,  medical  science,  and  adminis 
tration  of  public  instruction.  In  1852  there 
were  fewer  than  2,000,000  individuals  who 
were  able  to  read,  and  scarcely  1,200,000  knew 
how  to  write.  Since  then  the  government  has 
made  efforts  to  improve  public  instruction,  and 
the  higher  institutions  of  learning  have  been 
the  object  of  special  solicitude.  In  1867  there 
were  26,332  public  schools,  with  1,425,339  pu 
pils,  of  whom  850,762  were  boys  and  574,577 
girls.  In  1872  the  middle  schools  consisted  of 
50  provincial  and  13  municipal  institutes,  be- 
.sides  several  private  colegios,  with  an  aggre 
gate  attendance  of  about  26,000.  Spain  has 
10  universities,  in  Madrid,  Barcelona,  Granada, 
Oviedo,  Salamanca,  Seville,  Santiago,  Valencia, 
Valladolid,  and  Saragossa.  The  total  number 
of  students  in  1868  was  12,269.  Three  uni 
versities  (Madrid,  Barcelona,  and  Granada) 
have  each  five  faculties  (philosophy  and  litera 
ture,  exact  sciences,  pharmacy,  medicine,  and 
law),  two  four  faculties,  one  three  faculties, 
and  the  others  but  two.  The  theological  facul 
ties  have  been  abolished  in  all  the  universities, 
and  theological  instruction  is  imparted  at  the 
seminaries  connected  with  the  episcopal  sees. 
Normal  schools  have  been  established,  in  ac 
cordance  with  the  law  of  1857,  in  the  capitals 
of  the  several  provinces.  Special  instruction 
is  provided  for  by  a  school  of  engineering, 
commercial  schools,  a  college  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  a  school  for  the  blind,  and  a  higher  vet 
erinary  school  at  Madrid,  with  branch  estab 
lishments  at  Cordova  and  Saragossa.  Spain  has 
many  literary  societies,  yet  none  of  them  can 
compare  with  similar  societies  in  most  other 
European  countries.  The  best  known  among 
them  are  the  royal  academy  at  Madrid,  found 
ed  in  1714 ;  the  academy  of  sciences  at  Seville ; 
the  academy  of  plastic  arts  at  Madrid;  the  acad 
emies  of  arts  at  Seville,  Cadiz,  Valencia,  Sara 
gossa,  and  Palma ;  the  royal  academy  of  Spanish 
history  at  Madrid ;  and  the  academy  of  geog 
raphy  at  Valladolid.  Of  public  libraries  there 
are  the  royal  library  and  six  others  at  Madrid, 
one  in  the  Escurial,  two  at  Valencia,  two  at 
Saragossa,  and  one  at  Toledo,  besides  those 
belonging  to  the  different  universities.  In  1808 
only  four  periodicals  were  published  in  Spain ; 
in  1868  there  were  4-68.  In  1867  there  were 
335  theatres,  with  accommodations  for  169,376 
people. — The  Spanish  peninsula  was  early  vis 
ited  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  established  flour- 


210 


SPAIN 


ishing  colonies  on  its  coasts,  snch  as  Tartes- 
sus  (probably  the  Tarshish  of  Scripture)  and 
Gades  (Cadiz).  They  were  followed  by  the 
Greeks,  among  whose  colonies  were  Emporise 
(now  Ampurias,  on  the  coast  of  Catalonia) 
and  Saguntum  (Murviedro,  in  Valencia).  Still 
the  interior  remained  very  imperfectly  known, 
and  it  was  not  till  the  second  Punic  war  that 
the  Romans  acquired  an  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  country.  The  Greeks  at  first  applied  the 
name  Iberia  (corresponding  to  that  of  the  river 
Iberus,  now  Ebro)  to  the  eastern  coast,  calling, 
the  western  part  of  the  peninsula  Tartessis  and 
the  centre  Celtica ;  but  later  they  extended  the 
term  Iberia  to  the  whole.  The  Romans  ex 
changed  this  name  for  that  of  Hispania  (whence 
the  modern  Spain),  supposed  by  many  critics  to 
be  derived  from  the  Semitic  sJiaphan,  rabbit,  an 
animal  which  the  Phoenicians  found  in  vast 
numbers  in  the  country,  and  by  others  to  be 
from  the  Basque  ezpalla,  border.  From  re 
mote  antiquity  the  elevated  regions  of  the  inte 
rior  were  peopled  by  the  Celtiberians,  a  race 
formed  from  the  mixture  of  Celts  and  Iberi 
ans.  (See  CELTIBEKIANS.)  A  number  of  Ibe 
rian  and  Celtic  tribes,  however,  retained  their 
distinct  nationality.  Among  the  former  were 
the  Astures,  Cantabri,  and  Vaccsei,  inhabiting 
the  mountainous  districts  of  the  north.  The 
unmixed  Celts  dwelt  chiefly  near  the  Guadi- 
ana,  and  in  Gallrecia  (Galicia).  The  Turde- 
tani,  who  lived  in  the  valley  of  the  Guadal 
quivir,  were  accounted  the  most  civilized  of 
the  Spanish  tribes,  and  even  had  a  literature 
of  their  own.  The  inhabitants  were  brave 
and  warlike.  Even  in  antiquity  the  sheep  of 
Spain  were  highly  prized,  and  the  country 
produced  corn,  oil,  and  wine;  but  its  princi 
pal  riches  lay  in  its  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and 
other  metals.  After  the  first  Punic  war  the 
Carthaginians  began  to  establish  themselves 
in  Spain,  and,  under  the  leadership  of  Hamil- 
car  and  Ilasdrubal,  subdued  several  tribes  on 
the  S.  and  E.  coasts.  Among  the  cities  found 
ed  by  them  was  New  Carthage  (now  Carta 
gena),  which  soon  became  a  celebrated  em 
porium.  Pressed  by  the  Carthaginians,  the 
Greek  colonies  of  Saguntum  and  Emporire 
applied  for  aid  to  the  Romans,  who  obtained 
from  Carthage  an  agreement  not  to  extend 
her  dominion  beyond  the  Iberus,  and  to  re 
spect  the  independence  of  Saguntum.  The 
siege  and  destruction  of  Saguntum  by  Han 
nibal  in  219  B.  C.  led  to  the  second  Punic 
war,  in  the  course  of  which  Scipio  expelled 
the  Carthaginians  from  Spain  (206).  The  Ro 
mans  now  undertook  the  subjugation  of  the 
entire  peninsula,  but  did  not  fully  succeed 
until  after  a  war  of  about  200  years,  in  which 
the  exploits  of  the  Lusitanian  Viriathus,  the 
heroic  resistance  and  final  downfall  of  Nu- 
mantia  (133),  and  the  temporary  independence 
of  a  part  of  the  country  under  the  gallant 
Sertorius  (84  to  T2)  form  brilliant  episodes. 
In  19  B.  C.  the  subjection  of  all  Spain,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Basques,  was  completed. 


Augustus  divided  the  peninsula  into  three 
provinces :  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  so  named 
from  the  capital  Tarraco  (Tarragona),  in  the 
north,  east,  and  centre ;  Hispania  Baetica  (from 
the  Btetis,  now  Guadalquivir),  in  the  south, 
and  extending  to  the  Anas  (Guadiana),  the 
capital  of  which  was  Corduba  (Cordova)  or 
Hispalis  (Seville) ;  and  Lusitania,  between 
Cape  St.  Vincent  and  the  Durius  (Douro),  and 
nearly  corresponding  to  the  modern  Portugal, 
the  capital  of  which  was  Augusta  Emerita 
(Merida).  •  The  country  became  so  thoroughly 
Romanized  that  it  was  one  of  the  principal 
seats  of  Roman  civilization  and  literature. 
Christianity  was  early  introduced,  and  in  the 
time  of  Constantine  the  Christianization  of 
the  entire  country  was  completed.  The  de 
cay  of  the  Roman  empire  called  several  Ger 
man  tribes  to  Spain,  who  encountered  but  fee 
ble  resistance.  The  Suevi  founded  an  empire 
in  the  N.  "YY.  part,  in  the  province  of  Gallfecia; 
the  Alani  occupied  Lusitania ;  and  the  Van 
dals  settled  in  the  southern  province  of  Bsetica, 
which  was  called  after  them  Vandalusia  (now 
Andalusia).  The  Romans  called  to  their  aid 
the  Visigoths,  who  had  a  powerful  empire 
in  S.  W.  France,  already  extending  across  the 
Pyrenees  as  far  as  the  Ebro.  King  Wallia 
of  the  Visigoths  in  A.  D.  418  destroyed  the 
empire  of  the  Silingi,  a  tribe  of  the  Vandals, 
in  S.  Spain,  and  so  reduced  the  power  of  the 
Alani  that  they  fused  with  the  Vandals,  who 
in  their  turn  in  429  left  under  Genseric  for  N. 
Africa,  where  they  founded  a  great  empire. 
The  Visigoths  soon  subdued  the  whole  of  Spain 
with  the  exception  of  the  northwest,  which 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Suevi  till 
585,  when  their  empire  was  destroyed  by  the 
Visigothic  king  Leovigild.  One  of  the  great 
est  kings  of  the  Visigoths  was  Euric,  who  in 
471  put  an  end  to  the  dominion  of  the  Ro 
mans,  and  gave  to  Spain  the  first  written  laws. 
Under  Reccared  I.  the  Visigoths,  who  until 
then  had  been  Arians,  adopted  the  Catholic 
faith  (589),  a  step  which  greatly  facilitated  the 
thorough  coalescence  of  the  Gothic,  the  Latin, 
and  the  native  Spanish  elements  of  the  popu 
lation  into  one  Spanish  nationality,  with  a 
general  prevalence  of  the  Latin  element.  The 
constitution  of  the  Visigoths  was  an  elective 
monarchy,  which  proved  to  be  a  prolific  source 
of  violence,  assassination,  and  civil  war,, and 
finally  led  to  the  destruction  of  their  kingdom. 
The  family  of  Alaric,  which  had  been  dissatis 
fied  at  a  new  election,  called  the  Arabs,  who 
had  an  empire  on  the  N.  coast  of  A.frica  (in 
Mauritania,  whence  they  were  called  Moors), 
into  Spain,  and  King  Roderic  fell. in  the  great 
and  protracted  battle  at  Jerez  de  la  Frontera 
(July,  Til).  The  Arabs,  under  the  leadership 
of  Tarik,  Musa,  and  others,  completed  within  a 
few  years  the  subjugation  of  the  country,  with 
the  exception  of  the  mountainous  districts 
Asturias,  Cantabria  (E.  of  the  preceding),  and 
Navarre,  where  a  Gothic  prince,  Pelagius 
(Spanish,  Pelayo),  was  elected  king,  and  main- 


SPAIN 


211 


tained  himself  successfully  against  the  inva 
sion  of  the  Arabs.  The  conquered  part  of 
Spain  became  at  first  a  province  of  the  eastern 
caliphs.  When  the  Ommiyade  line  of  caliphs 
was  overthrown  by  the  Abbassides,  Abderrah- 
man,  who  had  escaped  the  massacre  of  his 
family,  was  invited  to  Spain,  and  in  756  es 
tablished  an  independent  Ommiyade  dynasty 
at  Cordova,  which  attained  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity,  especially  under  Abderrahman  III. 
(912-961).  Agriculture,  commerce,  science, 
and  art  flourished,  and  the  literary  institutions 
of  the  Spanish  Mohammedans  were  so  cele 
brated  that  they  were  frequented  by  Christian 
students  from  all  countries  of  Europe.  The 
Jews  became  very  prosperous,  and  it  was  in 
Spain  that  the  mediaeval  Hebrew  literature 
reached  its  highest  development.  The  lan 
guage  and  customs  of  the  Moors  became  gen 
erally  predominant;  the  Christians  were  de 
prived  of  their  political  rights,  yet  retained 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  Early  in 
the  llth  century  the  caliphate  of  Cordova  be 
came  the  prey  of  internal  revolutions,  and  in 
1031  it  disappeared  altogether,  numerous  king 
doms  being  founded  on  its  ruins.  During  the 
three  centuries  of  its  existence  the  Christian 
power  had  been  steadily  extending  in  the  north 
of  the  peninsula.  The  little  kingdom  which 
maintained  itself  under  Pelayo  in  the  moun 
tainous  districts  of  1ST.  W.  Spain  was  at  first 
limited  to  the  district  of  Oviedo,  and  therefore 
called  the  kingdom  of  Oviedo.  The  second  suc 
cessor  of  Pelayo,  Alfcjnso  I.,  the  Catholic,  con 
quered  G-alicia,  with  a  part  of  Leon  and  Castile, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Asturias.  The 
whole  of  Leon  was  conquered  by  Alfonso  HI., 
the  Great  (abdicated  910),  whose  son  Ordono 
II.  transferred  his  residence  to  the  city  of 
Leon,  and  called  his  dominion  the  kingdom  of 
Leon.  N.  E.  Spain  was  conquered  by  Charle 
magne,  and  became  known  as  the  Marca  His- 
panica,  but  the  Frank  dominion  was  of  short 
duration.  Navarre  appears  as  an  independent 
state  in  the  9th  century,  and  gradually  rose  to 
be  a  powerful  kingdom.  Near  the  sources  of 
the  Ebro  and  the  Pisuerga  arose  the  kingdom 
of  Castile,  at  first  a  small  republic,  consisting 
of  some  forts  and  a  few  towns.  If  it  was 
ever  fully  subdued  by  the  Moors,  it  threw  -off 
their  yoke  very  soon,  for  as  early  as  759 
there  appears  a  count  of  Castile.  Its  territory 
was  soon  enlarged,  but  for  some  time  it  was 
subject  to  Leon,  until  in  961,  under  Fernando 
Gonzales,  it  recovered  its  independence.  Its 
rulers  soon  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  in 
1037  Ferdinand  I.,  the  Great,  united  the  king 
dom  of  Leon  with  Castile,  which  was  henceforth 
the  most  powerful  Spanish  state.  Catalonia 
was* ruled  by  counts,  the  most  prominent  being 
those  of  Barcelona,  who  early  in  the  12th  cen 
tury  became  the  sole  rulers.  Aragon,  which 
had  formed  a  part  of  Navarre,  became  an  in 
dependent  kingdom  under  Ramiro  I.  in  1035, 
and  in  1137  it  was  united  with  Catalonia. 
Portugal  was  made  a  distinct  county  by  Al 


fonso  VI.  of  Castile  about  1095,  and  in  1139 
was  erected  into  a  kingdom.  The  most  impor 
tant  of  the  Moorish  states  which  arose  out  of 
the  caliphate  of  Cordova  were  Toledo,  Valen 
cia,  Murcia,  Saragossa,  and  Seville.  The  last 
became  very  powerful  under  the  Abadite 
princes,  and  comprised  Andalusia,  Cordova,  Al- 
garve,  and  other  territories.  In  the  latter  half 
of  the  llth  century  the  Christians  found  a 
brave  leader  in  Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile,  whose 
reign  was  rendered  brilliant  by  the  romantic 
exploits  of  the  Cid.  Alfonso  destroyed  the 
kingdom  of  Toledo  (1085),  made  its  capital  his 
residence,  and  named  his  conquest  New  Cas 
tile.  Toward  the  close  of  the  llth  century  the 
Moorish  sect  of  the  Almoravides,  who  had 
established  their  dynasty  in  Morocco,  invaded 
Spain,  overthrew  the  kingdom  of  Seville,  and 
rapidly  extended  their  sway  over  the  other 
Moorish  territories.  But  before  the  middle  of 
the  12th  century  a  new  revolution  in  Africa 
raised  the  sect  of  the  Almohades  to  power, 
and  the  Almoravides  of  Spain  succumbed. 
The  Christian  princes,  who  lijie  the  Moham 
medan  rulers  had  constantly  warred  against 
each  other,  resolved  to  unite  their  forces  in  a 
common  effort,  and  in  1212  Alfonso  IX.  of 
Castile,  with  the  kings  of  Aragon  and  Navarre, 
annihilated  the  power  of  the  Almohades  in 
the  great  battle  of  Navas  de  Tolosa  in  the 
Sierra  Morena.  Their  empire  fell  to  pieces, 
the  new  states  were  successively  subdued  by 
the  Christians,  and  before  the  close  of  the  cen 
tury  Moorish  dominion  had  been  restricted  to 
the  kingdom  of  Granada,  which  paid  homage 
to  Castile.  Granada  continued  for  two  cen 
turies  a  great  and  populous  state.  Weakened 
by  continual  wars  with  Castile  and  by  internal 
dissensions,  it  finally,  after  a  desperate  con 
flict,  succumbed  under  the  famous  Boabdil  to 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Among  the  Christian 
states  of  Spain,  Aragon  and  Castile  became 
the  most  powerful,  and  in  the  course  of  time 
absorbed  all  the  others.  Pedro  I.  of  Aragon 
conquered  the  principality  of  Huesca;  Alfon 
so  I.  (in  1118)  Saragossa,  which  he  made  his 
capital;  Alfonso  II.  and  Pedro  the  Catholic 
likewise  enlarged  the  empire;  James  (Jaime) 
I.,  the  Conqueror,  wrested  from  the  Moors 
the  Balearic  islands  and  the  kingdom  of  Valen 
cia;  Pedro  III.  occupied  Sicily  in  1282;  and 
Alfonso  V.  united  Naples  with  his  kingdom. 
But,  while  enlarging  its  territory,  Aragon  suf 
fered  at  home  almost  continually  from  civil 
broils  and  plots,  from  contests  between  the 
grandees  and  the  kings,  and  from  oppression 
of  the  people  by  taxes.  It  was,  however,  the 
§rst  Christian  state  in  which  the  third  estate 
obtained  a  legal  position.  (See  ARAGON.) 
When  the  Catalonian  line  of  princes  became 
extinct,  the  cortes  of  Aragon  in  1412  elected 
Ferdinand,  infante  of  Castile,  their  king,  and  his 
descendants  ruled  the  country  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  15th  century,  when  the  marriage 
of  Ferdinand  V.,  the  Catholic,  of  Aragon,  with 
Isabella  of  Castile,  consolidated  all  Christian 


212 


SPAIN 


Spain  into  one  kingdom.  Among  the  more 
prominent  kings  of  Castile  are  Ferdinand  III. 
(1217-'52),  who  by  successful  wars  against  the 
Moors  annexed  Jaen,  Cordova,  and  Seville  to 
his  dominions;  his  son  Alfonso  X.,  the  Wise 
(1252-184),  a  patron  of  science  and  art,  and 
himself  a  great  scholar,  but  a  weak  ruler,  un 
der  whom,  while  he  was  striving  for  the  im 
perial  crown  of  Germany,  the  Moors  made  new 
conquests  in  the  southern  part  of  Spain ;  Al 
fonso  XL  (1324-'5G),  who  broke  the  power  of 
the  Moors ;  and  his  son  Pedro  the  Cruel,  who, 
after  a  distracted  reign,  perished  in  1369.  In 
Castile  the  towns  possessed  fewer  rights  and 
attained  less  prosperity  than  in  Aragon,  while 
the  privileges  and  the  power  of  the  clergy  and 
the  nobility  were  more  extensive.  In  the  15th 
century,  during  the  reign  of  minor  princes,  the 
clergy  and  nobility  usurped  so  much  of  the 
royal  prerogatives,  that  when  Isabella  (1474- 
1504)  ascended  the  throne,  royalty  was  almost 
powerless.  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  united  the 
dignity  of  grand  master  of  the  three  Castilian 
orders  of  knights  for  ever  with  the  Spanish 
crown,  obtained  from  the  pope  the  right  of 
nominating  all  bishops,  expelled  the  Jews  from 
the  Spanish  soil,  and  reorganized  the  inquisi 
tion.  (See  INQUISITION.)  The  subjugation 
of  the  kingdom  of  Granada,  the  last  Moorish 
possession  in  Spain  (1491-T2),  completed  the 
political  consolidation  of  the  kingdom  ;  while 
the  conquest  of  Naples  (which  had  been  sep 
arated  from  the  crown  of  Aragon)  by  Gon- 
salvo  de  Cordova,  and  still  more  the  discov 
ery  of  America  by  Columbus,  and  the  subse 
quent  occupation  of  large  portions  of  North, 
Central,  and  South  America  by  Spanish  gen 
erals,  soon  raised  the  new  kingdom  of  Spain 
to  the  front  rank  among  the  powers  of  the 
earth.  But  the  expeditions  to  America  led  to 
a  neglect  of  the  native  soil,  and  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jews  and  of  the  bulk  of  the  Moors 
proved  a  fatal  blow  to  the  flourishing  industry 
of  Spain.  Ferdinand,  who  had  survived  his 
son-in-law  Philip  I.  of  Castile,  was  succeeded 
in  1516  by  his  grandson  Charles  L,  who  per 
manently  united  Castile  and  Aragon,  inherited 
the  Netherlands  from  his  paternal  grandfather, 
the  German  emperor  Maximilian  of  Ilapsburg, 
was  elected  emperor  of  Germany  (as  Charles 
V.),  and  conquered  Milan.  At  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  serious  insurrections  broke  out 
in  Valencia  and  Castile,  where  the  people  de 
manded  a  more  liberal  constitution ;  but  they 
were  soon  quelled,  and  resulted  in  the  aboli 
tion  of  the  principal  rights  of  the  towns,  the 
restriction  of  the  powers  of  the  cortes,  and 
a^  stronger  attachment  of  the  clergy  and  no 
bility  to  the  crown.  The  constitutional  privi 
leges  or  fueros  of  the  Basque  provinces  were, 
however,  reconfirmed.  The  conquest  of  Mex 
ico  by  Cortes,  and  of  Peru  and  Chili  by  Pizar- 
ro  and  Almagro,  poured  immense  riches  into 
the^  royal  treasury;  but  the  wars  of  Charles 
against  Francis  I.  of  France,  against  the  Protes 
tants  of  Germany,  against  the  people  of  Ghent 


in  the  Netherlands,  against  Pope  Clement  VII. 
in  Italy,  and  against  Tunis  and  Algiers,  ex 
hausted  the  revenues  of  the  country,  burdened 
the  people  with  enormous  taxes,  and  required 
the  contracting  of  a  heavy  debt.  Under  the 
reign  of  his  son  Philip  II.  (1556-'98)  the  vast 
monarchy  began  to  decay.  Philip,  under  a 
claim  of  succession  by  inheritance,  conquered 
Portugal,  which  from  1581  to  1640  remained 
united  with  Spain;  but  this  conquest,  together 
with  the  war  against  the  revolted  Netherlands, 
a  brilliant  naval  warfare  against  the  Turks, 
the  unfortunate  naval  struggle  with  England, 
in  which  the  "  invincible  armada "  was  de 
stroyed  and  Cadiz  captured  by  the  English, 
and  the  extravagance  displayed  in  the  building 
of  the  Escurial,  exhausted  the  strength  of  the 
country.  The  despotic  measures  adopted  by 
the  inquisition  for  crushing  out  Protestantism 
and  the  remnants  of  the  Moors  (Moriscoes), 
and  by  the  king  for  destroying  still  more  thor 
oughly  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  people, 
had  in  great  part  the  desired  effect,  but  also 
completed  the  ruin  of  Spanish  commerce,  ag 
riculture,  and  industry.  Literature  and  art, 
however,  continued  to  flourish,  and  the  Span 
ish  language  and  fashions  controlled  the  courts 
of  Europe.  The  imbecile  and  fanatical  Philip 
III.  (1598-1621)  left  the  reins  of  government 
to  his  favorite,  Count  Lernia,  who  squandered 
the  revenues  of  the  state,  and  drove  the  last 
of  the  Moriscocs,  600,000  in  number,  out  of 
Spain.  Under  Philip  IV.  (1621-'65)  Portugal 
recovered  its  independence ;  Catalonia  was  de 
vastated  for  10  years  by  a  civil  war ;  tlje  Dutch 
infested  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America, 
especially  Peru;  three  fleets  were  destroyed 
by  gales,  diseases,  and  the  enemy ;  the  Protes 
tant  Netherlands  were  abandoned  for  ever ; 
insurrections  broke  out  in  Naples  and  Sicily ; 
and  the  enmity  between  Olivarez,  the  Spanish 
minister,  and  Richelieu,  involved  Spain  in  a 
war  with  France,  by  which  the  former  lost 
Pvoussillon.  Under  Charles  II.  (1665-1700)  an 
other  disastrous  war  was  waged  against  France, 
and  the  population  of  Spain  decreased  to  8,000,- 
000.  The  death  of  Charles,  with  whom  the 
Spanish  house  of  Ilapsburg  became  extinct, 
occasioned  a  war  for  the  succession  to  the 
Spanish  throne,  which  both  the  brothers-in- 
law  of  Charles,  Louis  XIV.  of  France  and  Leo 
pold  I.  of  Austria,  tried  to  secure  for  princes 
of  their  respective  families.  Charles,  in  a  sec 
ond  will,  appointed  Philip  of  Anjou,  grandson 
of  Louis  XIV.,  sole  heir  of  all  the  Spanish 
monarchy;  but  Germany,  England,  and  Hol 
land  contested  the  validity  of  the  will,  and  for 
13  years  resisted  the  claim  of  Philip  to  the 
Spanish  throne.  (For  the  principal  events  of 
the  war  of  Spanish  succession  in  the  wider 
sense,  see  PHILIP  V.,  CHARLES  VI.  of  Germany, 
Louis  XIV.,  EUGENE,  and  MARLBOROUGII.)  The 
allies  won  several  signal  victories ;  yet  Philip 
V.  finally  maintained  himself  on  the  throne, 
although  in  the  peace  of  Utrecht  (1713)  he 
was  obliged  to  cede  Naples,  the  island  of  Sar- 


SPAIN 


213 


dinia  (a  conquest  of  Aragon),  Milan,  and  the 
rest  of  the  Netherlands  to  Austria,  Sicily  to 
Savoy,  and  Gibraltar  and  Minorca  to  England. 
Under  his  reign  Aragon,  Valencia,  and  Catalo 
nia  lost  the  last  of  their  constitutional  rights. 
The  great  affairs  of  the  state  were  managed  by 
the  queen,  Elizabeth  Farnese,  and  her  minis 
ter,  Cardinal  Alberoni.  In  Italy,  Naples  and 
Sicily  were  conquered  by  the  infante  Carlos 
in  1734-'5,  and  Parma  gained  for  the  infante 
Philip  in  1748.  Philip's  son  Ferdinand  VI. 
(1748-'59)  was  disabled  by  melancholy  from 
taking  active  part  in  the  government.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  half  brother  Charles  III. 
(!759-'88),  previously  king  of  Naples,  with 
whose  reign  a  better  era  began  to  dawn.  Hav 
ing  signed  the  Bourbomc  family  compact  with 
France  in  1761,  he  was  involved  in  the  French- 
English  war,  in  which,  as  well  as  in  an  expedi 
tion  against  Morocco  and  Algiers  in  1775,  and 
in  the  expensive  siege  of  Gibraltar  during  a 
second  war  with  England,  the  Spanish  arms 
were  not  successful ;  but  the  internal  prosperi 
ty  of  the  country  was  greatly  promoted  by  the 
wise  administration  of  the  king,  who  was  as 
sisted  by  a  number  of  enlightened  statesmen, 
as  Aranda,  Campoinanes,  Olavidez,  and  Florida 
Blanca;  agriculture,  commerce,  and  trade  be 
gan  to  revive ;  and  the  population  during  his 
reign  showed  a  considerable  increase.  The 
power  of  the  inquisition  was  greatly  restricted, 
the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  all  the  Spanish 
dominions  (1767),  and  the  boundaries  of  the 
empire  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Minorca 
and  Louisiana.  He  was  followed  by  his  son 
Charles  IV.  (1788-1808),  who  at  first  contin 
ued  the  reformatory  policy  of  his  father,  but 
after  1792  gave  himself  up  to  the  pernicious 
influence  of  Manuel  Godoy,  duke  of  Alcudia. 
At  first  Spain  joined  the  alliance  against  the 
French  republic,  but  was  soon  compelled  to 
conclude  the  inglorious  peace  of  Basel  (1795), 
by  which  Santo  Domingo  was  ceded  to  France. 
In  1796  Godoy  entered  with  France  into  the 
offensive  and  defensive  league  of  San  Ilde- 
fonso,  and  declared  war  against  England.  In 
1797  the  Spanish  fleet  was  defeated  near  Cape 
St.  Vincent,  Minorca  and  Trinidad  were  oc 
cupied  by  the  English,  and  all  the  ports  of 
Spain  blockaded.  Spain  suffered  so  much  from 
this  war,  and  the  financial  embarrassment  of 
the  country  became  so  great,  that  Godoy  re 
signed  his  position  as  prime  minister,  although 
he  retained  in  fact  a  controlling  influence  in 
state  affairs.  In  1800  Spain  ceded  Louisiana 
to  France,  and  in  1801  commenced,  at  the  in 
stigation  of  Bonaparte,  a  war  against  Portu 
gal,  the  ally  of  England,  which  was  termina 
ted  by  the  peace  of  Badajoz,  and  resulted  in 
the  cession  of  Olivenga  by  Portugal  to  Spain. 
By  the  treaties  of  Lunetille  and  Amiens,  Spain 
ceded  Trinidad  to  England,  Parma  was  an 
nexed  to  the  Cisalpine  republic,  and  the  prince 
of  Parma,  a  descendant  of  the  royal  house 
of  Spain,  was  made  king  of  Etruria.  On  the 
reopening  of  the  war  between  France  and 


England  in  1803,  France  demanded,  in  accor 
dance  with  the  league  of  San  Ildefonso,  the 
assistance  of  Spain,  which,  desirous  of  pre 
serving  a  neutral  position,  agreed  to  pay  to 
France  a  monthly  subsidy  of  4,000,000  pias 
ters.  The  capture  of  several  Spanish  vessels 
by  the  English  compelled  Spain  to  declare  war 
against  England,  Dec.  12,  1804.  At  Trafal 
gar,  Oct.  21,  1805,  the  combined  French  and 
Spanish  fleets  were  totally  defeated  by  Nel 
son,  and  Spain  alone  lost  12  ships  of  the  line. 
The  misery  which  these  unfortunate  wars 
brought  upon  Spain  led  to  the  formation  of 
a  powerful  opposition  to  Godoy,  who  made 
some  feeble  and  fruitless  efforts  to  extricate 
his  country  from  the  alliance.  The  success  of 
Napoleon  in  the  war  against  Prussia  thwarted 
these  efforts ;  he  demanded  and  obtained  from 
Spain  two  auxiliary  armies,  one  of  which,  con 
sisting  of  16,000  men,  was  sent  to  Denmark, 
the  other  to  Tuscany.  Spain*  had  also  to  sub 
mit  to  the  disgraceful  treaty  of  Fontainebleau, 
in  consequence  of  which  French  troops  were 
marched  into  the  country.  An  insurrection 
compelled  Charles  IV.  to  abdicate  in  favor 
of  the  prince  of  Asturias  (March  18,  1808), 
who  ascended  the  throne  as  Ferdinand  VII. 
Soon  after,  however,  in  a  letter  to  Napole 
on,  he  represented  his  resignation  as  compul 
sory,  and  revoked  it.  Both  father  and  son 
courted  the  patronage  of  Napoleon,  who,  ac 
cepting  the  office  of  arbiter,  invited  them  to 
Bayonne,  and  there  extorted  from  both,  as  well 
as  from  the  infantes  Don  Carlos  and  Don  An 
tonio,  a  resignation  of  their  claims  to  the 
Spanish  throne.  Napoleon  then  called  a  junta 
of  150  Spanish  and  American  delegates  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  a  new  constitution,  and  on 
June  6,  1808,  declared  his  brother  Joseph  king 
of  Spain  and  the  Indies.  The  new  constitution 
was  adopted  and  sworn  to  by  the  king  and  the 
delegates,  July  6.  On  July  9  Joseph  depart 
ed  for  Spain,  where  insurrections  had  already 
broken  out  in  Navarre,  Aragon,  Estremadura, 
Castile,  Leon,  and  Galicia.  England,  on  July  4, 
made  peace  with  "the  Spanish  people,"  recog 
nized  Ferdinand  VII.  as  king  of  Spain,  and 
vigorously  supported  the  insurrection  of  the 
Spaniards,  which  was  under  the  direction  of  a 
central  junta.  The  junta,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  the  aged  ex-minister  Florida  Blanca,  called 
into  the  field  half  a  million  of  combatants,  under 
Palafox,  Castanos,  Romana,  Ballesteros,  and 
other  national  leaders,  who  were  supported  by 
English  armies  under  Moore,  Baird,  Welling 
ton,  Beresford,  and  others.  A  fierce  guerilla 
warfare  was  waged  throughout  the  country ; 
Saragossa,  Gerona,  Cadiz,  Tarragona,  and  Va 
lencia  were  heroically  defended.  Until  1812 
the  war  was  carried  on  with  varying  success ; 
yet  the  greater  part  of  Spain  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  French,  who  were  commanded  by  Su- 
chet,  Soult,  Massena,  Marmont,  Ney,  Macdon- 
ald,  and  other  generals,  and  the  Spanish  pa 
triots  and  the  English  maintained  themselves 
only  in  the  western  provinces  and  in  Portugal. 


214 


SPAIN 


But  the  failure  of  Napoleon  in  Russia  was  soon 
followed  by  a  retreat  of  the  French  from  Spain. 
Soult  with  30,000  French  troops  was  recalled; 
the  brilliant  victory  of  Wellington  at  Vitoria 
(June  21,  1813)  forced  the  French  army  to  fall 
back  to  the  other  side  of  the  Pyrenees.  Only 
a  few  strong  places  remained  in  their  posses 
sion,  until  the  bloody  victory  of  Wellington  at 
Toulouse  (April  10,  1814)  and  the  capture  of 
that  city  successfully  terminated  the  Spanish 
war  of  independence.  The  cortes,  which  in 
January,  1810,  had  fled  from  Seville  to  Cadiz, 
completed  a  new  constitution,  March  18,  1812. 
The  regency,  which  was  recognized  by  Eng 
land  and  Russia,  at  once  took  the  oath  to  ac 
knowledge  it.  After  the  termination  of  the 
war,  the  cortes  invited  Ferdinand  VII.,  who 
had  been  set  free  by  Napoleon,  to  return  to 
Spain  and  take  an  oath  to  support  the  consti 
tution.  Ferdinand  returned,  but  went  to  Va 
lencia,  and  declared  the  constitution  null  and 
void.  He  announced  at  the  same  time  his  in 
tention,  not  to  restore  despotism,  but  to  intro 
duce  another  constitution  on  a  liberal  basis. 
This  promise  was  not  fulfilled ;  the  inquisition 
was  revived,  despotism  was  restored,  and  most 
of  the  reforms  introduced  under  Charles  III. 
were  annulled.  Florida  was  sold  for  $5,000,000 
to  the  United  States,  and  the  attempts  to  recon 
quer  the  revolted  colonies  in  America  proved 
miserable  failures.  On  Jan.  1,  1820,  a  military 
insurrection,  under  Riego,  broke  out  for  the 
purpose  of  restoring  the  constitution  of  1812. 
It  spread  with  great  rapidity ;  several  generals, 
as  O'Donnell  and  Freyre,  who  were  sent  out 
for  its  suppression,  joined  the  insurrectionists ; 
and  in  March  the  king  was  compelled  to  pro 
claim  the  constitution  of  1812,  and  to  convoke 
the  corte's.  A  new  ministry  was  formed,  the 
press  declared  free,  the  inquisition  abolished, 
and  within  a  few  days  the  new  order  of  things 
was  acknowledged  throughout  Spain.  The 
suppression  of  a  part  of  the  convents  and  other 
resolutions  passed  by  the  cortes,  which  met 
in  July,  provoked  the  formation  of  an  "apos 
tolical  junta,"  which  demanded  the  restoration 
of  the  absolute  power  of  the  king,  of  the  con 
vents,  and  of  feudal  institutions.  Even  a  re 
gency  was  appointed  by  the  apostolical  party 
at  Seo  de  Urgel,  in  Catalonia ;  but  the  troops  of 
the  government  drove  the  regency  into  France 
in  November,  1822,  and  dispersed  all  the  gue 
rilla  bands  in  the  northern  provinces  in  Feb 
ruary,  1823.  In  the  mean  time  France,  at 
the  congress  of  Verona  (1822),  agreed  with 
the  courts  of  eastern  Europe  upon  an  armed 
intervention  in  Spain.  The  Spanish  govern 
ment  was  called  upon  to  restore  the  royal  sov 
ereignty  and  to  change  the  constitution ;  and 
compliance  being  refused,  a  French  army  of 
100,000  men,  under  the  duke  of  Angouleme, 
marched  into  Spain  in  April,  1823.  The  Span 
ish  government  opposed  to  them  four  corps  un 
der  Ballesteros,  Mina,  O'Donnell,  and  Morillo, 
but  most  of  them  were  soon  overpowered  and 
capitulated ;  Riego,  who  maintained  himself 


longer  than  most  of  the  other  generals  in  the 
field,  was  made  prisoner  and  hanged.  The  king 
was  compelled  to  follow  the  cortes  to  Seville, 
and  from  thence  to  Cadiz ;  but  a  new  regency 
at  Madrid,  in  the  name  of  the  "imprisoned 
king,"  restored  political  absolutism,  together 
with  the  consents.  WThen  Cadiz  was  closely 
invested  and  bombarded  by  the  French,  the 
cortes  restored  to  the  king  his  absolute  power, 
Sept.  28.  Ferdinand  VII.  at  once  revoked  all 
the  decrees  of  the  constitutional  government 
from  March  7,  1820,  to  Oct.  1,  1823,  and  con 
firmed  those  of  the  regency.  All  persons  sus 
pected  of  liberalism  were  persecuted  with  great 
rigor ;  the  municipal  rights  of  the  communities 
were  abolished ;  and  a  treaty  was  concluded 
with  France,  which  provided  for  a  continu 
ance  of  the  French  occupation.  Still  a  great 
part  of  the  absolutist  party  considered  the  king 
as  not  sufficiently  energetic,  and  formed  a  co 
alition  for  elevating  to  the  throne  his  brother 
Don  Carlos.  Several  insurrections  broke  out 
in  1825  and  1826,  but  they  were  soon  quelled. 
At  the  same  time  Spain  was  compelled  to  aban 
don  its  last  position  on  the  mainland  of  Amer 
ica,  Jan.  22,  182C.  In  1830  Ferdinand  was 
prevailed  upon  by  his  wife,  Maria  Christina,  a 
Neapolitan  princess,  to  abolish  by  the  prag 
matic  sanction  of  March  29  the  Salic  law  of 
the  Bourbon  family.  In  consequence  of  this 
change  his  daughter,  the  infanta  Isabella  (born 
Oct.  10,  1830),  became  heir  to  the  throne,  in 
place  of  his  brother  Don  Carlos.  In  Septem 
ber,  1832,  the  apostolic  party  extorted  from 
the  king,  who  was  dangerously  ill,  a  revocation 
of  the  pragmatic  sanction  of  1830  ;  but  the 
intrigue  was  soon  discovered,  the  influence 
of  the  party  broken,  and  Maria  Christina  ap 
pointed  regent  of  Spain  for  the  time  of  the 
king's  illness  (October,  1832).  She  surrounded 
herself  with  a  ministry  of  moderados,  and  tried 
to  effect  a  reconciliation  with  the  liberals  in 
order  to  break  the  power  of  the  Carlists.  Don 
Carlos  himself  entered  a  protest  against  his 
exclusion  from  the  throne,  which  was  sus 
tained  by  the  Bourbonic  courts  of  Italy.  The 
death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  Sept.  29,  1833,  was 
the  signal  for  a  general  civil  war.  Don  Carlos 
was  proclaimed  in  the  Basque  provinces  as 
Charles  V.,  and  was  supported  by  a  majority 
of  the  clergy  and  the  country  people  through 
out  the  kingdom  ;  Maria  Christina  had  the 
joint  support  of  the  moderados  and  the  liber 
als.  At  first  the  Carlists,  under  the  command 
of  Zumalacarreguy,  were  successful,  and  the 
government  of  Christina  implored  the  aid  Of 
England  and  France,  which  allowed  recruiting 
within  their  states  for  the  Spanish  army.  Soon 
afterward  an  army  of  10,000  men  was  enlisted 
in  England  to  join  the  royal  troops.  The  cause 
of  the  Carlists  began  to  decline  with  the  un 
expected  death  of  Zumalacarreguy,  June  25, 
1835,  and  still  more  when  Espartero  in  1836 
assumed  command  of  the  royal  army  in  the 
northern  provinces.  The  government,  in  the 
mean  while,  was  compelled  to  make  new  con- 


SPAIN 


215 


cessions  to  the  radical  wing  of  the  progressive 
party  (exaltados),  and  to  adopt  in  1837  the  so- 
called  modified  constitution  of  1812.  The  Car- 
lists  were  finally  overpowered  in  1839,  when 
Don  Carlos  fled  to  France.  Cabrera  main 
tained  himself  until  July,  1840,  when  he  also 
fled  to  France,  and  the  Carlist  war  was  at  an 
end.  Yet  another  revolutionary  movement 
broke  out  in  the  same  year,  when  the  cortes 
passed  a  new  ayuntamiento  law,  which  abol 
ished  the  former  municipal  rights  of  the  Span 
ish  towns.  Maria  Christina  found  it  necessary 
to  appoint  Espartero,  the  leader  of  the  move 
ment,  prime  minister;  soon  afterward  (Oct. 
12)  she  resigned,  and,  with  the  chiefs  of  the 
moderados,  embarked  for  France.  The  cortes 
in  1841  appointed  Espartero  regent  during  the 
minority  of  the  queen,  and  Argiielles,  an  old 
constitutionalist  of  1812,  her  tutor.  The  ad 
ministration  of  Espartero  did  more  to  promote 
the  prosperity  of  the  country  than  any  other 
before  or  after  him.  New  roads  and  canals 
were  constructed,  mining  was  encouraged,  and 
industry  and  trade  were  put  on  a  firmer  ba 
sis  ;  and  the  functions  of  public  officers  were 
never  discharged  with  greater  integrity.  But 
the  sale  of  the  ecclesiastical  property  had 
provoked  the  almost  unanimous  opposition  of 
the  Spanish  clergy,  who,  in  union  with  the 
moderados  and  the  absolutistas,  were  strong 
enough  to  harass  Espartero  by  insurrections 
during  the  entire  -period  of  his  administration. 
In  May,  1843,  an  open  rupture  between  Espar 
tero  and  the  cortes,  although  a  majority  of 
them  were  progresistas,  was  at  once  followed 
by  a  general  insurrection  throughout  Spain,  at 
the  head  of  which  were  the  leading  generals 
of  the  moderados,  as  Narvaez  and  O'Donnell, 
who  had  returned  from  France.  Toward  the 
close  of  July  Espartero  embarked  at  Cadiz  for 
England.  In  October  the  cortes  declared  the 
queen  of  age,  who  in  the  next  year  formed 
a  ministry  of  moderados,  under  the  presiden 
cy  of  Narvaez.  Christina  was  recalled  from 
France,  her  secret  marriage  with  Mufioz,  for 
merly  one  of  her  body  guards,  publicly  an 
nounced,  and  negotiations  commenced  with 
the  pope,  who  had  denounced  the  sale  of 
church  property  as  robbery.  In  the  cortes 
which  met  in  October,  1844,  the  moderados 
had  a  majority,  and  in  the  constitution  which 
they  adopted  (the  constitution  of  1845)  the 
rights  of  the  cortes  were  limited,  and  the  trial 
by  jury  for  offences  of  the  press  and  the  na 
tional  militia  were  abolished.  The  subsequent 
history  of  Isabella  II.,  who  in  1846  married 
her  cousin,  Don  Francisco  de  Asis,  is  espe 
cially  noted  for  the  frequent  change  of  her 
ministers,  mostly  brought  about  by  palace  in 
trigues.  In  1847  the  queen  yielded  for  a  time 
to  the  counsels  of  her  favorite,  Gen.  Ser 
rano,  and  appointed  a  ministry  of  progresis- 
tas,  which  promulgated  a  general  amnesty  and 
conferred  on  Espartero,  whom  they  recalled  j 
from  England,  the  dignity  of  a  senator.  But  j 
before  the  end  of  the  year  the  moderados  j 


regained  the  control  of  the  state  under  the 
energetic  leadership  of  Narvaez,  who  showed 
a  conciliatory  spirit,  maintained  the  amnesty, 
and  made  no  objection  to  the  return  of  Es 
partero.  Two  illicit  expeditions  against  Cuba, 
in  1850  and  1851,  which  were  prepared  by 
Cuban  refugees  in  the  United  States,  and  met 
with  great  encouragement  in  the  southern 
states  of  the  Union,  and  subsequently  the  de 
clarations  of  the  American  democratic  party 
in  favor  of  an  acquisition  of  Cuba  by  the 
United  States,  disturbed  the  relations  between 
the  two  governments.  The  relations  with  the 
papal  court  were  settled  on  a  friendly  footing 
by  the  concordat  of  1851.  ISTarvaez  resigned 
in  1851,  and  till  1854  short-lived  and  weak 
ministries  succeeded  each  other,  most  of  which 
had  reactionary  tendencies.  In  1854  the  pro 
gress  of  illiberal  legislation,  the  financial  opera 
tions  of  Maria  Christina,  her  husband  Munoz, 
and  the  banker  Salamanca,  who  had  wrong 
fully  obtained  the  most  important  railroad  con 
cessions,  and  the  imposition  upon  the  country 
of  a  compulsory  loan  of  180,000,000  reals,  led 
to  a  military  insurrection,  one  of  the  leaders 
of  which  was  Gen.  O'Donnell,  who  called  on 
all  liberal  parties  to  unite  and  restore  the  con 
stitution  of  1837.  On  July  24  the  queen  saw 
herself  compelled  to  charge  Espartero  with 
the  formation  of  a  new  government;.  Con 
stituent  cortes  were  called,  in  accordance  with 
the  law  of  1837,  which  met  in  a  single  cham 
ber,  and  elected  Espartero  their  president, 
Nov.  28  ;  but  two  days  later  he  was  again  ap 
pointed  prime  minister.  The  cortes  restored 
in  the  main  the  liberal  constitutions  of  1812 
and  1837,  and  declared  themselves  in  favor 
of  religious  toleration,  and  for  the  sale  of  the 
church  property.  A  large  minority  demanded 
the  one  chamber  system,  and  that  the  decrees 
of  the  cortes  should  not  need  the  sanction 
of  the  crown.  The  ascendancy  of  liberal 
ism  lasted  until  July,  1856,  when,  reactionary 
influences  having  again  prevailed  in  the  pal 
ace,  Espartero  resigned,  and  O'Donnell  was 
appointed  prime  minister.  An  insurrection  in 
Madrid  and  the  other  large  cities  was  sup 
pressed,  and  the  entire  kingdom  declared  in  a 
state  of  siege.  On  Aug.  15  the  national  guard 
was  dissolved,  and  gradually  the  illiberal  legis 
lation  of  1845  restored,  especially  since  Nar- 
vaez  had  become  prime  minister.  The  sale  of 
church  property  was  inhibited,  and  the  con 
cordat  of  1851  restored.  The  church  property 
question  was  finally  adjusted  by  a  convention 
with  Rome,  on  Aug.  25,  1859 ;  and  the  Span 
ish  government  became  the  strongest  supporter 
of  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  pope.  In 
1858  Spain  united  Avith  France  in  sending  an 
expedition  against  the  emperor  of  Anam,  which 
conquered  part  of  the  coast  of  that  country. 
At  the  close  of  1859  war  was  declared  against 
Morocco  on  account  of  Moorish  piracies,  and 
an  army  under  O'Donnell  was  sent  into  Afri 
ca.  After  several  indecisive  conflicts  the  Moors 
were  defeated,  Feb.  4, 1860,  near  Tetuan,  which 


216 


SPAIN 


was  captured,  and  on  April  27  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  in  which  the  sultan  agreed 
to  pay  an  indemnity  of  400,000,000  reals,  and 
to  accord  to  Spanish  trade  the  same  rights  as 
were  enjoyed  by  the  most  favored  nations. 
Diplomatic  relations  with  Mexico  had  been 
broken  off  in  1857  on  account  of  outrages  on 
Spanish  subjects  and  the  non-payment  of  Span 
ish  claims.  Negotiations  with  France  and  Eng 
land,  which  complained  of  similar  grievances, 
led  in  1861  to  the  conclusion  of  a  tripartite 
treaty,  in  accordance  with  which  the  three 
governments  toward  the  close  of  the  year  sent 
an  expedition  against  Mexico,  to  obtain  satis 
faction.  The  castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa  and 
Vera  Cruz  surrendered  to  the  Spanish  squad 
ron  under  Gen.  Gasset  without  a  struggle  (Dec. 
14-17)  ;  but  the  project  of  the  establishment  of 
an  empire  under  Maximilian  being  disapproved 
of,  the  Spanish  forces  were  withdrawn  in  May, 
1862.  In  1860  a  Carlist  insurrection  was  in 
cited  by  Gen.  Ortega,  governor  of  the  Balearic 
islands,  who  proclaimed  as  king  the  count  de 
Montemolin,  eldest  son  of  Don  Carlos.  The 
attempt  failed,  Ortega  was  captured  and  shot, 
and  the  count  de  Montemolin  was  forced  to 
renounce  his  claim  to  the  throne ;  but  soon 
after  he  repudiated  his  abdication  at  Cologne. 
He  died  at  Trieste  on  Jan.  13,  1861,  when  his 
brother  Don  Juan  asserted  his  right  to  the 
Spanish  crown.  In  the  same  year  Spain  re 
sumed  her  authority  over  the  republic  of  Santo 
Domingo  on  the  invitation  of  President  San- 
tana,  who  despaired  of  allaying  internal  dissen 
sions.  Troops  were  sent  thither,  but  in  1863 
an  insurrection  broke  out,  which  resulted  in 
the  relinquishment  of  the  country  by  Spain  in 
1865.  In  1864  war  was  declared  against  Spain 
by  Peru  in  consequence  of  the  seizure  by  the 
former  of  the  Chincha  islands.  Chili  joined 
Peru  in  1865,  and  the  Avar  continued  till  1866, 
when  the  Spanish  forces  were  withdrawn  from 
the  Pacific.  (See  CHILI,  and  PERU.)  The  mis 
deeds  of  Queen  Isabella's  administration  and 
her  own  personal  misconduct  caused  wide 
spread  dissatisfaction  and  led  to  numerous  in 
surrections  in  1865-'8,  and  resulted  in  the 
defeat  of  the  royal  army  -at  Alcolea,  Sept,  28, 
1868,  and  the  flight  of  the  queen  to  France.  A 
provisional  government  was  established,  pre 
sided  over  by  Generals  Serrano  and  Prim  and 
Sefior  Olozaga.  These  events  were  imme 
diately  followed  by  an  insurrection  in  Cuba. 
(See  CUBA.)  During  1869  several  republican 
insurrections  against  the  provisional  govern 
ment  were  suppressed  with  much  bloodshed, 
and  the  cortes  voted  by  a  large  majority  against 
a  republic  and  for  a  regency,  which  was  estab 
lished  on  June  15,  with  Serrano  at  its  head. 
Violent  discussions  then  took  place  concern 
ing  the  choice  of  a  king.  After  the  rejec 
tion  of  the  candidacy  for  the  throne  by  several 
princes,  the  provisional  government  proposed 
to^the  cortes  in  July,  1870,  the  election  of 
Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen  ; 
but  he  declined  becoming  a  candidate  in  con 


sequence  of  the  strong  opposition  of  France, 
which  resulted  in  the  Franco-German  war. 
Meanwhile  republican  agitation  was  renewed 
in  the  provinces,  but  on  Nov.  16  the  cortes 
elected  for  king  Amadeus,  duke  of  Aosta,  the 
second  son  of  King  Victor  Emanuel  of  Italy, 
who  accepted  the  crown  on  Dec.  4.  On  Dec. 
28  Marshal  Prim  was  mortally  wounded  by  as 
sassins  in  his  carriage  in  the  streets  of  Madrid, 
and  two  days  after  Amadeus  landed  at  Carta 
gena,  He  endeavored  to  rule  the  country  as  a 
constitutional  monarch ;  but  the  dislike  of  the 
Spaniards  for  a  foreign  prince,  and  the  demor 
alized  condition  of  all  parties,  caused  his  utter 
failure.  After  a  stormy  reign,  during  which 
Sagasta,  Topete,  Serrano,  and  Zorrilla  were  the 
leading  statesmen,  he  abdicated  on  Feb.  11, 
1873,  and  the  cortes  established  a  government 
under  the  presidency  of  Estanislao  Figueras. 
Meanwhile  a  Carlist  insurrection,  which  had 
broken  out  in  the  north  in  1872,  began  to  de 
velop  itself.  Don  Carlos,  son  of  Don  Juan, 
who  had  renounced  in  his  favor  his  hereditary 
rights  in  1868,  took  command  of  the  insur 
gents  and  proclaimed  himself  king  under  the 
title  of  Charles  VII.  Among  the  commanders 
under  him  were  his  brother  Don  Alfonso,  ac 
companied  hy  his  sanguinary  wife  Dona  Blan- 
ca,  the  curate  Santa  Cruz,  Dorregaray,  Elio, 
Saballs,  Lozano,  Tristany,  and  Lizarraga ;  but 
the  old  Carlist  chief  Cabrera  finally  declared 
for  the  Madrid  government,  •  The  insurrection 
gradually  spread  over  Navarre,  the  Basque 
provinces,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  and  even  Va 
lencia.  On  June  8,  1873,  the  cortes,  having 
previously  abolished  slavery  in  Porto  Rico, 
adopted  and  proclaimed  a  democratic  federal 
republic  by  a  vote  of  210  to  2,  and  Sen  or  Pi  y 
Margall  was  chosen  president  of  the  executive 
power.  He  was  succeeded  on  July  19  by  Don 
Nicolas  Salmeron,  who  was  succeeded  in  turn 
on  Sept.  7  by  Don  Emilio  Castelar.  But  the 
republic  had  scarcely  been  established  when 
the  intransigent c*  and  internationals  began 
a  series  of  revolutionary  movements  in  favor 
of  "cantonal  sovereignty,"  and  insurrections 
broke  out  in  various  cities,  chiefly  of  the  south 
and  southeast,  while  the  Carlists  infested  the 
north.  Alcoy,  where  frightful  atrocities  were 
committed,  Malaga,  Seville,  Cadiz,  Granada, 
Valencia,  and  Murcia  were  easily  reoccupied 
by  the  government  troops  under  Pavia,  Cam 
pos,  and  others  (July  and  August) ;  but  Carta 
gena,  in  which  Gen.  Contreras  led  the  insur 
gents,  resisted  for  six  months  (July,  1873,  to 
January,  1874).  Here  a  portion  of  the  Span 
ish  fleet  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  insur 
gents,  with  which  they  made  piratical  excur 
sions  against  Almeria  and  other  towns  of  the 
coast.  The  blockade  was,  hoAvever,  pushed 
forAvard  with  vigor,  and  a  heavy  bombardment 
finally  compelled  the  surrender  of  the  for 
tress,  Contreras  and  other  leaders  escaping  to 
the  coast  of  Algeria.  Less  successful  were 
the  government  troops  under  Moriones  in  the 
north,  Avho  failed  to  relieve  Bilbao.  Castelar 


SPAIN 


SPAIN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITER ATLTRE)     217 


resigned  on  Jan.  2,  1874,  when  his  ministry 
was  found  to  be  in  the  minority.  On  the 
following  day  Gen.  Pavia,  captain  general  of 
Madrid,  dissolved  the  cortes  with  an  armed 
force,  and  a  new  ministry  was  formed  under  j 
the  presidency  of  Gen.  Serrano.  Cartagena  | 
having  been  reduced  shortly  after  his  acces 
sion  to  power,  Serrano  personally  took  the 
command  against  the  Carlists,  who  had  taken 
Portugalete,  and  after  considerable  fighting 
with  varying  success  around  Sommorostro 
(March-May),  Portugalete  was  retaken  and 
Bilbao  relieved.  Marshal  Concha,  however, 
who  succeeded  Serrano  in  command  of  the 
army  of  the  north,  fell  in  battle  before  Estella 
in  June,  and  in  July  Don  Alfonso  advanced 
with  his  Carlists  as  far  as  Cuenca.  Puycerda, 
which  the  Carlists  besieged,  was  relieved  in 
August,  and  Irun  in  November.  Serrano  held 
the  executive  power  until  Jan.  9,  1875,  when 
Alfonso,  son  of  Isabella  II.,  who  had  been  pro 
claimed  king  by  the  armies  of  the  centre  and 
north  and  in  Madrid,  landed  in  Spain.  The 
TLQW  king  took  the  field  against  the  Carlists  in 
person,  but  with  slight  success.  Subsequently, 
however,  operations  were  resumed  with  great 
er  vigor,  and  the  Carlists  were  repulsed  from 
St.  Sebastian  and  before  Vitoria,  and  forced 
back  beyond  the  Ebro,  Catalonia  was  almost 
entirely  freed  from  them,  and  the  capture  of 
Seo  de  Urgel  with  its  garrison  (October)  proved 
a  demoralizing  defeat.  Many  Carlist  chiefs  sub 
mitted,  others  fled  into  France,  and  still  others 
were  shot  as  traitors.  At  the  close  of  1875 
the  Carl  1st  insurrection  seemed  to  be  on  the 
point  of  succumbing  to  the  forces  of  Alfonso 
XII. ;  but  an  empty  treasury,  the  troubles 
caused  by  the  intransigentes  and  by  the  acri 
monious  disputes  of  the  different  political  fac 
tions  in  Madrid,  and  the  still  unsuppressed  re 
bellion  in  Cuba,  give  little  hope  of  a  peaceful 
reign  to  the  new  king. — Among  the  best  his 
tories  of  Spain  are  those  of  Mariana  (1601 ; 
with  continuation  by  Sabau  y  Blanco,  20  vols., 
Madrid,  1817-'22),  Bossi  (8  vols.,  Milan,  1821), 
and  Lembke  and  Schafer  (in  the  collection  of 
Heeren  and  Ukert,  3  vols.,  1831-'67).  The 
most  valuable  illustrations  of  Spanish  history 
in  English  are  in  the  works  of  Prescott,  Irving, 
Ticknor,  Watson,  Kobertson,  Coxe,  Dunlop, 
Southey,  Stirling,  and  Ford.  Some  of  the 
more  recent  works  on  Spain  are  the  following: 
Coello,  Reseila  geogrdfica,  geologica  y  agricola 
de,  Espana  (Madrid,  1864)  ;  F.  Garrido,  Let 
Espafra  contemporaries  (Barcelona,  1865)  ;  H. 
M.  Willkomm,  Das  pyrenaische  Halbinselland 
(Leipsic,  1866);  G.  de  Lavigne,  L^Espagne  et 
le  Portugal  (Paris,  1867)  ;  Oh.  de  Mazade,  Les 
revolutions  de  VEspagne  (Paris,  1869) ;  II.  Se- 
goillot,  Lettres  sur  VEspagne  (Paris,  1870) ; 
Augustus  J.  C.  Hare,  "  Wanderings  in  Spain  " 
(London,  1872);  Baron  Oh.  Davillier,  UEs- 
pagne,  illustrated  by  Dore  (4to,  Paris,  1873; 
English  translation  by  J.  Thompson,  London 
and  New  York,  1875-' 6) ;  V.  Cherbuliez, 

politique,  1868-1873  (Paris,  1874) ; 


L.  Thieblin,  "  Spain  and  the  Spaniards"  (Lon 
don,  1873 ;  Boston,  1875)  ;  11.  W.  Baxley, 
"  Spain  :  Art  Remains  and  Art  Realities  ; 
Painters,  Priests,  and  Princes  "  (2  vols.  Svo, 
London,  1875) ;  and  H.  J.  Rose,  "  Untrodden 
Spain  and  her  Black  Country,  being  Sketches 
of  the  Life  and  Character  of  the  Spaniards  of 
the  Interior"  (2  vols.  Svo,  London,  1875). 

SPAIN,  Language  and  Literature  of.  The  Span 
ish  language  sprang  from  the  vulgar  Latin, 
which  was  introduced  into  Spain  with  Roman 
domination,  and  became  prevalent  throughout 
the  peninsula.  But  vestiges  still  remained  of 
ancient  dialects  and  of  idioms  introduced  by 
Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  Carthaginians,  who 
founded  colonies  on  the  coast.  The  invasion 
of  the  Goths  soon  determined  the  corrup 
tion  of  the  Latin ;  but  as  the  conquerors  had 
already  been  in  extensive  communication  with 
the  Romans,  the  corruption  was  not  so  com 
plete  as  in  some  other  provinces  of  the  empire 
overrun  by  northern  nations.  Even  after  the 
Gothic  rule  Avas  firmly  established,  the  bishops 
of  Rome  retained  much  influence  in  the  gov 
ernment,  and  through  them  the  distance  be 
tween  the  conquerors  and  the  conquered  was 
greatly  lessened ;  and  when  they  finally  co 
alesced,  the  language  of  the  latter  prevailed, 
though  somewhat  disfigured.  At  the  time  of 
the  Saracen  invasion  this  adulterated  Latin 
was  the  tongue  in  common  use.  After  the 
destruction  of  the  Gothic  empire  the  national 
language  was  preserved  in  the  fastnesses  of 
the  north,  but  in  so  corrupt  a  state  that  in 
the  9th  century  the  Latin  of  books  was  no 
longer  intelligible  to  any  but  the  churchmen. 
This  uncultured  idiom  was  extended  gradual 
ly  by  conquest  to  the  parts  occupied  by  the 
Moors,  where  it  acquired  many  Arabic  words, 
which  contributed  materially  to  its  vigor  and 
richness.  Such  was  the  process  of  formation 
of  the  Castilian  tongue,  in  earlier  times  called 
the  Romance  vulgar.  The  Latin  continued 
to  be  the  language  of  the  cloisters  and  the 
colleges,  and  in  it  were  written  most  of  the 
important  works  down  to  the  15th  century, 
when  it  was  superseded  by  the  language  of 
the  people.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
more  important  changes  in  the  formative  part 
of  the  language.  The  vowels  e  and  o  of  the 
accented  penultima  frequently  develop  into 
the  diphthongs  ie  and  ue,  as  in  tiempo,  ljueno, 
fuerte,  puente,  from  tempus,  ~bonum,  fortem, 
pontem.  Harsh  consonants  show  a  tendency 
to  soften,  and  combinations  to  change  into 
single  consonants,  as  in  al)rir,  saber,  digo, 
agua,  edad,  from  aperire,  sapcre,  dico,  aqua, 
cetatem.  Such  combinations  as  cl,  fl,  pi,  &c., 
are  often  changed  into  the  liquid  II,  as  in  Have, 
llama,  llano,  from  clavis,  flamma,  planus  ;  ct 
passes  into  ch,  as  in  nocJie,  dicho,  from  noctem, 
dictum;  initial  f  is  changed  into  mute  h,  as 
in  hacer,  from  facere.  These  mutations  occur 
in  the  accented  penultima,  and  disappear  gen 
erally  with  a  transposition  of  accent,  or  with 
the  addition  of  one  or  more  syllables,  as  in 


218 


SPAIN   (LANGUAGE   AND  LITEEATUBE) 


tiempo,  temporal,  lueno,  lonisimo,  llamar,  ex- 
clarnar,  &c.  The  d  in  the  middle  of  a  word 
between  two  vowels  has  often  been  dropped, 
as  in  creer,  Jiel,  from  credere,  fidelis  ;  and  a  J 
or  d  is,  as  in  cognate  languages,  inserted  where 
m,  n,  or  I  would  meet  with  r,  as  nombre,  from 
nomen ;  tendre,  future  of  tener ;  saldre,  fu 
ture  of  salir.  The  introduction  of  the  strong 
gutturals  g  (before  e  or  i}  and  j  (or  x)  is  to 
be  ascribed  to  Teutonic  influence.  In  words 
beginning  with  s  followed  by  another  conso 
nant,  a  euphonic  e  is  invariably  prefixed,  as 
in  estar,  espiritu,  escudo,  from  stare,  spiritus, 
scutum.  N't,  ne,  nn,  and  gn  have  been  often 
changed  into  the  liquid  n  (n),  as  in  EspaTia, 
entraHa,  ano,  leno,  from  Ilispania,  intranea, 
annus,  lignum.  The  inflections  of  the  noun 
and  the  verb  show  a  marked  influence  of  the 
Gothic.  The  refined  system  of  declension  was 
too  complicated  for  the  northern  barbarians ; 
they  used  only  one  case  ending  for  each  of  the 
singular  and  plural  numbers,  and  this  ending 
was  supplied  in  the  singular,  not  by  the  Latin 
nominative,  but  by  the  accusative,  with  the 
rejection  of  the  consonantal  ending  m,  and 
sometimes  of  the  syllabic  ending  em.  Thus 
the  Latin  nix,  dux,  and  virtus  pass  into  nieve, 
duque,  and  mrtud ;  but  the  neuter  nouns  cor 
pus,  tempus,  and  caput  form  cuerpo,  tiempo, 
and  cabo.  The  loss  of  cases  was  remedied  by 
the  use  of  the  article,  not  unknown  to  the 
Goths,  and  obtained  from  the  vulgar  Latin,  in 
the  shape  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun  ille 
and  the  numeral  unus.  The  verb  also  has  lost 
some  terminations,  the  place  of  which  has  been 
supplied,  though  imperfectly,  by  the  more  fre 
quent  use  of  the  auxiliaries.  The  composi 
tion  of  the  future  (amare  instead  of  amar  lie, 
I  have  to  love),  and  the  expression  of  the 
passive  voice  by  means  of  the  auxiliary  verbs, 
are  the  most  remarkable  instances  of  the  in 
fluence  of  the  Gothic.  The  words  of  north 
ern  origin  are  calculated  to  amount  to  about 
one  tenth  of  the  whole  number,  many  of 
which  refer  to  war  and  strife,  or  to  peculiari 
ties  of  the  Teutonic  race.  From  the  Arabs, 
who  maintained  themselves  on  Spanish  soil 
for  nearly  800  years,  the  Spanish  language 
received  that  oriental  coloring  which  distin 
guishes  it  among  the  Romanic  languages;  but 
on  words  and  forms  the  influence  of  the  Ara 
bic  was  slight.  The  sound  of  z,  and  of  c  before 
e  and  i  (precisely  that  of  th  in  the  English 
think),  is  of  Arabic  origin;  so  are  most  of  the 
words  beginning  with  al  (the  Arabic  article), 
some  of  which,  as  almanaque,  alcohol,  &c., 
have  passed  through  the  Spanish  into  all  the 
modern  languages  of  Europe.  Among  the 
numerous  dialects  simultaneously  developed  in 
the  peninsula  from  the  amalgamation  of  the 
Latin  and  the  Gothic  languages,  the  Castilian 
gradually  gained  the  ascendancy,  and  has  be 
come  established  as  the  language  of  Spain. 
All  the  other  dialects  have  perished  in  the 
course  of  time,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Portuguese,  which  has  become  a  separate  lan 


guage,  and  the  Catalan,  still  spoken  throughout 
Catalonia.  The  Basque,  which  is  spoken  in 
some  of  the  northern  provinces,  is  supposed  by 
philologists  to  be  the  lineal  descendant  of  the 
language  most  in  vogue  in  the  peninsula  before 
the  Roman  invasion.  The  territory  of  the 
Spanish  language  is  one  of  the  most  extensive 
in  the  world,  embracing,  besides  Spain,  all  of 
the  Spanish  American  republics,  most  of  the 
West  Indies,  the  Philippine  islands,  and  small 
portions  of  Africa.  The  Spanish  language 
has  27  letters  or  signs  of  as  many  distinct 
sounds.  Two  of  these,  the  liquids  II  and  n 
(pronounced  respectively  like  li  in  Julia  and 
ni  in  union},  are  peculiar  to  it.  The  language 
is  destitute  of  the  sound  of  z  in  zeal,  the 
Spanish  z  having  always  the  th  sound,  and  s 
the  sharp  sound  as  in  sun.  All  letters  are 
pronounced  except  h,  and  u  in  the  combina 
tions  gue,  gui,  que,  qui.  The  six  vowels  do 
not  change  in  sound,  like  the  English  vow 
els,  but  have  always  the  same  pronunciation, 
which  agrees  with  that  of  the  Italian. — The 
substantives  have  only  two  genders,  mascu 
line  and  feminine ;  but  the  article  has  three 
forms,  el,  la,  and  lo,  the  last  of  which  is  used 
for  changing  adjectives  into  substantives,  as 
Itucno,  good,  lo  l>ueno,  that  which  is  good. 
The  plural  is  formed  by  adding  to  the  singu 
lar  either  s,  as  lilro,  lilros,  or  es,  as  tnes,  Icy, 
ruVi,  pi.  meses,  leycs,  rub'ies.  A  declension 
proper  does  not  occur,  the  inflections  of  the 
Latin  having  been  lost,  and  being  replaced  by 
the  use  of  prepositions,  especially  de  and  d. 
The  Spanish  is  uncommonly  rich  in  augmen 
tative  and  diminutive  terminations,  which  have 
gradually  become  the  regular  and  very  com 
mon  means  of  adding  to  the  original  meaning 
of  words  the  expression  of  great  or  small  size, 
and  feelings  of  admiration  or  contempt.  The 
comparative  is  generally  formed  by  prefixing 
to  the  positive  the  adverb  mas  (Latin  magis, 
more),  and  the  relative  superlative  by  adding 
to  the  comparative  the  definite  article ;  as 
grande,  large,  mas  grande,  larger,  el  or  la  mas 
grande,  the  largest.  It  has  also  the  forms 
mayor,  larger,  and  la  mayor,  the  largest.  It 
has  retained  from  the  Latin,  like  the  kindred 
idioms  of  Italy  and  Portugal,  an  absolute  su 
perlative,  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  end 
ing  isimo.  In  the  verb  the  subjunctive  has 
two  more  tenses  than  the  Italian  and  French 
languages,  viz.  :  second  conditional  and  future 
conjunctive.  The  number  of  conjugations 
has  been  reduced  to  three,  as  the  forma 
tion  of  the  infinitive  by  discarding  the  final 
e  of  the  Latin  infinitive  effaced  the  distinction 
between  the  second  and  third  Latin  conjuga 
tions.  The  Spanish  has  also,  almost  alone 
among  the  Romance  languages,  a  double  set 
of  auxiliary  verbs,  habcr  and  tener,  ser  and 
estar,  and  uses  the  reflexive  form  of  the  verb 
more  extensively  than  almost  any  other  lan 
guage  of  Europe.  The  most  important  of  the 
native  grammars 'are  those  of  Lebrija,  the  first 
of  all  (Salamanca,  1492),  the  Spanish  academy 


J  v  K  a. 


'     i 


SPAIN   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


(new  ed.,  Madrid,  186S),  Salva,  Rementeria, 
and  Bello  ;  among  foreign  ones,  those  of 
Mallefille  (Paris,  1846)  and  Chantreau  (Paris, 
1862).  The  best  material  for  a  historical 
grammar  is  to  be  found  in  Orlgines  de  la  len- 
gua  espanola,  by  Mayans  y  Siscar  (Madrid, 
1737  and  1873).  The  best  dictionaries  are 
those  of  the  Spanish  academy,  Salva,  and  Do- 
minguez,  purely  Spanish ;  while  among  the 
bilingual  dictionaries,  the  most  valuable  are 
those  of  Salva  and  of  Nunez  de  Taboada, 
French-Spanish  ;  of  Seckendorf  (3  vols.,  Ham 
burg,  1823),  Spanish-German;  and  of  Neurnan 
and  Baretti,  revised  by  Velazquez  de  la  Oadena 
(New  York,  1852),  Spanish-English.  A  com 
prehensive  dictionary  purely  Spanish,  etymo 
logical  and  ra/i&onne,  is  now  (1876)  in  course 
of  preparation  by  a  society  of  literati  in  Bo 
gota. — LITERATURE.  The  literary  life  of  the 
Spanish  people  began  under  the  rule  of  the 
Romans,  when  Spain  became  a  chief  seat  of 
Roman  civilization,  and  produced  many  of 
the  greatest  writers  of  Latin  literature.  After 
the  Christianization  of  Spain  and  S.  TV.  Eu 
rope  in  general,  ecclesiastical  literature  found, 
next  to  Italy  and  Gaul,  its  most  fertile  soil 
in  Spain.  After  the  invasion  by  the  Arabs, 
Arabian  literature  attained  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity,  and  the  numerous  Jews  cultivated 
Hebrew  literature  with  great  success.  The 
national  literature  of  Spain  begins  in  the  12th 
century  with  epic  and  didactic  poems  in  Cas- 
tilian  verse,  and  resting  on  strong  national  sen 
timents  as  a  basis.  The  first  of  these  poems  in 
age  as  well  as  in  importance  is  the  one  com 
monly  called  the  "  Poem  of  the  Cid,"  composed 
probably  in  the  second  half  of  the  12th  centu 
ry.  Its  subject  is  taken  from  the  adventures 
of  Ruy  Diaz,  surnamed  el  Cid  Campeador, 
"  the  Lord  Champion,"  the  popular  hero  of 
the  chivalrous  age  of  Spain,  and  the  defender 
of  his  country  against  the  Moorish  invaders. 
It  is  a  rhymed  narrative  of  events  in  chrono 
logical  order,  partly  historical  and  partly  ro 
mantic,  told  with  Homeric  simplicity ;  and, 
although  its  verse  is  rude  and  unadorned,  the 
poem  deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  finest 
productions  of  the  middle  ages.  Before  this 
Spain  had  many  popular  songs,  both  lyric  and 
epic,  but  we  know  little  of  their  original  form, 
as  they  were  not  committed  to  writing  be 
fore  the  16th  centnry.  The  single  manuscript 
which  has  preserved  the  "Poem  of  the  Cid" 
contains  three  other  poems,  all  like  that  anony 
mous,  viz. :  "  The  Book  of  Apollonius,  Prince 
of  Tyre,"  "The  Life  of  oar  Lady,  St.  Mary  of 
Egypt,"  and  "The  Adoration  of  the  Three 
Holy  Kings."  These  poems,  as  well  as  the 
rhymed  "  Lives  of  Saints"  by  the  priest  Gon- 
zalo  de  Berceo  (died  about  1260),  and  the  anon 
ymous  poem  of  "  Count  Fernan  Gonzales,"  a 
hero  of  the  earlier  period  of  the  Christian  con 
flict  with  the  Moors,  who  is  to  the  north  of 
Spain  what  the  Cid  became  somewhat  later  to 
Aragon  and  Valencia,  betray  the  influence  of 
the  ecclesiastical  poetry  of  those  times  and  of 


the  chivalric  poetry  of  France.  They  are  writ 
ten  either  in  stanzas  of  Alexandrine  verse  or 
in  the  indigenous  rhythm  of  the  redondillas. 
Berceo  is  the  earliest  Spanish  poet  whose  name 
can  with  certainty  be  connected  with  his  works, 
which  comprised  more  than  13,000  lines.  A 
great  impulse  to  the  development  of  literature 
was  given  by  King  Alfonso  the  Wise  of  Cas 
tile,  who  substituted  the  Spanish  language  for 
the  Latin  in  the  courts,  and  ordered  the  laws 
to  be  published  in  it.  Alfonso  himself  was  a 
prolific  author.  In  order  to  bring  uniformity 
into  the  different  systems  of  Spanish  legisla 
tion,  he  compiled  several  codes  of  laws,  the 
most  celebrated  of  which  has  the  title  Las  siete 
partidas.  Several  historical  works,  as  a  uni 
versal  history  of  the  world,  a  history  of  the 
crusades  (La  gran  conquista  de  ultramar),  and 
the  celebrated  Cronica  general,  a  general  his 
tory  of  Spain  until  the  death  of  his  father, 
were  compiled  under  his  direction.  By  these 
works,  as  well  as  by  a  translation  of  the  Bi 
ble  into  Spanish,  he  became  the  creator  of 
Spanish  prose.  Some  of  his  poetical  works 
have  also  considerable  merit,  though  in  gen 
eral  they  are  most  remarkable  for  the  varie 
ty  of  their  metres,  some  of  which  were  first 
introduced  by  Alfonso  into  Spanish  poetry. 
The  Poema  de  Alejandro  of  Juan  Lorenzo  Se- 
gura  is  a  work  of  more  than  10,000  lines  on 
the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great,  filled  with 
the  fables  and  extravagances  of  the  times.  A 
continuation  of  it,  called  Los  votos  del  pavon, 
is  now  lost.  Alfonso  found  many  imitators, 
as  author  and  patron  of  literature,  among  the 
succeeding  kings  and  the  princes  of  the  royal 
family.  The  most  important  of  these  works 
of  royal  origin  is  El  conde  Lucanor,  by  the 
prince  Don  Juan  Manuel  (died  about  1347),  a 
collection  of  49  tales,  anecdotes,  and  apologues, 
in  the  oriental  manner,  and  partly  taken  from 
oriental  sources.  The  most  remarkable  poet 
of  the  14th  century  is  Juan  Ruiz,  commonly 
called  the  archpriest  of  Ilita  (died  about  1350). 
His  works,  embracing  religious,  pastoral,  and 
erotic  songs,  fables,  satires,  and  proverbs,  con 
sist  of  nearly  7,000  verses  ;  and,  although  gen 
erally  written  in  the  four-line  stanza  of  Ber 
ceo,  they  contain  no  fewer  than  16  metrical 
forms,  some  of  which  are  taken  from  the  Pro 
vencal.  The  didactic  tendency  of  the  poetry 
of  this  period  is  apparent  in  the  Consejos  y 
documentos  al  rey  Don  Pedro,  commonly  called 
the  book  of  Rabbi  Don  Santob,  a  curious  poem, 
addressed  by  a  Jew  of  Carrion  to  Pedro  the 
Cruel  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  to  him  wise  moral  coun 
sels.  Another  didactic  poem  is  "  The  Dance  of 
Death  "  (Danza  general  de  la  muerte),  a  kind 
of  spiritual  masquerade,  in  which  the  different 
ranks  of  society,  from  the  pope  to  the  young 
child,  appear  dancing  with  the  skeleton  form 
of  death.  The  formation  of  a  courtly  school 
of  lyric  poets,  after  the  model  of  the  trouba 
dours,  had  commenced  under  Alfonso  X.,  who 
himself  wrote  lyric  poems  in  the  dialect  of  Ga- 


220 


SPAIN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATURE) 


licia.  A  flourishing  school  of  Provencal  trou 
badours  was  formed  at  the  court  of  the  counts 
of  Barcelona,  and  a  courtly  school  of  Castilian 
poets  sprang  up  at  the  court  of  the  chivalric 
king  John  II.  The  poetry  of  this  school,  which 
moved  within  the  narrow  circle  of  courtly  gal 
lantry,  lacked  vigor  and  variety.  Their  works 
were  collected  in  cancioneros,  the  oldest  of 
which  is  that  of  Juan  Alfonso  de  Baena,  a  con 
verted  Jew  and  one  of  the  secretaries  of  John 
II.  The  most  complete  collection  of  the  kind, 
the  Cancionero  general  of  Fernando  del  Castillo 
(Valencia,  1511),  contains  (in  its  10th  ed.,  1573) 
the  names  of  136  authors,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  John  II.  to  the  time  of  the  em 
peror  Charles  V.  Among  them  were  the  mar- 
}uis  of  Villena,  the  marquis  of  Santillana,  and 
uan  de  Mena,  who  in  larger  didactic  poems 
tried  to  imitate  classical  and  Italian  models ; 
Diego  de  San  Pedro,  who  also  wrote  two  love 
novels,  Cdrcel  de  amor  and  Ouestion  de  amor ; 
and  Guzman,  who  is  also  celebrated  as  a  his 
torian.  In  opposition  to  the  Provencal  and 
courtly  schools,  a  more  popular  literature  be 
gan  in  the  second  half  of  the  14th  century, 
growing  directly  out  of  the  enthusiasm  which 
had  so  long  pervaded  the  whole  mass  of  the 
Spanish  people;  and  it  asserted  for  itself  a 
place  which  in  some  of  its  forms  it  still  main 
tains.  This  popular  literature  may  be  divided 
into  four  classes,  ballads,  chronicles,  romances 
of  chivalry,  and  the  drama.  Of  most  of  the 
old  ballads,  as  far  as  the  time  when  they  were 
thought  worthy  to  be  written,  both  authors 
and  dates  are  unknown ;  about  1,000  are  ex 
tant,  unequal  in  length  and  still  more  in  merit, 
which  have  been  collected  in  the  liomancero 
general  (13  parts,  1605-'14).  The  chronicles, 
or  the  half  genuine,  half  fabulous  histories  of 
the  great  events  and  heroes  of  the  national 
annals,  were  originally  begun  by  authority  of 
the  state,  but  they  were  always  deeply  im 
bued  with  the  popular  feelings  and  character. 
Some  of  them  have  already  been  referred 
to  ;  other  works  of  this  class,  which  evince  a 
steady  progress  of  the  historical  prose,  are  the 
chronicles  of  Ayala  and  of  Juan  Nunez  de 
Villaizan,  the  "  Chronicle  of  the  Cid,"  the 
"  Chronicle  of  the  Travels  of  Kuy  Gonzalez 
de  Clavijo,"  and  others.  The  first  and  most 
celebrated  of  the  romances  of  chivalry  is  the 
"Amadis  de  Gaul,"  originally  the  work  of  a 
Portuguese  gentleman  of  the  14th  century, 
Vasco  de  Lobeira,  but  translated  into  Span 
ish  by  Montalvo  between  1402  and  1504.  The 
Portuguese  original  can  no  longer  be  found ; 
but  the  Spanish  version  proved  one  of  the  most 
successful  books  of  this  branch  of  literature, 
establishing  a  high  reputation  in  every  coun 
try  of  Europe,  and  having,  as  Don  Quixote 
said,  descendants  innumerable.  The  Spanish 
drama  arose  out  of  the  representations  so  ex 
tensively  connected  with  the  festivals  of  the 
church  during  the  middle  ages.  Among  the 
best  productions  of  this  early  period  of  Span 
ish  literature  belong  the  pastoral  plays  of 


Juan  de  la  Encina  and  the  celebrated  dramatic 
novel  of  Celestina  by  Fernando  de  Kojas. — 
The  second  period  of  the  national  literature 
of  Spain  extends  from  the  accession  of  the 
Austrian  dynasty  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century  to  Cervantes.  Under  Charles  I.  (V. 
of  Germany)  Spain  rose  suddenly  from  a  sec 
ond  class  kingdom  of  Europe  to  be  the  most 
powerful  empire  of  the  world  ;  and,  as  in  the 
history  of  other  countries,  the  political  glory 
reflected  itself  in  the  rapid  progress  of  litera 
ture.  The  union  of  Aragon  and  Castile  led  to 
the  general  adoption  of  the  Castilian  dialect 
as  the  commercial  and  literary  language  of 
the  people.  In  consequence  of  the  conquest 
of  Naples  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  (1503-'4), 
and  the  increased  intercourse  of  Spaniards 
with  Italy,  Italian  literature,  at  that  time  the 
most  advanced  of  Europe,  began  to  have  a 
marked  influence  on  the  poetry  of  Spain.  The 
great  Italian  models,  especially  Dante  and  Pe 
trarch,  were  imitated,  and  Italian  measures, 
as  the  verses  of  seven  and  eleven  syllables, 
and  Italian  forms,  as  the  sonnets,  ottave  rime, 
and  canzoni,  were  introduced.  The  first  poet 
of  this  class  was  Juan  Boscan  Ahnogaver 
(died  1543),  who  made  an  experiment  in  Cas 
tilian  of  sonnets  and  the  other  forms  of  verse 
used  by  Italian  authors.  In  most  of  these 
poems,  although  they  are  obvious  imitations 
of  Petrarch,  a  Spanish  tone  and  spirit  are 
perceptible,  which  rescue  them  from  the  im 
putation  of  being  copies ;  yet  there  is  an  ab 
sence  of  the  delicate  and  exact  finish  of  the 
original.  To  a  still  greater  perfection  the  best 
forms  of  Italian  verse  were  carried  by  a  friend 
of  Boscan,  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega  (died  1536), 
whose  pastoral  poems,  unexcelled  in  Spanish 
literature,  are  remarkable  for  gentleness,  a 
pleasing  neatness  of  expression,  and  a  rare 
sweetness  of  versification.  His  sonnets,  elegies, 
and  epistles  are  of  less  poetical  value.  Among 
those  who  aided  most  in  the  introduction  and 
establishment  of  Italian  metres  was  Diego 
Hurtado  do  Mendoza  (died  1575).  His  sonnets 
are  rougher  than  those  of  his  predecessors, 
but  his  epistles  (cartas)  are  rich  in  sentences, 
portraitures,  and  characteristics  of  great  ex 
cellence.  Though  counted  among  the  Italian 
school,  he  often  gave  himself  up  to  the  old  re- 
dondillas  and  quintillas,  and  to  the  national 
tone  of  feeling  and  reflection  appropriate  to 
these  ancient  forms  of  Castilian  verse.  His 
satirical  rogues'  novel,  Lazarillo  de  Tonnes,  a 
work  of  genius  and  a  wholly  original  concep 
tion,  became  in  Spain  the  foundation  of  a  class 
of  fictions  essentially  national,  under  the  name 
of  the  genero  picaresco  or  rogues'  style,  which 
the  "Gil  Bias"  of  Le  Sage  has  made  famous 
throughout  the  world.  Mendoza's  history  of 
the  war  against  the  Moriscoes  in  Granada  is 
distinguished  for  manliness,  vigor,  truth,  and 
picturesqueness  of  style.  The  Italian  school 
of  poets  of  this  period  includes  also  several 
Portuguese  who  wrote  in  the  Castilian  dia 
lect,  as  Sa  de  Miranda  (died  1558),  the  au- 


SPAIN   (LANGUAGE   AND  LITERATUEE) 


221 


thor  of  idyls,  and  Jorge  de  Montemayor  (died 
1562),  the  author  of  the  celebrated  pastoral 
novel  Diana.  The  two  greatest  lyric  poets 
that  Spain  has  ever  produced  were  Fernan 
do  de  Herrera  (died  1597)  and  Fray  Luis  de 
Leon  (died  1591).  Herrera  wrote  some  excel 
lent  elegies,  and  the  first "  classic  odes  in  mod 
ern  literature.  The  poetry  of  Luis  de  Leon 
is  chiefly  religious  and  deeply  imbued  with 
mysticism.  The  best  of  his  poetical  compo 
sitions  are  odes  in  the  old  Castilian  measures, 
with  a  classical  purity  and  vigorous  finish  be 
fore  unknown  in  Spanish  poetry.  He  ranks 
also  among  the  greatest  masters  of  Spanish 
eloquence  for  his  prose,  which  is  richer  and  no 
less  idiomatic  than  his  poetry.  Less  original, 
and  at  present  less  known,  are  Hernando  de 
Acufia  (died  1580),  a  lyric  poet  and  skilful 
translator,  and  Gil  Polo  (died  1572),  who  ably 
continued  and  completed  the  Diana  of  Monte- 
mayor.  '  Epic  poetry  was  cultivated  with  but 
little  success,  and  the  attempts  to  sing  the  ex 
ploits  of  Charles  V.  made  by  Zapata  (Carlos 
famoso),  Urrea,  the  translator  of  Ariosto  (Car 
los  mctorioso),  and  Samper  (Carolea),  were 
failures.  Cristoval  de  Castillejo  (died  about 
1556),  the  most  efiicient  among  the  early  op 
ponents  of  the  Italian  school,  wrote  novels  and 
erotic  songs,  which  are  masterpieces ;  but  the 
satire  with  which  he  inveighed  against  the  in 
novators  was  generally  too  exaggerated  to  have 
any  effect.  Attempts  made  by  Villalobos,  Pe 
rez  de  Oliva,  and  others,  to  give  a  new  impulse 
to  dramatic  poetry  by  the  translation  of  old  clas 
sics,  were  failures ;  but  the  epic  elements  of  the 
old  national  novels  led  at  the  beginning  of  this 
period  to  the  development  of  a  truly  national 
drama,  of  which  Naharro  (about  1517)  must  be 
regarded  as  the  father.  He  was  followed  by 
Lope  de  Rueda,  who,  being  both  a  dramatic 
writer  and  an  actor,  was  the  first  to  establish 
and  regulate  the  Spanish  stage ;  and  by  Juan 
de  la  Cueva  (died  about  1608),  whose  plays, 
mostly  on  historical  subjects,  are  divided  into 
four  jornadas  and  written  in  various  measures, 
including  terza  rima,  blank  verse,  and  sonnets, 
but  chiefly  in  redondillas  and  octave  stanzas. 
The  two  tragic  plays  of  Geronimo  Bermudez, 
which  treat  of  the  sad  history  of  Ines  de  Cas 
tro,  are  happy  imitations  of  the  old  classic 
tragedy.  In  this  period  arose  also  the  eccle 
siastical  plays  (autos  sacramentales)  and  the 
burlesque  interludes  (entremeses  y  sainetes) 
and  preludes  (loas),  though  their  full  develop 
ment  belongs  to  the  following  period.  Prose 
literature  consisted  mostly  of  chivalric  novels, 
formed  after  Italian  originals,  and  without  any 
intrinsic  value  or  importance  for  the  history 
of  literature.  Foremost  among  the  prose 
writers  were  Mendoza  and  Luis  de  Leon,  both 
of  whom  have  already  been  named  among 
the  poets.  Geronimo  Zurita,  the  author  of  a 
history  of  Aragon  (Anales  de  la  corona  de 
Aragori),  was  the  first  of  the  Spanish  his 
torians  as  distinguished  from  the  chroniclers, 
who  in  particular  emancipated  the  historical 


literature  of  Spain  from  the  monkish  credulity 
of  the  old  chronicles.  Among  the  best  speci 
mens  of  didactic  prose  belong  the  dialogue  of 
Oliva  on  the  dignity  of  man  (Didlogo  de  la  dig- 
nidad  del  hombre)  and  the  essays  (Discursos) 
of  Morales  on  subjects  of  practical  philosophy 
and  literature. — The  golden  era  of  Spanish  liter 
ature  begins  in  the  second  half  of  the  16th  cen 
tury  with  Cervantes  (1547-1616),  whose  name 
and  masterpiece  are  better  known  in  foreign 
countries  than  those  of  any  other  Spanish  au 
thor.  His  "Don  Quixote,"  an  ironical  parody 
of  the  trashy  literature  of  chivalric  novels  then 
in  vogue,  is  the  never  equalled  model  of  Spanish 
prose,  the  oldest  classical  specimen  of  romantic 
fiction,  and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  monu 
ments  of  modern  genius.  His  Novelas  ejem- 
plares  and  his  Trabajos  de  Persiles  y  fiigismun- 
da  inaugurated  in  Spain  the  literature  of  serious 
romantic  fiction,  in  which  he  found  many  imi 
tators,  but  none  who  equalled  him.  His  Gala 
tea  is  one  of  the  best  pastoral  novels  of  Spain. 
The  Spanish  drama  was  raised  to  the  elevated 
position  which  it  occupies  in  the  modern  litera 
ture  of  Europe  by  the  prolific  Lope  de  Vega 
(1562-1635).  He  fixed  its  several  modifications, 
and  from  his  times  we  meet  with  the  division 
into  ecclesiastical  and  secular  dramas  (come- 
dias  divinas  y  Tiumanas).  The  principal  kinds 
of  the  secular  Crania  were  comedias  lierbicas, 
historical  and  mythological  plays,  and  come 
dias  de  capa  y  espada,  dramas  with  cloak  and 
sword,  the  principal  personages  of  which  be 
long  to  the  genteel  portion  of  society,  accus 
tomed  in  Lope's  time  to  the  picturesque  na 
tional  dress  of  cloaks  and  swords.  The  eccle 
siastical  dramas  were  divided  into  indas  de 
santos,  lives  of  saints,  and  cantos  or  autos  sa 
cramentales,  plays  at  the  Corpus  Christi  festi 
val.  In  point  of  composition  nearly  all  the 
dramas  of  Lope  de  Vega  are  alike ;  the  unity 
of  action,  time,  and  place  is  little  or  not  at 
all  observed ;  acts  and  scenes  barely  connect 
the  whole;  language  and  representation  are 
sometimes  vigorous,  sometimes  weak,  now  no 
ble,  now  common  and  coarse.  The  number 
of  his  dramas  is  almost  fabulous,  and  is  put 
by  Perez  de  Montalvan,  his  intimate  friend 
and  executor,  at  1,800  plays  and  400  autos. 
He  wrote  also  several  epic  poems,  as  Jerusalen 
conquistada,  Corona  trayica,  &c.,  which  were 
far  inferior  to  his  dramas,  and  were  soon  for 
gotten.  His  minor  poems,  among  which  are 
some  of  great  merit,  are 'almost  innumerable. 
The  number  of  poets  at  this  time  increased 
amazingly,  though  but  few  of  them  showed 
any  originality.  Among  the  lyric  poets,  the 
first,  as  far  as  their  general  influence  was 
concerned,  were  the  two  brothers  Argensola. 
Many  of  this  class  of  writers  belonged  to  the 
school  of  the  conceptistas,  who  expressed  them 
selves  in  metaphors  and  puns,  alike  in  the 
pulpit  and  in  poetry,  or  to  that  of  the  cul- 
tos,  imitators  of  Gongora  (1561-1627),  who 
claimed  for  themselves  a  peculiarly  elegant 
and  cultivated  style  of  composition,  and  who, 


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while  endeavoring  to  justify  their  claims,  ran 
into  the  most  ridiculous  extravagances,  pedan 
try,  and  affectations.  The  essence  of  epic  poe 
try  was  singularly  misunderstood,  as  all  epic 
poems  were  little  more  than  versified  history. 
Even  the  best  work  of  the  class,  the  Araucana 
of  Alonso  de  Ercilla  y  Ziiniga  (died  about 
1594),  though  not  destitute  of  beautiful  epic  ma 
chinery,  is  condemned  as  tedious  and  prosaic 
by  many  critics ;  but  a  talent  for  animated  de 
scription  and  portraiture,  and  a  natural  and 
correct  diction,  are  conceded  to  its  author.  Of 
all  kinds  of  poetry,  the  drama  was  cultivated 
most  and  with  greatest  success.  A  last  attempt 
to  write  purely  tragical  plays  was  made  by  Cris- 
toval  de  Virues,  whose  Semwamis  and  Oasan- 
dra  were,  in  true  expression  of  tragic  pathos 
and  in  vigorous  dialogue,  superior  to  all  former 
efforts  ;  but  as  the  people  had  a  decided  prefer 
ence  for  the  national  drama,  in  which,  as  in  life, 
tragic  scenes  alternate  with  comic,  it  did  not  suc 
ceed.  Higher  than  all  former  and  later  tragic 
poets  stands  Pedro  Calderon  de  la  Barca  (1600- 
'81),  one  of  the  greatest  dramatists  that  ever 
lived.  To  the  originality  and  overflowing  imagi 
nation  of  his  predecessors  he  added  a  greater 
depth  of  reflection  and  a  more  careful  execu 
tion  in  details.  Female  characters,  in  particu 
lar,  were  delineated  by  him  more  faithfully 
and  more  ingeniously  than  by  any  other  Span 
ish  poet.  In  elegance  of  language  and  versifi 
cation  he  is  also  unequalled.  The  most  promi 
nent  among  his  numerous  successors  were 
Francisco  de  Rojas,  Agustin  Moreto,  Fragoso, 
Diamante,  Antonio  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  Juan 
de  la  Hoz,  Antonio  de  Soils  (better  known  as 
a  historian),  and  Agustin  de  Salazar  y  Torres, 
who  inclines  toward  the  "  cultivated  style." 
The  decline  of  Spanish  literature  shows  itself 
in  the  writings  of  Francisco  de  Quevedo  y 
Villegas,  the  most  learned  writer  of  his  times, 
some  of  whose  works,  however,  as  his  bur 
lesque  sonnets  and  his  prose  satires,  are  among 
the  best  of  their  kind  in  the  Spanish  language. 
Exaggeration  and  affectation  vitiate  the  other 
wise  unparalleled  erotic  songs  of  Esteban  Ma 
nuel  de  Villegas.  The  corruption  of  Spanish 
prose  was  hastened  by  the  constant  stream  of 
bad  and  shallow  novels,  in  which  branch  of 
literature  the  rogues'  novel,  Guzman  da,  Al- 
farache,  by  Mateo  Aleman,  deserves  an  hon 
orable  mention.  The  only  historians  of -note 
were  Mariana  (Ifistoria  de,  Espafia)  and  Solis 
(Conquista  de  Mcjicd). — The  fourth  period, 
which  begins  with  the  accession  of  the  Bour 
bon  family  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen 
tury,  embraces  the  collapse  of  the  old  national 
literature,  the  intrusion  of  foreign  elements, 
their  temporary  victory  over  the  old  Span 
ish,  and  the  final  attempts  to  regenerate  the 
old  native  element,  and  to  fuse  it  with  the 
best  elements  of  modern  European  civiliza 
tion.  The  first  prominent  advocate  of  the 
French  element  was  Ignacio  de  Luzan,  who  in 
his  Poetica  (1737)  applied  the  rules  of  French 
critics  to  native  literature,  and  in  his  own  po 


ems  tried  to  substitute  brilliancy  for  genuine 
poetry.  He  was  principally  opposed  by  Gar 
cia  de  la  Huerta,  whose  Rahel  and  Agamemnon 
were  written  in  the  old  Spanish  forms,  and 
were  received,  in  spite  of  the  objections  of 
Gallicizing  critics,  with  immense  applause.  A 
middle  course  was  pursued  by  the  school  of 
Salamanca,  which  endeavored  to  avoid  the  ex 
cesses  of  both  parties  and  unite  their  merits. 
Its  proper  founder  was  Melendez  Yaldez  (1754- 
1817),  a  poet  of  eminent  talents,  whose  works 
exceed  all  that  had  been  produced  in  Spain 
since  the  disappearance  of  the  great  lights  of 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  and  were  received 
with  general  enthusiasm  as  the  dawn  of  a 
brighter  period.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
Salamanca  school  were  also  Iglesias,  Norofia, 
Quintana,  Cienfuegos,  Arriaza,  and  Gallego, 
who  like  Valdez  remained  thorough  patriots 
in  sentiment,  though  not  disdaining  to  follow 
great  French,  Italian,  and  English  models.  The 
liberal  and  patriotic  movements  of  1812,  1820, 
and  1834  exercised  a  very  favorable  influence 
on  the  invigoration  of  the  Spanish  mind  and 
the  progress  of  literature.  Their  fruit  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  works  of  Xerica,  Lista,  Martinez 
de  la  Rosa,  Jose  Joaquin  de  Mora,  Angel  de 
Saavedra,  and  Breton  de  los  Herreros.  The 
number  of  recent  poets  is  very  large ;  among 
the  best  of  them  are  Tapia,  Maury,  Juan  Bau- 
tista  Alonso,  Jacinto  de  Salas  y  Quiroga,  Es- 
pronceda,  Serafin  Calderon,  Zorrilla,  Hartzen- 
busch,  R.  de  Oampoamor,  Santos  Lopez  Pele- 
grin,  the  satirist  Villergas,  and  Gertrudis  Go 
mes  de  Avellaneda,  a  native  of  Cuba.  The 
modern  age  is  least  successful  in  epic  poetry, 
the  only  notable  attempt  in  this  class  of  com 
position  being  the  unfinished  Diablo  mundo 
of  Espronceda.  Better  results  have  been  ob 
tained  by  a  recultivation  of  the  old  romance 
and  fable,  the  first  impulse  to  which  was  given 
by  Saavedra,  who  has  been  followed  by  Mora, 
Zorrilla,  Gregorio  Romero  y  Larranaga,  Ma 
nuel  de  Santa  Ana,  and  others.  In  dramatic 
poetry,  Leandro  Fernandez  Moratin,  a  chief 
representative  of  the  classic  school  of  France, 
secured  for  himself  a  permanent  place  on  the 
national  stage,  and  for  the  school  to  which  he 
belonged  a  great  influence,  which  lasted  until 
in  France  the  romantic  school  became  power 
ful.  The  works  of  that  school,  partly  in  trans 
lations,  partly  in  imitations,  controlled  for 
some  time  the  stage  of  Madrid,  but  were  op 
posed  by  Breton  de  los  Herreros,  Martinez  de 
la  Rosa,  Tapia,  Saavedra,  and  more  recently 
by  Gil  y  Zarate,  Hartzenbusch,  Gutierrez,  Es- 
cosura,  Zorrilla  Moral.  Trueba,  and  others.  A 
reformation  of  prose  literature,  which  had 
been  reduced  by  the  school  of  the  cultos  to 
the  lowest  ebb,  was  prepared  by  the  Benedic 
tine  Feyjoo,  who  returned  to  the  simplicity  of 
the  classic  models  of  Spain,  and  by  the  Jesuit 
Isla,  who  in  his  satirical  novel  Fray  Gerundio 
ridiculed  the  trivial  and  bombastic  pulpit  elo 
quence  of  his  times.  Ulloa,  Mufioz,  Capmany, 
Ferreras,  Quintana,  Navarrete,  Clemencin,  To- 


SPAIN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATTJEE) 


SPAIN   (WINES   OF) 


223 


reno,  Lafuente,  Alcantara,  Gayangos,  Munoz 
Maldonado,  and  Modesto  Lafuente  (as  a  satirist 
known  under  the  pseudonyme  of  Fray  Gerun- 
dio)  have  in  modern  times  distinguished  them 
selves  as  historians.  Among  the  best  political 
writers  and  orators  are  Jovellanos,  Argtielles, 
the  philosopher  Balmes,  Miiiano,  Marina,  Lar- 
ra,  Alcala  Galiano,  Donoso  Cortes,  Martinez 
de  la  Kosa,  Figueras,  and  Castelar.  Novel  lit 
erature  began  to  be  cultivated  with  great  ac 
tivity  when  the  standard  works  of  England 
and  France  became  known.  Among  the  best 
works  of  the  kind  are  those  of  Humaray  Sala 
manca,  Escosura,  Martinez  de  la  Eosa,  Larra, 
Villalta,  Serafin  Calderon,  Gertrudis  de  Ave- 
llaneda,  and  Cecilia  Bohl  Faber  de  Aron  ("Fer- 
nan  Caballero  ").  Among  the  brilliant  Spanish 
writers  of  the  present  century  is  the  orator 
Emilio  Castelar,  who  has  won  a  wide  reputa 
tion.  Besides  novels,  he  has  published  Dis- 
cursos  parlamentarios,  Eecuerdos  de  Italia 
(translated  into  English  as  "  Old  Rome  and 
New  Italy  "),  and  Vida  de  Lord  Byron  (English 
translation  by  Mrs.  Arthur  Arnold,  London  and 
New  York,  1875-'6). — There  are  still  many 
writers  in  the  Catalan  dialect,  which  is  consid 
ered  by  the  Catalans  to  be  a  richer  language 
than  the  Castilian.  Catalan  literature  produced 
its  best  authors  in  the  century  preceding  the 
reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The  Can- 
cionero  general,  compiled  soon  after  the  mid 
dle  of  the  loth  century,  is  a  collection  of  about 
300  poems  by  30  different  Catalan  writers. 
The  works  of  Ausias  March  (died  1460),  the 
most  noted  of  these,  passed  through  four  edi 
tions  in  the  16th  century,  and  were  translated 
into  Latin,  Italian,  and  Castilian,  the  last  by 
Montemayor.  Jaume  Roig  (died  1478),  like 
March  a  native  of  Valencia,  is  also  worthy  of 
notice  for  his  "  Book  of  the  Ladies,"  a  satire 
on  woman.  In  1428  the  Divina  commedia 
was  translated  into  Catalan  by  Andres  Febrer ; 
and  in  1477  Bonifacio  Ferrer  made  a  transla 
tion  into  the  same  dialect  of  the  Bible  (folio, 
Valencia,  1478),  but  nearly  every  copy  of  it 
was  destroyed  by. the  inquisition.  In  the  be 
ginning  of  the  16th  century  Catalan  writers 
began  to  use  the  Castilian,  and  by  the  middle 
of  that  century  the  latter  had  almost  super 
seded  its  rival.  The  contemporary  literature 
of  Catalonia  consists  mainly  of  poetry,  dra 
matical  pieces,  and  newspaper  articles.  The 
leading  writers  of  the  present  day  are  Lo  Tam- 
buriner  d'el  Llobregaz,  Victor  Balaguir,  Fran 
cisco  Camprodon,  Serrafi  Pitarra,  Jaime  Cu- 
llell,  and  Bofarull. — Of  the  Spanish  colonies, 
Cuba  alone  has  produced  some  writers  of  en 
during  fame,  as  the  poets  Heredia  and  Placi- 
do,  and  the  female  poet  and  novelist  Gertru 
dis  Avellaneda,  before  mentioned.  In  all  of 
the  Spanish  American  republics  the  different 
brandies  of  literature,  but  chiefly  poetry,  have 
been  and  are  cultivated  with  considerable  suc 
cess  ;  but  only  a  few  of  the  writers  have  more 
than  a  local  reputation.  Among  those  whose 
names  are  known  abroad,  some  of  the  most 
VOL.  xv. — 15 


eminent  are  Baralt  (1810-'60),  author  of  a  His- 
toria  de  Venezuela;  the  popular  Ecuadorian 
poet  Olmedo  (born  1784)  ;  the  Venezuelan 
Bello  (1780-1865),  the  most  distinguished  of 
Spanish  American  poets  and  grammarians  ;  J. 
M.  Torres  Caicedo,  a  poet  and  publicist,  au 
thor  of  Ensayos  Mogrdficoa,  cited  below ;  Mora, 
who  wrote  a  history  of  Mexico ;  Pedro  de  An- 
gelis,  historian  of  the  Argentine  Republic  ;  Ey- 
zaguirre,  author  of  a  history  of  Chili  from  the 
discovery  to  the  present  century  ;  Marmol,  an 
Argentine  novelist,  who  wrote  Amalia;  Toro 
of  Colombia,  Lastarria  of  Chili,  and  Sarmiento 
of  the  Argentine  Republic,  the  last  of  whom 
is  the  author  of  Civilization  y  barbarie,  an 
analysis  of  South  American  society,  published 
in  French  in  1853,  and  of  the  Vida  de  Abran 
Lincoln  (New  York,  1865). — The  best  work  on 
the  national  literature  of  Spain  is  the  "  History 
of  Spanish  Literature,"  by  George  Ticknor  (3 
vols.  8vo,  New  York  and  London,  1849),  a 
Spanish  translation  of  which,  with  additions 
and  notes,  by  Pascual  de  Gayangos  and  En 
rique  de  Vedia,  was  published  in  Madrid  in 
1851-'6.  See  also  Eugenio  Ochoa,  Coleccion 
de  los  mejores  autores  espanoles  (Paris,  1852) ; 
Ferdinald  Wolf,  Studien  zur  GeschicJite  der 
spanischen  und  portugiesiscJien  Nationallite- 
ratur  (Berlin,  1859);  Manuel  Ovilo  y  Otero, 
Manual  de  l>iograf'ia  y  de  bibliografm  de  los 
escritores  espanoles  del  siglo  XIX.  (Paris,  1859)  ; 
Amador  de  los  Rios,  Historia  crltica  de  la  lite- 
ratura  espanola  (Madrid,  1862);  Eugene  Ba- 
ret,  Histoire  de  la  litterature  espagnole  depuis 
ses  origines  les  plus  reculees  jusqii'a  nos  jours 
(Paris,  1863) ;  J.  M.  Torres  Caicedo,  Ensayos 
Mogrdflcos  y  de  literatura  sobre  los  principales 
poetas  y  literatos  latino-am  eric anos  (3  vols. 
8vo,  Paris,  1863-'8) ;  and  J.  M.  Rojas,  BiUio- 
teca  de  escritores  venezolanos  contempordneos 
(Paris,  1875).  Among  older  works,  the  Ger 
man  of  Bouterwek  and  the  French  of  Sis- 
mondi  are  valuable ;  they  have  been  translated 
both  into  Spanish  and  English,  and  the  for 
mer  into  French. 

SPAIN,  Wines  of.  The  Spanish  peninsula 
yields  to  no  other  part  of  Europe  in  natural 
advantages  for  wine  growing.  With  a  fertile 
soil,  an  admirable  geological  conformation,  and 
a  climate  which,  aided  by  the  proximity  of 
great  bodies  of  water,  tends  to  develop  the 
vine  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  it  ought 
to  produce  natural  wines  of  the  choicest  qual 
ity  in  respect  to  body  and  bouquet;  but,  in 
consequence  of  primitive  and  faulty  systems  of 
vinification,  these  results  are  seldom  attained, 
and  the  Spaniards  may  be  said  to  excel  chief 
ly  in  the  preparation  of  white,  dry,  fortified 
wines,  and  a  few  sweet  varieties.  The  culture 
of  the  vine  in  Spain  is  almost  universal,  but 
in  the  absence  of  recent  trustworthy  statis 
tics  the  annual  yield  cannot  be  readily  deter 
mined.  It  has  been  estimated  as  high  as  660,- 
000,000  gallons,  and  as  low  as  300,000,000; 
the  latter  amount  is  doubtless  more  nearly  cor 
rect.  The  principal  wines  of  export  and  those 


224: 


SPAIN  (WINES  OF) 


most  intimately  associated  with  Spanish  viti 
culture  are  the  several  varieties  of  sherry,  so 
called  from  the  town  of  Jerez  de  la  Frontera, 
in  Andalusia,  around  which  lie  perhaps  the 
choicest  vineyards  of  Spain.  They  form  part 
of  the  wine  district  of  Cadiz,  which  also  in 
cludes  San  Lucar  de  Barrameda,  on  the  banks 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Guadalquivir ;  Trebujena, 
N.  of  San  Lucar ;  and  Puerto  de  Santa  Maria, 
S.  of  Jerez,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  estuary  of 
the  Rio  Guadalete,  which  forms  the  eastern 
frontier  of  the  sherry  district.  The  vineyards 
of  all  qualities  in  the  district  of  Cadiz  cover 
about  24,000  acres,  and  yield  not  less  than 
0,000,000  gallons  annually,  which  is  very  little 
in  excess  of  the  yearly  consumption  of  so-called 
sherry  in  England  alone.  Between  natural 
sherries  and  the  sherries  of  commerce,  which 
find  their  principal  market  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  there  is  an  important 
difference.  The  former  are  generally  light- 
colored  and  dry,  and  after  the  primary  fermen 
tation  is  complete  contain  an  average  of  26  per 
cent,  of  proof  spirit  naturally  generated.  Under 
this  class  may  be  mentioned  the  so-called  vinos 
de  pasto,  or  table  wines,  which  are  light,  dry, 
spirituous,  and  highly  flavored.  The  wines 
exported  under  that  name  exhibit  these  quali 
ties  in  a  marked  degree,  although  more  or  less 
brandied  to  suit  the  English  and  American 
taste.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  sherries 
leaving  Cadiz  have  previously  been  subjected 
to  a  treatment  which  renders  them  as  much  a 
factitious  product  as  champagne.  The  manu 
facturers  generally  buy  much  more  must  or 
wine  from  other  growers  than  they  produce 
themselves.  The  juice  is  deposited  in  butts  of 
108  gallons  each,  and  after  the  first  fermenta 
tion  is  racked  from  the  lees,  each  butt  receiv 
ing  from  two  to  ton  gallons  of  spirit,  accord 
ing  to  the  quality  of  the  wine,  the  inferior 
sorts  requiring  most  reenforcernent.  The  wine 
is  subsequently  flavored  with  a  liqueur  called 
dulce,  made  from  the  must  of  over-ripe  grapes, 
the  fermentation  of  which  has  been  checked 
by  the  addition  of  over-proof  spirit ;  and  col 
ored  by  an  admixture  of  vino  de  color,  which 
is  simply  must  boiled  until  it  is  reduced  to  one 
fifth  of  its  bulk,  and  has  acquired  the  consis 
tency  of  treacle.  It  is  deep  reddish  brown, 
and  has  a  harsh  and  bitter  flavor.  By  means 
of  this  agent  all  the  popular  shades  of  color 
are  given  to  the  conventional  sherries  of 
commerce.  Thus  pale  sherry  requires  but  Y 
gallons  to  the  butt,  the  golden  15,  the  pale 
brown  20,  and  the  rich  old  brown  as  much  as 
25  gallons.  The  choicest  wines  of  the  Cadiz 
district  are  not  customarily  sold  or  drunk,  but 
are  reserved  for  admixture  with  poorer  sorts, 
whereby  the  latter,  in  addition  to  the  flavor 
ing  and  coloring  processes  they  have  under 
gone,  acquire  a  premature  character  of  age  and 
ripeness.  Hence  the  custom  prevalent  among 
manufacturers  of  sherry,  of  keeping  up  the 
so-called  soleras,  or  stock  wines.  A  solera 
wine  is  described  as  "  a  fine  old  mother  wine, 


which  by  care  and  attention  has  acquired 
body  and  character.  Such  wines  are  kept  in 
stock  in  butts  or  double  butts,  and  are  per 
petuated  in  the  following  manner :  Of  say  20 
butts  of  existing  ready  solera  wine  the  pro 
prietor  draws  off  one  half  for  mixing  with  the 
wine  about  to  be  exported.  He  then  fills  up 
the  voids  created  in  his  20  butts  by  means 
of  10  butts  of  the  finest  wine  of  a  later  vin 
tage  which  he  can  obtain.  In  old  established 
houses  solera  wine  is  therefore  a  mixture  of  a 
great  number  of  wines,  of  which  the  latest 
addition  forms  one  half,  the  last  but  one  a 
quarter,  and  the  last  but  two  an  eighth  of 
the  whole  bulk,  and  so  forth,  in  a  ratio  which 
terminates  only  with  the  first  solera  produced 
without  any  mother  wine.  The  production  of 
this  solera  wine  is  a  kind  of  chemical  infec 
tion  whereby  good  wine  is  induced  to  undergo 
quickly  a  process  of  etherification.  This  pro 
cess  becomes  so  potent  in  some  soleras  that 
they  are  absolutely  nasty  and  nndrinkable, 
like  most  essences,  but  command  prices  of 
from  £800  to  £1,000  a  butt,  on  account  of  the 
large  quantity  of  flavorless  Avine  which  a  cer 
tain  small  amount  of  them  will  infect  with  the 
desired  sherry  flavor."  (Thudicum  and  Du- 
pre's  u  Treatise  on  Wines.")  Repeated  bran- 
dyings  of  the  poorer  wines  take  place  previous 
to  shipment,  until  the  20  per  cent,  of  proof 
spirit  contained  in  the  newly  fermented  natu 
ral  wine  has  been  increased  to  an  average  of 
about  37  per  cent.  Some  specimens  tested  by 
the  London  custom  house  officers  have  exhib 
ited  as  much  as  50  per  cent.  The  finer  sher 
ries  are  free  from  this  extreme  alcoholic  char 
acter.  Those  from  the  neighborhood  of  Jerez 
often  develop  a  peculiar  etherous  flavor  called 
the  amontillado,  which  is  supposed  to  arise 
from  the  presence  of  aldehyde,  and  is  very  no 
ticeable  in  some  white  Greek  wines.  Around 
San  Lucar  are  produced  the  well  known  man- 
zanillas,  which  derive  their  name  from  a  cer 
tain  similarity  both  in  flavor  and  fragrance  to 
the  manzanilla  or  camomile  flower.  In  their 
highest  perfection  they  are  thin  and  almost 
colorless,  with  a  bitter  aromatic  taste.  They 
are  said  to  be  the  purest  wines  of  their  class, 
from  the  fact  that  they  will  not  mingle  readily 
with  other  growths.  The  fine  wines  of  Mon- 
tilla,  long  famous  throughout  Spain,  are  re 
puted  to  develop  the  amontillado  flavor  in  a 
remarkable  degree,  but  'require  several  years 
to  reach  their  best  condition.  Elsewhere  in 
Andalusia  are  produced  wines  assimilating  in 
flavor  and  in  general  character  to  those  of 
Jerez,  but  greatly  inferior  in  quality.  The  dis 
trict  of  Condado  de  Niebla,  between  the  coast 
and  Seville,  yields  a  wine  so  perishable  that  it 
has  to  be  largely  reenforced  with  alcohol,  after 
which  it  is  taken  to  Cadiz  and  made  into  sher 
ry  for  shipment  to  England. — Malaga  has  long 
been  famous  for  the  production  of  wines,  both 
sweet  and  dry,  and  raisins.  The  entire  coun 
try  between  the  port  of  Malaga  and  Granada 
may  be  said  to  form  one  great  vineyard,  the 


SPALATO 


SPALDING 


225 


mountainous  parts  of  which  near  Malaga,  ow 
ing  to  exceptional  climatic  advantages,  produce 
not  less  than  three  crops  of  grapes  annually. 
The  first  is  used  exclusively  for  raisins,  while 
the  second  yields  dry  wines  and  the  third  sweet 
wines.  The  most  noted  of  the  latter  are  rich 
and  of  a  dark  amber  color,  imparted  by  the  ad 
dition  of  boiled  must  intentionally  burned  in  the 
boiling.  They  are  said  to  keep  for  more  than  a 
century,  with  the  aid  doubtless  of  added  spirit, 
but  with  age  lose  much  of  their  sweetness.  To 
ledo  and  La  Mancha  produce  some  excellent  red 
wines,  those  of  the  latter  district  being  dis 
tinguished  by  ample  body  and  a  peculiar  sub- 
bitter  flavor.  The  muscat  of  Juencaral  near 
Madrid  is  one  of  the  brightest  colored  and  most 
agreeable  wines  of  Spain.  Murcia,  Valencia, 
and  Catalonia,  which  border  on  the  Mediterra 
nean,  produce  immense  quantities  of  deep-col 
ored,  full-bodied  wines.  Those  of  Murcia  are 
coarse,  rough,  and  inferior,  while  those  of  cer 
tain  districts  of  Valencia,  notably  Alicante  and 
Benicarlo,  have  considerable  reputation.  The 
lower  grades  of  Valencia  wines  are  perishable 
unless  reenforced  with  alcohol,  and  are  largely 
employed  in  making  imitation  port  or  in  mix 
ing  with  genuine  port  wine.  Many  thousands 
of  butts  of  spirits  are  also  distilled  from  them. 
The  Alicante  wines,  produced  from  the  grape 
of  that  name,  are  sweet,  strong,  luscious,  and 
often  of  an  almost  sirupy  consistence.  Like 
other  wines  of  their  class,  they  have  to  be 
brand  led  in  order  to  keep  any  length  of  time. 
Those  of  Benicarlo  are  sweet  and  heady,  and 
are  in  considerable  demand  for  mixing  with 
the  red  wines  of  southern  France.  The  Cata 
lan  wines  are  numerous  and  of  many  varieties 
of  flavor,  the  greater  part  being  cheap  and  of 
medium  quality.  The  red  kinds  predominate, 
and  it  is  asserted  that  those  of  the  deepest  tint, 
called  in  England  "  Spanish  reds,"  derive  their 
color  from  a  liberal  admixture  of  elderberry 
juice.  They  require  brandying,  and  are  exten 
sively  used  for  building  up  the  poorer  growths 
of  Bordeaux.  Much  of  the  cheap  claret  used 
in  England  and  America  is  largely  impregnated 
with  Spanish  Mediterranean  wines.  In  Ara- 
gon,  Valladolid,  Biscay,  Navarre,  Astnrias,  and 
elsewhere  are  produced  red  and  white  wines 
of  fair  quality,  but  mostly  of  local  reputa 
tion.  Of  late  years  attempts  have  been  made 
to  naturalize  the  choice  wines  of  Medoc  and 
Burgundy  in  northern  Spain,  in  the  hope  of 
obtaining  wine  equal  to  the  products  of  those 
districts ;  but  the  results  have,  as  a  rule,  been 
far  from  satisfactory.  The  Balearic  islands 
yield  considerable  quantities  of  wine,  chiefly 
muscats  and  malmseys ;  while  the  Canaries, 
where  was  made  the  famous  vino  secco  or  sack 
of  Shakespeare's  time,  have  almost  ceased  to 
be  a  wine-growing  country. 

SPALATO,  or  Spalatro  (anc.  Spalatum  or  Spo- 
latum),  a  town  of  Dalmatia,  Austria,  on  a  bay 
of  the  Adriatic  formed  by  islands,  74  m.  S.  E. 
of  Zara;  pop.  in  1870,  15,784.  It  has  been 
ately  much  improved  and  provided  with  piers 


and  quays.  The  archbishop  of  Spalato  is  pri 
mate  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia.  It  contains  a 
cathedral  (anciently  a  temple  of  Jupiter)  and 
other  churches,  an  episcopal  palace  and  semi 
nary,  a  nautical  and  other  schools,  and  a  mu 
seum  for  Roman  antiquities,  which  abound 
here.  The  harbor  is  spacious,  and  the  trade 
is  especially  active  with  Turkey.  Spalato  be 
longed  for  several  centuries  to  Venice,  during 
the  Napoleonic  era  to  France,  and  since  1815 
to  Austria. — Three  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Spalato  is 
the  village  of  Salona,  which  preserves  the  name 
of  the  ancient  capital  of  Dalmatia.  Ancient 
Salona  was  an  extensive  city,  and  a  bulwark 
of  the  Romans  against  the  Goths  and  other 
barbarians.  Some  of  its  buildings  and  many 
ruins  remain.  The  emperor  Diocletian,  who 
was  born  near  it,  resided  there  during  his  re 
tirement.  A  portion  of  Spalato  is  on  the  site 
of  his  immense  palace,  built  in  303,  and  occu 
pying  about  eight  acres,  in  which  the  people 
of  Salona  took  refuge  on  the  destruction  of 
their  city  by  the  barbarians;  and  the  name 
Spalatum  is  a  corruption  of  Salonm  Palatium. 

SPALDIIYG,  a  W.  county  of  Georgia,  bound 
ed  W.  by  Flint  river;  area,  about  190  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  10,205,  of  whom  4,878  were  col 
ored.  The  surface  is  slightly  undulating  and 
the  soil  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Macon 
and  Western  and  the  Savannah,  Griffin,  and 
North  Alabama  railroads.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  18,634  bushels  of  wheat, 
125,984  of  Indian  corn,  17,164  of  oats,  and 
3,630  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  460  horses, 
728  mules  and  asses,  1,169  milch  cows,  1,554 
other  cattle,  1,521  sheep,  and  4,256  swine. 
Capital,  Griffin. 

SP1LDING,  Lyman,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Cornish,  N.  II.,  June  5,  1775,  died  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Oct.  31,  1821.  He  grad 
uated  at  Harvard  college  in  1797,  assisted 
Prof.  Nathan  Smith  in  establishing  the  medi 
cal  school  at  Dartmouth  college,  delivered 
the  first  course  of  lectures  on  chemistry  in 
that  institution,  and  published  "  A  New  No 
menclature  of  Chemistry,  proposed  by  Messrs. 
De  Morveau,  Lavoisier,  Berthollet,  and  Four- 
croy,  with  Additions  and  Improvements " 
(1799).  He  entered  upon  the  practice  of 
medicine  at  Portsmouth  in  1799.  In  1812 
he  was  elected  president  and  professor  of 
anatomy  and  surgery  in  the  college  of  phy 
sicians  and  surgeons  at  Fairfield,  Herkimer 
co.,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1813  he  removed  to  the  city 
of  New  York.  He  originated  the  plan  for 
the  formation  of  the  "  Pharmacopoeia  of  the 
United  States,"  the  first  edition  of  which  was 
published  in  1820,  under  the  supervision  of 
delegates  from  all  the  medical  schools  and  so 
cieties.  Dr.  Spalding  published  "  Reflections 
on  Fever,  and  particularly  on  the  Inflamma 
tory  Character  of  Fever  "  (1817) ;  "  Reflections 
on  Yellow  Fever  Periods"  (1819);  and  "A 
History  of  the  Introduction  and  Use  of  Scutel- 
laria  Lateriflora  as  a  Remedy  for  preventing 
and  curing  Hydrophobia"  (1819). 


226 


SPALDING 


SPALLANZANI 


SPALDIXG,  Martia  John,  an  American  prelate, 
born  in  Marion  co.,  Ky.,  May  23,  1810,  died  in 
Baltimore,  Feb.  7,  1872.  He  graduated  at  St. 
Mary's  college,  Lebanon,  in  1820,  studied  the 
ology,  and  went  to  Rome  in  1830  to  complete 
his  course  at  the  college  of  the  propaganda. 
He  was  ordained  priest  on  Aug.  13,  1834,  re 
turned  to  Kentucky,  and  was  appointed  pas 
tor  of  the  cathedral  of  Bardstown.  In  Febru 
ary,  1835,  he  founded  the  "Catholic  Advo 
cate,"  with  which  he  was  connected  till  1858. 
He  also  founded  the  "Louisville  Guardian"  in 
1854.  In  1838  he  was  elected  president  of  St. 
Joseph's  theological  seminary,  Bardstown ;  in 
1840  became  pastor  of  St.  Peter's  church,  Lex 
ington,  and  in  1841  again  pastor  of  the  cathe 
dral  at  Bardstown.  lie  was  invited  to  deliver 
a  series  of  discourses  on  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  the  cathedral  of  Nashville  in  1843; 
and  he  afterward  lectured  in  the  chief  cities 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  His  yearly 
lectures  from  1844  to  1847  were  published 
with  the  title  of  "  Evidences  of  Catholicity  " 
(1847  ;  4th  ed.,  Baltimore,  1866).  He  was  ap 
pointed  coadjutor  bishop  of  Louisville,  Aug. 
10,  1848,  with  the  title  of  bishop  of  Lengone 
in  partibus  injideUum,  and  was  consecrated  on 
Sept.  10.  lie  established  a  colony  of  Trappist 
monks  at  Gethsemane  near  Bardstown,  and  a 
house  of  Magdalens  in  connection  with  the 
convent  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  In  1850  he 
became  bishop  of  Louisville  as  successor  of 
Dr.  Flaget,  whose  life  he  wrote  (Louisville, 
1852),  and  built  a  magnificent  cathedral.  In 
May,  1852,  he  was  present  at  the  first  plenary 
council  of  Baltimore,  obtained  the  erection  of 
the  new  see  of  Covington,  and  urged  the  es 
tablishment  of  a  system  of  parochial  schools 
in  every  diocese.  He  went  to  Europe  in  No 
vember,  1852,  obtained  in  Belgium  Xaverian 
brothers  for  the  parochial  schools  of  Louis 
ville,  and  from  Archbishop  Zurysen  of  Utrecht 
several  priests  and  a  colony  of  sisters  to  in 
struct  the  deaf  and  dumb.  Having  taken 
steps  for  the  foundation  of  an  American  col 
lege  at  Louvain,  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  April,  1853,  and  was  involved  in  a 
controversy  with  George  D.  Prentice  of  the 
Louisville  "Journal"  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Know-Nothing  movement  in  1855.  He  pub 
lished  his  "  Miscellania  "  during  this  agitation. 
In  the  three  provincial  councils  of  Cincinnati, 
in  1855,  1858,  and  1861,  Bishop  Spalding  bore 
a  leading  part,  and  drew  up  the  collective  ad 
dress  of  the  bishops  at  their  close.  Another 
controversy  with  George  I).  Prentice  grew  out 
of  a  review  by  Bishop  Spalding  of  Joseph 
Kay's  work  on  common  school  education  in 
Europe,  the  bishop  advocating  a  denomina 
tional  system  of  common  schools,  such  as  ex 
ists  in  most  European  states.  In  his  own  dio 
cese  he  introduced  a  system  of  church  gov 
ernment  calculated  to  secure  the  rights  of  the 
inferior  clergy,  and  preserve  them  from  arbi 
trary  rule.  In  1800  he  published  "A  History 
of  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  Germany 


and  Switzerland  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  Louisville ;  4th 
ed.,  Baltimore,  1866),  enlarged  from  a  review 
of  D'Aubigne  first  published  in  1844,  and  de 
livered  a  course  of  lectures  at  the  Smithsonian 
institution  on  the  history  and  elements  of  mod 
ern  civilization.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Kenrick  as 
archbishop  of  Baltimore,  May  12,  1864,  and 
took  possession  of  his  see  on  July  31.  One 
of  his  first  cares  was  to  found  an  industrial 
school  for  boys  intrusted  to  the  Xaverian 
brothers,  which  was  opened  Sept.  8, 1866.  As 
apostolic  delegate,  he  convened  the  second  na 
tional  council  of  Baltimore,  Oct.  7,  1866,  and 
had  the  principal  part  in  preparing  the  mea 
sures  submitted  to  its  deliberations,  and  in 
drawing  up  the  acts  of  the  council  in  so  com 
plete  a  form  as  to  make  the  work  a  standard 
manual  of  American  canon  law  (Concilii  Ple- 
narii  Baltimorensis  II.  Acta  et  JDecreta,  Balti 
more,  1868).  To  him  is  mainly  due  the  foun 
dation  of  the  "  Catholic  Publication  Society  " 
of  New  York,  and  of  the  monthly  periodical 
called  the  "  Catholic  AVorld."  He  took  a  con 
spicuous  part  in  the  council  of  the  Vatican 
(1869-'70).  Together  with  other  bishops  of 
the  United  States,  he  wished  for  an  immediate 
and  final  doctrinal  judgment  on  the  question 
of  pontifical  infallibility,  but  preferred  an  in 
direct  and  implied  definition,  consisting  in  the 
formal  condemnation  of  every  sentiment  op 
posed  to  the  inerrancy  of  the  supreme  teach 
ing  office  of  the  pope.  On  Archbishop  Spal- 
ding's  arrival  in  Rome  a  postiilatum  in  this 
sense  was  drawn  up  by  him  and  signed  by  the 
American  bishops.  Subsequently  some  of  the 
leading  reasons  on  which  t\\c  jjostulatum  was 
grounded  were  publicly  quoted  by  Bishop  Du- 
pauloup  as  arguments  against  the  opportune 
ness  of  a  doctrinal  definition.  Passages  from 
the  late  Archbishop  Kenrick's  theology  were 
also  alleged  in  support  of  the  opposition.  This 
was  resisted  by  Archbishop  Spalding  in  a  let 
ter  to  Bishop  Dupanloup  (April  4,  1870),  in 
which  he  vindicated  the  orthodoxy  of  his 
predecessor,  and  explained  the  opinions  of 
the  American  bishops.  At  the  opening  of 
the  council  he  had  been  appointed  a  member 
of  the  commission  of  16  on  postulata,  and  the 
decided  stand  taken  by  the  majority  of  the 
council  in  favor  of  an  immediate  and  formal 
definition  finally  induced  him  and  his  co-signers 
to  make  no  further  opposition.  Archbishop 
Spalding  edited  with  an  introduction  and  notes 
Abbe  Darras's  "  General  History  of  the  Catho 
lic  Church"  (4  vols.,  New  York,  1866). 

SPALDING,  Solomon.  See  MOEMONS,  vol.  xi., 
p.  833. 

SPALLAXZANI,  Lazaro,  an  Italian  naturalist, 
born  at  Scandiano,  in  the  duchy  of  Modena, 
Jan.  12,  1729,  died  Feb.  12,  1799.  He  studied 
at  Reggio  and  Bologna,  and  was  chosen  in  1754 
to  fill  the  chair  of  logic,  metaphysics,  and  Greek 
in  the  university  of  Reggio.  In  1761  he  ac 
cepted  a  professorship  at  Modena,  and  began  to 
obtain  a  wide  reputation  by  his  researches  in 
natural  science.  In  1767  he  produced  a  wrork 


SPANDAU 


SPANIIEIM 


227 


on  the  phenomena  of  generation,  showing  the 
preexistence  of  germs  to  fecundation;  in"l768 
he  published  the  result  of  his  investigations  on 
the  production  and  circulation  of  the  Wood ; 
and  in  1709  translated  Bonnet's  Contemplations 
de  la  nature.  In  1775  he  contested,  in  opposi 
tion  to  Needham,  the  spontaneous  generation 
of  the  infusoria,  and  maintained  by  a  long  se 
ries  of  ingenious  experiments  the  production  of 
these  animalcules  from  atmospheric  germs.  In 
1770  he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  his 
tory  in  the  university  of  Pavia.  In  order  to  add 
to  the  museum  of  Pavia,  he  travelled  at  differ 
ent  times  through  the  principal  countries  of 
Europe,  resided  11  months  in  Constantinople 
about  1785,  and  on  his  return  lectured  to  more 
than  500  students.  In  later  publications  he 
announced  remarkable  discoveries  and  theories 
concerning  volcanoes,  discussed  curious  prob 
lems  in  regard  to  swallows,  and  suspected  the 
existence  of  a  sixth  sense  in  bats,  by  which 
they  are  guided  with  precision  though  deprived 
of  sight.  His  works  are  numerous,  and  many 
of  them  have  been  translated  into  the  princi 
pal  European  languages. 

SPAXD.ir,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Brandenburg,  at  the  junction  of  the  Spree 
and  the  Havel,  7  m.  W.  of  Berlin ;  pop.  in 
1871,  19,013.  It  is  a  fortress  of  the  third  class, 
and  the  treasury  of  the  German  empire  is  de 
posited  in  the  citadel,  and  can  be  unlocked  only 
by  two  keys  simultaneously,  one  of  which  is 
in  the  custody  of  the  chancellor  and  the  other 
in  that  of  the  president  of  the  committee  for 
the  debts  of  the  empire.  Spandau  has  a  largo 
central  prison,  new  barracks  and  military  hos 
pital,  an  artillery  school  for  infantry,  a"  royal 
foundery  of  artillery,  and  various  manufacto-  | 
ries.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  the  Mit- 
telmark,  and  was  repeatedly  the  residence  of 
the  electors  of  Brandenburg.  It  was  occupied 
by  the  Swedes  from  1631  to  1635,  surrendered 
to  the  French  Oct.  25,  1806,  and  recovered  by 
the  Prussians  April  26,  1813. 

SPAXGEXBERG,  Au?nst  Gottlieb,  first  bishop 
of  the  Moravian  church  in  America,  born  at 
Klettenberg,  Prussia,  July  15,  1704,  died  at 
Berthelsdorf,  Saxony,  Sept.  18,  1792.  lie 
graduated  at  Jena  in  1726,  began  to  lecture  as 
a  junior  professor,  and  in  conjunction  with  a 
number  of  students  established  free  schools  I 
in  the  suburbs  of  Jena  for  the  children  of  the 
poor.  In  1731  he  was  appointed  adjunct  pro 
fessor  at  Halle,  and  assistant  superintendent  of 
Francke's  orphan  house.  His  liberal  views  in 
respect  to  such  as  were  not  in  connection 
with  the  established  church,  and  especially  his 
strong  love  for  the  Moravians,  led  to  his  dis 
missal  from  his  offices  in  1733.  He  went  to 
Herrnhut,  ana  was  appointed  assistant  to 
Count  Zinzendorf,  in  which  capacity  he  visit 
ed  various  parts  of  the  continent.  Toward 
the  close  of  1734  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  entered  into  successful  negotiations  with 
the  trustees  for  Georgia  relative  to  a  Mora 
vian  settlement  in  that  colony.  Fifty  acres 


of  land  were  granted  him,  and  500  acres  were 
made  over  to  Count  Zinzendorf.  One  of  these 
tracts  formed  a  part  of  the  present  site  of  Sa 
vannah,  and  the  other  lay  on  the  Ogeechee  riv 
er.  Spangenberg  arrived  at  the  former  tract 
with  nine  immigrants  in  the  spring  of  1735, 
and  immediately  commenced  a  settlement, 
which  was  the  h'rst  formed  by  the  Moravians 
in  America.  Having  spent  four  years  partly 
in  Georgia  and  partly  in  Pennsylvania,  where 
he  preached  among  his  German  countrymen, 
he  returned  to  Europe.  His  report  upon  the 
state  of  religion  in  Pennsylvania  induced  the 
church  to  begin  an  enterprise  in  that  province, 
and  the  town  of  Bethlehem  was  founded.  In 
1741  he  visited  London,  where  he  was  made 
general  deacon  of  the  brotherhood,  and  found 
ed  the  first  organized  Moravian  society  in  Eng 
land.  In  1744  he  returned  to  Germany,  and, 
after  being  consecrated  a  bishop,  went  again  to 
America,  in  order  to  superintend  the  entire 
work  of  the  Moravians  in  this  country,  in  which 
he  continued  for  18  years,  interrupted  by  oc 
casional  visits  to  Europe.  lie  undertook  fre 
quent  journeys  to  the  Indian  country,  and  was 
adopted  into  the  Oneida  nation.  Soon  after 
the  conquest  of  Canada,  Spangenberg  was  ap 
pointed  a  member  of  the  college  of  bishops  and 
elders  elected,  subsequently  to  Count  Zinzen- 
dorf's  death,  to  govern  the  three  provinces  and 
the  missions  of  the  Moravian  church.  lie  left 
America  in  June,  1762,  arrived  at  Herrnhut  in 
November,  and  immediately  entered  upon  the 
duties  of  his  new  office,  and  for  30  years  was 
the  leading  spirit  among  his  colleagues.  In 
1764  he  was  appointed  supreme  inspector  in 
upper  Alsacp,  and  in  1789  president  of  the 
general  directory.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  his  Lebcn  Zinzendorf 's  (3  vols.,  1772-'5), 
and  Idea  Field  Fratrnm  (1770).  The  latter 
is  the  standard  of  theology  among  the  Mora 
vians.  It  was  translated  into  English  by  La- 
trobe  in  1784,  under  the  title  of  "An  Expo 
sition  of  Christian  Doctrine  as  taught  in  the 
Protestant  Church  of  the  United  Brethren." 

SPAXGEXBERG,  Fricdricli,  a  German  painter, 
born  in  Gottingen  in  1843,  died  while  ascend 
ing  Mt.  Vesuvius,  Juno  8,  1874.  Ho  studied 
in  Munich,  and  became  known  by  his  picture 
of  Genseric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  leading  the 
empress  Eudoxia  and  her  children  into  captiv 
ity  after  the  sack  of  Rome.  In  conjunction 
with  the  Belgian  painter  Pauwel  he  executed 
at  Weimar  "  The  Triumph  of  the  Union,"  com 
memorating  the  close  of  the  civil  war  in  tho 
United  States.  While  in  Rome  he  painted  "A 
Young  Ostrogoth  entering  into  friendly  Rela 
tions  with  Citizens  of  Rome." 

SPAXHEHI,  Ezeduel,  a  Swiss  author,  born  in 
Geneva,  Dec.  7,  1629,  died  in  London,  Nov.  7, 
1710.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  was  a  professor 
at  Geneva,  represented  the  elector  palatine  in 
various  countries,  and  subsequently  the  elector 
of  Brandenburg  for  many  years  in  Paris,  and 
in  the  last  eight  years  of  his  life  was  Prussian 
ambassador  in  London.  His  works  include 


228 


SPANIEL 


SPARKS 


Dissertationcs  de  Prcestantia  et  TTsu  Numis- 
matum  Antiquorum  (4to,  Rome,  1664;  best 
ed.,  2  vols.,  London  and  Amsterdam,  1T06-'17), 
and  OrMs  Romanus  (London,  1704;  contained 
also  in  Grasvius's  Thesaurus,  vol.  xi.). 

SPANIEL  (canis  extrarius,  Linn.),  a  well 
known  variety  of  hunting  dog,  in  form  a  small 
setter,  with  silky  hair,  long  in  some  parts  of 
the  body,  and  long,  soft,  pendulous  ears.  It  is 
figured  on  some  of  the  later  monuments  of  an- 


Spaniel. 

cient  Italy,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  C.  Tuscus 
of  the  Romans ;  it  probably  originated  in  Spain, 
whence  the  name.  The  colors  are  various, 
black,  brown,  pied,  liver-colored  and  white, 
and  black  and  white.  The  English  breed  is  con 
sidered  the  best  for  sportsmen,  being  strong, 
with  an  excellent  nose,  and  fond  of  the  water. 
The  water  spaniel  differs  from  the  common 
breed  in  the  eagerness  to  hunt  and  swim  in 
water,  whence  it  is  used  to  drive  ducks  into 
the  nets  in  decoy  ponds ;  the  hair  is  also  harsh 
er.  (See  POODLE.)  The  Alpine  or  St.  Bernard 
spaniel  is  the  largest  and  most  celebrated  of 
the  race,  being  2  ft.  high  at  the  shoulders,  and 
5  or  6  ft.  from  nose  to  end  of  tail ;  it  has  a 
peculiar  appearance  about  the  inner  angle  of  the 
eyes,  due  probably  to  their  being  kept  partly 
shut  to  avoid  the  high  winds  and  the  glare  of 
the  snow;  this  is  one  of  the  breeds  which 
search  the  mountain  passes  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  hospice  of  St.  Bernard  in  quest  of  bewil 
dered  or  weary  travellers.  The  Newfoundland 
dog  resembles  the  Alpine  spaniels  ;  it  is  large 
and  has  great  strength,  and  is  probably  their 
indigenous  American  representative,  and  use 
ful  for  many  purposes  of  a  beast  of  burden ; 
it  is  gentle,  very  intelligent,  and  affectionate ; 
it  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  the  toes  being 
partly  webbed.  The  springer  is  a  small  span 
iel  of  elegant  form,  small  head,  and  long  ears, 
usually  red  and  white,  the  latter  predomina 
ting,  with  a  black  nose  and  palate ;  the  Marl- 
borough  breed  is  considered  the  best.  The 
King  Charles  spaniel  is  a  small  and  beautiful 
breed,  prized  as  a  lady's  pet,  generally  black 
and  white,  or  black  and  tan-colored;  the  hair 
is  soft  and  silky,  the  ears  pendulous,  the  fore- 
Lead  elevated,  and  the  eyes  intelligent;  the 


variety  prized  by  Charles  I.  of  England  was 
wholly  black ;  this  is  the  C.  brevipilis  (Linn.). 
It  is  supposed  to  be  the  parent  of  the  cocker, 
a  sprightly  little  bird  dog,  usually  black,  or 
white  with  reddish  spots,  and  comparatively 
shorter  in  the  back  than  the  spaniel.  The  Mal 
tese  dog  is  perhaps  the  most  ancient  of  the 
small  spaniel  races,  being  figured  on  Roman 
monuments,  and  mentioned  by  Strabo  as  the 
C,  melitceus  ;  the  muzzle  is  round,  the  hair  very 
long  and  silky,  and  the  color  usually  white;  it 
is  diminutive,  and  fit  only  for  a  lap  dog. 

SPANISH  FLY.     See  CAXTHARIDES. 

SPMISH  MAIN,  the  appellation  formerly  giv 
en  to  the  southern  portion  of  the  Caribbean 
sea,  together  with  the  contiguous  coast,  em 
bracing  the  route  traversed  by  Spanish  trea 
sure  ships  from  Mexico,  Central  America,  and 
the  northern  shores  of  South  America. 

SPAN  WORM.  See  CAXKER  WORM,  and  CAT 
ERPILLAR. 

SPAR.  See  BARYTA,  CALCAREOUS  SPAR,  FELD 
SPAR,  and  FLUOR  SPAR. 

SPARKS,  Jared,  an  American  historian,  born 
at  Willington,  Conn.,  May  10,  1789,  died  in 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  March  14,  1806.  He  gradu 
ated  at  Harvard  college  in  1815,  studied  theol 
ogy  at  Cambridge,  and  for  two  years,  18l7-'19, 
was  college  tutor  in  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy.  He  also  became  one  of  an  associ 
ation  by  which  the  "  North  American  Review  " 
was  conducted.  In  May,  1819,  he  was  ordained 
as  minister  of  a  Unitarian  congregation  in  Bal 
timore,  and  the  next  year  published  "Letters 
on  the  Ministry,  Ritual,  and  Doctrine  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church"  (8vo,  Boston). 
In  1821  he  was  elected  chaplain  of  the  United 
States  house  of  representatives,  arid  the  same 
year  he  established  "  The  Unitarian  Miscellany 
and  Christian  Monitor,"  which  he  edited  till 
1823.  In  this  work  he  began  a  series  of  letters 
on  the  "  Comparative  Moral  Tendency  of  Trin 
itarian  and  Unitarian  Doctrines"  (8vo,  1823). 
He  also  edited  a  "Collection  of  Essays  and 
Tracts  in  Theology,  from  various  Authors, 
with  Biographical  and  Critical  Notices "  (6 
vols.  12mo,  1823-'6).  His  health  becoming- 
impaired,  he  resigned  his  pastoral  charge  in 
1823,  and  removing  to  Boston  purchased  the 
"North  American  Review,"  of  which  he  was 
sole  proprietor  and  editor  for  seven  years.  In 
1828  he  published  a  "Life  of  John  Ledyard, 
the  American  Traveller,"  chiefly  from  original 
materials.  After  extensive  researches  in  the 
United  States,  he  made  a  voyage  to  Europe  in 
1828,  where  he  selected  and  transcribed  docu 
ments  relating  to  American  history  in  the  pub 
lic  offices  of  London  and  Paris,  and  after  his  re 
turn  published  "  The  Writings  of  George  Wash 
ington,  with  a  Life  of  the  Author,  Notes,  and 
Illustrations"  (12  vols.  8vo,  Boston,  1834-'7). 
During  the  preparation  of  this  work  he  edited 
and  published  "  The  Diplomatic  Correspon 
dence  of  the  American  Revolution"  (12  vols. 
8vo,  1829-'30),  and  "  The  Life  of  Gouverneur 
Morris,  with  Selections  from  his  Correspon- 


SPARROW 


229 


dence  and  Miscellaneous  Papers,"  &c.  (3  vols. 
8vo,  1832).  "  The  American  Almanac  and  Re 
pository  of  Useful  Knowledge"  was  founded 
by  Mr.  Sparks,  who  edited  the  first  volume, 
for  1830.  He  was  also  the  editor  of  the  "Li 
brary  of  American  Biography"  (first  series,  10 
vols.  18mo,  1834-'8;  second  series,  15  vols., 
1844-' 8),  several  of  the  lives  in  which  were 
written  by  him.  In  1840  he  completed  the  pub 
lication  of  "  The  Works  of  Benjamin  Franklin, 
with  Notes  and  a  Life  of  the  Author  "  (10  vols. 
8vo).  He  then  visited  Europe  a  second  time, 
and  discovered  in  the  French  archives  the  fa 
mous  map  with  the  red  line  drawn  upon  it, 
about  which  so  much  was  afterward  said  in 
the  debates  upon  the  Ashburton  treaty  in  con 
gress  and  parliament.  In  1852  two  pamphlets 
were  printed  by  him  in  defence  of  his  mode  of 
editing  the  writings  of  Washington,  in  reply  to 
the  strictures  of  Lord  Mali  on  and  others,  and 
a  similar  pamphlet  the  next  year,  occasioned 
by  a  reprint  of  the  original  letters  from  Wash 
ington  to  Joseph  Reed.  In  1854  he  published 
"  Correspondence  of  the  American  Revolution, 
being  Letters  of  eminent  Men  to  George  Wash 
ington,  from  the  time  of  his  taking  command 
of  the  Army  to  the  end  of  his  Presidency,  ed 
ited  from  the  Original  Manuscripts"  (4  vols. 
8vo).  Mr.  Sparks  was  McLean  professor  of 
history  at  Harvard  college  from  1839  to  1849, 
and  president  of  the  college  from  1849  to  1853. 
His  life,  by  G.  E.  Ellis,  was  published  in  1869. 
SPARROW,  the  familiar  name  of  many  small 
birds  of  the  finch  family,  and  the  old  genus 
fringilla,  (Linn.),  which  has  been  numerously 
subdivided  by  modern  ornithologists  ;  the  fam 
ily  characters  have  been  given  under  Fixcn. 
Among  the  many  American  species  may  be 
mentioned  three  distributed  under  three  differ 
ent  genera.  The  white-crowned  sparrow  (zono 
trichia  leucoplirys,  Swains.)  is  about  7  in.  long 
and  10  in.  in  alar  extent;  the  body  is  stout,  bill 


"White-Crowned  Sparrow  (Zonotrichia  leucophrys). 

conical,  feet  robust,  the  second  and  third  quills 
longest,  and  the  tail  rather  long  and  moderate 
ly  rounded;  the  chin,  throat,  and  breast  are 
nearly  uniform  ashy;  the  head  above  black; 
median  and  superciliary  stripe  pure  white ;  a 
narrow  black  line  through  and  behind  the 


eyes;  back  and  wing  coverts  dark  reddish 
brown  with  paler  margins ;  quills  and  tail 
darker ;  wings  with  two  white  bands  ;  whitish 
below  ;  bill  reddish  orange  tipped  with  brown ; 
lower  lid  white.  It  is  found  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Rocky  mountains  and  from  Labrador  to 
Texas,  breeding  far  to  the  north ;  the  notes  are 
mellow  and  cheering,  six  or  seven  in  number, 
the  first  loud  and  clear,  and  thence  becoming 
fainter  and  more  plaintive ;  eggs  five  or  six, 
I  in.  long,  light  sea  green  with  brownish  mot- 
tlings  at  the  larger  end ;  the  nest  is  on  the 
ground  or  among  moss,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  in 
Labrador  from  the  1st  to  the  end  of  June.  The 
flight  is  low,  but  swift  and  long  protracted; 
the  migrations  are  performed  mostly  by  day ; 
the  food  consists  of  seeds,  berries,  minute  shell 
fish,  and  insects.  The  genus  spizella  (Bonap.) 
differs  from  the  last  in  its  smaller  size  and 
longer  forked  tail.  The  chipping  sparrow  (S. 
socialis,  Bonap.),  commonly  called  chip  bird, 
is  5£  in.  long  and  8^  in.  in  alar  extent ;  the 
rump,  back  of  neck,  and  sides  of  head  and  neck 
are  ashy ;  the  back  has  black  streaks  with  pale 
rufous  edgings ;  the  crown  is  uniform  chest 
nut,  the  forehead  black  with  a  white  median 
line,  a  white  streak  over  the  eyes  and  a  black 
one  from  the  bill  through  and  behind  the  eyes ; 
white  below,  tinged  with  ashy  on  the  upper 
breast ;  tail  and  primaries  with  paler  edgings, 
and  two  narrow  white  bands  across  wing  cov 
erts  ;  bill  black ;  in  the  young  the  crown  has 
narrow  blackish  lines,  and  the  upper  breast 
and  sides  are  streaked  with  brown.  It  inhabits 
North  America  from  ocean  to  ocean,  very  com 
mon  everywhere,  except  in  woods,  in  spring, 
summer,  and  autumn,  going  south  in  winter ; 
it  is  very  social,  is  found  with  almost  every 
other  species  of  sparrow,  and  is  so  familiar  as 
to  enter  yards  and  even  piazzas  for  food.  The 
nest  is  never  made  on  the  ground;  the  eggs 
are  four  or  five,  f  by  -|  in.,  greenish  blue,  with 
slight  brown  spots  at  the  larger  end,  and  rath 
er  pointed  at  the  smaller.  The  notes  are  six 
or  seven  rapidly  repeated  and  loud  "cheeps;" 
the  flight  is  short,  irregular,  and  rather  low. 
They  are  the  most  numerous  of  the  sparrows 
in  New  England,  but  arrive  some  weeks  later 
than  the  song  sparrow.  The  genus  melospiza 
(Baird)  differs  from  zonotrichia  in  the  shorter 
and  more  graduated  tail,  longer  hind  toe,  short 
er  and  more  rounded  wings,  longer  tertiaries, 
unspotted  under  parts,  and  streaked  crown. 
The  song  sparrow  (M.  melodia,  Baird)  is  6£  in. 
long  and  8^  in.  in  alar  extent ;  the  general  tint 
above  is  rufous  brown,  with  dark  brown  streaks 
and  grayish  edgings ;  crown  rufous,  with  su 
perciliary  and  median  stripe  of  dull  gray  ; 
white  below,  breast  and  sides  streaked  with 
dark  rufous;  no  distinct  white  on  wings  or 
tail.  It  is  found  from  the  eastern  coast  to  the 
high  central  plains,  and  is  abundant  in  the 
south,  where  it  raises  three  broods,  making  a 
new  nest  for  each.  Though  not  so  handsome 
as  some  other  sparrows,  its  song  is  much  sweet 
er,  prolonged,  and  heard  at  all  hours  of  the 


230 


SPARROW 


SPARROW  HAWK 


day ;  it  nests  both  on  the  ground  and  in  bushes ; 
the  eggs  are  four  to  six,  broad  ovate,  light 
greenish  white  with  specks  of  dark  brown ; 
both  sexes  incubate.  The  flight  is  short  and 
much  undulated ;  it  goes  south  in  winter,  and 
seldom  approaches  houses  nearer  than  gardens 
and  orchards ;  it  is  very  active,  feeding  on  in 
sects,  seeds,  and  berries. — The  old  world  spar- 


Ilouse  Sparrow  (Passer  domesticus). 

rows  belong  to  the  genus  passer  (Briss.),  in 
which  the  wings  are  moderate,  with  the  second 
and  third  quills  rather  longer  than  the  first, 
and  the  moderate  tail  even  or  slightly  forked. 
There  are  about  20  species,  residing  in  culti 
vated  regions,  even  in  the  midst  of  cities  ;  the 
food  consists  of  buds,  seeds,  grains,  and  in 
sects  ;  the  nest  is  in  trees  or  hedges,  and  the 
eggs  are  four  or  five.  The  house  sparrow  (P. 
domesticus,  Linn.)  is  6]-  in.  long  and  94  in.  in 
alar  extent;  in  the  male  the  upper  part  of  the 
head  is  light  brownish  gray;  the  sides  of  the 
neck  grayish  white,  throat  black,  back  and 
wings  chestnut  and  black  with  a  white  band 
across  the  latter,  and  lower  parts  light  brown 
ish  gray;  in  the  female  the  head  is  grayish 
brown  above  and  the  lower  parts  light  brown 
ish  gray.  They  often  commit  serious  depre 
dations  in  wheat  fields ;  though  feeding  chietly 
on  grain,  they  bring  up  their  young  on  larvae, 
and  a  pair  is  said  to  destroy  about  4,000  cater 
pillars  weekly  in  the  breeding  season ;  they 
are  generally  distributed  over  northern  and 
central  Europe,  and  are  brighter  colored  in 
the  country  than  in  the  cities;  they  have  no 
song,  except  a  single  note,  loud  and  by  no 
means  agreeable.  This  species  has  been  in 
troduced  into  the  United  States,  where  it 
thrives  well,  and  does  good  service  in  destroy 
ing  canker  worms  and  other  injurious  Iarva3 


in  and  around  the  large  cities  and  towns ;  they 
require  feeding  and  houses  during  the  severe 
winters.  They  were  first  brought  to  New 
York  about  1862,  and  there  have  been  several 
later  importations ;  they  drive  nearly  all  other 
birds  from  places  where  they  abound. 

SPARROW  HAWK,  a  small  bird  of  prey  of 
the  falcon  subfamily,  and  genus  tinnunculus 
(Vieill.),  which  differs  from  falco  (Linn.)  in 
having  longer  tarsi,  covered  in  front  with 
large  transverse  hexagonal  scales.  There  are 
about  a  dozen  species,  widely  distributed  over 
the  globe ;  their  flight  is  very  graceful,  irregu 
lar,  with  occasional  hoverings  ;  they  eat  small 
birds  like  sparrows,  mice  and  moles,  lizards, 
beetles,  and  grasshoppers ;  the  nest  is  made 
of  a  few  loose  sticks  on  a  rock  or  in  a  hollow 
tree,  and  the  eggs  are  four  to  six.  The  Amer 
ican  sparrow  hawk  (T.  sparverius,  Vieill.)  is 
one  of  the  handsomest,  most  active,  and  abun 
dant  birds  in  the  United  States,  and  is  found 
over  the  entire  continent  of  America.  It  is 
11  to  12  in.  long,  with  an  alar  extent  of  22 
in. ;  the  crown  is  light  red  surrounded  by 
blue,  the  latter  color  showing  itself  also  on 
the  wings ;  back  light  rufous,  spotted  with 
black  ;  tail  darker,  with  broad  black  band  near 
the  end,  tipped  with  white,  and  lateral  feath 
ers  with  broad  black  bars  on  the  inner  webs ; 
quills  black,  with  white  spots  on  inner  webs ; 
throat  and  upper  neck  on  sides  white,  with 
two  black  bands  on  the  latter ;  three  spots  on 
hind  neck,  and  numerous  ones  on  abdomen 
and  sides,  black  ;  white  below,  tinged  with  yel 
lowish  on  breast ;  the  young  birds  have  wider 
bands  of  black,  and  the  females  longitudinal 
black  lines  on  the  crown  and  stripes  on  the 


American  Sparrow  Ilawk  (Tinnunculus  sparverius). 

tail.  The  eggs  are  dark  cream  or  light  buff, 
more  or  less  spotted  with  brown,  nearly  spher 
ical,  \\  by  \\  in. ;  both  sexes  incubate,  two 
broods  being  raised  in  the  south ;  the  pairing 
time  is  from  February  to  June,  according  to 
latitude. — The  European  sparrow  hawk  (T. 


SPARTA 


231 


alaudarius,  Briss.)  lias  been  described  under 
KESTREL.  The  accipiter  nisus  (Pull.)  of  Eu 
rope  is  also  called  sparrow  hawk ;  the  male 
is  dark  bluish  gray  above,  reddish  white  be 
low  with  yellowish  red  transverse  bars ;  the 
female  is  grayish  brown  above,  and  grayish 
white  below  barred  with  dark  gray.  The  size 
and  habits  are  about  the  same  in  both. 

SPARTA,  or  Laeedseraon,  in  antiquity,  the  capi 
tal  of  Laconia  and  the  chief  city  of  the  Pelo 
ponnesus.  It  was  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Eu 
rotas,  between  the  tributaries  (Enus  and  Tiasa, 
about  20  m.  from  the  sea,  in  a  valley  of  re 
markable  beauty  and  fertility,  bounded  TV.  and 
E.  by  the  ranges  of  Taygetus  and  Parnon.  It 
was  about  6  m.  in  circumference,  and  consisted 
of  distinct  quarters  which  were  originally  sepa 
rate  villages.  During  its  most  nourishing  pe 
riod  it  was  unfortified,  being  protected  by  the 
natural  ramparts  of  the  valley.  Its  quarters 
were  Pitane  in  the  north,  the  favorite  place  of 
residence,  Cynosura  in  the  southwest,  Limnas 
in  the  east  along  the  Eurotas,  and  Mesoa  in 
the  southeast.  JEgidaD,  in  the  northwest,  ad 
joining  Pitane,  is  also  mentioned  by  some  wri 
ters,  but  it  was  probably  the  name  of  a  tribe 
or  family  and  not  of  a  quarter.  One  of  its 
steepest  hills  (the  northern  hill,  according  to 
Leake ;  the  hill  of  the  theatre,  according  to  Cur- 
tius)  was  called  the  acropolis,  on  which  were 
the  temples  of  Athena  Chalcicecus,  the  tute 
lary  goddess  of  the  city,  of  Athena  Ergane,  the 
Muses,  Zeus  Cosmetas,  and  Aphrodite  Areia, 
and  many  statues  in  honor  of  divinities  and 
heroes.  In  the  agora,  near  the  acropolis,  and 
adorned  with  temples  and  statues,  were  the 
council  house  of  the  senate  and  the  offices  of 
the  public  magistrates,  the  Persian  stoa  built  of 
spoils  taken  in  the  Persian  war,  and  the  place 
called  Chorus  where  Spartan  youths  danced  in 
honor  of  Apollo.  Two  principal  streets,  named 
Aphetai's  and  Skias,  extended  nearly  parallel 
to  each  other  from  the  a^ora,  the  former  to 
the  S.,  the  latter  to  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the 
city.  Upon  the  largest  of  the  Spartan  heights 
was  the  theatre,  a  magnificent  building  of  white 
marble,  the  two  wings  of  which  still  remain, 
430  ft.  apart,  built  of  massive  quadrangular 
blocks,  and  forming  the  most  important  relics 
of  the  ancient  city.  The  private  houses  of 
Sparta,  and  even  the  palace  of  the  kings, 
were  always  simple  and  unadorned,  but  it  was 
equalled  by  few  other  Greek  cities  in  the  mag 
nificence  of  its  temples  and  statues.  The  mod 
ern  town  of  Sparta,  built  since  the  war  of  in 
dependence,  occupies  one  of  the  hills  in  the  S. 
part  of  the  ancient  site.  Its  streets  are  laid  out 
on  a  large  scale,  and  it  has  a  population  of  about 
8,000.  The  nomarch  and  other  officials  of  La 
conia  reside  here.  The  villages  of  Magula  and 
Psychiko  are  near  it,  and  3  m.  TV.  of  it  is  Mis- 
tra,  which  was  the  chief  place  of  the  district  in 
medieval  and  Turkish  times. — According  to 
tradition,  the  Leleges  were  the  most  ancient 
inhabitants,  and  Lelex  the  first  king,  in  the 
vale  of  the  middle  Eurotas.  Lacediomon,  son 


of  Jupiter  and  Taygete,  married  Sparta,  third 
in  descent  from  Lelex,  and  gave  the  name  of 
his  wife  to  the  city  which  he  founded,  and  his 
own  name  to  the  people  and  country.  During 
the  mythical  era  of  the  Achaean  monarchies, 
Menelaus  reigned  at  Sparta,  as  Agamemnon  at 
Myceme  and  Diomedes  at  Argos.  After  the 
Dorian  invasion  and  conquest  of  the  Pelopon 
nesus,  under  the  Heraclidao,  Sparta  fell  to 
Eurysthenes  and  Procles,  the  twin  sons  of  the 
Heraclid  Aristodemus;  and  from  that  epoch 
date  the  long  succession  of  two  joint  kings, 
and  the  distinction  between  the  conquerors, 
who  were  called  Spartans,  and  the  native 
Achreans  (Permci),  who  became  tributary. 
At  first  inferior  to  Argos,  Sparta  became  the 
chief  of  the  Dorian  powers  only  after  the  in 
stitutions  of  Lycurgus  had  made  it  a  nation 
of  professional  soldiers.  The  introduction  of 
the  Lycurgan  discipline  (not  later,  according 
to  Grote,  than  825  B.  C.),  the  earliest  de- 
terminable  event  in  its  internal  history,  was 
followed  by  aggressions  which  gradually  ex 
tended  its  sway  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus.  There  is  no  certain  personal 
history  of  Lycurgus,  and  his  very  existence 
has  been  doubted  by  critics.  (See  A.  Trieber, 
ForscJiungen  zur  spartaniscJicn  Verfassungs- 
gcscTdchte,  Berlin,  1871.)  The  Lycurgan  le 
gislation  has  been  called  the  codification  of 
the  usages  of  the  Doric  race.  It  recognized 
three  classes  of  persons:  1,  the  Spartans,  of 
Dorian  stock,  resident  in  the  city,  alone  eligi 
ble  to  public  offices,  all  warriors,  supported 
from  the  lands  around  the  city  which  belonged 
to  them,  and  being  disfranchised  when  they 
failed  to  pay  their  quota  to  the  public  mess ; 
2,  the  Perioeci  or  Laconians,  freemen  of  the 
neighboring  townships,  with  no  political  power, 
devoted  to  agriculture  and  industry,  paying 
rent  for  their  land,  and  forming  bodies  of 
heavy-armed  soldiers  in  war ;  and  3,  the  helots, 
or  serfs,  bound  to  the  soil,  which  they  tilled 
for  the  Spartan  proprietors,  and  sometimes 
employed  both  in  domestic  and  military  ser 
vice.  The  equal  division  of  land  into  9,000 
lots  for  Spartans  and  30,000  lots  for  Perioeci  is 
doubted  by  Grote ;  and  the  number  of  Spartan 
citizens  diminished  from  the  era  of  the  Persian 
war,  when  Herodotus  estimated  them  at  8,000, 
to  the  time  of  Agis  IV.,  when  they  had  dwindled 
to  700,  of  whom  100  alone  possessed  most  of 
the  landed  property  of  the  state.  At  the  head 
of  the  government  were  two  hereditary  kings, 
whose  power  was  gradually  restricted  till  their 
position  was  one  of  nominal  honor  rather  than 
real  authority.  The  legislative  power  was  ex 
ercised  by  two  assemblies,  that  of  the  elders 
and  that  of  the  citizens ;  the  former  was  com 
posed  of  the  two  kings  and  28  members  aged 
at  least  60  years,  who  were  judges  in  capital 
cases,  and  initiated  and  discussed  all  measures 
submitted  to  the  popular  assembly ;  and  the 
latter,  composed  of  all  Spartan  citizens  of  30 
years  of  age  and  of  unblemished  character, 
met  once  a  month,  and  had  the  right  to  ap- 


232 


SPARTA 


prove  or  reject  measures  by  acclamation,  but 
not  to  amend  them.  The  ephors,  correspond 
ing  to  the  Roman  tribunes  of  the  people,  and 
probably  of  later  origin  than  the  age  of  Ly- 
curgus,  were  the  representatives  of  this  assem 
bly,  and  during  the  Peloponnesian  war  exerted 
despotic  authority,  having  completely  super 
seded  the  kings  as  directors  of  affairs.  The 
most  important  part  of  the  Lycurgan  legis 
lation  related  to  the  discipline  and  education 
of  the  citizens.  The  individual  was  held  to 
exist  exclusively  for  the  state,  to  which  he 
should  devote  all  his  time,  property,  and  ener 
gies  ;  and  every  child,  therefore,  was  under  pub 
lic  inspection  from  his  birth,  and  was  trained 
simply  with  reference  to  warlike  exercises,  since 
mechanical  labor,  husbandry,  and  commerce 
were  despised  and  neglected.  If  weak  or  de 
formed,  he  was  exposed  to  perish ;  otherwise, 
he  was  taken  at  seven  years  of  age  from  his 
mother's  care,  and  educated  in  the  public  class 
es,  where  he  was  subjected  to  the  severest 
bodily  discipline,  to  habits  of  subordination, 
dexterity,  and  a  terseness  of  speech  which  be 
came  distinguished  as  "laconic."  At  the  age 
of  30  he  was  allowed  to  engage  in  public  affairs 
and  to  marry,  but  still  continued  under  public 
discipline,  took  his  meals  at  the  public  mess, 
slept  in  the  public  barracks,  and  was  released 
from  military  service  only  in  his  60th  year. 
Both  sexes  were  subjected  to  nearly  the  same 
rigorous  gymnastic  training,  the  aim  being  not 
domestic  enjoyment  or  refinement,  but  the  pro 
duction  of  a  hardy  race  of  citizens.  The  great 
men  that  arose  from  this  discipline  were  dis 
tinguished  exclusively  for  military  genius. — 
Under  the  Lycurgan  constitution  Sparta  began 
its  career  of  conquest.  The  first  and  second 
Messenian  wars  (743-723  and  685-008,  accord 
ing  to  the  common  chronology)  doubled  its 
population  and  territory.  Before  000  B.  C. 
it  had  conquered  from  the  Arcadians  the  up 
per  parts  of  the  valley  of  the  Eurotas,  and 
after  repeated  contests  compelled  Tegea,  the 
capital  of  Arcadia,  to  acknowledge  its  suprem 
acy  (about  500).  The  long  struggle  between 
the  Spartans  and  Argives  terminated  in  fa 
vor  of  the  former  by  decisive  victories  in  547 
and  524.  Sparta  had  now  acquired  the  he 
gemony  of  Greece,  and  Croesus  when  threat 
ened  by  the  Persians  had  formed  an  alliance 
with  it  as  the  most  powerful  Greek  state.  It 
twice  invaded  Attica,  and  interfered  in  the 
affairs  of  the  growing  Athenian  democracy. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  second  Persian  war,  it 
was  by  unanimous  consent  intrusted  with  the 
chief  command.  The  battles  of  Thermopylae 
and  Salarnis  in  480,  and  of  Platrea  in  479, 
were  fought  respectively  under  the  Spartan 
generals  Leonidas,  Eurybiades,  and  Pansanias. 
According  to  Herodotus,  the  Lacedaemonians 
were  represented  at  Platoea  by  5,000  citizens, 
5,000  Perircci,  and  35,000  helots.  The  allies, 
excepting  ^Egina  and  the  Peloponnesian  states, 
were  alienated  by  the  arrogance  of  Pausanias, 
and  therefore  in  470  offered  the  supremacy 


to  Athens.  The  hegemony  thus  passed  from 
Sparta  to  Athens,  and  the  rivalry  of  these 
states  modified  all  the  history  of  Greece  till 
the  Macedonian  era.  A  destructive  earthquake 
occasioned  a  revolt  of  the  helots  and  the  third 
Messenian  war  (404-455).  The  Spartans  dis 
trusted  and  rejected  an  auxiliary  force  sent  by 
the  Athenians  under  Cimon,  which  was  the 
cause  of  hostilities  (457-452),  the  prelude  to 
the  long  Peloponnesian  war  (431-404).  This 
war,  in  which  the  opposed  Doric  and  Ionic 
races  exhausted  their  energies,  terminated  with 
the  conquest  of  Athens  and  with  the  restora 
tion  of  the  hegemony  to  Sparta.  One  of  its 

|  allies  was  Cyrus  the  Younger,  and  in  return 
it  aided  him  in  his  attempt  to  dethrone  his 
brother  Artaxerxes.  The  successes  of  Agesi- 
laus  in  Asia  Minor  in  390  had  led  him  to  form 
the  project  of  overthrowing  the  Persian  em 
pire,  when  he  was  recalled  by  a  confederacy 
of  Corinth,  Argos,  Thebes,  and  Athens,  which 
Persian  gold  and  Greek  jealousy  had  prompted 
against  Sparta.  The  victories  of  Corinth  and 
Coronea  were  counterbalanced  by  the  naval 
defeat  off  Cnidus,  and  the  peace  of  Antalci- 
das  (387),  which  left  it  supreme  in  Greece, 
deprived  it  of  its  cities  in  Asia  Minor.  The 
Spartans  exerted  unrivalled  authority,  notwith 
standing  the  alliance  of  Thebes  and  Athens 
against  it  in  379,  until,  in  the  fatal  battle  of 
Leuctra  in  371,  they  were  defeated  by  the 
Thebans  under  Epaminondas,  and,  for  the  first 
time  in  their  history,  by  inferior  numbers. 
Invasion  followed,  Sparta  narrowly  escaped 
capture,  its  army  was  again  defeated  at  Man- 
tinea  in  302,  and  it  was  stripped  of  the  domin 
ions  which  it  had  acquired  from  the  Messe- 
nians,  Arcadians,  and  Argives ;  and  from  this 
time  it  ceased  to  be  a  leading  state  in  Greece. 
Having  incurred  the  enmity  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
don  by  supporting  the  Phocians  in  the  sacred 
war,  its  losses  were  confirmed  and  its  power 
still  further  reduced  by  him  ;  but  it  refused  to 
join  the  alliance  of  Athens  and  Thebes  against 
him  before  the  battle  of  Chaeronea,  next  to 
recognize  his  leadership  in  the  proposed  ex 
pedition  against  Persia,  and  subsequently  to 
join  the  Achrean  league  against  the  Macedo 
nian  and  Roman  supremacy.  It  prompted 
an  anti-Macedonian  movement,  which  was  de 
feated  by  the  victory  of  Anti pater  at  Megalo 
polis  in  "331.  The  kings  Agis  IV.  (244-240) 
and  Cleomenes  III.  (230-220)  attempted  to  re 
vive  the  ancient  virtue  by  restoring  the  insti- 

|  tutions  of  Lycurgus,  abolishing  the  ephoralty, 
cancelling  all  debts,  redistributing  the  lands, 
and  enlarging  the  number  of  citizens  by  bring 
ing  back  the  exiles  and  bestowing  the  franchise 
on  many  of  the  Periceci  and  on  others  who 
were  deserving  of  it ;  but  the  defeat  of  Sel- 
lasia  (221)  by  the  Achaeans  and  the  Macedo 
nians  under  Antigonus  Doson  followed,  and 
Sparta  for  the  first  time  fell  into  the  hands  of 
conquerors.  From  intestine  factions  sprang 
the  usurpations  of  Machanidas  and  Nabis  (210- 
192),  after  which  it  was  compelled  with  the 


SPARTACUS 


SPECIES 


233 


whole  of  the  Peloponnesus  to  submit  to  the 
Achaean  league,  until  in  146  it  fell  with  the 
rest  of  Greece  under  the  dominion  of  Home. 
(See  ATHENS,  and  GEEECE.) 

SPiRTiCUS,  a  Roman  gladiator,  of  Thracian 
birth,  leader  of  a  servile  insurrection  in  73-71 
B.  C.  Originally  a  shepherd,  he  became  a  chief 
of  banditti,  and  was  captured  by  the  Romans. 
lie  was  sold  and  trained  as  a  gladiator,  and  in 
73  persuaded  77  of  his  associates  to  escape 
with  him  from  the  school  of  Leritulus  at 
Capua.  They  took  refuge  in  the  crater  of  Mt. 
Vesuvius,  and  chose  Spartacus  for  their  lead 
er.  C.  Claudius  Pulcher  was  sent  against 
them  with  3,000  men,  but  was  defeated,  and 
his  arms  became  the  trophy  of  the  victors. 
Spartacus  now  proclaimed  liberty  to  all  slaves 
that  should  flee  to  him,  and  for  two  years  he 
held  the  supremacy  in  Campania,  Lucania, 
Bruttium,  and  other  parts  of  Italy.  At  the 
head  of  70,000  men  he  triumphed  over  two 
consular  armies  in  72,  and  forced  his  Roman 
captives  to  fight  as  gladiators  at  the  funeral 
games  which  he  celebrated.  His  army  in 
creased  to  100,000  men,  the  consuls  were  again 
defeated,  and  he  meditated  an  attack  upon 
Rome  itself.  His  o\vn  desire  was  to  secure 
the  freedom  of  the  slaves  by  taking  them  be 
yond  the  Alps,  but  they,  eager  for  plunder, 
refus3d  to  leave  Italy.  He  for  a  time  main 
tained  his  superiority  in  71,  but  in  consequence 
of  repeated  divisions  among  his  troops,  he 
was  twice  defeated  by  Crassus,  and  fled  with 
his  followers.  Through  the  treachery  of  Cili- 
cian  pirates,  who  were  to  carry  him  over  to 
Sicily,  12,000  of  his  men  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Romans.  He  at  length  effected  his 
escape,  but  his  followers  refusing  to  go  to  the 
north,  he  faced  the  Romans  again,  defeated 
them,  and  went  to  Brundusium,  where,  baffled 
in  his  attempt  to  seize  the  shipping,  he  per 
ished  in  battle  with  Crassus  near  the  head  of 
the  river  Silarus.  Pompey  completed  the  work 
of  extinguishing  the  insurrection.  Of  the  reb- 
.els  60,000  fell  in  combat^  and  6,000  prisoners 
were  crucified  in  the  Appian  way.  Roman 
writers  naturally  paint  the  character  of  Spar 
tacus  in  the  blackest  colors,  but  critical  inves 
tigations  have  led  modern  historians  generally 
to  speak  in  his  praise. 

SPARTAtfBURG,  a  N.  W.  county  of  South  Car 
olina,  bordering  on  North  Carolina,  and  wa 
tered  by  affluents  of  Broad  river  ;  area,  about 
900  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  25,784,  of  whom  8,408 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  mostly  hilly ; 
the  soil  is  productive.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
.Spartanburg  and  Union  and  the  Atlanta  and 
Richmond  Air-line  railroads.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  73,783  bushels  of  wheat, 
525,698  of  Indian  corn,  36,106  of  oats,  30,247 
of  sweet  potatoes,  2,851  bales  of  cotton,  15,- 
315  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  170,951  of  butter.  There 
were  2,465  horses,  1,794  mules  and  asses, 
5,451  milch  cows,  6,740  other  cattle,  11,380 
sheep,  and  19,701  swine;  4  manufactories  of 
carriages  and  wagons,  5  of  cotton,  18  flour 


mills,  8  tanneries,  and  8  currying  establish 
ments.  Capital,  Spartanburg  Court  House. 

SPAULDIjVG,  Levi,  an  American  missionary, 
born  in  Jaffrey,  N.  II.,  Aug.  22,  1791,  died  in 
Ceylon,  June  18, 1873.  He  graduated  at  Dart 
mouth  college  in  1815,  and  at  Andover  the 
ological  seminary  in  1818,  was  ordained  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  and  reached  Jaffna,  Ceylon,  early 
in  1820.  In  addition  to  the  usual  missionary 
labor,  much  of  the  time  he  superintended  the 
female  boarding  school  at  Oodooville,  and  per 
formed  a  large  amount  of  literary  labor,  su 
perintending  the  press,  preparing  tracts  and 
hymns  in  the  Tamil  language,  and  translating 
or  writing  books,  among  which  are  "Pilgrim's 
Progress,"  "  Scripture  History,"  a  "Tamil  Dic 
tionary,"  "  Notes  on  the  Bible,"  and  a  revised 
edition  of  the  Scriptures  in  Tamil.  He  re 
visited  the  United  States  in  1844. 

SPEAKER,  a  term  applied  to  the  presiding 
officer  of  each  house  of  the  parliament  of 
Great  Britain,  of  the  house  of  representatives 
of  the  United  States  congress,  and  generally 
of  the  lower  houses  of  the  state  legislatures. 
The  house  of  commons  elects  its  own  speaker, 
who  must  be  approved  by  the  crown,  and 
who  can  only  speak  or  vote  in  committee,  ex 
cept  in  the  case  of  an  equality  of  votes,  when 
he  gives  the  casting  vote.  He  holds  office 
until  the  dissolution  of  the  parliament.  The 
office  existed  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.,  when  Peter  de  Montford  communicated 
the  answer  of  parliament  to  Pope  Alexander 
IV.,  but  the  name  was  not  used  till  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.  The  speaker  of  the  house  of 
lords  is  the  lord  chancellor  for  the  time  being, 
appointed  by  the  crown.  The  house  of  repre 
sentatives  of  the  United  States  elects  its  own 
speaker  at  the  first  session  of  each  congress, 
who  holds  office  until  the  meeting  of  the  next 
congress ;  and  in  the  state  legislatures  an  anal 
ogous  practice  prevails. 

SPECIES,  in  its  most  general  acceptation,  a 
kind  or  sort  of  something,  which  something  is 
the  genus  to  which  the  species  belongs.  Thus, 
a  black  stone  is  a  species  of  the  genus  stone ; 
a  gray  horse  is  a  species  of  the  genus  horse  ;  a 
scalene  triangle  is  a  species  of  the  genus  trian 
gle  ;  and,  generally,  it  may  be  said  that  every 
adjective  denotes  a  species  of  the  genus  indi 
cated  by  the  substantive  to  which  it  is  applied. 
In  the  technology  of  the  physical  sciences  the 
term  "species"  has  a  more  restricted  significa 
tion.  It  is  used  to  denote  a  group  of  individ 
uals  which  corresponds  with  an  early  stage  of 
that  process  of  abstraction  by  which  the  qual 
ities  of  individual  objects  are  arranged  in  the 
subordinated  categories  of  classification.  The 
individual  object  alone  exists  in  nature ;  but, 
when  individual  objects  are  compared,  it  is 
found  that  many  agree  in  all  those  characters 
which,  for  the  particular  purpose  of  the  classi 
fier,  are  regarded  as  important,  while  they  dif 
fer  only  in  those  which  are  unimportant ;  and 
those  which  thus  agree  constitute  a  species,  the 
definition  of  which  is  a  statement  of  the  com- 


234: 


SPECIES 


mon  characters  of  the  individuals  which  com 
pose  the  species.  Again,  when  the  species 
thus  established  are  compared,  certain  of  them 
are  found  to  agree  with  one  another,  and  to 
differ  from  all  the  rest  in  some  one  or  more 
peculiarities.  They  thus  form  a  group,  which 
in  one  sense  is  merely  a  species  of  higher  or 
der,  while  technically  it  is  termed  a  "genus." 
And,  by  a  continuation  of  the  same  process, 
genera  are  grouped  into  families,  families  into 
orders,  and  so  on.  Each  of  the  groups  thus 
named  is  in  the  logical  sense  a  genus,  of  which 
the  next  lower  groups  constitute  the  species. 
The  characters  on  which  species  are  based  ne 
cessarily  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  bodies 
classified.  Thus,  mineral  species  are  founded 
upon  purely  morphological  characters  ;  that  is 
to  say,  they  are  defined  by  peculiarities  either 
of  form,  color,  and  the  like,  or  of  structure ; 
which  last  term  may  be  used  to  include  both 
the  physical  and  the  chemical  characteristics  of 
a  mineral.  The  distinction  between  a  species 
and  a  variety  is  wholly  arbitrary,  except  so  far 
as  it  is  commonly  agreed  that  individuals  which 
differ  from  others  only  as  terms  of  a  gradual 
series  of  modifications  belong  to  the  same  spe 
cies,  and  are  to  be  considered  merely  as  varie 
ties  of  that  species.  It  is  conceivable  that  ani 
mals  and  plants  should  have  been  known  to  us 
only  by  their  remains  preserved  in  museums 
or  in  the  fossil  state.  If  this  had  been  the 
case,  biological  like  mineralogical  species  could 
have  been  defined  only  by  morphological  char 
acters  ;  that  is  to  say,  by  the  peculiarities  of 
their  outward  form  and  inward  structure ;  and, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  is  the  state  of  our 
knowledge  in  respect  of  a  large  proportion  of 
the  existing  fauna  and  flora  of  the  world,  and 
of  all  extinct  animals  and  plants.  A  botanist 
or  a  conchologist,  who  sets  to  work  to  arrange 
a  newly  received  collection,  sorts  out  his  plants 
or  his  shells  according  to  their  likenesses  and 
nnlikenesses  of  form  and  structure,  until  he 
has  arranged  them  into  groups  of  individuals 
which  agree  in  certain  constant  characters,  and 
differ  only  by  insignificant  features,  or  by  such 
peculiarities  as  vary  in  different  individuals  in 
such  a  manner  that  an  insensible  gradation 
can  be  traced  between  those  forms  which  have 
the  peculiarity  strongly  marked  and  those  in 
which  it  is  absent.  Thus  far  the  considera 
tions  which  guide  the  biologist  in  the  estab 
lishment  of  species  differ  in  no  respect  from 
those  which  influence  the  mineralogist.  But  al 
though  naturalists  have  no  more  direct  knowl 
edge  of  any  but  the  morphological  characters 
of  the  great  majority  of  the  species  of  animals 
and  plants  than  they  would  have  of  so  many 
mineral  specimens,  they  are  familiar  with  many 
animals  and  plants  in  the  living  state,  when  they 
exhibit  phenomena  to  which  the  mineral  world 
presents  no  parallel;  and  the  study  of  these 
phenomena  of  active  life  has  complicated  the 
conception  of  species  in  biology,  by  adding 
physiological  to  morphological  considerations. 
The  fact  that  living  beings  originate  by  gener 


ation  from  other  living  beings  is  one  of  the 
circumstances  in  their  history  which  most  com 
pletely  differentiate  them  from  minerals;  and 
ideas  derived  from  the  study  of  the  phenomena 
of  generation  enter  in  various  ways  into  the 
conception  of  biological  species.  For  example, 
it  is  a  generally  assumed  axiom  in  biology  that 
whatever  proceeds  from  a  living  being  by  way 
of  generation  is  of  the  same  species  as  that 
from  which  it  proceeds,  whether  the  morpho 
logical  differences  between  parent  and  offspring 
be  great  or  small.  The  two  sexes  are  often 
extraordinarily  different,  and  in  cases  of  the 
so-called  "alternation  of  generations"  the  suc 
cessive  zooids  may  differ  very  widely ;  but,  in 
asmuch  as  the  differing  forms  in  these  cases 
proceed  from  one  parentage,  no  one  doubts 
that  they  belong  to  the  same  species.  The 
breeds  of  domesticated  animals  and  plants  often 
differ  morphologically  as  widely  as  admitted 
species  do;  but,  apart  from  other  considera 
tions,  historical  evidence  that  they  have  the 
same  parentage  suffices  to  cause  them  to  be 
regarded  as  of  one  species.  It  is  not  quite 
clear  that  the  converse  of  the  axiom  which  has 
just  been  referred  to  would  now  be  admitted, 
and  that  living  beings  which  arise  from  totally 
distinct  parents  must  be  held  to  be  of  different 
species,  even  though  morphologically  identical. 
The  well-nigh  exploded  hypothesis  of  the  mul 
tiplicity  of  centres  of  origin  for  species  of  wide 
distribution,  indeed,  implies  the  belief  that 
groups  of  individuals  which  have  proceeded 
from  distinctly  created  parents  may  neverthe 
less  be  of  the  same  species ;  while  the  support 
ers  of  the  no  less  nearly  extinct  hypothesis  of 
the  independent  creation  of  the  faunas  and 
floras  of  successive  formations  used  to  affirm 
that,  although  indistinguishable,  two  animals 
or  plants  from  separate  formations  must  be  of 
distinct  species,  because  they  have  been  created 
separately.  However,  these  subtleties  have 
ceased  to  have  any  practical  importance.  In 
the  next  place,  it  is  observed  that,  while  indi 
viduals  of  the  same  morphological  species  breed, 
freely  with  one  another  and  give  rise  to  per 
fectly  fertile  offspring,  the  unions  of  individ 
uals  of  different  morphological  species  are,  as 
a  rule,  either  infertile  or  imperfectly  fertile. 
Thus  fertility,  like  parentage,  has  become  a 
physiological  character  of  species;  and  though 
in  the  case  of  some  domesticated  animals,  as 
pigeons,  the  extreme  forms  are  more  different 
from  one  another  than  are  many  morphologi 
cal  species,  yet,  apart  from  the  historical  evi 
dence  of  their  parentage,  they  are  held  to  be 
members  of  the  same  species  because  they  are 
all  perfectly  fertile  one  with  another,  and  their 
offspring  are  also  perfectly  fertile.  Thirdly, 
it  is  a  matter  of  experience  that,  as  a  general 
rule,  and  taking  the  whole  cycle  of  forms 
through  which  a  living  being  runs  into  ac 
count,  offspring  and  parent  are  so  similar  that 
they  belong  to  one  and  the  same  morphological 
species ;  and  it  is  further  in  evidence  that  many 
species  have  endured  for  extremely  long  periods 


I;M  v  i  us  ?T\ 


SPECIES 


235 


without  any  notable  difference  being  discern 
ible  between  ancestor  and  descendant.  More 
over,  in  some  cases,  varieties  are  found  to  re 
vert  to  the  characters  of  the  species  from  which 
they  have  proceeded.  The  conclusion  has  been 
drawn  that  species  are  physiologically  fixed; 
that  is  to  say,  that,  however  long  the  process 
of  generation  may  be  continued,  the  individuals 
either  retain  the  identical  morphological  pecu 
liarities  of  the  oldest  ancestor,  or,  if  they  vary, 
the  varieties  remain  fertile  with  one  another. 
Assuming  that  species  have  the  physiological 
fixity  thus  indicated,  certain  conclusions  re 
specting  the  origin  of  species  are  inevitable. 
It  is  clear  that  no  existing  species  can  have 
arisen  by  the  intercrossing  of  preexisting  spe 
cies,  or  by  the  variation  of  preexisting  species ; 
but  that  every  species  must  either  have  existed 
from  all  eternity,  or  have  come  into  existence 
suddenly  in  its  present  form,  which  is  the  ob 
jective  fact  denoted  by  what  is  termed  "  crea 
tion." — At  the  dawn  of  modern  biology,  a  cen 
tury  ago,  no  scientific  evidence  respecting  the 
real  history  of  life  on  the  globe  was  extant, 
and,  for  any  proof  that  existed  to  the  contrary, 
species  might  have  been  of  eternal  duration. 
But  philosophical  speculation  combined  with 
theological  dogma  not  only  to  favor  the  con 
trary  opinion,  but  to  lead  the  most  philosophic 
naturalist  of  his  day  to  embody  the  hypothesis 
of  creation  in  a  definition  of  species.  Totidem 
numeramm  species  quot  in  principio  formce 
sunt  creatce  ("  We  reckon  as  many  species  as 
there  \vere  forms  created  in  the  beginning  "), 
is  the  well  known  formula  of  LinnsBus.  In 
practice,  Linnaeus  regarded  species  from  a  pure 
ly  morphological  point  of  view ;  in  theory,  he 
assumed  the  ancestral  creation  and  the  limited 
variability  of  species,  though  he  was  disposed  to 
allow  more  freedom  in  this  direction  than 
most  of  his  successors.  On  the  other  hand, 
lie  seems  to  have  attached  comparatively  little 
weight  to  the  assumed  sterility  of  hybrids,  and 
to  have  held  a  sort  of  modified  doctrine  of 
evolution,  supposing  that  existing  species  may 
have  been  produced  by  the  interbreeding  of 
comparatively  few  primordial  forms.  It  is 
mainly  to  the  influence  of  Ouvier's  authority 
that  we  owe  the  general  acceptance  of  the 
views  respecting  the  physiological  characters 
of  species  which  till  within  the  last  few  years 
have  been  almost  universally  prevalent.  In 
the  introduction  to  the  Regne  animal  (1817), 
Cuvier  writes:  "There  is  no  proof  that  all 
the  differences  which  now  distinguish  organ 
ized  beings  are  such  as  may  have  been  pro 
duced  by  circumstances.  All  that  has  been 
advanced  upon  this  subject  is  hypothetical ; 
experience  seems  to  show,  on  the  contrary, 
that  in  the  actual  state  of  things  varieties  are 
confined  within  rather  narrow  limits,  and,  so 
far  as  we  can  retrace  antiquity,  we  perceive 
that  these  limits  were  the  same  as  at  pres 
ent.  We  are  thus  obliged  to  admit  of  cer 
tain  forms  which  since  the  origin  of  things 
have  been  perpetuated,  without  exceeding  these 


limits ;  and  all  the  beings  appertaining  to  one 
of  these  forms  constitute  what  is  termed  a 
species.  Varieties  are  accidental  subdivisions 
of  species.  Generation  being  the  only  means 
of  ascertaining  the  limits  to  which  varieties 
may  extend,  species  should  be  defined,  the  re 
union  of  individuals  descended  from  one  an 
other,  or  from  common  parents,  or  from  such 
as  resemble  them  as  closely  as  they  resemble 
each  other;  but,  although  this  definition  is 
rigorous,  it  will  be  seen  that  its  application  to 
particular  individuals  may  be  very  different 
when  the  necessary  experiments  have  been 
made."  It  need  hardly  be  said,  however,  that 
in  practice  Cuvier  founded  his  species  upon 
purely  and  exclusively  morphological  charac 
ters,  just  as  his  predecessors  and  successors 
have  done.  The  combination  of  Cuvier's  views 
on  the  fixity  of  species  with  the  discovery  of 
the  succession  of  life  on  the  globe,  which  was 
so  largely  the  result  of  his  labors,  led  his  fol 
lowers  into  curious  difficulties.  Developing 
the  fundamental  idea  of  the  Discours  sur  les 
revolutions  de  la  surface  du  globe,  naturalists 
were  necessarily  led  to  conclude,  not  only  that 
existing  species  are  the  result  of  creation,  but 
that  the  creative  act  which  brought  them  into 
being  was  only  the  last  repetition  of  a  series 
of  such  acts,  by  which  the  often  depopula 
ted  world  has  been  as  frequently  repeopled. 
Lamarck,  Cuvier's  contemporary  and  country 
man,  must  be  regarded  as  the  chief  founder  of 
the  reaction  against  the  doctrines  which  Cuvier 
advocated ;  a  reaction  which,  overpowered 
and  disregarded  for  many  years,  has  acquired 
such  force  since  and  through  the  publication 
of  Darwin's  "  Origin  of  Species,"  that  it  has 
already  almost  swept  opposition  away.  La 
marck's  vast  acquaintance  with  the  details  of 
invertebrate  zoology  rendered  him  familiar 
with  the  great  variability  of  many  species,  and 
led  him  to  see  that  variation  is  in  some  way 
related  to  change  of  conditions.  The  frequent 
occurrence  of  transitional  forms  between  ap 
parently  distinct  species,  when  large  suites  of 
specimens  (especially  when  they  are  obtained 
from  different  parts  of  a  wide  geographical 
area)  are  examined,  tended  to  bring  into  strong 
light  the  tenuity  of  the  distinction  between 
species  and  varieties.  The  facts  of  embry 
ology,  the  occurrence  of  rudimentary  organs, 
and  the  fundamental  unity  of  structure  which 
obtains  in  vast  groups,  such  as  the  vertebrata 
and  arthropoda,  further  tended  to  suggest  the 
existence  of  a  genetic  connection  between  the 
members  of  these  groups;  so  that  Lamarck 
was  induced  to  renounce  the  doctrine  of  the 
fixity  of  species,  and  to  define  a  species  as  "  a 
collection  of  individuals  which  resemble  each 
other  and  produce  their  like  by  generation,  so 
long  as  the  surrounding  conditions  do  not 
alter  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause  their  habits, 
characters,  and  forms  to  vary."  According  to 
this  definition,  the  distinction  between  species 
and  variety  once  more  becomes  conventional. 
A  variety  is,  in  fact,  a  nascent  species;  and 


236 


SPECIES 


SPECTACLES 


the  notion  of  the  creation  of  species  vanish 
es,  inasmuch  as  every  species  is  the  result  of 
the  modification  of  a  predecessor.  Lamarck's 
views  of  the  nature  of  geological  change  were 
in  harmony  with  his  biological  speculations, 
and  .wholesale  catastrophic  revolutions  were 
as  completely  excluded  from  the  one  as  from 
the  other.  It  is  impossible  to  read  the  Dis- 
cours  sur  les  revolutions  of  Cuvier  and  the 
Principes  of  Lamarck  without  being  struck 
with  the  superiority  of  the  former  in  sobriety 
of  thought,  precision  of  statement,  and  cool 
ness  of  judgment.  But  it  is  no  less  impossi 
ble  to  consider  the  present  state  of  biological 
science  without  being  impressed  by  the  cir 
cumstance  that  it  is  the  conception  of  La 
marck  which  has  triumphed,  and  that  of  Cu 
vier  which  has  been  vanquished.  Catastrophic 
geology  has  vanished,  and  is  everywhere  re 
placed  by  the  conception  of  slow  and  gradual 
change.  With  it  has  disappeared  the  once 
prevalent  notion  that  the  whole  living  popu 
lation  of  the  earth  has  been  swept  away  and 
replaced  in  successive  epochs.  On  the  con 
trary,  it  is  now  certain  that  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  that  population  have  been 
effected  by  the  slow  and  gradual  substitution 
of  species  for  species.  Moreover,  it  is  well 
established  that,  in  some  cases,  the  succession 
of  forms  in  time  is  just  such  as  that  which 
should  have  occurred  if  the  hypothesis  of  evo 
lution  is  well  founded.  The  rapid  advance  of 
comparative  anatomy  has  diminished  or  re 
moved  the  wide  intervals  which  formerly  ap 
peared  to  separate  the  different  divisions  of 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  from  one 
another.  Even  the  hiatus  between  the  verte- 
brata  and  the  invertebrata  is  bridged  over  by 
recent  discovery.  The  establishment  of  the 
cell  theory,  however  much  the  views  originally 
propounded  by  Schwann  have  been  modified, 
leaves  no  doubt  that  there  is  a  fundamental 
similarity  in  minute  structure  not  only  between 
all  animals,  but  between  them  and  plants ; 
while  the  discoveries  of  embryologists  have 
proved  that  even  the  most  complex  forms  of 
living  beings  do,  in  the  course  of  their  de 
velopment,  run  through  a  series  of  changes 
of  the  same  order  as  those  which  are  postu 
lated  by  the  evolution  theory  for  life  in  time. 
Again,  the  facts  of  geographical  distribution, 
as  now  known,  are  absolutely  incompatible 
with  the  hypothesis  that  existing  animals  and 
plants  have  migrated  from  a  common  centre, 
and,  by  demonstrating  the  similarity  of  the 
existing  fauna  and  flora  of  any  locality  to 
those  which  inhabited  the  same  area  in  the 
immediately  precedent  epoch,  have  furnished 
a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  the  modifiability 
of  species.  Thus,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  the  facts  of  biology  known  at  the  present 
day  are  all  consistent  with  and  in  favor  of  the 
view  of  species  entertained  by  Lamarck,  while 
they  are  unfavorable  to,  if  not  incompatible 
with,  that  advocated  by  Cuvier ;  and  that, 
even  if  no  suggestion  had  been  offered,  or 


could  be  offered,  as  to  the  causes  which  have 
led  to  the  gradual  evolution  of  species,  the 
hypothesis  that  they  have  arisen  by  such  a 
process  of  evolution  would  be  the  only  one 
which  would  have  any  scientific  foundation. — 
The  great  service  which  has  been  rendered  to 
science  by  Mr.  Darwin,  in  the  "  Origin  of 
Species,"  is  that,  in  the  first  place,  he  has  mar 
shalled  the  ascertained  facts  of  biology  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  render  this  conclusion  irresis 
tible  ;  and  secondly,  that  he  has  proved  the 
following  proposition  :  Given  the  existence  of 
living  matter  endowed  with  variability,  the 
interaction  of.  variation  with  the  conditions 
of  existence  must  tend  to  give  rise  to  a  dif 
ferentiation  of  that  living  matter  into  forms 
having  such  morphological  relations  as  are 
exhibited  by  the  varieties  and  species  which 
actually  exist  in  nature.  What  is  needed  for 
the  completion  of  the  theory  of  the  origin  of 
species  is,  first,  definite  proof  that  selective 
breeding  is  competent  to  convert  permanent 
races  into  physiologically  distinct  species ;  and 
secondly,  the  elucidation  of  the  nature  of  va 
riability.  It  is  conceivable  that  both  the  ten 
dency  to  vary  and  the  directions  in  which  that 
tendency  takes  effect  are  determined  by  the 
molecular  constitution  of  a  living  body;  in 
which  case,  the  operation  of  changes  of  ex 
ternal  conditions  will  be  indirect,  and,  so  to 
speak,  permissive.  It  is  conceivable,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  tendency  to  vary  is  both 
originated  and  directed  by  the  influence  of 
external  conditions ;  or  that  both  variation 
and  the  direction  which  variation  takes  are 
partly  determined  by  intrinsic  and  partly  by 
extrinsic  conditions.  In  this  case,  surrounding 
circumstances  must  be  regarded  as,  to  a  great 
er  or  less  extent,  the  true  causes  of  variation. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY.     See  GRAVITY,  SPECIFIC. 

SPECTACLES,  contrivances  worn  to  assist  sight 
or  to  protect  the  eyes  from  injury.  1.  Spec 
tacles  to  assist  Sight.  These  may  operate  in 
two  general  ways:  first,  by  correction  of  some 
optical  defects  to  which  the  eyes  are  liable; 
and  secondly,  by  compensation  for  functional 
insufficiency  on  the  part  of  certain  muscles 
concerned  in  the  exercise  of  sight.  The  eye 
is  a  camera,  where  a  system  of  lenses  throws 
an  image  upon  a  screen,  represented  by  the 
retina.  For  perfect  sharpness  of  this  image, 
the  curves  of  the  lenses  must  be  symmetrical, 
and  the  refractive  power  of  the  system  exact 
ly  adjusted  to  the  distance  of  the  retina.  In 
the  normal  or  "emmetropic"  eye  these  con 
ditions  obtain,  the  adjustment  being  such  that 
when  the  eye  is  at  rest  the  rays  from  distant 
objects  come  to  an  exact  focus  upon  the  ret 
ina.  But  every  possible  deviation  from  these 
conditions  is  found.  First,  there  may  be  a 
disproportion  between  the  refractive  power 
of  the  eye  and  the  distance  of  the  retina.  If 
the  refractive  power  is  proportionately  too 
great,  the  rays  from  distant  objects  will  come 
to  a  focus  a  certain  distance  in  front  of  the 
retina.  This  constitutes  the  condition  called 


SPECTACLES 


237 


myopia  or  near-sightedness,  and  may  arise 
either  from  excessive  convexity  of  the  lens 
system  of  the  eye,  or  from  an  undue  depth  of 
the  organ  from  before  backward.  The  latter 
origin  is  by  far  the  more  common,  and  is  gen 
erally  the  result  of  a  disease  of  the  tunics  of 
the  eye  at  their  back  part,  whereby  being 
weakened,  they  bulge  out  backward.  How 
ever  produced,  the  correction  of  myopia  is  the 
same.  The  difficulty  being  that  the  refractive 
power  of  the  eye  is  too  great  for  the  distance 
of  the  retina,  the  obvious  remedy  is  to  weaken 
the  former,  and  this  is  done  by  wearing  a  con 
cave  glass.  (See  OPTICS.)  But  there  are  many 
physiological  reasons  why  full  correction  of 
the  defect  is  often  improper  or  useless,  which 
cannot  be  discussed  here.  In  any  but  very 
moderate  degrees  of  myopia  glasses  should  be 
worn  only  under  competent  advice ;  and  in 
any  case  great  injury  may  be  produced  by  the 
use  of  too  strong  glasses.  The  opposite  con 
dition  to  myopia  is  also  very  common,  that  is, 
where  the  refractive  power  of  the  eye  lenses  is 
disproportionately  weak,  so  that  the  rays  from 
distant  objects  come  to  a  focus  behind  the  ret 
ina,  in  which  case  vision  of  objects  both  far 
and  near  is  indistinct.  This  constitutes  the 
condition  known  as  hypermetropia,  and,  as  in 
myopia,  the  deviation  from  the  normal  condi 
tion  may  be  either  in  the  refractive  power  or 
in  the  depth  of  the  eye.  Thus  a  tolerably  com-  ' 
mon  congenital  malformation  is  an  undue  shal- 
lowness  of  the  eyeball.  Such  an  eye  is  neces 
sarily  hypermetropic.  A  normal  eye  may  also 
become  hypermetropic  .in  old  age,  and  in  all 
cases  where  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  eye  is 
wanting,  as  after  removal  for  cataract  (see  CAT 
ARACT,  and  EYE),  a  high  degree  of  hypermetro- 
pia  necessarily  results.  The  fault  being  that 
the  refractive  power  of  the  eye  is  dispropor 
tionately  weak  to  suit  the  distance  off  of  the 
retina,  the  necessary  additional  power  can  be 
supplied  by  a  convex  glass  worn  before  the 
eye.  But  in  the  case  of  the  more  common  con 
genital  hypermetropia  from  deficient  depth  of 
the  eyeball,  so  many  other  considerations  than 
the  mere  optical  one  affect  the  matter  of  cor 
recting  the  defect  by  glasses,  that  perfect  neu 
tralization  is  often  unadvisable  or  unnecessary. 
For  the  eye  has  itself  the  power  of  increasing 
the  refraction  of  its  lens  within  a  certain  range, 
to  provide  for  the  focalizing  upon  near  objects. 
(See  Visiox,  section  on  accommodation  of  the 
eye.)  Hence  the  organ  can  itself  compen 
sate  for  a  certain  amount  of  hypermetropia, 
and  may  thus  be  able  to  do  without  glasses,  or 
with  weaker  ones  than  those  required  to  neu 
tralize  the  defect  completely.  The  third  opti 
cal  error  remediable  by  glasses  is  a  certain 
want  of  symmetry  in  the  curve  of  the  cornea, 
where  there  are  two  opposite  meridians  of 
unequal  curvature.  This  condition  is  called 
astigmatism,  and  is  generally  a  congenital  mal 
formation.  The  consequence  of  it  is  that  the 
retinal  image,  whether  of  far  or  near  objects,  j 
is  never  sharp.  For  the  correction  of  this  \ 


defect  a  glass  is  worn  having  a  cylindrical  curve 
equal  to  the  difference  in  curvature  between 
the  two  dissimilar  meridians,  the  axis  of  the 
cylindrical  surface  being  carefully  adjusted  so 
as  to  be  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the 
meridian  to  be  corrected.  The  nature  of  the 
curve,  i,  e.,  whether  convex  or  concave,  will 
depend  on  whether  the  refractive  power  of  the 
meridian  to  be  corrected  requires  to  be  strength 
ened  or  lessened.  As  it  is  obvious  that  this 
irregularity  of  corneal  curvature  may  coexist 
with  a  general  myopia  or  hypermetropia,  com 
pound  glasses  are  often  required,  having  on 
one  face  a  cylindrical  curve  to  neutralize  the 
astigmatism,  and  on  the  other  the  proper 
spherical  curve  required  for  the  other  defect. — 
The  second  general  way  in  which  glasses  operate 
to  assist  sight  is,  as  already  said,  by  compensa 
ting  for  failure  of  certain  muscles  concerned 
in  the  use  of  the  eyes  to  fulfil  their  function. 
The  most  common  of  these  troubles  is  want 
of  power  to  focalize  the  eye  upon  near  objects. 
This  faculty  resides  in  a  little  muscle  within 
the  eye,  by  the  action  of  which  the  convexity, 
and  thus  the  refractive  power,  of  the  crystal 
line  lens  is  temporarily  increased.  But  the 
substance  of  the  crystalline  lens  steadily  grows 
harder,  and  thus  less  and  less  compressible, 
so  that  the  same  amount  of  muscular  action 
comes  to  produce  less  and  less  effect.  The  con 
sequence  is  that  during  adult  life  the  focalizing 
power  upon  near  objects  steadily  diminishes, 
and  hence  the  nearest  point  of  distinct  vision 
gets  further  and  further  from  the  eye,  until  at 
about  the  age  of  47  it  has  receded  beyond  the 
distance  for  convenient  use  of  the  hands. 
Reading,  writing,  sewing,  or  any  manual  work 
requiring  sharp  vision  of  small  objects  at  the 
customary  distance,  then  become  impossible 
without  artificial  compensation  for  the  failure 
of  focalizing  power.  This  condition,  which  is 
natural  to  all  eyes,  is  called  presbyopia  or  old- 
sightedness,  and  the  compensation  is  very  sim 
ple.  The  difficulty  being  an  inability  on  the 
part  of  the  eye  itself  to  increase  temporarily 
its  refractive  power,  the  needed  addition  is 
artificially  supplied  by  a  convex  glass,  which  is 
worn  of  course  only  when  near  objects  are  to 
be  viewed.  As  the  focalizing  power  keeps  on 
diminishing  until  in  old  age  it  is  wholly  lost, 
the  strength  of  the  glasses  must  be  steadily  in 
creased.  As  soon  as  presbyopia  begins  to  show 
itself,  the  proper  weak  glass  should  be  prompt 
ly  assumed,  as  only  injury  to  the  eyes,  or  at 
least  useless  inconvenience,  can  result  from  a 
fruitless  struggle  to  do  without  this  aid.  In  all 
cases  the  weakest  glass  with  which  ordinary 
type  can  be  clearly  and  comfortably  seen  at 
the  usual  distance  is  the  proper  one  to  wear. 
With  normal  eyes,  individuals  of  the  same  age 
take  very  nearly  the  same  strength  of  glass ; 
but,  for  obvious  reasons,  in  myopes  the  glass 
will  be  weaker  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of 
the  optical  defect,  while  in  hypermetropes  it 
will  be  correspondingly  stronger.  This  same 
inability  to  focalize  upon  near  objects  may  also 


238 


SPECTACLES 


SPECTKUM 


occur  at  any  age  from  inherent  weakness  or 
paralysis  through  disease  of  the  muscle  con 
cerned,  and  in  such  case,  as  in  true  presbyopia, 
a  convex  glass  will  be  needed  for  near  work. 
It  was  probably  to  compensate  for  presbyopia 
by  convex  glasses  that  spectacles  were  first 
invented.  Roger  Bacon  first  pointed  out  the 
benefit  to  old  men  and  "  to  those  that  have 
weak  eyes  "  of  viewing  letters  through  a  plano 
convex  lens.  Alessandro  di  Spina,  a  monk  of 
Pisa  who  died  in  1313,  is  generally  accredited 
with  having  made  public  the  use  of  spectacles, 
which  were  apparently  invented  some  time  be 
tween  1280  and  1311. — Another  form  of  mus 
cular  insufficiency  that  can  be  compensated  by 
optical  means  is  where  some  of  the  muscles 
moving  the  eyeball  in  its  socket  are  unduly 
weak.  In  such  case  the  holding  of  the  two 
eyes  fixed  upon  the  same  point  is  attended  by 
a  feeling  of  straining  or  actual  pain,  and  upon 
prolonged  effort  the  overtaxed  muscle  may 
suddenly  relax,  producing  immediately  a  tem 
porary  confusion  of  sight.  Here,  if  the  insuf 
ficiency  be  but  slight,  the  wearing  of  a  weak 
plain  prism,  properly  adjusted,  compensates  for 
the  defect ;  for  even  while  the  eyes  are  allowed 
to  keep  the  faulty  relative  position  enforced  by 
the  muscular  weakness,  the  rays  coming  from 
the  object  desired  to  be  seen  can,  by  means  of 
refraction  through  a  prism,  be  made  to  enter 
both  eyes  in  the  same  direction,  the  only  con 
dition  necessary  for  binocular  single  vision. 
But  this  mode  of  compensation  will  only  do  in 
slight  degrees  of  muscular  insufficiency  ;  in  the 
higher  grades  a  radical  cure  by  a  surgical  oper 
ation  is  necessary.  The  strength  and  position 
of  the  prisms  will  of  course  be  determined  by 
the  degree  and  seat  of  the  muscular  weakness ; 
and  if,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  affection  in 
question  is  associated  with  myopia,  hyperme- 
tropia,  or  astigmatism,  a  compound  glass  may 
be  needed,  where  one  or  both  faces  of  the 
prism  bear  the  necessary  curves  to  correct  the 
optical  defect. — The  designation  of  the  strength 
of  glasses  is  nowadays  by  the  fraction  ex 
pressing  the  refractive  power  of  the  lens  in 
terms  of  inches,  the  words  "  positive  "  and 
"negative"  or  the  signs  -f  and  —  indicating 
respectively  a  convex  or  a  concave  glass  ;  thus 
"  —  TV'  m?ans  a  concave  lens  of  10  in.  focal 
length.  Glasses  are  commonly  ground  with  an 
equal  curve  on  both  faces,  but  a  meniscus  for  a 
positive  and  a  concavo-convex  for  a  negative 
lens  may  also  be  used  (see  OPTICS),  in  which 
case  the  spectacles  are  called  periscopic.  The 
advantage  of  this  form  is,  that  there  is  less  dis 
tortion  of  objects  seen  through  the  edges  of 
the  lens;  but  the  disadvantages  are,  that  the 
glasses  are  heavier  than  those  of  the  ordinary 
style,  and  give  more  reflection  from  their  back 
surface.  The  material  for  spectacles  is  com 
monly  glass,  but  a  variety  of  rock  crystal  called 
"Brazilian  pebble"  is  also  used.  The  latter 
substance  is  less  apt  to  scratch  or  to  become 
dimmed  by  deposit  of  moisture  on  being  brought 
from  a  cold  to  a  warm  temperature,  but  it  is 


heavier  and  far  more  expensive  than  glass. 
The  claims  for  its  "  preserving  the  sight  "  are 
fanciful,  and  many  of  the  spectacles  sold  as 
pebbles  are  not  such  at  all.  It  is  always  im 
portant  that  the  lenses  should  be  of  first  class, 
the  substance  without  flaw,  and  the  grinding 
accurate.  A  convenient  test  is  to  hold  the 
glass  some  distance  from  the  eye,  and  then, 
moving  it  from  side  to  side  and  to  and  fro, 
note  if  there  be  any  apparent  flickering  or  dis 
tortion  of  objects  seen  through  it.  If  there  be, 
the  glass  is  worthless.  In  style  of  frames,  as 
is  well  known,  there  is  great  variety.  In  gen 
eral  the  word  "spectacles"  is  now  used  to 
designate  a  frame  held  in  place  by  bows  reach 
ing  behind  the  ears,  and  "  eye  glasses"  one  held 
in  the  hand  or  made  to  clasp  the  nose.  The 
spectacle  frame  is  the  best  where  the  glass 
has  to  be  continuously  worn,  as  in  myopia,  as 
the  lenses  can  be  more  accurately  centred  and 
made  to  set  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight. 
For  temporary  use,  as  for  reading  glasses  in 
presbyopia,  good  eye  glasses,  selected  so  as  to 
be  well  centred  to  suit  the  distance  of  the  eyes 
apart,  are  convenient  and  unobjectionable. 
The  material  for  the  frames  is  various ;  silver 
was  formerly  in  general  use,  but  has  been  su 
perseded  by  steel  and  gold.  Tortoise  shell  is 
light,  but  easily  broken  ;  it  is  only  used  in  eye 
glass  frames.  The  frame,  whether  spectacle 
or  eye  glass,  should  be  selected  to  suit  the  in 
dividual  conformation  of  face  and  the  purpose 
for  which  the  glass  is  wanted,  so  that  the  line 
of  sight  shall  be  through  the  centre  of  the 
glass  and  perpendicular  to  its  surface.  Hence 
glasses  for  distant  vision,  as  in  myopia,  should 
be  set  high  and  vertical,  while  for  near  work 
only,  as  in  presbyopia,  they  should  be  lower 
and  inclined.  A  style  of  spectacles  was  in 
vented  by  Franklin  for  special  cases  where  a 
different  glass  is  needed  for  far  and  near  vision 
respectively,  in  which  the  glass  is  bisected 
horizontally,  the  two  segments  being  of  the 
different  curvatures  required,  the  upper  for 
the  far  and  the  lower  for  the  near.  2.  Spec 
tacles/or  Protection.  To  shield  sensitive  eyes 
from  excess  of  light,  colored  glasses,  either 
with  plane  surfaces  or  of  a  watch-glass  form, 
are  used.  The  latter  give  most  protection, 
as  they  cut  off  the  side  light  more  perfectly. 
Still  better  are  goggles  with  wings  at  the  sides. 
Shades  of  blue  and  "London  smoke"  neutral 
tint  are  the  best  colors.  For  protection  against 
the  glare  of  snow  or  white  sand,  an  opaque 
disk  pierced  with  a  narrow  horizontal  slit  is 
very  efficient.  A  spectacle  frame  set  with 
wire  gauze  or  plain  glass  is  sometimes  worn 
by  workmen  as  a  protection  against  bits  of 
flying  stone  or  steel. 

SPECTRO1  (Lat.,  an  image),  the  name  given 
to  the  image  or  colored  band  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  a  beam  of  light  into  its  ele 
mentary  colors.  Thus,  when  a  beam  of  sun 
light  enters  a  dark  room  through  a  narrow 
slit,  passes  through  a  triangular  glass  prism, 
and  then  falls  upon  a  screen,  we  may  observe 


SPECTRUM 


239 


that  the  beam  of  light  has  been  spread  out 
by  the  prisin  into  a  wedge-shaped  beam  of 
various  colors,  which  falling  on  the  screen 
forms  a  spectrum.  This  spectrum  of  the  sun's 
light  may  be  divided  into  seven  colors,  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet, 
named  in  the  order  of  their  increasing  angular 
deflection  from  the  direction  of  the  beam  of 
light  before  it  encountered  the  prism.  If  the 
light  from  the  flame  of  a  lamp  burning  alcohol 
which  contains  common  salt  should  enter  the 
slit  in  place  of  the  sun's  light,  the  spectrum 
formed  on  the  screen  will  be  found  on  minute 
examination  to  consist  only  of  two  closely  ap 
proximate  yellow  bands,  the  remainder  of  the 
spectrum  which  had  been  obtained  with  the 
sun's  light  being  entirely  absent.  With  the 
light  from  a  flame  tinged  with  the  vapor  of 
lithium  we  obtain  a  spectrum  formed  only  of 
two  bands,  one  in  the  red,  the  other  in  the 
orange.  It  has  thus  been  found  that  spectra 
differ  widely,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
incandescent  substances  from  which  they  em 
anate.  Some,  as  in  the  case  of  incandescent 
solids,  like  platinum,  are  continuous  and  formed 
of  all  of  the  seven  colors;  others,  as  in  the 
cases  of  the  spectra  of  sodium,  lithium,  and 
potassium,  are  formed  of  colored  bands  sepa 
rated  from  each  other  by  spaces  devoid  of  all 
light ;  while  again  other  spectra,  like  those  of 
the  sun  and  of  the  fixed  stars,  are  continuous, 
like  those  of  incandescent  solids,  but  crossed 
transversely  by  a  multitude  of  very  narrow 
spaces  devoid  of  light,  or  nearly  so.  (See 
SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS.)  In  the  present  article 
we  shall  consider  the  spectrum  of  the  sun,  and 
will  give  in  order  an  account  of  the  manner  of 
its  production,  of  the  methods  of  measuring 
the  lengths  of  the  waves  of  the  various  rays 
composing  it,  and  of  the  actions  of  light,  heat, 
chemical  decomposition,  and  fluorescence  pro 
duced  by  the  different  spectral  rays  when  they 
impinge  upon  bodies  peculiarly  constituted 

to  develop  and 
make  manifest 
the  above  named 
actions.  —  Spec 
tra  are  usually 
obtained  either 
by  the  disper 
sive  action  of 
a  prism,  or  by 
the  diffraction 
of  a  <f  grating" 
formed  by  cut 
ting  with  a  dia 
mond  point  on 
glass  or  on  spec- 

FIG.  l.-Fratmhofer's  Spectroscope.      ullim  metal  sev 
eral       thousand 

equidistant  and  parallel  straight  lines  in  the 
space  of  an  inch.  The  prismatic  spectrum  is 
formed  with  purity  when  the  sun's  light  en 
ters  a  fine  slit  formed  between  parallel  edges 
about  T^j  of  an  inch  apart,  and,  after  progress 
ing  into  a  dark  room  for  15  or  20  ft.,  passes 
VOL.  xv. — 16 


through  a  prism  of  clear  homogeneous  glass 
and  then  traverses  an  achromatic  lens  of  about 
6  ft.  focus.  This  lens  is  placed  so  far  from  a 
screen  that  it  forms 
on  it  the  image  of 
the  slit  through  which 
the  sunlight  enters 
the  room,  when  the 
prism  is  replaced  by 
a  plane  mirror  which 
reflects  the  rays  on 
to  the  screen.  The 
prism  in  the  above 
experiment  must  be 
placed  at  uthe  angle 
of  minimum  devia 
tion  ;"  that  is,  it  must 
be  so  adjusted  that 
the  incident  beam  re 
ceives  the  minimum 
deviation  from  the 
refractive  action  of 
the  prism.  Fraunho- 
fer  substituted  a  tele 
scope  for  the  lens  and 
screen,  and  viewed 
the  spectrum  formed 
at  the  focus  of  its  ob 
ject  glass,  as  shown 
in  fig.  1.  This  instru 
ment  is  called  a  spec 
troscope.  A  spec 
trum,  formed  as  just 
described,  is  crossed 
transversely  by  dark 
lines  of  various 
breadths  and  degrees 
of  blackness.  These 
lines  are  unevenly  dis 
tributed  throughout 
the  length  of  the 
spectrum  ;  but  the 
same  line  always  oc 
cupies  the  same  posi 
tion  when  referred  to 
the  tint  in  which  it 
exists.  Fig.  2  gives 
the  spectral  lines  as 
mapped  by  Fraunho- 
fer  in  vol.  iv.  of  the 
"  Memoirs "  of  the 
academy  of  Munich 
for  1814-'! 5.  To  dis 
tinguish  these  lines 
Fraunhofer  designa 
ted  them  by  the  let 
ters  of  the  alphabet, 
in  proceeding  from 
the  red  to  the  violet 
end  of  the  spectrum. 
Thus  A  exists  in  the 
extreme  red,  while  H 
is  in  the  violet  near 

the  boundary  of  the  visible  spectrum.  Fraun 
hofer  mapped  in  the  spectrum  576  lines,  and 
ever  since  the  publication  of  his  drawing  these 


FIG.  2.— Fraunhofer's  Solar 
Spectrum. 


240 


SPECTRUM 


lines,  and  also  the  invisible  lines  subsequently 
discovered  beyond  the  violet  and  red  ends  of 
the  spectrum,  have  been  called  "the  Fraun- 
hofer  lines."  Subsequent  observers  modified 


._ KirchhofFs  Spectroscope,  by  Steinhcil. 


Fraunhofer's  instrument  by  substituting  for 
the  distant  slit  a  colliinating  telescope  (A,  fig. 
3);  this  consists  of  an  achromatic  lens  with 
the  slit  at  its  principal  focus.  Kirchhoff  with 
the  spectroscope  shown  in  fig.  3  has  made 
an  exquisite  map  of  the  spectrum,  containing 
more  than  3,000  lines. — The  relative  positions 
of  the  lines  in  the  spectra  obtained  from 
prisms  formed  of  different  refracting  mate 
rials,  or  even  from  the  same  material  at  dif 
ferent  temperatures,  differ  so  much  that  maps 
made  by  different  observ 
ers  are  not  comparable ; 
hence  recourse  has  been 
had  to  spectra  formed  by 
transmitting  light  through 
gratings.  From  measure 
ments  on  these  spectra, 
known  as  diffraction  or  in 
terference  spectra,  can  be 
deduced  the  lengths  of  the 
waves  of  light  correspond 
ing  to  any  tint  in  the  spec 
trum.  The  wave  lengths 
are  really  given  corre 
sponding  to  the  fixed  lines 
in  the  spectrum;  and  as 
these  lines  hold  fixed  po 
sitions  in  reference  to  the 
colors  in  which  they  ex 
ist,  we  have  unchangeable 
wave  lengths  to  which  to  refer  any  color  that 
may  be  used  in  such  practical  purposes  as  the 
determination  of  indices  of  refraction  or  in 
observations  in  spectrum  analysis.  If  we  look 


at  a  distant  slit  with  a  telescope  before  which 
we  have  placed  a  grating,  we  see  a  white 
central  image  of  the  slit,  just  as  if  the  gra 
ting  were  not  in  front  of  the  telescope ;  but 

we  observe  be 
sides  this  central 
white  line  a  series 
of  spectra  to  its 
right  and  to  its 
left.  These  spec 
tra  have  their 
violet  ends  placed 
toward  the  cen 
tral  image  of  the 
slit,  and  they  are 
named  in  the  or 
der  of  their  re 
moval  from  the 
slit;  as  spectrum 
of  the  first  or 
der  on  the  right 
or  left,  spectra  of 
the  second,  third, 
fourth,  &c.,  or 
der  on  the  right 
or  left.  These 
f-pectra  are  often 
of  great  purity, 
so  that  hundreds 
of  Fraunhofer 
lines  can  be  seen 
with  remarkable  clearness.  If  the  telescope, 
T  E,  be  mounted  on  a  divided  circle,  D,  and 
the  grating,  Gr,  placed  in  front  of  a  colliina 
ting  telescope,  0,  furnished  with  the  slit  at  S, 
as  in  fig.  4,  we  can  measure  in  the  different 
spectra  the  angular  distances  of  these  lines 
from  the  centre  of  the  image  of  the  slit,  and 
the  angular  distances  from  the  centre  of  the 
image  of  the  slit  to  the  same  line  in  spectra  of 
different  orders  will  be  nearly  as  the  number 
of  the  orders.  Thus,  if  we  call  a  this  angle  in 


Fiti.  4. — Spectrometer. 

the  spectrum  of  the  first  order,  it  will  be  2«, 
3&,  4«,  &c.,  in  the  spectra  of  the  succeeding 
orders.  It  necessarily  follows  from  this  fact 
that  the  length  of  the  spectrum  in  any  order 


SPECTRUM 


241 


N 

FIG.  5. 


will  be  as  the  number  of  the  order ;  thus,  the 
spectrum  of  the  third  order  will  be  three 
times  as  long  as  that  of  the  first  order.  It 
has  also  been  found  that  the  length  of  the 
spectrum  of  any  order  will  be  inversely  as 
the  distance  separating  the  lines  of  the  gra 
ting  producing  the  spectra ;  thus,  the  spectrum 
of  the  second  order 
produced  by  a  grating 
of  5,000  lines  in  an 
inch  will  be  half  as 
long  as  that  of  the 
second  order  given  by 
a  grating  having  10,- 
000  lines  in  an  inch. 
Let  parallel  rays  of 
light  from  a  distant 
point  or  from  the  slit 
of  a  collimating  tele 
scope  fall  perpendicu 
larly  on  the  .plane  of 
the  grating  G  G,  fig.  5. 
The  plane  of  the  wave 
front  of  the  light  will 
be  parallel  to  the  plane 
of  the  grating,  and  the 
vibrations  of  the  ether 
at  each  point  in  the 
openings  of  the  grating  will  have  the  same 
phase.  But  whenever  light  falls  upon  such 
constructed  apertures  as  those  of  the  grating, 
the  points  in  these  apertures,  situated  in  the 
plane  of  the  grating,  become  centres  of  ori 
gin  of  vibrations,  and  the  rays  which  have 
passed  through  the  apertures  diverge  in  planes 
at  right  angles  to  the  lines  of  the  grating. 
The  consideration  of  the  mutual  action  of 
these  rays  will  lead  at  once  to  remarkable 
results.  All  those  rays  which  have  traversed 
the  grating  in  the  same  direction  as  that  in 
which  they  struck  it  will  have  the  same  phase 
of  vibration,  and  therefore  when  brought  to 
gether  in  the  focus  of  a  lens  will  form  there 
a  white  image  of  the  distant  point  or  of  the 
slit  of  the  collimating  telescope.  But  it  is  not 
so  with  the  parallel  rays,  which  diverge  lat 
erally,  say  in  the  direction  «<?,  T)f,  eg,  d?i,  &c. 
If  these  rays  be  brought  to  a  focus  by  means 
of  a  lens  L,  we  shall  observe  at  F  not  a 
white  image  of  the  slit,  but  a  colored  one ;  and 
it  is  found  that  this  color  will  depend  on 
the  inclination  of  the  diffracted  rays  to  B  N, 
the  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  grating. 
Suppose  that  the  diffracted  rays  ae,  T)f,  eg, 
&c.,  are  so  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  grating 
that  a  perpendicular,  51,  let  fall  from  the  cen 
tre  of  one  opening  in  the  grating  to  the  paral 
lel  ray  a  e  emanating  from  the  centre  of  the 
contiguous  opening,  cuts  off  .on  the  ray  a  e  a 
distance  al,  equal  to  the  length  of  a  wave  of 
violet  light  of  a  definite  tint.  Also  imagine 
other  perpendiculars  <?2,  ^3,  &c.,  let  fall  in  like 
manner  upon  the  ray  a  e.  Then  if  all  of  these 
rays  a  e,  If,  eg,  dh,  &c.,  be  brought  to  a  focus 
at  F,  the  vibrations  of  the  ether  at  this  point 
will  all  have  the  same  phase,  and  hence  will 


give  at  F  a  line  which  will  be  formed  of  violet 
light;  and  the  intensity  of  this  light  will  be 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  intensities  of  all  the 
rays  ae,  &/,  eg,  &c.  The  same  reasoning-will 
hold  good  for  any  other  set  of  rays  parallel 
to  those  just  described,  and  all  symmetrically 
placed  in  the  openings.  Hence  all  rays  ema 
nating  from  the  openings  and  parallel  to  the 
rays  a  e,  l)f,  c  g,  &c.,  and  having  wave  lengths 
equal  to  a\,  will  conspire  in  their  vibratory 
actions  when  brought  to  a  focus  at  F.  But 
it  is  not  so  with  other  rays,  which,  although 
parallal  to  the  rays  a  e,  1)J\  &c.,  have  not  the 
same  length  of  waves  as  al ;  for  they  will  not 
conspire  when  brought  together  at  F,  but  will 
interfere,  or  in  other  words  will  be  exactly 
opposed  to  each  other  in  vibratory  action,  and 
hence  will  disappear  as  light  when  brought  to 
the  focus  at  F.  For  example,  suppose  we  con 
sider  a  series  of  rays  of  red  light  which*  pro 
ceed  parallel  to  a  e,  ~bf,  &c.,  and  come  to  focus 
at  F.  These  rays  are  formed  of  waves  which 
are  about  twice  as  long  as  those  of  violet  light, 
or  in  other  words  as  al  ;  hence  red  rays  which 
have  emanated  from  symmetrically  placed 
points  in  two  contiguous  openings  of  the  gra 
ting  and  proceed  in  direction  parallel  to  a  e, 
will,  on  coming  to  the  focus  F,  all  differ  by 
half  of  an  undulation,  and  hence  red  light  can 
not  exist  at  F  with  an  inclination  of  diffracted 
ray  equal  to  N  c  F,  but  can  only  exist  at  a 
point  at  such  an  angular  distance  from  R  N 
that  the  perpendiculars  let  fall  from  a,  5,  c, 
and  d  on  to  a  e  cut  off  on  this  latter  line  dis 
tances  respectively  equal  to  double  the  lengths 
al,  a2,  «3,  #4.  Again,  suppose  that  the  wave 
lengths  of  two  rays,  emanating  from  symmet 
rically  placed  points  in  two  contiguous  open 
ings  and  proceeding  parallel  to  a  e,  differ  by 
only  y-Jj-o  of  the  wave  length  of  one  of  these 
rays,  then  these  rays  will  also  interfere  when 
brought  to  focus  at  F ;  because  the  phases  of 
the  rays  emanating  from  points  symmetrically 
placed  in  the  1st  and  2d  openings  of  the  grating 
will  differ  by  -p^  of  an  undulation ;  those  from 
the  1st  and  501st  openings  will  differ  by  -fipfo 
or  half  a  wave  length,  and  therefore  will  inter 
fere.  The  same  interference  will  take  place  be 
tween  the  rays  from  the  2d  opening  and  those 
from  the  502d,  and  those  from  the  4th  and  the 
504th  openings,  and  so  on.  Hence  rays  of  light 
having  any  other  wave  length  than  al  will 
almost  completely  disappear  as  light  by  their 
interference,  and  the  light  collected  at  F  will 
be  that  which  is  produced  by  ethereal  vibra 
tions  of  wave  lengths  equal  to  al.  The  same 
reasoning  holds  good  for  any  bundle  of  paral 
lel  rays  having  diffracted  angles  different  from 
NcF,'  and  hence  we  have  a  pure  spectrum 
formed  at  the  focus  F.  It  thus  appears  that 
there  is  a  connection  between  the  angle  N  c  F 
of  the  diffracted  rays,  the  length  al,  and  the 
color  observed  at  F.  The  color  at  F  varies 
with  the  angle.  N  c  F,  or,  what  is  the  same, 
with  the  length  al.  For  the  extreme  red  rays 
the  angle  N  c  F  is  at  its  maximum,  and  al  is 


242 


SPECTRUM 


equal  in  length  to  about  '00077  mm. ;  for  the 
extreme  violet  rays  the  angle  N  c  F  is  at  its 
minimum,  and  al  is  equal  to  about  -00039  mm. ; 
therefore  the  violet  ends  of  the  spectra  will 
always  be  toward  the  image  of  the  slit.  The 
determination  of  a  wave  length  consists  in  the 
measurement  of  the  length  al.  To  measure 
this  length,  we  first  determine  the  distance 
between  the  centres  of  two  contiguous  open 
ings  in  the  grating,  and  then  the  angle  N  c  F 
corresponding  to  any  given  tint  or  fixed  line 
in  the  spectrum ;  and  as  the  angle  a  51  is 
equal  to  the  angle  N  c  F,  al  is  equal  to  a  5 
multiplied  by  the  sine  of  N  c  F.  Let  s  stand 
for  a  5,  d  for  the  angle  N"  c  F,  and  I  for  al,  or 
the  wave  length;  then  Z  =  sxsin.  d.  If  the 
ray  a  e,  and  symmetrically  placed  rays,  be  in 
clined  to  the  plane  of  the  grating  so  that  the 
perpendicular  51  cuts  off  on  a  e  a  distance  al 
equal  to  two  wave  lengths,  we  shall  have  the 
same  actions  over  again,  only  the  spectra  pro 
duced  by  them  will  be  more  deflected  to  the 
side  of  the  image  of  the  slit;  and  thus  are 
produced  the  spectra  of  the  2d,  3d,  4th,  &c., 
orders.  The  length  of  any  one  of  these  spec 
tra  will  necessarily  be  nearly  as  the  num 
ber  of  the  order  of  the  spectrum.  The  wave 
length  of  the  same  tint,  or  of  the  same  fixed 
line,  can  be  determined  from  angular  measures 
made  on  this  tint  or  line,  in  the  spectra  of  all 
orders.  From  such  measures  we  obtain  mul 
tiples  of  the  wave  length,  and  the  formula 
for  measures  on  the  nth  order  of  spectrum 

7     s-xn'm.d        T       ,-, 

becomes  1= — ^— .     In  the  actual  measures 

which  have  been  made,  to  form  what  is  called 
a  map  of  "  the  normal  solar  spectrum,"  the 
plane  of  the  grating  is  placed  in  the  axis  of 
a  divided  circle,  and  is  generally  adjusted  so 
that  this  plane  is  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of 
collirnation  of  the  collimating  telescope  carry 
ing  the  slit.  The  observing  telescope  is  placed 
on  the  other  side  of  the  grating,  and  has  at 
tached  to  it  verniers,  or  reading  microscopes, 
which  it  carries  over  the  divided  circle  as  it 
rotates  around  its  axis,  as  is  shown  in  fig.  4. 


Measures  of  the  wave  lengths  of  the  rays 
forming  the  solar  spectrum  have  been  made 
by  Fraunhofer  (Denkschriften  der  munchener 
Akademie,  vol.  viii. ;  Gilbert's  Annalen,  vol. 
Ixxiv.),  Ditscheiner  (Berichte  der  wiener  A  ka- 
demie,  vols.  1.  and  Hi.),  Van  der  Willigen  (Me- 
moires  d'optique  physique,  Haarlem,  1868), 
Mascart  (Comptes  rendus,  Iviii.,  p.  Ill  ;  An- 
nalcs  scientifiques  de  Vecole  normale  superieure, 
vol.  iv.),  Angstrom  (Recherches  sur  le  spectre 
solaire,  Berlin,  1869),  Eisenlohr  (Poggendorff's 
Annalen,  vol.  xcviii.),  and  Stefan  (Berichte 
der  wiener  Akademie,  liii.).  Mascart  made 
an  important  modification  in  the  process,  as 
above  described.  In  his  measures  he  placed 
the  plane  of  the  grating  at  such  angles  to  the 
axis  of  the  colliinator  that  the  observed  line 
was  seen  with  its  minimum  angle  of  devia 
tion,  and  thereby  obtained  greater  simplicity  of 
adjustment  with  superior  accuracy  in  his  mea 
sures.  In  his  method  the  formula  becomes 

l=—xsm.  ~.     He   came    to   the  conclusion 


that  the  upper  or  more  refrangible  of  the  two 
D  lines  of  Fraunhofer  has  a  wave  length  of 
•0005888  of  a  millimetre.  This  result  agrees 
with  the  determination  made  by  Fraunhofer, 
and  physicists  now  generally  adopt  this  deter 
mination  as  exact.  If  the  wave  length  of  any 
one  ray  is  known  to  the  last  degree  of  preci 
sion,  the  position  of  this  ray  may  afterward 
serve  as  a  point  of  departure  in  the  determi 
nation  of  other  rays  merely  by  observing  their 
angular  departure  from  this  standard  ray ;  and 
if  we  knew  with  certainty  the  wave  length  of 
a  definite  ray,  we  might  adopt  this  dimension 
as  a  standard  of  length ;  for  from  observations 
on  this  ray's  angular  position  in  the  spectrum, 
we  could  determine  the  distance  separating  the 
centres  of  two  contiguous  openings  in  the  gra 
ting,  and  hence  determine  the  length  occupied 
by  any  known  number  of  lines  in  a  uniform 
ly  cut  grating.  The  following  table  gives  the 
wave  lengths,  in  ten  millionths  of  a  metre,  of 
the  principal  Fraunhofer  lines,  as  determined 
by  the  observers  named : 


FRAUNHOFER  LINES.            Fraunhofer. 

V.  a.  Willigen. 

Ditscheiner. 

Angstrom. 

Stefan. 

Mascart. 

A  

•0007609 

•  0007604 

a. 

•0007189 

•0007183 

B  .       !  -0006878 

•0006871 

•0006883 

•0006867 

•0006^73 

•0006867 

C  -0006504 

•  0006565 

•  0006571 

•  0006562 

•  0006578 

•  0006561 

]),  

•0005S98 

•0005905 

•0005895 

•0005894 

D2  '  •  0005888 

•0005896 

•0005899 

•0005889 

1  '  0005893  -j 

•  0005888 

K  -0005265 
ft,  

•0005272 
•0005186 

•0005278 
•0005192 

•0005269 

•00051  as 

•0005271 

•0005268 
•0005182 

1.  

'0005175 

'0005181 

•0005172 

•  00051  65 

F"  •  ...  i  -0004851 

•0004^64 

•0004868 

•0004860 

•000486!) 

•0004860 

•0004342 

•0004346 

•0004340 

G  .    •  0004292 

•0004311 

•0004317 

•0004307 

•000421)1 

•0004308 

Hi""                         "  \  '0003945 

(  -0008971 
|  -0003938 

•0003974 
•0003940 

•0003968 
.  -0003933 

I-  0003959  -j 

•0003967 

" 

' 

—The  considerable  differences  observed  in  the 
determinations  of  the  wave  length  of  the  same 
ray  by  different  observers  are  not  alone  owing 
to  the  variations  always  existing  in  honest 
measures  of  precision,  but  chiefly  to  the  diffi- 


to  the  resulting  uncertainty  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  distance  separating  the  centres  of  two 
contiguous  openings  in  the  grating.  All  phy 
sicists  have  until  recently  obtained  their  gra 
tings  from  Robert.  Lewis  M.  Rutherfurd  of 


culty  of  obtaining  regularly  ruled  gratings,  and  i  New  York  has  for  several  years  past  given 


UN  I  V  Ki:S  ITY 


SPECTKUM 


-1FOUNIA 


243 


much  labor  to  the  production  of  perfect  gra 
tings,  and  an  engine  (fig.  6)  which  he  has  re 
cently  made  produces  gratings  more  uniformly 
ruled  than  any  known  to  us.  On  a  hollow 
cast-iron  block  are  cut,  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  two  V-shaped  .guides.  On  one  of  these 
guides  slides  the  iron  plate  D,  moved  by  means 
of  a  screw  acting  in  a  nut  attached  to  its  under 
surface.  On  this  plate  is  fastened  the  plane  of 
glass  or  speculum  metal  which  is  to  be  ruled. 
On  the  other  guide  slides  the  plate  L  J,  having 
a  reciprocating  motion  given  to  it  by  a  lever, 
the  action  of  which  will  be  described  further 
on.  To  this  plate  is  attached  the  tool  holder 
carrying  the  diamond-pointed  cutter.  The  mo 
tive  power  of  the  machine  is  a  small  turbine 
from  which  passes  a  cord  around  the  driving 
wheel.  On  this  driving  wheel  is  a  pin  to  which 


FIG.  6.— Rutherford's'  Kuling  Engine. 

is  jointed  the  connecting  rod  A  F.  This  con 
necting  rod  is  hollow,  and  in  it  moves  a  rod 
which  is  constantly  pressed  toward  the  pin 
on  the  driving  wheel  by  the  spring  shown  at 
A.  When  the  rod  A  F  moves  upward,  the 
arm  F  I  oscillates  on  its  rocking  shaft  (the  end 
of  which  is  seen  in  the  figure,  projecting  hori 
zontally),  until  the  end  I  of  this  arm  comes 
against  the  fixed  pin  placed  under  it,  and  in 
contact  with  which  it  is  shown  in  the  drawing. 
Just  before  this  upward  movement  of  the  rod 
A  F  begins,  the  pawl  H  falls  into  a  notch  on 
the  wheel  B,  which  is  attached  to  the  screw 
of  the  engine,  and  during  the  upward  motion 
of  the  rod  A  F  the  pawl  II  presses  against  the 
notched  wheel  and  rotates  it  a  definite  fraction 
of  an  entire  revolution.  The  pawl  II  having 
completed  its  "throw,"  the  crank  pin  on  the 
driving  wheel  passes  its  upper  centre,  and  then 


the  slotted  lever  G  lifts  the  pawl  out  of  the 
teeth  of  the  wheel  B,  so  that  no  jarrings  or 
tremors  are  given  to  the -machine  while  the 
pawl  is  retreating  to  take  a  fresh  hold  on  the 
feed  wheel  B.  A  pin  attached  to  the  connect 
ing  rod  passes  through  a  slot  in  the  tube  A  F, 
and  serves  to  hold  the  two  together  when  the 
rod  is  making  its  downward  motion.  The 
amount  of  rotation  to  be  given  to  the  feed 
wheel  B  is  regulated  by  rotating  to  the  right 
or  to  the  left  the  collar  on  the  rock  shaft,  to 
which  the  pawl  II  is  jointed.  Directing  atten 
tion  to  the  plate  L  J,  to  which  is  attached  the 
cradle  N  carrying  the  diamond-pointed  rod  M, 
we  observe  at  K  the  right-hand  end  of  a  rod 
the  extremities  of  which  pass  through  holes 
in  the  iron  frame  of  the  engine.  This  rod  is 
moved  parallel  to  the  V  guide  of  the  plate  L  J 
by  means  of  an  oscillating  lever  which 
works  in  a  vertical  slot  attached  to 
the  rod  K,  and  is  fixed  on  the  same 
rock  shaft  which  carries  the  lever  F  I. 
Projecting  upward  from  the  rod  K  is 
a  short  rod  whose  end  is  shown  at  L. 
This  rod  moves  in  a  short  slot  cut  in 
the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  plate 
L  J,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  ac 
tion  of  the  cutting  point  of  the  tool 
M  can  now  be  explained.  While  the 
pawl  H  is  rotating  the  feed  wheel  B, 
the  rod  L  presses  against  the  left-hand 
end  of  its  slot  and  moves  the  slide  J 
from  right  to  left.  The  plate  J  can 
not  move,  as  above  indicated,  until  the 
rod  L  touches  the  left-hand  end  of  its 
slot ;  and  when  it  reaches  this  position 
the  left-hand  end  of  the  rod  K  has 
moved  to  the  left  sufficiently  to  press 
against  the  lower  point  of  the  cradle 
N,  and  hold  the  diamond-pointed  tool 
H  elevated  above  the  plate  of  glass  or 
speculum  metal  during  the  entire  left- 
hand  motion  of  the  plate  J.  When 
the  end  F  of  the  lever  F  I  descends, 
the  rod  K  moves  from  left  to  right, 
and  the  projecting  pin  has  to  move 
up  to  the  right-hand  end  of  its  slot 
before  it  can  push  the  plate  J  to  the  right. 
During  this  motion  of  L  in  its  slot,  the  left 
end  of  the  rod  K  has  allowed  the  diamond 
point  on  M  to  rest  on  the  glass  plate,  so  that 
before  the  plate  J  begins  its  right-hand  mo 
tion  the  diamond  point  is  at  rest  on  the  plate 
to  be  ruled.  The  plate  J  now  moves  to  the 
right,  and  the  diamond  point  cuts  a  line. 
But  the  diamond  point  is  lifted,  before  the 
right-hand  motion  of  the  plate  J  ceases,  by 
the  side  arm  O  of  the  cradle  N -coming  against 
the  inclined  surface  of  the  side  piece  P.  The 
diamond  is  thus  raised,  and  is  held  in  this 
position  by  the  depression  of  O  against  P 
until  the  left-hand  end  of  K  has  moved  up 
to  the  cradle  and  holds  the  tool  elevated  du 
ring  the  motion  of  the  plate  J  to  the  left. 
After  this  motion  has  ceased,  the  diamond  is 
lowered  to  the  glass  plate,  and  another  cut 


244 


SPECTRUM 


is  made ;  and  so  on,  the  machine  working 
automatically  until  the  plate  is  ruled.  The 
pitch  of  the  screw  is  ^  of  an  inch ;  hence, 
by  knowing  the  fraction  of  the  revolution  of 
the  screw  made  between  two  contiguous  cuts, 
we  know  the  distance,  in  fraction  of  -fa  of  an 
inch,  separating  the  centres  of  two  contiguous 
lines  on  the  grating.  The  diameter  of  the 
feed  wheel  B  is  6  in.,  and  from  this  dimension 
the  reader  may  estimate  the  size  of  the  other 
parts  of  the  engine.  The  excellence  of  the 
work  done  by  this  engine  depends  on  certain 
peculiarities  of  construction  :  1.  The  errors  in 
the  throw  of  the  screw,  caused  by  its  eccen 
tricity,  or  want  of  coincidence  of  the  axis  of 
figure  of  the  screw  and  its  axis  of  motion,  are 
corrected  by  giving  to  the  feed  wheel  B  an 
eccentricity  opposed  to  that  existing  in  the 
screw.  The  screws  at  0,  C,  0,  0  serve  to 
alter  the  position  of  the  centre  of  the  feed 
wheel  B,  and  thus  to  obtain  the  required  ec 
centricity.  This  balance  of  opposing  eccen 
tricities  is  obtained  by  a  delicate  and  precise 
method  devised  by  Mr.  Rutherfurd.  A  gra 
ting  ruled  by  the  engine  on  speculum  metal  or 
silvered  glass  is  examined  at  such  an  angle 
of  reflection  that  the  light  reflected  from  the 
plate  appears  of  one  color;  for  example,  red. 
If  we  could  cause  the  lines  on  this  grating 
gradually  to  approach  each  other  and  narrow 
the  spaces  separating  them,  we  should  observe 
the  red  tint  becoming  gradually  lighter  in  hue, 
and  then  gradually  changing  into  orange,  yel 
low,  green,  &c.  Hence  uniformity  of  tint  is 
an  indication  of  uniformity  of  ruling ;  there 
fore,  if  we  tilt  a  grating  placed  in  front  of 
a  flame  and  examine  it  by  means  of  a  lens 
and  find  it  of  a  uniform  color,  we  are  sure 
that  the  screw  is  doing  accurate  work  ;  but 
if  the  screw  have  a  periodic  error  like  ec 
centricity,  then  we  shall  observe  a  columnar 
appearance  on  the  plate,  owing  to  periodic 
variations  in  depth  of  color.  By  a  careful 
comparison  of  the  positions  of  these  colors 
with  the  known  positions  of  the  screw  when 
the  corresponding  portions  of  the  grating  were 
cut,  we  ascertain  the  direction  in  which  to 
move  the  centre  of  the  feed  wheel  B  in  order 
to  correct  the  eccentricity  of  the  screw.  2. 
The  nut  in  which  the  screw  of  this  engine 
works  is  3  in.  long,  the  threaded  portion  of 
the  screw  being  3^  in.  long.  This  long  nut 
tends  to  preserve  the  accuracy  of  the  engine's 
work.  3.  The  original  method  devised  by  Mr. 
Rutherfurd  to  obtain  rectilinear  V  guides  is 
a  new  and  important  feature  of  this  engine. 
A  collimating  telescope  Avith  a  vertical  slit,  or 
cross  threads,  at  the  focus  of  its  object  glass, 
is  placed  in  a  firm  position  in  a  line  with 
the  guide  to  be  tested.  On  the  slide  which 
moves  on  the  V  guide  is  fastened  a  telescope 
with  cross  threads  at  the  focus.  The  slit  of 
the  collimating  telescope  is  viewed  in  the 
other  telescope  as  the  slide  carrying  the  lat 
ter  is  moved  to  and  from  the  collimator.  If 
the  slit  is  constantly  bisected  during  tnis  mo 


tion,  the  guide  is  accurate ;  but  if  the  image 
of  the  slit  moves  when  referred  to  the  cross 
threads,  then  the  guide  has  to  be  corrected 
until  by  trial  the  image  of  the  slit  remains 
stationary  during  the  telescope's  motion.  4. 
The  pawl  H  during  its  retraction  does  not  fall 
over  the  teeth  of  the  feed  wheel,  and  by  jar 
ring  the  machine  cause  the  diamond  to  cut  an  ••' 
irregular  or  waving  line.  5.  The  method  of 
lifting  the  diamond  point  while  it  is  obtaining 
its  position  for  a  new  cut  is  the  simplest  we 
know  of.  6.  The  screw  of  this  engine,  on 
which  the  results  mainly  depend,  is  construct 
ed  as  follows :  A  screw  is  first  cut  in  a  lathe 
with  a  single  pointed  tool,  then  scored ;  it  is 
then  hardened,  and  thus  a  tap  is  obtained. 
This  tap  is  now  centred  by  its  threads,  and 
cylinders  are  ground  on  its  ends  so  that  they 
are  concentric  with  the  threads  of  the  screw. 
Blocks  of  metal  are  now  firmly  screwed  on 
to  the  bed  plate  of  a  planer,  and  Vs  are  cut 
in  these  blocks  to  support  the  cylindrical  ends 
of  the  screw  tap.  A  stock  holding  blank  dies 
is  placed  in  the  tool  holder  of  the  planer,  and 
these  dies  are  screwed  against  the  screw  tap. 
The  stock  is  then  firmly  screwed  to  the  tool 
holder.  The  threads  of  the  dies  are  now  cut 
by  rotating  the  screw  tap  two  or  three  times 
through  the  dies  ;  then,  relieving  the  die  stock 
in  the  tool  holder,  the  dies  are  again  tight 
ened  on  the  screw  tap ;  the  stock  is  now 
screwed  tightly  on  the  tool  holder,  and  the 
screw  tap  is  again  traversed  through  the  dies. 
This  operation  is  repeated  until  the  dies  are 
finished,  when  they  are  hardened.  A  screw 
which  is  to  serve  for  the  ruling  engine  is  now 
cut  on  the  lathe  with  the  same  single-pointed 
tool  which  cut  the  thread  of  the  master  tap. 
This  screw  is  nearly  finished  on  the  lathe.  It 
is  then  placed  in  the  same  Ys  which  previous 
ly  held  the  master  tap,  and  the  dies,  just  de 
scribed,  are  placed  in  the  tool  holder  of  the 
planer,  and  with  them  the  thread  of  the  screw 
is  finished.  The  screw  is  now  rotated  on  its 
threads  in  a  long  cast-iron  V,  and  shoulders 
are  turned  down  on  the  ends  of  the  shaft  of 
the  screw.  The  nut  for  this  screw  is  cut  with 
a  single-pointed  tool.  The  screw  is  now  run 
into  its  nut,  and  they  are  ground  together  with 
finely  powdered  pumice  stone.  The  screw  of 
this  engine  has  only  one  collar,  on  which  it 
turns  near  the  feed  wheel  B.  The  other  sup 
port  of  the  screw  is  the  long  nut.  Without 
this  arrangement  Mr.  Rutherfurd  found  it  im 
possible  to  cut  regular  gratings. — Actions  of 
the  Spectral  Rays.  A  large  mass  of  evidence 
shows  that  all  of  the  known  emanations  from 
the  sun  consist  of  rapid  vibrations  caused  by 
that  luminary  in  a  highly  elastic  medium,  known 
as  ether.  We  must  suppose  that  this  ether 
fills  all  known  space,  for  we  can  only  be  cog 
nizant  of  celestial  bodies  from  their  vibratory 
actions  on  the  ether  through  which  they  con 
stantly  move.  The  nature  of  the  manifesta 
tions  of  these  ethereal  vibrations  will  depend 
on  the  nature  of  the  bodies  on  which  they 


SPECTRUM 


245 


fall.  Thus,  what  in  its  essential  nature  is  a 
mere  vibratory  motion,  we  may  interpret  as 
light  if  these  vibrations  fall  on  the  retina,  or 
as  heat  if  they  fall  on  our  skin,  or  as  chemical 
action  if  they  fall  upon  a  photographer's  plate. 
This  preliminary  conception  established,  we 


FIG.  7. 

can  readily  interpret  the  various  actions  of 
the  spectrum  on  different  bodies,  if  we  also 
take  into  consideration  the  manner  in  which 
the  spectrum  is  formed,  that  is,  whether  by 
the  diffractive  action  of  a  grating,  or  by  the 
dispersive  action  of  a  prism.     We  should  also 
take  into   account    the  nature   of   the    body 
forming  the  grating  or  the  prism.     The  upper 
portion  of  fig.  7  shows  a  prismatic  spectrum 
crossed  by  the  principal  Fraunhof er  lines,  from 
A  to  the  line  O.     A  photometric  examination 
of  this  spectrum  shows  that  the  distribution 
of  light  in  it  is  represented  by  the  curve  B,  j 
whose  heights  above  points  on  the  base  line  j 
are  in  the  ratio  of  the  intensities  of  the  light 
at  corresponding  points  in  the  spectrum.     The 
maximum  of  light  is  found  to   exist  in  the 
yellow  at  a  point  distant  from  the  upper  D 
line  one  third  of  the  distance  of  this  line  from 
the  line  E.     A  thermometric  examination  of 
this  spectrum  will  give  a  distribution  of  heat 
throughout  its  length  represented  by  the  curve  i 
A,  and  the  maximum  of  heat  is  shown  at  a  i 
point  beyond  the  extreme  red,  at  a  distance  j 
equal  to  that  of  the  line  A  from  the  line  C. 
The  curve  C  gives  the  distribution  of  chemi 
cal   action   in  this   spectrum,  as  found  when 
it  falls  upon  a  surface  of  bromide  of  silver. 
The  maximum  of  action  is  about  midway  be-  j 
tween  G  and  H.     It  is  important  to  remark  i 
that  the  curves  here   given  only  apply  to  a  j 
spectrum  which  has  been  formed  by  this  par-  ! 
ticular  kind  of   glass  and  has  been  received 
on  the  surfaces  indicated.     Thus  a  prism  of  j 
different  glass  would  change  the  place  of  the 
maximum  heat,  and  the  substitution  of  anoth 
er  chemical  surface   on  which   the  spectrum  j 
falls  will  cause  a  shifting'  of   the   place  of  j 
maximum  chemical  action  and  a  contraction  i 
or  expansion  of  the  area  chemically  affected,  j 
— Heat  Actions  of  the  Spectrum.     Sir  William 
Herschel  in  1800  first  discovered  that  the  heat  • 
in  the  spectrum  increased  from  the  violet  to  j 
the  red,  and  reached  its  maximum  intensity  i 


at  a  distance  beyond  the  red  "  in  the  invisible 
rays  of  the  spectrum."     He  projected  the  re 
sults  of  his  experiments  in  a  curve  which  bears 
a  close  resemblance  to  the  one  given  in  fig.  7. 
He  experimented   on  these  "  invisible  rays," 
which  he  was  the  first  to  discover,  and  showed 
that  they  were  reflect 
ed  and  refracted  ac 
cording  to  the  same 
laws  that  rule  in  the 
reflection  and  refrac 
tion     of    light.      He 
says  that  "if  we  may 
infer  the  quantity  of 
the  efficient  from  the 
effect   produced,    the 
invisible  rays  of  the 
sun  probably  far  ex 
ceed  the  visible  ones 
in  number."    He  then 
condensed  these  rays 
by  means  of  concave 

reflectors  and  lenses,  and  made  a  "trial  to 
render  the  invisible  rays  of  the  sun  visible 
by  condensation."  He  showed  "that  by  con 
densation  their  heating  power  is  proportion 
ally  increased ;  for,  under  the  circumstances  of 
the  experiment,  we  find  that  it  extended  so  far 
as  to  be  able  to  raise  the  thermometer  in  two 
minutes  no  less  than  24°."  In  the  same  series 
of  researches  ("Philosophical  Transactions," 
1800)  he  says:  "If  we  call  light  those  rays 
which  illuminate  objects,  and  radiant  heat  those 
which  heat  bodies,  it  may  be  inquired  whether 
light  be  essentially  different  from  radiant  heat. 
In  answer  to  which  I  would  suggest,  that  we 
are  not  allowed  by  the  rules  of  philosophizing 
to  admit  of  two  different  causes  to  explain  cer 
tain  effects,  if  they  may  be  accounted  for  by 
one.  ...  It  remains  for  us  only  to  admit 
that  such  of  the  rays  of  the  sun  as  have  the 
refrangibility  of  those  which  are  contained  in 
the  prismatic  spectrum,  by  the  construction 
of  the  organs  of  sight,  are  admitted,  under 
the  appearance  of  light  and  colors ;  and  the 
rest,  being  stopped  in  the  coats  and  humors 
of  the  eye,  act  on  them,  as  they  are  known 
to  do  on  all  the  other  parts  of  our  body,  by 
occasioning  a  sensation  of  heat."  In  1865 
Tyndall  repeated  the  researches  which  had  pre 
viously  been  clearly  marked  out  by  Herschel. 
In  his  first  series  of  experiments  he  employed 
the  electric  lamp  as  the  source  of  light  and 
heat,  and  used  a  linear  thermo-battery  (see 
HEAT)  as  a  thermometer.  He  used  prisms  of 
rock  salt  instead  of  glass,  and  in  certain  of  his 
experiments  he  passed  the  beam  from  the  elec 
tric  lamp  through  a  tank  containing  a  solution 
of  iodine  in  carbon  disulphide.  This  solution 
has  the  property  of  absorbing  all  of  the  radia 
tions  producing  light,  and  allowing  the  invisible 
rays  of  heat  alone  to  traverse  it.  Herschel  had 
already  found  that  the  "invisible  rays  of  the  sun 
far  exceed  the  visible  in  number."  Tyndall  by 
similar  experiments  found  that  "the  thermal 
energy  of  the  invisible  radiation  of  a  very  pow- 


246 


SPECTRUM 


BC 


erful  electric  light  is  eight  times  that  of  the  vis 
ible."  Tyndall,  with  the  more  efficient  means 
at  his  command,  repeated  Herschel's  experi 
ments  on  the  condensation  of  the  invisible  rays, 
and  caused  them  to  ignite  to  whiteness  solids 
like  platinum.  This  property  of  these  con 
densed  rays  he  called  "  calorescence."  Seebeck 
(Memoires  de  Vacademie,  Berlin,  1819)  first 
showed  that  the  position  of  maximum  heat  in 
the  spectrum  changes  with  the  nature  of  the 
prism,  and  sometimes  occurs  in  the  red.  Mel- 
loni  (Journal  de  Vimtitut,  vol.  i.,  p.  212)  proved 
that  the  effects  observed  by  Seebeck  were 
owing  to  the  absorptive  action  of  the  materials 
of  the  prisms,  and  with  prisms  filled  with  water 
and  alcohol  he  observed  the  maximum  temper 
ature  in  the  yellow.  In  a  spectrum  which  Mel- 
loni  obtained  by  passing  the  sun's  rays  through 
a  prism  of  rock  salt  (the  most  diathermanous 
of  all  substances),  he  found  the  maximum  of 
heat  beyond  the  red  rays  at  a  distance  from 
the  line  B  nearly  equal  to  the  distance  of  this 
same  line  B  from  the  line  F.  Melloni  used  the 
thermo-battery  of  Nobili  for  a  thermometer. 
Sir  John  Herschel  ("Philosophical  Magazine," 
April,  1840)  examined  the  distribution  of  heat 
in  a  spectrum  by  using  paper  covered  on  one 
side  with  lampblack  and 
then  moistened  with  ether 
or  alcohol.  On  allowing 
the  spectrum  to  fall  on 
the  uncoated  side  of  the 
paper,  he  observed  the 
rate  of  evaporation  of 
the  ether,  and  thus  saw 
the  superior  heating  ef 
fect  of  the  rays  beyond 
the  red;  and  by  this  meth 
od  he  also  detected  the 
existence  in  the  invisible  spectrum  of  ather- 
inic  bands,  which  corresponded  to  the  Fraun- 
hofer  lines  seen  in  the  visible  spectrum.  In 
1843  Dr.  J.  W.  Draper  of  New  York  obtained 
photographs  of  these  bands  by  projecting  a 
spectrum  on  a  daguerreotype  plate,  while  the 
latter  was  at  the  same  time  exposed  to  a  dif 
fused  light  of  feeble  intensity.  In  1847  Fizeau 
and  Foucault,  by  means  of  minute  mercurial 
thermometers,  detected  in  the  spectrum  of  a 
flint  glass  prism  a  large  athermic  band  be 
yond  the  red,  at  a  distance  from  the  line  A 
equal  to  the  distance  of  this  line  from  D.  In 
1871  Lamansky,  with  a  linear  thermo  battery 
("  Philosophical  Magazine  "),  confirmed  the  ob 
servations  of  Herschel.  The  most  recent  re 
search  on  the  distribution  of  heat  in  the  spec 
trum  is  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Draper  ("American  Jour 
nal  of  Science,"  1872).  lie  maintains  that  the 
observed  increase  of  heat  in  the  spectrum,  as 
we  proceed  to  its  red  end  and  advance  beyond 
this  point,  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  any  prism 
by  its  unequal  refractive  action  on  the  spectral 
rays  must  give  a  spectrum  which  is  abnormally 
condensed  at  its  red  end  and  dilated  at  its  vio 
let.  He  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
middle  of  the  normal  or  diffraction  spectrum 


is  at  the  point  where  falls  the  ray  whose 
wave  length  is  -0005768  of  a  millimetre.  This 
is  a  point  a  little  above  the  line  D.  The  distri 
bution  of  the  rays  in  the  prismatic  spectrum 
of  a  flint  glass  prism  compared  with  the  normal 
spectrum  is  shown  in  fig.  8,  where  the  two 
spectra  have  the  same  length,  and  their  optical 
centres,  as  given  by  wave  length,  are  in  the 
same  line.  From  a  long  series  of  experiments 
on  the  spectra  obtained  by  prisms  of  flint  glass, 
rock  salt,  carbon  disulphide,  and  quartz,  Dr. 
Draper  infers  that  the  amount  of  heat  con 
tained  in  the  visible  normal  spectrum  from  its 
optical  centre  to  the  line  Ha  is  equal  to  the  heat 
contained  in  the  same  spectrum  from  its  opti 
cal  centre  to  the  line  A.  "  Assuming  this  as 
true,"  he  says,  "  it  necessarily  follows  that  in 
the  spectrum  any  two  series  of  undulations 
will  have  the  same  heating  power,  no  matter 
what  their  wave  lengths  may  be."  It  appears 
that  this  conclusion  is  too  extended  a  deduction 
from  such  a  restricted  result  as  Draper  reached ; 
for  if  the  variations  of  heat  in  the  spectrum 
were  symmetrically  divided  by  a  line  drawn 
through  its  optical  centre,  the  same  result 
would  be  attained  by  Draper's  method  of  ex 
perimenting.  In  other  words,  if  the  maxi- 


fc                     BC                      D                    EFGH 
FIG.  8. 

mum  or  minimum  of  heat  existed  at  the  optical 
centre,  and  the  heat  declined  uniformly  above 
and  below  this  point,  or  if  a  series  of  maxima 
and  minima  were  symmetrically  distributed 
above  and  below  the  optical  centre,  then  each 
half  of  the  spectrum,  divided  at  its  optical 
centre,  would  give  the  same  heating  power. 
Recently  E.  Lundquist  (Poggendorff's  Anna- 
len,  vol.  civ.)  has  shown  how  Cauchy's  for 
mula,  which  serves  to  connect  the  index  of 
refraction  of  a  ray  with  its  wave  length,  may 
lead  to  an  expression  which  serves  to  reduce 
the  distribution  of  heat  observed  in  a  pris 
matic  spectrum  to  what  it  would  be  in  a  nor 
mal  spectrum.  He  finds  that  the  observations 
of  Lamansky,  made  with  flint  glass  and  rock 
salt  prisms,  when  thus  reduced  place  the  maxi 
mum  of  heat  about  the  middle  of  the  normal 
spectrum,  and  the  heat  diminishes  uniformly 
on  both  sides  of  this  point.  In  the  spectrum 
of  the  electric  light,  however,  the  maximum 
of  heat  is  near  the  line  A ;  hence  in  this  case 
the  optical  centre  of  the  spectrum  does  not 
divide  it  into  two  portions  having  equal  heat- 
giving  powers. —  Chemical  Actions  of  the  Spec 
trum.  Conclusions  as  to  the  distribution  of 
chemical  action  in  the  spectrum  have  generally 


SPECTRUM 


247 


been  reached  solely  from  the  observed  act/ions 
on  compounds  of  silver ;  and  what  is  often  styled 
"  the  curve  of  chemical  force  "  in  the  spectrum 
we  have  given  in  fig.  V.  This  curve  is  gener 
ally  referred  to  as  giving  the  distribution  of 
chemical  action  in  all  cases.  This  is  erroneous ; 
as  long  ago  as  1842  Dr.  J.  W.  Draper  showed : 
1,  that  so  far  from  chemical  influences  being 
restricted  to  the  more  refrangible  rays,  every 
part  of  the  spectrum,  visible  and  invisible,  can 
give  rise  to  chemical  changes,  or  modify  the 
molecular  arrangement  of  bodies ;  2,  that  the 
ray  effective  in  producing  chemical  or  molec 
ular  changes  in  any  special  substance  is  deter 
mined  by  the  absorptive  property  of  that  sub 
stance.  He  found  that  if  a  spectrum  be  re 
ceived  on  iodide  of  silver  formed  on  the  sil 
ver  plate  of  the  daguerreotype,  and  the  im 
pression  of  the  light  be  then  developed,  after  it 
has  acted  for  a  moderate  time  we  shall  observe 
a  stain  which  corresponds  in  character  and  po 
sition  to  the  blackening  effect  that  under  like 
circumstances  would  be  found  on  any  common 
sensitive  silver  paper.  If,  however,  the  action 
of  the  light  be  long  continued,  a  white  stain 
makes  its  appearance  over  all  the  less  refran 
gible  regions  of  the  spectrum.  But  if  the 
daguerreotype  plate  during  its  exposure  to 
the  spectrum  be  also  receiving  diffused  light  of 
little  intensity,  it  will  be  found  on  developing 
that  the  impression  obtained  differs  strikingly 
from  the  preceding.  Every  ray  that  the  prism 
can  transmit,  from  below  the  extreme  red  to 
beyond  the  extreme  violet,  has  been  active. 
The  ultra  red  athermic  lines  are  present.  The 
impression  of  these  lines  is  a  proof  of  proper 
spectrum  action,  and  distinguishes  it  from  that 
of  diffused  light,  arising  either  from  the  atmos 
phere  or  from  the  imperfect  transparency  of 
the  prism.  In  a  series  of  photographic  prints 
accompanying  a  paper  by  Dr.  Schultz  Sel- 
lak  "  On  the  Sensitiveness  to  Light  of  Haloid 
Salts  of  Silver,  and  on  the  Connection  between 
Optical  and  Chemical.  Absorption,"  may  be 
observed  the  varying  extent  of  the  chemical 
action  of  the  spectrum  and  the  shifting  of  the 
place  of  maximum  action  depending  on  the  na 
ture  of  the  chemical  preparation  on  which  the 
spectrum  is  formed.  Thus,  chloride  of  silver 
collodion  is  acted  on  by  the  portion  of  the  spec 
trum  from  about  half  way  between  the  lines  G 
and  II  up  to  the  line  N,  fig.  7.  Iodide  of  silver 
collodion  is  affected  from  below  G-  nearly  to 
the  line  M ;  bromide  of  silver  collodion  from  F 
to  M.  A  mixture  of  silver  salts  formed  Of  the 
iodide  and  bromide  of  collodion  is  sensitive  to 
the  action  of  the  spectrum  in  the  space  from  the 
line  E  to  the  line  M.  Mixed  iodide  and  chlo 
ride  of  silver  collodion  are  acted  on  through 
out  nearly  the  same  area.  The  remarkable  in 
crease  of  sensitive  area  when  the  spectrum  falls 
on  the  above  named  mixtures  has  long  been 
turned  to  good  account  in  practical  photogra 
phy.  (See  PHOTOGRAPHY.)  The  most  remark 
able  confirmation  of  Draper's  first  proposition, 
as  given  above,  is  in  the  case  of  the  spectral 


action  on  a  surface  of  West  India  bitumen. 
A  glass  plate  is  coated  with  this  substance  as 
follows :  The  bitumen  is  dissolved  in  benzine, 
and  the  solution  poured  on  a  glass  plate  in  a 
dark  room  and  drained  off,  leaving  a  film  of 
bitumen  sufficiently  thin  to  be  iridescent.  This 
is  exposed  to  the  spectrum  .for  five  minutes, 
and  then  developed  by  pouring  over  it  a  mix 
ture  of  benzine  and  alcohol,  which  will  now 
only  dissolve  those  portions  of  the  film  that 
have  not  been  acted  on  by  the  light.  The  be 
ginning  of  the  impression  is  below  the  line  A, 
its  termination  beyond  II.  Every  ray  in  the 
spectrum  acts.  The  proof  is  continuous  except 
where  the  Fraunhofer  lines  fall.  Dr.  Draper 
found  that  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  by  plants  is  accomplished  by  rays  between 
the  lines  B  and  F,  which  is  another  instance  of 
the  chemical  action  of  the  less  refrangible  rays. 
In  1842  Sir  John  Herschel  discovered  that  the 
yellow  stain  imparted  by  the  corchorits  Japo- 
niea  to  paper  is  whitened  by  the  green,  blue, 
indigo,  and  violet  rays.  The  rose  red  of  the 
ten  weeks  stock  is  in  like  manner  changed  by 
the  yellow,  orange,  and  red.  The  rich  blue 
tint  of  the  viola  odorata,  turned  green  by  sodi 
um  carbonate,  is  bleached  by  the  same  group 
of  rays,  that  is,  by  those  less  refrangible  than 
the  yellow.  The  green  chlorophyl  of  the  elder 
leaf  is  changed  by  the  extreme  red.  To  a  for 
mer  experimenter,  Grotthus,  we  owe  the  dis 
covery  of  the  law  under  which  these  decompo 
sitions  of  the  colors  of  flowers  take  place.  This 
law  in  repeated  instances  was  verified  by  Her 
schel,  and  more  recently  by  Draper.  It  may 
be  thus  expressed :  The  rays  which  are  effec 
tive  in  the  destruction  of  any  given  vegetable 
color  are  those  which  by  their  union  produce 
a  tint  complementary  to  the  color  destroyed. 
Even  the  partial  establishment  of  this  law, 
already  accomplished,  is  sufficient  to  prove  that 
chemical  effects  are  not  limited  to  the  more, 
refrangible  portions  of  the  spectrum,  but  can 
be  occasioned  by  any  ray.  The  second  prop 
osition  of  Draper,  that  the  rays  which  act 
chemically  on  a  substance  are  those  which 
are  optically  absorbed  by  it,  has  received  am 
ple  independent  confirmation  by  the  recent  ex 
periments  of  Sellak  in  his  paper  cited  above. 
Sellak  found  that  optical  and  chemical  ab 
sorption  of  light  exactly  coincide.  All  colors 
which  are  sensibly  absorbed  (optically)  by  the 
haloid  salts  of  silver,  of  a  thickness  of  a  few 
millimetres,  produce  chemical  decomposition. 
The  optical  absorption  of  transparent  plates 
of  these  substances  is  shown  by  spectral  ob 
servation  to  be  confined  exactly  within  the 
limits  of  chemical  action.  This  is  especially 
i  the  case  with  mixtures  of  iodide  and  bromide 
of  silver.  Chloride  of  silver  is  colorless, 
iodide  of  silver  is  transparent  light  yellow, 
bromide  of  silver  is  somewhat  deeper  yellow, 
and  the  mixture  of  the  last  two  orange  yel 
low. — E.  Becquerel  in  1842  (Bibliotheque  Uni- 
verselle  de  Geneve)  was  the  first  to  photo 
graph  the  Fraunhofer  lines,  and  in  doing  so 


2-18 


SPECTRUM 


he  discovered  that  similar  lines  existed  in  the 
invisible  portion  of  the  spectrum,  formed  of 
rays  more  refrangible  than  the  violet.  In 
1843  Dr.  Draper  obtained  independently  the 
same  results.  Mtiller,  in  the  sixth  edition  of 
his  Lehrbuch  der  Physik,  gives  a  photographic 
print  of  the  spectral  lines  extending  from 
a  short  distance  below  G  to  above  R.  He 
made  this  photograph  with  a  prism  and  lens 
of  quartz.  Subsequently  Mr.  Rutherfurd  ob 
tained,  with  two  prisms  of  carbon  disulphide, 
a  superb  photograph  embracing  lines  extend 
ing  from  near  5  to  a  considerable  distance 
above  the  upper  of  the  H  lines.  This  photo 
graph  has  excited  universal  admiration.  It  is 
crowded  with  lines  which  are  not  drawn  on 
the  maps  of  Kirchhoff  or  of  Angstrom.  Mas- 
t'art  of  Paris  obtained  the  Bordin  prize  of 
the  academy  of  sciences  for  his  determina 
tions  of  the  wave  lengths  of  the  visible  and 
ultra  violet  rays  of  the  spectrum.  He  used  a 
grating  of  Nobert  to  obtain  his  spectra,  and 
measured  the  wave  lengths  of  the  more  re 
frangible  invisible  rays  by  obtaining  photo 
graphs  on  small  glass  plates  placed  in  the  oc 
ular  E  of  the  spectrometer  shown  in  fig.  4. 
By  this  means  Mascart  measured  the  wave 
lengths  of  these  invisible  rays  with  a  precision 
little  inferior  to  that  obtained  in  his  measures 
on  the  visible  rays.  lie  also  measured  the 
wave  lengths  of  the  light  lines  given  in  the 
spectra  of  volatilized  metals,  and  found  that 
cadmium  gave  the  most  extended  spectrum  of 
invisible  rays.  Mascart  observed  rays  whose 
wave  length  was  only  '00022  of  a  millimetre. 
The  period  of  vibration  of  these  shortest  waves, 
compared  with  the  period  of  the  longest  visi 
ble  rays  of  '00076  of  a  millimetre,  gives  about 
two  octaves  of  the  musical  scale;  that  is,  the 
numbers  of  their  vibrations  in  the  same  time 
v/ill  be  as  1  :  4.  But  the  ratio  of  the  wave 
length  -0010  of  a  millimetre  of  the  least  re 
frangible  invisible  ray  of  the  spectrum  to  the 
shortest  invisible  ultra  violet  wave  of  the  spec 
trum  will  be  as  1  :  8,  or  as  any  note  is  to  its 
upper  third  octave.  The  papers  of^  Mascart 
can  be  found  in  the  Annales  de  VEcole  nor- 
male.  In  1873  Dr.  Henry  Draper  of  New 
York  published  in  the  "  American  Journal 
of  Science  "  a  carbon  print  of  a  remarkably 
perfect  photograph  of  a  spectrum  produced 
by  one  of  Rutherfurd's  diffraction  gratings 
of  6,481  lines  to  the  inch.  The  negative  was 
photographed  on  collodion,  and  the  published 
carbon  print  has  attached  to  it  a  scale  giv 
ing  the  wave  lengths  of  the  rays.  This  print 
was  obtained  by  transferring  the  original  neg 
ative  to  a  thick  plate  of  glass  by  a  process 
known  as  the  albertype,  and  using  the  glass  in 
a  printing  press  in  the  same  manner  as  a  litho 
graphic  stone.  This  print  therefore  repre 
sents  the  work  of  the  sun  itself,  and  is  not 
a  drawing  either  made  or  corrected  by  hand. 
The  print  consists  of  two  portions.  The  up 
per  gives  all  the  lines  of  the  spectrum  from 
near  G  to  O,  or  from  wave  length  '0004350  j 


FIXED  LINES. 

Mascart. 

Draper. 

H,.. 

•0003967mm. 

H2.  .. 

•0003930mm. 

L  

•0003819 

•0003821 

M  

N 

•0003729 
•  0003580 

•0003728 
•  00035^0 

0  
P. 

•0008440 
•0003360 

•0003440 

Q  

•00032S6 

It                           

•0003177 

mm.  to  -0003440  mm.  Above  this  is  placed 
a  scale,  which  is  a  copy  of  Angstrom's  from  just 
below  G  to  H2,  with  the  same  sized  divisions 
carried  out  from  H2  to  O.  The  lower  part  is  a 
magnified  portion  of  the  same  negative,  having 
Hi  and  H2  about  its  middle,  and  extending  from 
wave  length  -0004205  to  '0003736  mm.  Be 
tween  wavelengths  '0003925  and  -0004205  mm., 
Angstrom's  map  has  118  lines,  while  Draper's 
has  203.  We  here  give  a  table  of  the  wave 
lengths  of  ultra  violet  rays  according  to  the 
measurements  of  Mascart  and  of  H.  Draper  : 


— Fluorescent  Action  on  the  Spectral  Rays. 
Fluorescence  is  a  property  possessed  by  certain 
substances  of  absorbing  light  composed  of  rays 
of  a  certain  wave  length,  and  then  emitting 
this  light  changed  into  rays  of  a  longer  wave 
length  ;  or,  what  is  the  same,  changed  inte 
light  of  a  lower  refrangibility.  This  phenome 
non  was  first  observed  by  Robert  Boyle;  an 
account  of  his  experiments  may  be  found  in 
vol.  i.  of  his  works  (London,  1772).  The 


FIG.  9. 


method  of  examining  the  spectra  of  fluorescent 
bodies  is  as  follows :  A  porte-lumiere,  A,  fig. 
9,  reflects  the  sun's  rays  on  to  a  lens  at  B, 
which  concentrates  the  light  on  the  fluorescent 
substances  contained  in  bottles  at  C.  By  the 
revolution  of  the  stand  on  which  these  bottles 
are  placed,  they  can  be  brought  successively 
before  the  slit  in  the  collimating  telescope  of 
the  spectroscope  D.  Before  the  solar  rays  fall 
on  the  fluorescent  substance  they  pass  through 
a  tank,  placed  between  B  and  the  spectroscope, 


SPECTRUM 


1  *  V     OK 
\ 


and  containing  a  solution  of  cupric  sulphate  in 
ammonia.  The  general  phenomena  of  fluores 
cence  are  described  under  FLUOEESCENCE  ;  we 
here  add  several  discoveries  made  since  the 
writing  of  that  article  by  Prof.  Morton  of  Ho- 
boken.  In  a  portion  of  his  researches  Prof. 
Morton  had  the  cooperation 
of  Dr.  H.  C.  Bolton  of  New 
York,  who  undertook  the 
chemical  work  in  the  investi 
gations.  Their  attention  was 
particularly  directed  to  the 
fluorescent  properties  of  the 
uranium  salts.  The  total  num 
ber  of  distinct  salts  produced 
and  examined  so  far  by  these 
investigators  is  75,  not  in 
cluding  numerous  specimens 
treated  in  various  ways  to  es 
tablish  the  existence  and  con 
ditions  of  their  several  hy 
drates.  This  multiplication 
of  facts  has  given  great  value 
to  this  research  as  compared 
with  previous  work  in  the 
same  direction.  Thus,  where 
Becquerel  has  examined  one 
double  acetate,  these  investi 
gators  have  examined  16;  in 
place  of  his  three  double  sulphates,  they  have 
16;  in  place  of  one  fluoride,  six;  and  so  on. 
The  methods  pursued  in  the  examination  of 
these  uranium  salts  were  the  same  as  those  of 
Stokes  and  Becquerel.  The  discoveries  made 
by  Morton  were  mainly  due  to  the  wider  range 
of  substances  examined,  which  made  it  possi 
ble  to  form  inductions  and  generalizations,  and 
to  the  scrupulous  attention  paid  to  the  purity 
of  these  substances.  We  note  only  the  most 
important  results,  and  refer  the  reader  to  the 
following  original  papers  for  additional  infor 
mation  :  "American  Chemist,"  vols.  iii.  and 
iv. ;  "Chemical  News,"  vol.  xxviii.  1.  By  a 
comparison  of  the  spectra 
of  17  acetates  and  double 
acetates  of  uranium  in  the 
solid  state  and  in  aqueous 
solutions,  the  remarkable 
fact  was  demonstrated  that 
in  'the  case  of  these  bodies 
no  double  salt  could  exist 
in  solution  in  water.  By 
further  experiments  of  the 
same  kind  this  law  was  ex 
tended  to  all  the  known 
salts  of  uranium.  2.  It  was 
proved  that  by  the  study  of 
the  fluorescent  spectra  the 
existence  of  a  new  and  be 
fore  unknown  salt  could  be 
recognized.  Thus,  on  heating  the  ammonio- 
uranic  sulphate  to  100°  C.  for  a  short  time, 
it  was  noticed  that  its  fluoresoent  spectrum 
assumed  a.  duplicate  character  (see  spectrum 
2  of  fig.  10),  a  new  set  of  bands  being  add 
ed  to  those  of  the  normal  salt  (see  spectrum 


1  of  fig.  10).  By  continuing  the  heating  until 
the  salt  ceased  to  lose  weight,  a  substance  was 
obtained  giving  spectrum  No.  3  of  fig.  10. 
These  results  naturally  suggested  that  the  two 
spectra  1  and  3  belonged  to  the  hydrated  and 
anhydrous  salts,  and  that  spectrum  2  indicated 


FIG.  10. 

a  mixture  of  the  two.  On  heating  the  dried 
salt  to  low  redness  for  a  short  time,  another 
double  spectrum,  No.  4,  was  developed,  which 
by  a  continuance  of  the  same  treatment  was 
reduced  to  a  new  simple  one,  No.  5.  Analysis 
of  the  product  so  obtained  showed  that  it  was 
an  ammonio-diuranic  sulphate,  a  salt  before 
unknown  and  not  likely  to  have  been  discov 
ered  by  any  other  means,  as  contact  with  water 
at  once  reduces  it  to  a  mixture  of  the  normal 
salt  and  uranic  sulphate.  3.  It  was  discovered 
that  certain  uranic  salts  were  capable  of  com 
bining  with  definite  proportions  of  water  to 
form  certain  hydrates  not  heretofore  recog- 


FlG.   11. 

nized,  and  that  each  of  these  hydrates  yielded 
a  perfectly  distinct  and  characteristic  spectrum. 
Thus,  the  double  sulphate  of  sodium  and  ura 
nium  seems  to  form  no  less  than  five  hydrates 
with  from  one  to  five  atoms  of  water  respec 
tively.  These  salts  have  not  all  been  isolated,, 


250 


SPECTRUM 


SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS 


but  fig.  11  shows  the  spectra  of  some  of  them. 
Thus  No.  1  of  the  figure  is  the  spectrum  of 
the  pentahydrate  ;  No.  2,  that  of  a  mixture  of 
three  hydrates ;  No.  3,  that  of  the  monohy- 
drate ;  and  No.  4,  that  of  the  anhydrous  salt. 
4.  In  the  case  of  the  double  acetates  it  appears 
that  the  position  of  their  bands  both  of  fluo 
rescence  and  of  absorption  has  a  close  relation 
to  the  atomic  weights  of  the  salts.  Thus,  a 
list  of  these  salts  in  the  order  in  which  their 
bands  occur,  beginning  with  those  which  are 
highest  in  the  spectrum,  will  be  essentially  a 
list  of  the  salts  in  the  order  of  their  atomic 
weights.  5.  It  was  found  that  heat  had  in 
variably  the  effect  of  sending  toward  the  red 
end  of  the  spectrum  all  spectral  bands  of  solids 
and  of  solutions  in  all  cases  where  any  effect 
could  be  observed.  In  a  later  memoir  Prof. 
Morton,  having  investigated  the  fluorescent 
relations  of  the  basic  salts  of  uranic  oxide,  has 
shown  many  now  ways  by  which  these  bodies 
may  be  produced,  and  has  found  that  they 
yield  by  fluorescence  a  light  which  gives  a  con 
tinuous  spectrum.  The  latter  property  affords 
a  ready  means  of  distinguishing  them,  when 
either  alone  or  in  mixture,  from  hydrates  and 
uranates,  which  they  otherwise  often  resemble. 
The  same  methods  of  investigation  have  been 
applied  by  Prof.  Morton  to  the  following  solid 
hydrocarbons  found  in  the  latter  products  of 
the  destructive  distillation  of  coal  tar:  anthra 
cene,  chrysogen,  pyrene,  and  chrysene.  lie 
has  also  discovered  a  new  hydrocarbon  of  very 
remarkable  fluorescent  properties  occurring  in 
the  products  of  the  destructive  distillation  of 
the  heavier  petroleum  oils ;  to  this  he  has 
given  the  name  of  thallene,  from  the  vivid 
green  color  of  its  fluorescent  light.  When  a 
continuous  spectrum  is  thrown  on  a  screen  of 
white  paper,' half  of  which  is  coated  with  thal- 
lene,  the  effect  indicated  in  fig.  12  is  seen.  The 
portion  R  V,  on  the  paper,  shows  the  usual 
solar  spectrum  from  red  to  violet,  but  the  part 
S  T,  on  the  thallene,  does  not  appear,  from  8  of 
the  scale  upward,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet,  but 
appears  green  of  varying  intensity.  The  energy 


the  side  of  a  tank  containing  a  solution  of  thal 
lene  in  benzole,  the  appearance  indicated  in 
fig.  13  is  seen.  The  trails  of  light  are  of  the 
following  colors :  olive  green,  bright  emerald 
green,  sky  blue,  and  indigo  running  into  violet. 
The  value  of  the  applications  of  spectrum  anal- 


FIG.  12. 

of  the  fluorescent  action  of  this  body  makes  it 
available  for  some  very  striking  illustrations. 
Thus  designs  painted  in  it  on  muslin  may  be 
invisible  in  yellow  light,  but  flash  out  with  a 
self-luminous  light  when  violet  light  falls  upon 
them.  When  a  pure  spectrum  is  thrown  on 


FIG.  13. 

ysis  to  fluorescent  phenomena,  as  developed 
by  Prof.  Morton,  consists  in  its  opening  a  new 
method  for  investigating  chemical  and  physical 
changes  in  bodies  while  these  changes  are  in 
progress,  and  under  conditions  which  would 
seem  to  exclude  all  other  means  of  examination. 
SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS,  the  name  given  to  a 
recent  method  of  chemical  analysis,  conceived 
and  proposed  in  general  form  by  Prof.  G. 
Ivirchhoff  of  Germany,  in  which  the  presence 
of  c'ertain  chemical  elements  is  determined  by 
corresponding  and  peculiar  sets  of  colored 
bands,  imparted  by 
those  elements  or 
compounds  contain 
ing  them  to  the  spec 
tra  obtained  from 
flames  in  which  such 
substances  are  sub 
limed  or  volatilized. 
In  reference  to  the 
solar  .spectrum  and 
the  transverse  dark 
bands  or  lines  of 
Fraunhofer  mark 
ing  it,  see  SPEC 
TRUM;  see  also  SUN.  In  1802  Wollaston  pre 
pared  the  way  for  the  discoveries  of  Fraun 
hofer,  Kirchhoff,  and  others,  by  the  invention 
of  a  new  method  of  observing  the  solar  spec 
trum.  He  admitted  the  solar  rays  into  a  dark 
room  through  a  narrow  slit,  and  placing  him- 


SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS 


251 


self  at  a  distance  of  12  ft.  or  more  he  viewed 
this  slit  through  a  prism  of  homogeneous  glass 
held  close  to  the  eye.  This  method  of  obser 
vation  shows  the  spectrum  crossed  transverse 
ly  to  its  length  by  dark  lines  and  bands ;  and 
hence  the  spectrum  from  a  prism  of  given  ma 
terial  and  angle  becomes  a  sort  of  scale  or 


map,  to  a  fixed  position  in  which  every  gra 
dation  of  hue  and  every  dark  band  can  be  ex 
actly  referred.  Among  the  observations  upon 
the  spectrum,  partially  anticipating  Kirchhoff's 
principle,  were  those  of  Fraunhofer  (1815),  of 
Talbot  (1826),  of  Brewster  (1832),  of  Wheat- 
stone  (1835),  and  of  Foucault  (1849).  In  1855 


10   20   30  40   50   60   70   80   90   ioo  no  120  130  140  150  160  170 


In 


blue  violet 

FIG.  1. — Table  of  Spectra  according  to  Kirckhcff  and  Bunsen. 


Prof.  A.  J.  Angstrom  of  Sweden,  applying 
Euler's  principle  of  the  reciprocation  and  ab 
sorption  by  bodies  of  the  same  sorts  of  undu 
lations  which  they  are  capable  of  emitting  when 
themselves  originally  excited,  was  led  to  the 
view  that  any  body  at  a  glowing  heat  emits  the 


same  rays  (refrangibilities)  of  light  and  heat  as, 
in  the  like  condition,  it  will  absorb  if  they  im 
pinge  upon  it.  The  first  decisive  and  general 
proof  in  reference  to  light  of  the  principle  as 
sumed  by  Euler  and  Angstrom  was  furnished 
by  KirchhofTs  experiments  in  1859,  with  flames 


252 


SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS 


charged  with  lithium  and  sodium.  A  volatil- 
izable  compound  of  any  such  element  being 
burned  in  or  otherwise  diffused  through  a 
flame,  the  incandescent  particles  of  each  com 
municate  to  the  general  light  of  the  flame  an 
excess  of  certain  rays,  these  appearing  in  the 
spectrum  as  brighter  bands  crossing  it  in  cer 
tain  parts  and  having  the  exact  colors  proper 
to  such  parts,  being  generally  different  in  situ 
ation  and  hue  for  the  different  elements  intro- 


scope,  the  instrument  with  which  spectrum  an 
alysis  is  effected,  see  SPECTRUM.)  In  the  prose 
cution  of  the  new  field  of  research  opened  by 
these  experiments,  Prof.  R.  Bunsen  soon  be 
came  associated.  When  several  elements  which 
show  systems  of  bright  bands  are  at  the  same 
time  in  the  flame,  it  is  at  least  generally  true 
that  their  several  spectra  coexist ;  and  the  in 
stances  in  which  certain  lines  proper  to  dif 
ferent  elements  coincide  are  as  yet  few.  The 


duced  into  the  flame,  and  always  or  generally  i  spectrum  of  sodium  consists  of  two  approxi- 
the  same  for  each  element.  Fig.  1  shows  the  !  mate  bands  in  the  yellow  of  the  spectrum 
spectra  of  various  chemical  elements,  the  sym-  j  near  the  orange,  and  seven  relatively  very 
bols  of  which  are  given  on  the  left  of  the  ,  faint  lines;  and  Bunsen  has  determined  that 


spectra.  The  upper  spectrum  is  that  of  the 
sim,  and  on  it  are  drawn  the  dark  lines  of 
Fraunhofer.  (See  SPECTRUM.)  These  lines 
are  extended  downward  and  through  the  lower 
spectra,  and  they  thus  serve  as  a  kind  of  scale 
to  which  to  refer  the  luminous  bands  of  these 
spoctra.  The  colored  spectral  bands  are  de 
signated  by  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 


by  it  the  presence  in  a  flame  of  less  than  the 


Part  of  a  grain  is  detected.  Of 
calcium,  barium,  strontium,  potassium,  and 
lithium,  the  least  quantities  detectible  vary 


from  TO.VsV  to  TTnr.Tfor.Tnnr  grain;  so  that  no 
other  chemical  test  approaches  this  in  delicacy. 
Among  results  of  the  new  analysis  are,  the 
finding  that  lithium  is  in  fact  an  element  widely 


.  3. — Coincidence  of  the  Fraunhofer  Lines  with  the  Lines  of  Iron  and  Calcium. 


and  are  named  in  order  of  their  importance  as  j  diffused  in  nature,  and  the  discovery  of  sev- 
characteristic  of  their  re 
spective  spectra.  When, 
however,  a  flame  is  thus 
colored,  or  charged  with 
excess  of  certain  rays, 
if  through  this  the  light 
of  another  and  more 
brilliant  flame  colored 
with  the  same  element 
is  passed  to  be  analyzed, 
it  is  seen  that  while 
the  general  illumination 
of  the  spectrum  is  in 
creased,  the  previous 
bright  lines  character 
izing  the  element  are 

now  replaced  by  dark  lines  or  lines  relative-  ]  oral  new  metals.  (See  CESIUM,  INDIUM,  RUBI- 
ly  very  faint ;  in  a  word,  the  spectrum  char-  i  DIUM,  and  ^THALLIUM.) — This  method  of  analy- 
actcristic  of  the  given  element  is  exactly  re-  i  sis  has  proved  of  great  service  in  metallurgical 
versed.  The  lower  dark  portion  of  fig.  2  operations.  The  application  of  the  method  to 
shows  the  two  bright  lines  of  the  spectrum  of  researches  in  solar  physics  will  be  briefly  no 
ticed  under  Sux.  Kirchhoff,  hav 
ing  satisfied  himself  that  the  bright 
lines  characteristic  of  several  of 
the  metals  correspond  exactly  in 
place  with  as  many  dark  lines  of 
the  solar  spectrum,  as  shown  in 
fig.  3,  infers  that  these  dark  lines 
are  produced  by  a  reversal  similar 
to  that  above  shown,  and  hence 
indicate  the  existence  of  corre 
sponding  chemical  elements,  both 
volatile  in  the  luminous  atmos 
phere  of  the  sun,  and  also  in 
candescent  in  its  nucleus.  The  fol 
lowing  table  by  Angstrom  shows 
the  number  of  lines  belonging  to 
the  elements  named  which  corre- 


Fi«.  2. — Reversal  of  the  Sodium  Line  (seen  with  the  Spectroscope). 


incandescent  sodium  vapor ;  the  upper  por 
tion  of  the  figure  shows  these  lines  reversed 
by  the  passage  of  the  light  from  an  incandes 
cent  solid  through  the  vapor  of  sodium.  (For 
an  engraving  and  description  of  the  spectro- 


spond  with  dark  lines  of  the  solar  spectrum  : 


Hydrogen.  4 
Sodium....  9 
Barium...  11 
Calcium...  T5 
Magnesium  4 +  (3?) 


Aluminum.. .  2 
Iron 450 

Manganese..  f>7 
Chromium  . .  13 
Cobalt..  .  19 


Nickel 33 

Zinc, 2 

Copper 7 

Titanium 200 


SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS 


253 


— Spectroscopic  analysis  applied  to  the  stars  has 
shown  that  they  resemble  the  sun  in  general 
constitution  and  condition.  But  characteristic 
differences  exist,  insomuch  that  the  stars  have 
been  divided  into  four  orders  distinguished  by 
their  spectra,  types 
of  which  are  given 
in  fig.  4.  These  are 
thus  presented  by 
Secchi,  who  exam 
ined  more  than  500 
star  spectra  :  The 
first  type  is  repre 
sented  by  a  LyraB, 
Sirius,  &c.,  and  in 
cludes  most  of  the 
stars  shining  with 
a  white  light,  as  Al 
tai  r,  Regulus,  Rigel, 
the  stars  /?,  y,  e,  C, 
and  ?i  of  Ursa  Ma 
jor,  &c.  These  give 
a  spectrum  show 
ing  all  the  seven 
colors,  and  crossed 
usually  by  many 
lines,  but  always  by 
the  four  lines  of  hy 
drogen,  very  dark 
and  strong.  The 
breadth  of  these 
four  lines  indicates 
a  very  deep,  ab 
sorptive  stratum  at 
a  high  temperature 
and  at  great  pres 
sure.  Nearly  half 
the  stars  observed 
by  Secchi  showed 
this  spectrum.  The 
second  type  in 
cludes  most  of  the 
yellow  stars,  as  Ca- 
pella,  Pollux,  Arc- 
turus,  Aldebaran,  a 
Ursaa  Majoris,  Pro- 
cyon,  &c.  The 
Fraunhofer  lines 
are  well  seen  in  the 
red  and  blue,  but 
not  so  well  in  the 
yellow.  The  resem 
blance  of  this  spec 
trum  to  the  sun 
suggests  that  stars 
of  this  type  resem 
ble  the  sun  closely 
in  physical  constitu 
tion  and  condition. 
About  one  third  of 
the  stars  observed 
by  Secchi  showed  this  spectrum.  The  third 
type  includes  An  tares,  a  Orionis  and  a  Hercu- 
lis,  ft  Pegasi,  Mira,  and  most  of  the  stars  shi 
ning  with  a  red  light.  The  spectra  show  bands 
of  lines ;  according  to  Secchi  there  are  shaded 


bands,  but  a  more  powerful  spectroscope  shows 
multitudes  of  fine  lines.  The  spectra  resem 
ble  somewhat  the  spectrum  of  a  sun  spot, 
and  Secchi  has  advanced  the  theory  that  these 
stars  are  covered  in  great  part  by  spots  like 


those  of  the  sun.  About  100  of  the  observed 
stars  belong  to  this  type.  The  fourth  type 
differs  from  the  preceding  in  the  arrangement 
and  appearance  of  the  bands.  It  includes 
only  faint  stars.  A  few  stars,  as  y  Cassiopeia?, 


254 


SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS 


SPECULUM 


r]  Argus,  /?  Lyrse,  &c.,  show  the  lines  of  hydro 
gen  bright  instead  of  dark,  as  though  surround 
ed  by  hydrogen  glowing  with  a  heat  more  in 
tense  than  that  of  the  central  orb  itself  around 
which  the  hydrogen  exists.  Secchi's  observa 
tions  were  comparatively  rough,  and  the  infer 
ence  that  particular  lines,  as  those  of  hydrogen 
for  example,  are  really  present  depended  in 
his  case  simply  on  the  general  correspondence 
of  a  set  of  lines  with  the  set  belonging  to  the 
element.  But  Huggins  and  Miller,  in  England, 
showed,  by  the  direct  comparison  of  stellar 
with  terrestrial  spectra,  that  certain  elements 
exist  in  particular  stars.  Thus  they  found  in 
the  spectrum  of  Aldebaran  lines  correspond 
ing  with  those  of  hydrogen,  sodium,  magne 
sium,  iron,  tellurium,  calcium,  bismuth,  anti 
mony,  and  mercury.  In  the  spectrum  of  Be- 
telgeuse  they  recognized  the  lines  of  sodium, 
magnesium,  iron,  bismuth,  and  calcium,  but 
found  those  of  hydrogen  wanting.  They  dis 
covered  that  (at  least  in  the  instances  exam 
ined  by  them)  the  colors  of  the  double  stars 
are  due  to  the  existence  of  stellar  atmospheres 
exercising  an  elective  absorption.  For  exam 
ple,  the  spectrum  of  the  orange  component  of 
the  well  known  double  star  Albirco  shows  dark 


bands  in  the  blue  and  violet ;  while  the  spec 
trum  of  the  blue  component  shows  many  strong 
lines  in  the  orange  and  red. — The  nebulse  show 


sunlight.  Tempel's  comet  (1866)  was  the  first 
analyzed  with  the  spectroscope,  by  Huggins 
in  England.  Winnecke's  (1868)  was  the  first 
to  which  careful  analysis  was  applied,  with 
the  curious  result  of  observing  that  the  bands 
agree  in  position  with  those  obtained  as  the 
spectrum  of  carbon,  by  passing  the  electric 
spark  through  olefiant  gas.  Huggins  obtained 
the  same  result  (which  was  confirmed  by  Pro 
fessors  Harkness  and  Young  in  America)  from 
the  study  of  Encke's  comet  in  1872.  The 
first  large  and  long-tailed  comet  studied  with 
the  spectroscope  was  Coggia's  comet  of  1874. 
Huggins  gives  the  following  account  of  the 
spectroscopic  analysis  of  this  comet :  "  When 
the  slit  of  the  spectroscope  was  placed  across 
the  nucleus  and  coma,  there  was  seen  in  the 
instrument  a  broad  spectrum,  consisting  of  the 
same  three  bright  bands  exhibited  by  comet 
II.,  1868,  crossed  by  a  linear  continuous  spec 
trum  from  the  light  of  the  nucleus.  On  the 
continuous  spectrum  of  the  nucleus  I  was  not 
able  to  distinguish  with  certainty  any  dark 
lines  of  absorption,  or  any  bright  lines,  other 
than  the  three  bright  bands.  Besides  these 
spectra,  there  was  also  present  a  faint  broad 
continuous  spectrum  between  and  beyond  the 


bright  bands.     When  the  slit  was  moved  on 
to  different  parts  of  the  coma,  the  bright  bands 
and  the  faint  continuous  spectrum  were  found 
to  vary  in  relative  in 
tensity.     When  the  slit 
was    brought   past    the 
nucleus  on  to  the  com 
mencement  of  the  tail, 
the     gaseous    spectrum 
became  rapidly  fainter, 

FIG.  5.— Spectrum  of  Nebula  (H  4,374).  until,     at     a    short    dis- 


two  orders  of  spectra.  One  class,  including 
the  clusters,  resolvable  and  suspected  resolva 
ble  nebuho,  besides  other  nebula)  which  proba 
bly  are  resolvable  into  stars  though  no  signs 
of  the  fact  can  be  detected  with  the  telescope, 
show  a  spectrum  resembling  the  stellar  spec 
trum  in  general  characteristics,  though  usually 
too  faint  to  be  assigned  to  any  given  order 
of  stellar  spectra.  The  other  class,  which  in 
cludes  all  the  irregular  and  planetary  nebulae, 
besides  most  of  the  elliptic  irresolvable  nebulas, 
the  ring  nebula  in  Lyra,  the  dumb-bell  nebu 
la,  and  others,  presents  the  remarkable  phe 
nomenon  of  a  spectrum  of  three  bright  lines 
(in  a  few  cases  four  lines  are  seen).  Fig.  5  is 
the  spectrum  of  the  nebula  known  as  II  4,374. 
This  is  a  small  but  bright  object,  and  it  is  the 
nebula  to  which  Huggins  in  1864  first  direct 
ed  his  telespectroscope.  One  line  agrees  in 
position  with  a  hydrogen  line,  another  with  a 
nitrogen  line,  but  the  third  line  has  not  yet 
been  shown  to  coincide  with  a  line  of  any 
known  element. — Comets  show  a  mixed  spec 
trum,  the  nucleus,  coma,  and  tail  each  giving 
a  combination  (though  in  varying  proportions) 
of  a  discontinuous  or  band  spectrum,  and  a 
continuous  spectrum  due  probably  to  reflected 


tance  from  the  nucleus, 

the  continuous  spectrum  predominated  so 
strongly  that  the  middle  band  only,  which  is 
the  brightest,  could  be  detected  on  it.'7 — The 
planets,  shining  by  reflected  light,  can  only  re 
veal  under  the  spectroscope  the  possible  pres 
ence  of  absorptive  vapors  in  their  atmosphere. 
(See  MARS.) 

SPECULUM  (Lat.,  mirror),  a  term  commonly 
applied  to  concave  metallic  reflectors,  such  as 
are  used  in  reflecting  telescopes  for  concen 
trating  the  rays  of  light  from  distant  lumi 
nous  bodies,  and  presenting  the  image  of  these 
in  their  focus.  Their  perfection  consists  in 
large  surface,  whereby  they  collect  the  great 
est  quantity  of  light;  in  the  highest  possi 
ble  polish,  whereby  it  is  reflected  with  least 
loss;  and  in  the  most  exact  parabolic  curva 
ture,  rendering  the  image  distinct  and  precise. 
In  a  speculum  of  6  ft.  diameter,  a  variation 
even  at  its  edge  from  the  true  parabolic  curva 
ture,  so  minute  as  to  escape  detection  with  any 
except  the  most  refined  means  of  measurement, 
may  render  the  whole  useless.  The  metallic 
alloy  best  adapted  for  the  requirements  of 
specula  was  first  employed  for  this  purpose  by 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  is  similar  to  that  used 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians  for  mirrors.  It  con- 


SPECULUM 


255 


sists  of  copper  and  tin,  to  which  Newton  added 
a  little  arsenic,  and  sometimes  silver  or  zinc ; 
but  Lord  Eosse  found  that  the  two  metals  first 
named  are  better  without  the  addition  of  any 
other.  The  volatile  metals  are  objectionable. 
Silver  makes  the  alloy  too  soft ;  nickel,  though 
it  whitens  the  yellow  alloy  of  copper,  makes  the 
speculum  alloy  yellowish.  Rosse  was  particu 
lar  that  the  copper  and  tin  should  be  com 
bined  in  their  atomic  proportions  (4  atoms  of 
copper  =126'8,  to  1  of  tin  =59),  and  the  pur 
est  metals  should  be  selected ;  for  the  smaller 
specula  it  is  even  recommended  that  the  cop 
per  be  obtained  by  the  electrotype  process; 
this  is  hardly  practicable  for  the  large  ones. 
The  alloy  is  remarkable  for  its  extreme  brit- 
tleness  and  hardness.  Large  masses  of  it 
sometimes  break  from  a  slight  blow  or  sud 
den  change  of  temperature ;  and  it  is  so  hard 
that  it  cannot  be  wrought  with  tools  of  steel. 
It  takes  a  most  brilliant  polish,  which  it  has 
been  known  to  retain  with  little  tarnish, 
though  exposed  to  the  air  for  more  than  16 
years.  A  large  speculum,  however,  ought  al 
ways  to  be  covered  when  not  in  use,  and  the 
air  about  it  should  be  kept  dry  by  means  of  an 
open  box  of  quicklime.  Great  difficulties  have 
been  encountered  in  preventing  the  large 
specula  from  changing  their  form  by  their  own 
weight,  and  those  of  6  ft.  diameter  are  made 
so  thick,  to  give  them  the  necessary  stiffness 
(though  supported  when  finished  by  the  most 
ingenious  appliances),  that  they  are  among  the 
heaviest  of  bronze  castings ;  and  the  prepara 
tion  of  the  rough  mass  is  among  the  most  diffi 
cult  of  foundery  operations.  Rosse's  six-foot 
speculum  weighs  4  tons ;  one  of  3  ft.  3f  in. 
thick,  weighs  13  cwt. ;  and  one  of  2  ft.,  3^  cwt. 
The  alloy  is  prepared  by  melting  the  metals 
separately,  and  pouring  the  tin  into  the  copper, 
stirring  rapidly,  and  then,  before  the  tin  oxi 
dizes,  casting  the  alloy  into  ingots.  It  is  test 
ed  when  cold  to  ascertain  its  brilliancy,  and 
more  tin  is  added  if  necessary.  The  best  mode 
of  preparing  the  moulds  has  been  arrived  at 
from  long  experimental  trials  in  the  casting  of 
the  smaller  specula.  It  was  found  that  sand 
moulding  would  not  answer  for  the  surface  of 
the  disks,  as  the  texture  of  the  alloy  near  the 
outside  was  rendered  somewhat  spongy  and 
crystalline ;  and  though  this  was  so  slight  as 
to  be  detected  only  by  the  microscope,  it  still 
seriously  impaired  the  polished  surface.  The 
face  of  the  disk  at  least  must  then  be  "  chilled," 
as  cast  iron  is  chilled,  by  pouring  it  into  metal 
lic  moulds  to  increase  the  density  of  its  sur 
face.  But  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere  was  found  to  be  too  low  for  the 
moulds  to  receive  this  alloy,  and  they  were 
consequently  heated  to  about  212°  to  prevent 
too  sudden  cooling  and  consequent  irregular 
contraction.  For  moderate-sized  specula  cast- 
iron  moulds  were  used,  necessarily  open,  or 
the  casting  would  inevitably  fly  in  pieces. 
They  were  made  a  little  deeper  than  the  spec 
ulum,  with  the  bottom  of  the  same  convexity 
VOL.  xv. — 17 


with  this,  and  so  supported  that  they  could 
be  instantly  filled  from  the  lowest  point,  and 
turned  into  a  horizontal  position  when  charged 
w^ith  the  proper  weight  of  the  metal.  The  air 
and  any  foreign  substance  present  are  tnus 
carried  up  to  the  surface,  and  separated  from 
the  alloy.  But  this  was  not  sufficiently  per 
fect  for  the  largest  castings,  and  Lord  Rossc 
adopted  for  these  the  following  method.  An 
iron  frame  of  sufficient  diameter  was  filled 
with  pieces  of  hoop  iron  set  on  edge  and  tight 
ly  wedged  together,  and  the  upper  surface  was 
turned  off  to  the  curvature  of  the  face  of  the 
speculum.  This  was  to  serve  for  the  bottom 
of  the  mould,  being  tight  enough  to  hold  the 
melted  metal,  while  it  allowed  the  escape  of 
the  gases  through  the  interstices  uniformly 
over  the  whole  face.  Upon  this  bottom  was 
laid  the  wooden  pattern,  made  twice  as  deep  as 
the  intended  speculum,  and  with  an  allowance 
of  fsV  in  the  diameter  for  shrinkage.  The  sides 
of  the  mould  were  then  formed  by  ramming 
sand  around  the  pattern.  By  this  arrange 
ment  the  first  cooling  is  on  the  under  face, 
next  on  the  sides,  and  the  final  congealing  is  on 
the  top  or  back,  where  the  contraction  and 
resulting  irregularities  will  be  concentrated  in 
the  least  important  part.  The  metal  while 
red-hot  is  removed  to  a  furnace  specially  pre 
pared  for  it,  the. bottom  having  the  curvature 
of  the  disk  (unless  in  case  of  using  an  iron 
mould,  when  this  too  is  taken  along).  By  fires 
already  kept  up  several  days,  the  inner  walls 
of  the  furnace  should  be  at  a  full  red  heat.  The 
vacant  spaces  around  the  casting  are  then  filled 
with  ignited  fuel,  and  every  aperture  is  care 
fully  luted.  A  large  speculum  should  thus  be 
left  to  cool  for  a  month  to  six  weeks;  and  the 
result  may  still  be  unsatisfactory  if  the  walls 
of  the  furnace  are  less  than  2  ft.  thick. — The 
production  of  the  true  parabolic  figure,  com 
bined  with  a  "brilliant  polish,  is  attained  by 
grinding  succeeded  by  polishing.  Machines 
applicable  to  this  object  have  been  invented  by 
Sir  AY.  and  Sir  J.  Herschel,  Lord  Rosse,  Mr. 
Lassell,  an  amateur  optician  and  astronomer, 
Mr.  De  la  Rue,  Mr.  Grubb  of  Dublin,  and 
others,  which  are  too  complicated  to  be  par- 
tiQularly  described  in  this  place.  The  object 
sought  for  is  to  restrict  the  operation  of  the 
rubbing  tools  to  the  production  of  the  particu 
lar  curvature  required,  and  insure  a  uniform 
action  upon  every  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
disk.  The  speculum,  placed  upon  a  slowly  re 
volving  platform,  presents  its  face  to  the  action 
of  the  rubber  above  it,  which  by  Lord  Rosse's 
arrangement  was  caused  to  vibrate  regularly 
in  one  and  the  other  direction,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  revolved  at  a  different  rate  from 
that  of  the  speculum.  Mr.  Lassell  caused  the 
rubber  to  revolve  in  small  circles,  while  the 
speculum,  turning  on  its  axis,  which  was  not 
in  line  with  that  of  the  rubber,  presented  suc 
cessively  all  portions  of  its  surface  to  this 
circling  action  of  the  rubber,  thus  imitating 
the  movements  of  the  hands  by  which  the 


256 


SPECULUM 


small  specula  bad  previously  been  successfully 
polished.  The  principles  of  the  arrangement 
of  Mr.  Lassell  were  so  mathematically  exact, 
that,  as  stated  by  Mr.  ISTasmyth,  "a  speculum 
having  a  decidedly  hyperbolic  figure  may  be 
corrected  and  brought  to  a  perfect  parabola, 
or  to  a  spherical  curve,  or  the  same  may 
be  done  in  the  reverse  order  at  pleasure." 
The  test  of  the  polishing  consists  in  observing 
through  an  eye  piece  the  reflection  of  the  dial 
of  a  watch  set  directly  over  the  speculum,  in 
the  case  of  Lord  Rosse's  operations  at  the 
height  of  90  ft.  The  success  of  the  polishing 
was  dependent  on  the  state  of  the  atmosphere 
as  regards  temperature  and  moisture,  both  of 
which  required  at  times  to  be  artificially  regu 
lated.  The  tools  for  first  smoothing  the  face 
of  the  speculum  are  made  up  of  pieces  of  grit 
stone,  cemented  together  in  a  frame  and  dressed 
on  the  face  to  the  proper  degree  of  convexity. 
The  next  are  disks  of  cast  iron,  their  face  also 
of  the  exact  curvature,  and  grooved  by  two 
lines  of  furrows  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide  and 
the  same  deep,  crossing  each  other  at  right 
angles.  These  are  fed  with  sharp  quartz  sand, 
and  afterward  with  emery  and  water.  When 
the  work  has  proceeded  to  the  use  of  very  fine 
emery  the  scratches  disappear,  and  the  rubber 
is  in  perfect  and  uniform  contact  with  the 
speculum.  For  polishing,  the.  cast-iron  rubber 
was  used  by  Lord  Rosso,  counterpoised  and 
provided  with  circular  grooves  in  addition  to 
the  rectilinear  ones.  Its  face  was  coated  with 
a  thin  layer  of  pitch,  with  another  upon  this 
of  rosin  and  flour,  which  serves  as  the  bed  for 
the  polishing  powder  or  rouge  to  imbed  itself. 
Mr.  Lassell's  polisher  was  of  pine  wood  in  two 
layers,  the  grain  crossing,  and  the  face  coated 
with  pitch  above.  The  preparation  of  these 
polishers  involves  nice  operations,  which  may 
not  be  neglected  without  great  risk  of  failure. 
The  largest  specula  when  polished  ought  never 
to  be  removed  from  their  supports ;  for  how 
ever  carefully  lifted,  the  figure  would  be  almost 
certain  to  lose  its  accuracy  by  change  of  pres 
sure  in  the  mass.  Even  one  of  9  in.  diameter, 
when  supported  by  the  pressure  of  springs 
against  three  stops  bearing  on  its  edges,  loses 
its  defining  power.  Sir  John  Herschel  laid 
the  speculum  upon  folds  of  woollen  cloth, 
packing  others  closely  all  around  it,  filling  the 
apace  between  its  edges  and  the  box  that  con 
tained  it ;  but  this  is  not  sufficient  to  preserve 
the  form  of  the  specula  of  6  ft.  diameter  and 
as  many  inches  thick,  and  the  contrivances  for 
this  are  a  most  complicated  system  of  bearings, 
springs,  and  levers. — Specula  exhibit  some  pe 
culiarities  in  their  forms  and  applications  to 
use,  according  to  the  kind  of  reflecting  tele 
scope  for  which  they  are  designed.  It  is  evi 
dent  that  as  they  reflect  images  as  mirrors,  the 
observer  cannot  be  placed  directly  in  front,  and 
it  is  not  obvious  how  he  can  take  his  position 
at  the  opposite  end  of  the  telescope,  as  in  using 
those  of  the  refractory  kind.  This  is  accom 
plished  in  the  reflecting  telescope  of  Dr.  James 


Gregory,  known  as  the  Gregorian  telescope, 
by  an  aperture  through  the  centre  of  the  spec 
ulum,  and  the  introduction  of  a  small  concave 
speculum  in  the  centre  of  the  great  tube,  facing 
the  large  speculum,  and  a  little  in  advance  of 
its  focus.  Back  of  the  great  speculum  the  tube 
is  extended  of  reduced  diameter,  and  in  its 
extremity  is  a  magnifying  eye  piece,  by  which 
the  image  reflected  from  the  small  speculum 
through  the  aperture  of  the  large  one  reaches 
the  eye.  In  Sir  William  Herschel's  great  tele 
scope,  with"  its  4-ft.  speculum  and  40-ft.  focal 
length,  the  disk  was  entire,  and  the  image  was 
reflected  direct  to  an  eye  piece  at  the  mouth 
of  the  tube  and  near  one  side  of  it,  so  as  not 
to  intercept  too  much  light.  This  was  effected 
by  a  slight  inclination  of  the  plane  of  the  spec 
ulum.  In  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  telescope  the 
disk  was  also  entire,  and  a  small  plain  spec 
ulum  reflected  the  cone  of  rays  sent  from  it, 
before  meeting  in  the  focus,  to  the  eye  piece 
placed  in  the  upper  side  of  the  tube.  Casse- 
grain's  telescope  differs  from  Gregory's  in 
the  small  reflector  being  convex  instead  of 
concave. — Specula  have  recently  been  made 
of  polished  silver  surface,  which  has  the  ad 
vantage  over  that  of  the  speculum  metal  of 
reflecting  91  per  cent,  of  the  incident  light, 
instead  of  67  per  cent.  The  silver,  after  the 
method  of  M.  Leon  Foucault,  is  laid  in  a  very 
thin  uniform  coating  upon  a  speculum  of  glass, 
figured  and  polished  to  a  true  parabola.  This 
is  done  by  Drayton's  process  of  precipitating 
the  metal  from  the  solution  in  nitric  acid  by 
oil  of  cassia.  The  precipitated  silver  is  polished 
by  gentle  rubbing  with  a  skin  lightly  tinged 
with  oxide  of  iron,  and  soon  acquires  a  very 
brilliant  lustre  without  material  change  of 
figure.  This,  however,  was  questioned  by  Mr. 
Grubb,  when  the  subject  was  under  consider 
ation  before  the  British  association  at  Dublin, 
who  asserted  from  his  own  experience  that  the 
removal  of  a  thickness  of  4-0,^00-  or  To.tanr  °f 
an  inch  might  seriously  impair  the  accuracy  of 
the  defining  power  of  the  speculum.  M.  Fou 
cault  had  preserved  the  silver  mirrors  for  eight 
months  without  their  being  injured  by  tarnish 
ing  ;  but  whenever  this  might  occur  they  were 
easily  polished  again,  and  the  silver  itself  could 
be  at  any  time  renewed.  Mr.  Browning  of 
London  has  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfec 
tion  the  construction  of  silvered-glass  reflec 
tors  ;  and  the  experience  of  those  acquainted 
Avith  instruments  constructed  on  his  plan  is 
strongly  in  favor  of  the  method.  In  America 
the  reflecting  telescope  has  not  hitherto  met 
with  much  favor;  though  the  success  with 
which  Dr.  II.  Draper  of  New  York  has  con 
structed  large  reflecting  telescopes,  and  em 
ployed  them  even  in  the  delicate  work  of  lunar 
photography,  promises  before  long  to  enlist 
American  ingenuity  in  the  improvement  of  a 
class  of  telescopes  which  must  probably  always 
have  the  preference  over  refractors  for  obser 
vations  requiring  very  great  space-penetrating 
power. — The  subject  of  the  speculum,  in  its 


SPEKE 


SPENCER 


257 


mathematical  and  mechanical  details,  is  treated 
in  various  memoirs  in  the  English  scientific 
journals,  from  the  time  of  Newton's  paper  in 
the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  of  1672  to 
the  present  day.  Lord  Rosse's  papers  are  con 
tained  in  the  "Edinburgh  Journal,"  vol.  ix., 
1828,  and  vol.  ii.  (new  series),  1829,  and  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions,"  1840  and  1850. 
The  mechanical  details  are  fully  described  in 
Iloltzapffel's  "Mechanical Manipulations."  For 
Lassell's  process,  see  "  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society,"  1849. 

SPEKE,  John  Banning,  an  English  traveller, 
born  in  Somersetshire,  May  4,  1827,  died  near 
Bath,  Sept.  15,  1864.  He  served  as  a  cap 
tain  in  the  British  army  in  the  Punjaub  under 
Lord  Gough  (1849),  and  subsequently  made 
scientific  explorations  in  the  Himalaya.  In 
1854  he  set  out  with  Burton  for  the  Somauli 
country,  where  they  were  attacked  and  Speke 
was  wounded.  He  next  enlisted  in  the  Turk 
ish  army  in  the  Crimea  shortly  before  the 
close  of  the  war.  He  gained  a  wide  celebrity 
by  his  joint  expedition  with  Burton  (1856) 
to  Africa,  and  the  discovery  of  Lake  Tangan 
yika.  (See  BURTON,  RICHAED  FRANCIS.)  On 
July  80,  1858,  he  discovered  alone  the  Victo 
ria  N'yanza  lake,  and  in  1862  he  explored  its 
western  and  northern  margin  together  with 
Capt.  J.  W.  Grant.  (See  NILE,  and  N'YANZA.) 
Capt.  Speke  was  killed  by  the  accidental  dis 
charge  of  a  gun  while  hunting.  His  principal 
work  is  his  "Journal  of  the  Discovery  of  the 
Source  of  the  Nile"  (2  vols.,  London,  1863). 

SPELMAff,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  antiquary, 
born  at  Congham,  near  Lynn,  Norfolkshire,  in 
1562,  died  in  London  in  1641.  He  was  edu 
cated  at  Cambridge,  and  devoted  himself  to 
historical  and  antiquarian  studies.  He  served 
as  sheriff  of  his  county,  and  was  knighted  by 
James  I.  and  appointed  commissioner  to  deter 
mine  disputed  claims  to  lands  and  manors  in 
Ireland.  In  1612  he  settled  in  London.  He 
wrote  GlossariiLtn  ArcJiaiologieum  (A  to  L, 
1626;  completed  from  his  manuscripts,  1664; 
best  ed.,  1687);  Concilia,  Decreta,  Leges,  Con- 
stitutiones,  in  Re  Ecclesiastica  Orlis  Britan- 
nici  (2  vols.,  1639-'64) ;  and  Villare  Anglica- 
?zwm(1656).  The  Reliquim  Spelmanniance  (fol., 
Oxford,  1698)  is  a  collection  of  his  papers  re 
lating  to  the  laws  and  antiquities  of  England. 

SPMCE,  Joseph,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Kingsclerc,  Hampshire,  April  25, 1699,  drowned 
at  By  fleet,  Surrey,  Aug.  20,  1768.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  entered  holy  orders,  and 
was  elected  professor  of  poetry.  He  pub 
lished  in  1726  "An  Essay  on  Pope's  Odys 
sey,"  and  made  a  tour  through  France  and 
Italy  in  1730-'33.  In  1731  he  published  a 
biography  of  Stephen  Duck,  afterward  prefixed 
to  an  edition  of  Duck's  poems,  and  in  1736 
reproduced  with  a  preface  at  Pope's  request 
Sackville's  tragedy  of  "  Gorboduc."  In  1742 
he  was  presented  by  his  college  to  the  rectory 
of  Great  Horwood,  and  appointed  professor 
of  modern  history  at  Oxford.  His  most  in 


teresting  production  is  "Anecdotes,  Observa 
tions,  and  Characters  of  Books  and  Men,"  col 
lected  from  the  conversation  of  Pope  and  oth 
ers,  and  valuable  with  reference  to  the  literary 
history  of  his  time.  It  was  published,  with 
notes  and  a  biography,  by  S.  "W.  Singer  (Lon 
don,  1820  ;  new  ed.,  1858). 

SPENCE,  William,  an  English  entomologist, 
born  in  1783,  died  in  London,  Jan.  6,  1860. 
In  1805,  while  engaged  in  business  at  Hull, 
he  presented  a  few  specimens  of  insects  to  the 
Rev.  AVilliam  Kirby,  with  whom  he  afterward 
wrote  "Introduction  to  Entomology,  or  Ele 
ments  of  the  Natural  History  of  Insects"  (4 
vols.,  1815-'26;  7th  ed.,  1  vol.,  1858).  It 
consists  of  51  letters,  of  which  9  were  written 
by  Mr.  Spence,  20  by  Mr.  Kirby,  and  22  by 
them  conjointly.  He  was  for  a  time  a  member 
of  parliament.  He  removed  in  1826  to  the 
continent,  and  visited  the  principal  European 
capitals  during  the  next  eight  years,  returned 
to  England  and  settled  in  London. 

SPEJVCER.  I.  A  N.  county  of  Kentucky,  in 
tersected  by  Salt  river ;  area,  280  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  5,956,  of  whom  1,479  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  fertile.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  105,211  bushels 
of  wheat,  16,470  of  rye,  436,875  of  Indian  corn, 
35,885  of  oats,  1,852  tons  of  hay,  5,500  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  15,385  of  wool,  119,748  of  butter,  and 
8,488  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were 
6,018  horses,  538  mules  and  asses,  1,935  milch 
cows,  3,252  other  cattle,  4,530  sheep,  and  17,724 
swine;  6  flour  mills,  and  4  distilleries.  Capi 
tal,  Taylorsville.  II.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Indi 
ana,  bordering  on  the  Ohio  river,  bounded  E. 
by  Anderson's  creek  and  W.  by  Little  Pigeon 
creek;  area,  390  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,998. 
The  surface  is  hilly  in  the  W.  part  and  level  in 
the  S.,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  Bituminous  coal 
is  abundant.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  123,663  bushels  of  wheat,  682,374  of  In 
dian  corn,  98,510  of  oats,  79,597  of  potatoes, 
7,878  tons  of  hay,  3,019,970  Ibs.  of  tobacco,' 
21,416  of  wool,  and  49,006  gallons  of  sorghum 
molasses.  There  were  4,892  horses,  683  mules 
and  asses,  3,711  milch  cows,  5,720  other  cattle, 
14,054  sheep,  and  23,506  swine;  5  manufac 
tories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  5  of  furniture, 
2  of  tobacco  and  snuff,  10  flour  mills,  6  saw 
mills,  and  3  planing  mills.  Capital,  Rockport. 

SPENCER.  I.  Ambrose,  an  American  jurist,  born 
at  Salisbury,  Conn.,  Dec.  13,  1765,  died  at  Ly 
ons,  N.  Y.,  March  13,  1848.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1783,  studied  law,  and  com 
menced  practice  in  Hudson,  N.  Y.  In  1793  he 
represented  Columbia  co.  in  the  state  legisla 
ture;  in  1795  and  for  seven  consecutive  years 
he  was  a  state  senator;  in  1802  he  was  ap 
pointed  attorney  general,  in  1804  made  a  jus 
tice  of  the  supreme  court,  and  in  1819  chief 
justice.  He  was  a  member  of  the  constitu 
tional  convention  of  1821,  and  was  the  author 
of  the  law  abolishing  the  punishment  of  death 
in  all  cases  except  treason  and  murder.  lie 
resigned  the  office  of  chief  justice  in  1823,  and 


258 


SPENCER 


resumed  practice  at  Albany.  He  was  for  some 
years  mayor  of  that  city,  and  also  represented 
the  Albany  district  in  congress.  In  1839  he 
retired  to  Lyons.  II,  John  CaBfield,  an  Ameri 
can  jurist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Hud 
son,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  8,  1788,  died  in  Albany,  May 
18,  1855.  He  graduated  at  Union  college  in 
1806,  and  in  1807  became  private  secretary  of 
Gov.  Tompkins.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  Canandaigua  in  1809,  was  master  in  chan 
cery  and  district  attorney,  a  member  of  con 
gress  181 7-' 19,  and  several  times  of  the  state 
assembly  and  senate.  In  1827  he  was  appoint 
ed  one  of  the  revisers  of  the  statutes  of  the 
state,  and  in  1839  secretary  of  the  state  of  New 
York.  President  Tyler  in  1841  appointed  him 
secretary  of  war,  and  in  1843  transferred  him 
to  the  treasury  department.  He  resigned  in 
1844,  from  opposition  to  the  annexation  of 
Texas.  He  served  on  many  state  commissions, 
and  aided  in  the  organization  of  the  asylum 
for  idiots  and  the  improvement  of  the  common 
school  system.  He  edited  De  Tocqueville's 
"  Democracy  in  America,"  witli  an  original 
preface  and  notes  (New  York,  1838). 

SPEXCER,  I.  George  John,  second  Earl  Spen 
cer,  an  English  bibliophile,  born  Sept.  1, 
1758,  died  Nov.  10,  1834.  Under  the  courtesy 
title  of  Viscount  Althorp,  he  was  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty  from  1794  to  1801,  and  subse 
quently  home  secretary.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1821  he  took  his  seat  in  the  house  of 
lords.  He  possessed  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  remarkable  private  libraries  in  Europe, 
the  nucleus  of  which  he  acquired  in  1789  from 
the  Hungarian  baron  Reviczky.  See  Dibdm's 
BlltliotJieca  Spenceriana  (4  vols.  8vo,  1814- 
'15),  and  JKdes  Althorpiana*  (2  vols.,  1822). 
II,  John  Charles,  third  Earl  Spencer,  an  English 
statesman,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  May  30, 
1782,  died  at  Wiseton  hall,  Nottinghamshire, 
Oct.  1,  1845.  He  served  in  the  house  of  com 
mons  as  Viscount  Althorp,  daring  the  whig 
administration  of  1806-"T  was  junior  lord  of 
the  treasury,  and  afterward  a  leader  of  the 
whig  opposition  until  the  return  of  the  whigs 
to  power  in  1830,  when  he  was  appointed  chan 
cellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  became  ministe 
rial  leader  in  the  house  of  commons,  through 
which  he  was  instrumental  in  carrying  the  re 
form  bill  and  the  poor-law  amendment  bill. 
He  resigned  with  his  colleagues  in  November, 
1834.  About  the  same  time  he  succeeded  his 
father  as  Earl  Spencer,  and  devoted  himself  to 
farming.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the 
royal  agricultural  society. 

SPENCER,  George  (Father  Ignatius  of  St.  Paul), 
an  English  clergyman,  youngest  son  of  John 
George,  second  Earl  Spencer,  born  in  Lon 
don,  Dec.  21,  1799,  died  at  Carstairs,  Scotland, 
Oct.  1,  1804.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in 
1819,  took  orders,  and  became  rector  of  the 
family  living  of  Brington  in  1825.  He  joined 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  at  Leicester  in 
1830,  was  ordained  priest  in  1832,  and  took 
charge  of  the  missions  of  West  Bromwich  and 


Dudley.  In  1839  he  was  appointed  to  an  office 
in  Oscott  college,  became  soon  afterward  its 
rector,  entered  the  order  of  Passionists  in  1846, 
and  contributed  very  much  toward  the  exten 
sion  of  his  order  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
filling  high  offices  therein  till  his  death.  He 
was  chiefly  distinguished  for  his  extraordi 
nary  zeal  in  ministering  to  the  spiritual  wants 
of  the  laboring  population,  and  for  his  efforts 
in  establishing  an  association  of  prayers  for 
the  return  of  England  to  communion  with  the 
church  of  Rome.  For  this  purpose,  from  1838 
till  1857,  he  repeatedly  visited  Ireland  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  countries  on  the  continent, 
preaching  and  lecturing  everywhere  on  this 
subject.  He  wrote  "Account  of  my  Conver 
sion  "  (1831),  an  autobiography  and  journal  em 
bodied  by  Father  Pius  in  his  "Life  of  Father 
Ignatius  of  St.  Paul,  Passionist"  (Dublin  and 
London,  1866),  and.  a  "  Life  of  St.  Paul  of  the 
Cross"  (London,  1875). 

SPMCER,  Herbert,  an  English  philosopher, 
born  in  Derby,  April  27, 1820.  His  father  was 
a  teacher.  Herbert  was  fond  of  keeping  in 
sects  and  watching  their  transformations,  and 
for  years  the  finding  and  rearing  of  caterpil 
lars,  the  catching  and  preserving  of  winged  in 
sects  and  making  drawings  of  them,  were  his 
regular  occupations.  He  also  assisted  his  father 
in  philosophical  experiments.  At  the  age  of 
13  he  was  sent  to  study  with  his  uncle,  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Spencer,  rector  of  the  parish  of 
Ilinton.  Here  ho  remained  three  years,  and 
made  special  progress  in  mathematics.  Re 
turning  home,  he  studied  perspective  with  his 
father,  on  the  principle  of  independent  dis 
covery,  the  successive  problems  being  put  in 
such  order  that  he  was  enabled  to  find  out  the 
solutions  himself.  This  was  a  favorite  mode 
of  teaching  with  his  father,  who  is  the  author 
of  a  valuable  little  work  entitled  "  Invention- 
al  Geometry,"  on  this  plan.  At  16  Herbert 
devised  a  new  and  ingenious  theorem  in  de 
scriptive  geometry,  which  was  published  with 
the  demonstration  in  the  "  Civil  Engineers' 
and  Architects'  Journal."  At  17  he  accepted 
an  engagement  under  Charles  (afterward  Sir 
Charles)  Fox  as  a  civil  engineer,  and  began 
work  on  the  London  and  Birmingham  railway. 
In  1841  he  declined  a  farther  appointment, 
returned  home,  and  spent  two  years  in  mathe 
matical  and.miscellaneous  studies.  He  made  a 
botanical  press  and  a  herbarium,  and  practised 
drawing  and  modelling.  All  the  time  he  had 
in  progress  some  scheme  of  invention,  improve 
ments  in  watchmaking,  machinery  for  the  man 
ufacture  of  type  by  compression  of  the  metal 
instead  of  casting,  a  new  form  of  printing  press, 
and  the  application  of  electrotype  to  engraving, 
afterward  known  as  the  glyptograph.  In  the 
spring  of  1843  he  went  to  London  in  quest  of 
literary  occupation,  but  did  not  succeed,  and 
resumed  engineering.  His  earliest  literary  con 
tributions  were  made  to  the  "  Civil  Engineers' 
and  Architects'  Journal,"  the  "  Philosophical 
Magazine,"  the  "  Zoist,"  and  the  "  Noncon- 


SPENCER 


259 


formist."  In  the  last  named  journal,  in  1842, 
lie  began  the  publication  of  a  series  of  papers 
on  the  "Proper  Sphere  of  Government,"  which 
were  issued  in  a  pamphlet  in  1843.  From 
1848  to  1852  he  was  a  regular  writer  for  the 
"Economist,"  and  subsequently  contributed  to 
various  reviews  elaborate  papers  which  were 
pervaded  with  the  idea,  since  more  distinctly 
developed,  known  as  the  doctrine  of  evolution. 
He  soon  became  a  firm  believer  that  all  organ 
ized  beings  have  arisen  by  development.  In 
1854  he  first  conceived  of  evolution  as  a  uni 
versal  process,  and  later  he  came  to  the  con 
clusion  that  it  must  become  the  basis  of  any 
system  of  philosophy  which  represents  and 
conforms  to  the  general  method  of  nature.  In 
1800  he  published  a  prospectus  of  such  a  sys 
tem,  and  immediately  entered  upon  its  execu 
tion,  lie  had  already  collected  his  essays  upon 
the  scientific  aspects  of  social  questions,  and 
had  published  various  volumes  leading  up  to 
his  system.  Most  of  these  were  revised  and 
enlarged  in  subsequent  editions  to  present  more 
fully  his  new  philosophy.  The  fourth  division 
of  his  system,  devoted  to  sociology,  deals  with 
the  science  of  human  society  from  the  point  of 
view  of  evolution  expounded  and  applied  to 
the  .general  phenomena  of  life  and  mind  in  his 
earlier  volumes.  In  furtherance  of  this  depart 
ment  of  his  work,  he  has  for  several  years  em 
ployed  the  aid  of  three  assistants  in  collecting 
and  classifying  facts  pertaining  to  all 'types  of 
society,  savage  tribes,  decayed  races,  and  ex 
isting  civilizations,  which,  under  the  title  of 
"Descriptive  Sociology,"  are  intended  to  form 
a  series  of  folio  volumes,  of  which  three  have 
been  published  (1876).  The  following-is  a  com 
plete  list  of  his  publications:  " Social  Statics, 
or  the  Conditions  essential  to  Human  Happi 
ness  specified,  and  the  first  of  them  developed" 
(London,  1850;  New  York,  1865);  "Princi 
ples  of  Psychology  "  (London,  1855  ;  revised 
ed.,  2  vols.,  London  and  New  York,  1870-'72); 
"Railway  Morals  and  Railway  Policy  "  (Lon 
don,  1855) ;  "  Essays,  Scientific,  Political,  and 
Speculative"  (London,  1857;  2d  series,  1863; 
American  ed.,  "Illustrations  of  Universal  Pro 
gress,"  New  York,  1864);  "Essays,  Moral, 
Political,  and  yEsthetic  "  (New  York,  1865  ; 
new  and  enlarged  ed.,  1874);  "Education,  In 
tellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical  '•'  (London  and 
New  York,  1860) ;  "  First  Principles  of  a  Sys 
tem  of  Philosophy"  (London,  1862;  New 
York,  1864);  "Classification  of  the  Sciences," 
to  which  is  added  "Reasons  for  dissenting  from 
the  Philosophy  of  M.  Comte"  (London,  1864; 
3ded.,  1871);  "  Principles  of  Biology"  (2  vols., 
London,  1864;  New  York,  1866-'7);  "Spon 
taneous  Generation,  and  the  Hypothesis  of 
Physiological  Units"  (New  York,  1870)  ;  " Re 
cent  Discussions  in  Science,  Philosophy,  and 
Morals,"  collected  from  English  reviews  (New 
York,  1871 ;  2d  ed.,  with  six  additional  articles, 
1873) ;  "  The  Study  of  Sociology  "  (London  and 
New  York,  1873);  "Descriptive  Sociology: 
Facts  Classified  and  Arranged"  (3  vols.  fol., 


London  and  New  York,  1873-'4) ;  and  "  The 
Principles  of  Sociology,"  a  quarterly  serial 
(London  and  New  York,  1874  et  seq.}.  In  the 
system  of  philosophy  series,  apart  from  their 
publication  as  separate  volumes,  "First  Prin 
ciples,"  "Principles  of  Biology,"  and  "Prin 
ciples  of  Psychology  "  have  been  issued  in  Lon 
don  serially  in  34  numbers;  so  that  the  so 
ciological  division  begins  with  No.  35  under 
the  title  "The  Principles  of  Sociology."  Nos. 
35-38  were  published  in  London  and  New 
York  in  1874-'5,  and  the  whole  work  is  ex 
pected  to  consist  of  15  or  18  parts. 

SPENCER,  Ichabod  Smith,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  at  Rupert,  Vt.,  Feb.  23,  1798,  died 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  23,  1854.  lie  grad 
uated  at  Union  college  in  1822,  and  was  prin 
cipal  of  the  grammar  school  in  Schenectady 
till  1825,  and  afterward  till  1828  of  an  academy 
in  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  presbytery  of  Geneva  in  1826, 
and  in  1828  was  settled  as  colleague  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  church  in  Northampton, 
Mass.  From  1832  till  his  death  he  was  pastor 
of  the  second  Presbyterian  church  in  Brook 
lyn  ;  and  from  1836  to  1840  extraordinary  pro 
fessor  of  Biblical  history  in  Union  theological 
seminary,  New  York,  of  which  he  was  one  of 
the  founders.  His  best  known  publication  is 
his  "  Pastor's  Sketches  "  (two  series,  New  York, 
1850-'53),  which  has  passed  through  many  edi 
tions,  and  been  translated  into  French.  Since 
his  death  there  have  been  published  from  his 
manuscripts  "  Sermons,"  with  a  memoir  by  J. 
M.  Sherwood  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1855)  ;  "  Sa 
cramental  Discourses  "  (1861) ;  and  "Evidences 
of  Divine  Revelation"  (Boston,  1865). 

SPENCER,  Jesse  Ames,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  at  Hyde  Park,  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y., 
June  17,  1816.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
college  in  1837  (from  which  he  received  the 
degree  of  S.  T.  D.  in  1852),  studied  theology  in 
the  general  seminary  of  the  Episcopal  church, 
became  rector  of  St.  James's  church,  Goshen, 
N.  Y.,  in  1840,  and  afterward  engaged  in  teach 
ing,  and  travelled  in  Europe  and  the  East.  In 
1849  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  and 
oriental  languages  in  Burlington  college,  N.  J., 
and  from  1851  to  1857  was  editor  and  secre 
tary  of  the  Episcopal  Sunday  school  union  and 
church  book  society.  In  1863-'o  he  was  rector 
of  St.  Paul's  church,  Flatbush,  L.  I.,  and  in 
1869  became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  college 
of  the  city  of  New  York.  He  has  published 
"Discourses"  (1843);  " The  New  Testament 
in  Greek,  with  Notes  on  the  Historical  Books  " 
(1847);  "Cassar's  Commentaries,"  with  notes, 
lexicon,  &c.  (1848);  "Egypt  and  the  Holy 
Land  "  (1849) ;  "  History  of  the  Unite*  States  " 
(4  vols.  8vo,  1856-'69)  ;  "Greek  Praxis" 
(1870);  "The  Young  Ruler  and  other  Dis 
courses"  (1871);  and  "A  Course  of  English 
Reading"  (1873).  He  has  also  edited  Arch 
bishop  Trench's  poems  (1856),  and  Xenophon's 
Anabasis  from  the  manuscripts  of  Prof.  A. 
Crosby  (1875). 


230 


SPENER 


SPENSER 


SPEXER,  Philipp  Jakob,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Rappoltsweiler,  Alsace,  in  January, 
1635,  died  in  Berlin,  Feb.  5,  1705.  He  studied 
at  Strasburg,  early  lectured  on  philosophy  and 
history,  and  was  tutor  to  several  of  the  princes 
palatine.  After  attending  Swiss  and  French 
universities,  he  began  in  1663  to  preach  at 
Strasburg.  In  1664  he  was  made  doctor  of 
theology,  and  in  1666  chief  of  the  clergy  at 
Frankfort.  While  the  orthodox  Lutherans 
based  their  theology  on  the  Bible  as  explained 
by  the  symbolical  books,  he  based  it  on  the 
Bible  as  confirmed  and  explained  by  personal 
experiences.  He  instituted  at  Frankfort  classes 
for  catechizing  the  young,  and  his  prayer  meet 
ings  (collegia  pietatis)  and  conventicles  (eccle- 
siolce  in  ecclesid)  created  a  popular  and  strictly 
Biblical  theology.  From  his  collegia  sprang 
the  sect  of  the  pietists,  so  called  at  first  in  de 
rision,  but  finally  the  name  was  accepted  by 
themselves.  In  1686  he  removed  to  Dresden, 
where  he  was  appointed  chief  court  preacher 
and  a  member  of  the  consistory.  His  views 
were  violently  opposed  by  the  Saxon  clergy, 
especially  after  the  foundation  of  the  new  uni 
versity  at  Halle,  the  professorships  in  which 
were  filled  by  his  disciples,  and  which  became 
at  once  the  central  point  of  the  pietistic  doc 
trines.  The  faculty  of  Wittenberg  designated 
in  his  writings  about  300  false  doctrines,  al 
though  ho  fully  adhered  to  the  confession  of 
Augsburg.  Ho  defended  himself  with  ability 
and  success;  but  in  1691  he  gladly  accepted  an 
invitation  from  the  elector  Frederick  of  Bran 
denburg  to  reside  at  Berlin,  as  provost,  inspec 
tor  of  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  and  assessor" 
of  the  consistory.  lie  wrote  Pia  Desideria 
(1675  ;  new  ed.  by  Feldncr,  Dresden,  1846), 
and  other  theological  as  well  as  genealogical 
works. — See  Hossbach,  Philipp  Jakob  Spener 
und  seine  Zeit  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1828 ;  3d  ed.  by 
Schweder,  1861),  and  Thilo,  Spener  als  Kate- 
diet  (Stuttgart,  1841). 

SPENSER,  Edmund,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
East  Smithfield,  London,  probably  in  1553, 
died  in  King  street,  Westminster,  Jan.  16,  1599. 
In  one  of  his  poems  he  alludes  to  his  connec 
tion  with  "an  house  of  ancient -fame,"  and  it 
is  maintained  by  Mr.  Craik  that  he  belonged  to 
the  Spencers  of  Hurstwood,  Lancashire.  He 
was  entered  a  sizar  of  Pembroke  hall,  Cam 
bridge,  in  1569,  and  took  the  degree  of  bache 
lor  in  1572  and  of  master  in  1576.  He  there 
formed  a  life-long  intimacy  with  Gabriel  Har 
vey,  the  poet  and  astrologer.  On  leaving  the 
university  he  visited  the  north  of  England, 
where  he  wrote  his  "  Shephearde's  Calendar." 
Induced  by  Harvey  to  go  to  London,  he  was 
introduced  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  who  invited 
him  to  become  his  guest,  and  to  whom,  in 
return  for  his  hospitality,  he  dedicated  his 
"Shephearde's  Calendar'"  (1579).  For  the 
next  ten  years  little  is  known  concerning 
Spenser.  Ho  corresponded  with  Harvey  on 
the  innovation  of  banishing  rhymes  and  intro 
ducing  the  Latin  prosody  into  English  verse. 


Recommended  by  Sidney  to  his  uncle,  the 
powerful  earl  of  Leicester,  he  was  occasion 
ally  employed  in  small  missions,  and  in  1580 
was  sent  to  Ireland  as  secretary  to  Lord  Grey 
de  Wilton,  who  was  appointed  lord  deputy  of 
that  country.  The  "  Foure  Epistles,"  on  sa 
tiric  poetry  and  on  an  earthquake  in  London, 
which  passed  between  Spenser  and  Harvey, 
and  which  induced  a  controversy  between  the 
latter  and  Nash,  were  published  the  same  year. 
He  returned  in  1582,  and  in  1586  obtained  a 
grant  of  3,028  acres  of  the  forfeited  lands  of 
the  earl  of  Desmond,  in  the  county  of  Cork, 
on  condition  that  he  shonld  reside  on  his  es 
tate  ;  and  he  therefore  took  up  his  abode  in 
Ivilcolman  castle,  near  Doneraile,  where  he 
composed  most  of  the  "Faerie  Queen,"  upon 
which  he  had  been  engaged  several  years. 
After  the  death  of  Sidney,  he  wrote  the  pas 
toral  elegy  of  "Astrophel"  to  his  memory. 
Raleigh  now  became  his  principal  patron  and 
friend,  and  in  1589  persuaded  him  to  return  to 
London  to  arrange  for  the  publication  of  his 
poem.  The  first  three  books  appeared  in  1590, 
dedicated  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  with  a  letter  to 
Raleigh  explaining  the  work  as  "  a  continued 
allegory  or  dark  conceit."  He  was  presented 
to  the  queen,  from  whom  he  received  a  pen 
sion  of  £50,  returned  to  Ireland,  and  published 
"  Colin  Clout's  come  Home  again  "  (1591) ;  a 
collection  of  minor  poems  entitled  "  Com 
plaints"  (1591);  a  series  of  "  Amoretti "  and 
the  "  Epithalamium "  (1595),  relating  to  his 
courtship  and  marriage ;  four  "  Hymns  "  (1596), 
the  two  on  love  and  duty,  pervaded  by  a  Pla 
tonic  doctrine,  being  among  his  most  exquisite 
productions;  and  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
books  of  the  "  Faerie  Queen  "  (1596).  He  was 
married  in  1594,  but  it  is  not  certain  whether 
the  lady  was  the  "  Elizabeth  "  of  his  sonnets, 
nor  whether  it  was  a  first  or  second  mar 
riage.  In  1596  he  presented  to  the  queen  his 
"View  of  the  State  of  Ireland,"  a  treatise  in 
the  form  of  a  dialogue,  not  published  till  1633. 
He  was  a  conspicuous  object  for  the  enmity 
of  the  Irish  on  the  outbreak  of  Tyrone's  re 
bellion,  since  he  was  clerk  of  the  council  of 
Munster,  and  had  been  nominated  sheriff  of 
Cork.  When  the  insurgents  rose  in  Munster 
in  1598,  they  attacked  Kilcolman,  and  the 
poet  fled  with  his  wife.  The  castle  was  plun 
dered  and  burned,  and  an  infant  child,  which 
had  been  left  behind,  perished  in  the  flames. 
Spenser  died  at  an  inn  a  few  months  after 
his  arrival  in  London,  it  is  said  for  want  of 
bread  ;  but  there  are  circumstances  which 
make  this  account  doubtful.  He  was  buried 
at  the  expense  of  the  earl  of  Essex,  and  afr 
his  own  request  near  the  remains  of  Chaucer, 
in  Westminster  abbey.  A  monument  erected 
to  him  after  30  years  by  Anne,  countess  of 
Dorset,  was  restored  in  1778  by  the  fellows  of 
Pembroke  hall. — His  chief  poem,  the  "Faerie 
Queen,"  is  unfinished.  The  Spenserian  stanza, 
in  which  it  is  written,  is  a  modification  of  the 
Italian  ottava  ri?na,  with  the  addition  of  the 


SPEEANSKI 


SPEZIA 


261 


Alexandrine  line,  and  the  diction  was  purpose 
ly  studded  with  forms  and  phrases  which  had 
become  antiquated.  Yet  Spenser  is  scarcely 
surpassed  as  a  master  of  musical  language. 
The  leading  story  is  an  allegory,  founded  on 
the  traditional  history  of  Prince  Arthur,  who 
was  taken  as  the  ideal  of  a  noble  person.  Glo- 
riana,  the  queen  of  Faerie,  who  gave  name  to 
the  poem,  is  an  emblem  of  virtuous  renown. 
All  the  personages  are  symbolical  and  all  the 
incidents  significant  of  moral  truths.  The  sub 
ject  of  each  book  is  a  moral  attribute,  as  holi 
ness,  temperance,  chastity,  friendship,  justice, 
and  courtesy,  personified  by  a  knight  errant, 
with  all  human  passions.  The  last  great  poem 
of  chivalry,  it  was  received  with  enthusiasm 
in  the  adventurous  age  of  Elizabeth.  The 
first  canto  is  much  the  finest;  the  allegory  in 
it  is  so  skilfully  disguised  that  it  may  be  dis 
regarded  ;  and  it  fully  exhibits  the  freshness 
and  power  of  his  genius.  An  edition  of  his 
poems  by  G.  S.  Hillard,  with  a  critical  intro 
duction,  was  published  in  Boston  in  1839  (5 
vols.).  They  also  form  five  volumes  (1855)  in 
the  Boston  collection  of  "British  Poets."  A 
variorum  edition  was  published  by  the  Rev. 
Henry  John  Todd  (8  vols.  8vo,  London,  1805). 
An  edition,  with  glossary,  notes,  and  life,  by 
J.  P.  Collier  (5  vols.  8vo,  London,  1862),  is 
probably  the  most  accurate  and  complete. 

SPERANSKI,  Mikhail,  a  Eussian  statesman, 
born  in  the  government  of  Vladimir,  Jan.  1, 
1772,  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  Feb.  23,  1839. 
In  1797  he  was  appointed  professor  of  math 
ematics  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1801  secretary  to 
the  council  of  the  empire,  in  1802  was  charged 
with  the  organization  of  the  ministry  of  the 
interior,  and  in  1808  became  assistant  minis 
ter  of  justice.  He  improved  the  finances,  re 
modelled  the  method  of  taxation,  increased 
the  educational  funds,  introduced  a  new  pe 
nal  code,  and  reorganized  the  commission  for 
codifying  the  laws.  In  March,  1812,  he  was 
forced  to  resign,  and  was  banished  to  Nizhni- 
Novgorod  ;  but  in  1816  he  was  restored  to 
favor,  and  in  1817  appointed  governor  of  Pen 
za,  and  in  1819  of  Siberia.  On  the  accession 
of  Nicholas  in  1825,  he  was  appointed  presi 
dent  of  the  chancery,  and  resumed  the  work 
of  codifying  the  laws.  He  published  all  the 
laws  and  edicts  from  1694  in  45  vols.  4to,  and 
an  abridgment  in  15  vols.  8vo. 

SPERMACETI  (Gr.  ciripjia,  sperm,  and  /^rof, 
a  whale),  a  solid  crystalline  fat,  extracted  from 
the  oily  fluids  found  in  a  triangular  cavity  by 
the  right  side  of  the  nose  and  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  head  of  the  sperm  whale  or  blunt- 
headed  cachelot,  and  also  in  smaller  quanti 
ties  in  some  other  species  of  the  cetacea.  The 
liquid  contents  boiled  out  from  the  head  of 
the  sperm-whale  of  ordinary  size  sometimes 
amount  to  more  than  12  large  barrels  full. 
When  cold  they  concrete  into  a  spongy  mass, 
from  which  the  larger  portion  of  the  oil  drains 
away,  leaving  the  crude  spermaceti.  This  fil 
tration  is  made  more  effective  by  compression 


in  bags  in  a  hydraulic  press ;  and  the  subse 
quent  purification  is  effected  by  melting  the 
residue  in  water  and  skimming  off  the  impu 
rities,  and  reinelting  in  a  weak  potash  lye, 
which  removes  nearly  all  traces  of  the  oil. 
The  spermaceti  is  then  melted  alone  by  steam 
heat,  and  ladled  into  pans,  where  it  cools  in 
white,  semi-transparent,  lamellar  cakes.  The 
last  traces  of  oil  may  be  removed  by  boiling 
once  or  more  with  alcohol,  which  dissolves  the 
spermaceti,  but  when  cold  holds  only  the  oil. 
Pure  spermaceti,  called  cetine,  has  a  foliaceous 
texture  and  a  delicate  whiteness.  It  is  semi- 
transparent,  friable,  unctuous  to  the  touch, 
and  resembles  white  wax  in  lustre  and  hard 
ness.  It  is  without  taste  and  of  hardly  any 
odor;  of  specific  gravity '940;  melts  at  120°; 
•  dissolves  readily  in  hot  ether,  and  in  the  fatty 
and  volatile  oils,  separating  on  cooling.  At 
high  temperatures  it  sublimes  without  decom 
position  if  protected  from  the  air.  By  the  ad 
dition  of  a  few  drops  of  alcohol  or  of  almond 
oil  it  may  be  powdered.  Its  ready  inflamma 
bility  in  connection  with  its  fusibility  renders 
it  well  adapted  for  candles,  which  is  the  chief 
use  made  of  it.  (See  CANDLE.)  It  has  been 
employed  in  medicine,  Combined  with  sirup 
or  mucilage,  to  protect' the  throat  in  coughs 
and  colds;  and  triturated  with  sugar  candy 
with  the  addition  of  milk,  it  forms  a  simple 
nutritive  mixture.  In  pharmacy  its  use  is  of 
greater  importance  as  an  ingredient  in  oint 
ments  and  cerates.  It  is  not. readily  saponi 
fied,  anjl  in  this  change  it  differs  from  the 
other  fats  in  not  yielding  glycerine,  but  an 
other  base  instead,  termed  ethal,  a  white,  solid 
substance,  fusible  at  118°,  and  possessing  the 
properties  of  a  true  alcohol.  It  is  also  called 
cetylic  or  ethalic  alcohol,  and  is  represented 
by  the  formula  CiellsiO.  The  acid,  into  which 
also  the  spermaceti  is  resolved,  is  known  as 
the  cetylic,  ethalic,  or  palmitic  acid,  and  is 
represented  by 'the  formula  dellasOo. 

SPERMOPHILE.     See  PEAIEIE  SQOEKEL. 

SPERM  WHALE.     See  WHALE. 

SPEISIPPIS,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  in 
Athens  about  380  B.  C.,  died  in  339.  He  was 
a  nephew  of  Plato,  and  at  his  death  succeeded 
him  as  president  of  the  academy,  over  which 
he  presided  eight  years  (347-339).  He  fol 
lowed  partially  the  philosophic  system  of  his 
master,  but  diverged  from  it  in  the  promi 
nence  he  gave  to  empiricism.  He  adopted 
Plato's  threefold  division  of  philosophy  into 
dialectics,  ethics,  and  physics. 

SPEIER,  or  Speyr.     See  SPIRE. 

SPEZIA,  La,  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  in  the  prov 
ince  and  50  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Genoa;  pop. 
in  1872,  24,123.  It  is  at  the  N.  W.  extremity  of 
the  gulf  of  Spezia  (anc.  Portus  Limce),  which 
is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  harbors  in  the 
world,  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains  and  con 
taining  within  itself  many  minor  ports.  Spezia 
contains  the  principal  naval  arsenal  of  Italy, 
and  is  an  important  station  for  foreign  squad 
rons.  The  arrivals  and  departures  of  steamers 


262 


SPEZZIA 


.    SPHINX 


in  1872,  including  the  ports  of  Lerici,  Fezzano, 
and  Portovenere  within  the  gulf  of  Spezia, 
amounted  to  461  and  459,  and  of  sailing  ves 
sels  to  1,118  and  1,124;  aggregate  tonnage, 
93,445.  The  imports  were  valued  at  $1,607,- 
000  (including  $867,660  for  the  navy)  and  the 
exports  at  $533,772.  Among  the  most  cele 
brated  products  are  olive  oil  and  wine. 

SPEZZIA,  or  Spetzia  (anc.  Tiparenos),  an  isl 
and  of  Greece,  in  the  archipelago,  at  the  E. 
entrance  of  the  gulf  of  Nauplia,  arid  about  2 
m.  from  the  coast  of  Argolis  ;  greatest  length 
5  m.,  greatest  breadth  3  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,443.  It  is  rocky,  but  has  some  fertile  patch 
es,  which  are  carefully  cultivated.  In  the  war 
of  independence  the  islanders  distinguished 
themselves  in  naval  engagements  with  the 
Turks.  The  chief  place,  of  the  same  name, 
is  a  pleasant  town  on  the  E.  shore,  with  a 
good  harbor ;  pop.  about  3,000.  It  is  a  resort 
for  invalids  on  account  of  the  climate. 

SPHAGNUM.     See  MOSSES. 

SPIIENOGRAMS.  See  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIP 
TIONS. 

SPHERE  (Gr.  cfyaipa),  in  geometry,  a  body 
bounded  by  a  surface,  every  point  of  which 
is  equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called 
the  centre.  The  figure. may  be  generated  by 
the  revolution  of  a  semicircle  about  its  diam 
eter  as  an  axis.  It  is  easily  shown  that  if  a 
sphere  be  enclosed  in  a  right  cylinder,  the 
portions  of  the  surface  between  any  pair  of 
planes  parallel  to  the  bases  of  the  cylinder  are 
equal  in  area  to  the  portions  of  the  cylindrical 
surface  between  the  same  planes.  According 
ly,  the  total  surface  of  the  sphere  is  equal  to 
the  curved  surface  of  the  cylinder.  This  sur 
face  is  manifestly  equal  to  the  rectangle  of 
the  height  of  the  cylinder  by  the  circumfer 
ence  of  its  base ;  that  is,  to  four  times  the 
base,  for  the  height  of  the  cylinder  is  equal 
to  the  diameter  of  the  base.  Hence  the  sur 
face  of  a  sphere  is  equal  to  four  times  the 
area  of  a  circle  of  the  same  diameter.  Its 
solid  content  is  manifestly  equal  to  that  of  a 
pyramid,  whose  base  is  equal  to  the  surface  of 
the  sphere,  and  whose  altitude  is  the  radius ; 
hence  equal  to  one  third  of  the  product  of  its 
radius  into  its  surface ;  or,  the  cube  of  the 
diameter  being  to  the  solid  content  nearly  as 
300  to  157,  the  content  may  be  calculated  from 
this  proportion,  or  by  multiplying  the  cube 
by  the  decimal  '52333. — In  geography,  sphere 
denotes  a  representation  of  the  earth  on  a 
globular  surface.  (See  GLOBE.)  In  astrono 
my,  it  is  the  concave  expanse  of  the  heavens, 
which  appears  as  the  interior  surface  of  a 
sphere,  of  which  the  centre  is  the  earth. 

SPHINX,  a  fabulous  monster  of  Greek  my 
thology,  which  was  represented  generally  as 
having  the  winged  body  of  a  lion  and  the 
breast  and  head  of  a  woman,  but  sometimes 
with  a  female  face,  the  breast,  feet,  and  claws 
of  a  lion,  the  tail  of  a  serpent,  and  the  wings 
of  a  bird  ;  and  sometimes  the  fore  part  of  the 
body  is  that  of  a  lion,  and  the  lower  part  that 


of  a  man,  with  the  claws  of  a  vulture  and  the 
wings  of  an  eagle  ;  all  which  forms  were  used 
as  architectural  ornaments.  In  the  legends  of 
the  poets  the  sphinx  is  said  to  have  been  the 
daughter  of  Orthus  and  Chimera,  or  of  Ty- 
phon  and  Chimasra,  or  of  Typhon  and  Echidna, 
and  to  have  come  from  the  most  distant  parts 
of  Ethiopia.  She  is  also  said  to  have  been  sent 
by  Mars  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  son  the 
dragon  slain  by  Cadmus,  or  according  to  others 
sent  by  Bacchus  or  by  Pluto ;  while  others 
again  represent  her  as  one  of  the  women  who 
with  the  daughters  of  Cadmus  were  thrown 
into  madness  and  metamorphosed  into  mon 
sters.  She  was  ravaging  Thebes  and  devour 
ing  those  who  could  not  solve  a  riddle  which 
she  proposed  to  all  whom  she  met,  when  (Edi- 
pus,  being  offered  the  crown  of  Thebes  on 
condition  of  delivering  the  country  from  the 
monster,  solved  the  riddle,  upon  which  the 
sphinx  destroyed  herself.  (See  (EDIPUS.) — It 
is  probable  that  the  Greeks  derived  the  idea 
of  the  sphinx  from  Egypt,  where  from  remote 
antiquity  such  figures  had  been  used  to  embel 
lish  the  avenues  which  formed  the  approaches 
to  temples.  Among  the  Egyptians  they  had 
the  head  of  a  man,  bearded  and  capped,  and 
the  body  of  a  lion,  thus  differing  from  the 
Greek  sphinxes,  which  had  a  female  head  and 
the  body  of  a  winged  lion.  Clemens  and  Plu 
tarch  say  they  were  placed  before  the  temples 
as  types  of  the  mysterious  nature  of  the  deity. 
Some  sphinxes  have  the  head  of  a  ram,  and 
are  called  crio-sphinxes,  and  others  the  head 
of  a  hawk,  called  hieraco-sphinxes ;  the  former 
were  sacred  to  Amen  or  Jupiter  Ammon,  the 
latter  to  TJa,  the  god  of  the*  sun.  The  great 
sphinx  at  the  pyramids  was  supposed  by  Lep- 
sius  to  represent  King  Cephren,  the  builder 
of  the  second  pyramid ;  but  an  inscription  has 
lately  been  discovered  which  renders  it  prob 
able  that  it  was  sculptured  even  before  the 
time  of  Cheops,  the  builder  of  the  first  pyra 
mid.  The  Egyptians  called  it  Hor-em-khu, 
or  Ilar-ma-khu,  "the  setting  sun,"  the  name 
of  the  god  to  whom  it  was  dedicated,  which 
was  converted  by  the  Greeks  into  Armachis. 
It  is  near  the  eastern  edge  of  the  platform 
on  which  the  pyramids  stand,  with  its  head 
turned  toward  the  Kile.  The  head  measures 
28  ft.  6  in.  from  the  top  to  the  chin.  The 
total  length  of  the  body,  which  is  that  of  a 
lion  crouching  close  to  the  ground,  is  146  ft. 
Across  the  shoulders  it  measures  36  ft.,  and 
the  paws  are  extended  about  50  ft.  Between 
the  paws  was  built  a  small  temple,  which  was 
of  masonry,  as  were  the  paws,  while  all  the 
rest  of  the  sphinx  seems  to  be  carved  out  of 
solid  rock.  Col.  Vyse  drilled  a  hole  27  ft. 
deep  into  one  of  the  shoulders,  and  found  that 
it  was  one  piece  of  stone  throughout.  Near 
the  sphinx  Mariette  discovered  a  vast  temple 
buried  in  the  sand,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  divinity 
of  the  sphinx.  The  countenance  is  now  so 
much  mutilated  that  the  outline  of  the  fea- 


SPHINX 


SPIDER 


263 


tures  can  with  difficulty  be  traced.  The  head 
had  been  covered  with  a  cap,  the  lower  part  of 
which  remains,  and  it  had  originally  a  beard, 
the  fragments  of  which  were  found  .below. 


The  Great  Sphinx. 

Immediately  under  the  breast  stood  a  granite 
tablet,  and  another  of  limestone  on  either  side 
resting  against  the  paws.  The  first  contains 
a  representation  of  Thothmes  IV.  offering  in 
cense  and  making  libation  to  the  sphinx,  with 
a  long  inscription  in  hieroglyphics  reciting  the 
titles  of  the  king.  On  the  paws  are  inscrip 
tions  of  the  Roman  times,  expressive  of  adora 
tion  to  the  sphinx  or  to  the  Egyptian  deities. 

SPHINX,  one  of  the  names  of  the  Guinea 
baboon  (cynocephalm  papio,  Desm.).  It  is 
rarely  seen  in  menageries,  though  it  is  remark 
ably  intelligent ;  it  is  probably  one  of  the  spe 
cies  represented  on  the  Egyptian  monuments. 
It  was  known  to  Pliny.  (See  BABOON.) 

SPHINX  CATERPILLAR.     See  HAWK  MOTH. 

SPHYGMOGRAPH.     See  PULSE. 

SPICE  ISLANDS.     See  MOLUCCAS. 

SPICEWOOD.     See  FEVER  BUSH. 

SPIDER,  a  division  of  the  insect  order  aracJi- 
nida,  which  also  includes  the  mites  and  scor 
pions.  The  general  character  of  the  order, 
which  seems  intermediate  between  crustaceans 
and  insects  proper,  though  nearest  to  the  lat 
ter  in  mode  of  development,  are  given  in  the 
article  AEACTIXIDA.  The  external  envelope  is 
usually  soft  and  tough,  but  not  corneous,  and 
is  provided  with  papilla,  spines,  bristles,  and 
hairs,  giving  a  furry  or  velvety,  but  generally 
disgusting  aspect ;  the  inner  membrane  of  the 
skin  is  thin  and  colorless,  and  under  it  is  a 
layer  of  colored  vesicles  and  granules,  the  seat 
of  the  brilliant  hues  observed  in  many  species. 


The  body  is  divided  into  thorax  and  abdomen, 
the  head  is  continuous  with  the  chest,  and 
there  are  no  wrings.  Erom  the  inner  surface 
of  the  cephalothorax  are  given  off  various  pro 
cesses  serving  for  muscular  insertions,  forming 
at  the  bottom  a  solid  horizontal  plate,  a  kind 
of  internal  skeleton  attached  to  the  sternal 
plates  by  ligaments.  The.  muscles  are  dirty 
yellow,  transversely  striated,  and  in  general 
disposition  like  those  of  crustaceans  ;  the  prin 
cipal  masses  are  found  in  the  cephalothorax, 
acting  on  the  mouth,  tactile  organs,  and  legs ; 
in  those  with  an  unarticulated  abdomen  there 
are  numerous  interlacing  fibres  encompassing 
this  part,  and  sending  processes  among  the 
!  organs  and  to  the  ventral  tendinous  ligament. 
The  locomotive  organs  on  the  cephalothorax 
are  four  pairs  of  legs,  of  which  the  first  in 
some  resembles  a  posterior  pair  of  metamor 
phosed  jaws;  each  foot  usually  ends  in  two 
claws,  but  some  have  only  one,  and  others  three 
or  four;  each  leg  has  usually  seven  joints  ;  in 
some  the  tarsi  have  a  great  number  of  joints, 
which  can  be  readily  dropped  off  for  the  pur 
pose  of  escape,  and  are  reproduced  at  the  time 
of  the  moult.  The  central  part  of  the  ner 
vous  system  is  situated  around  the  oesophagus, 
sending  nerves  to  the  head  and  limbs ;  the 
splanchnic  nerves  for  the  viscera  are  well  de 
veloped.  The  antennas  are  transformed  into 
the  prehensile  and  masticatory  mandibles;  a 
delicate  sense  of  touch  resides  in  the  palpi,  and 
in  the  end  of  the  feet,  which  are  employed 
in  constructing  the  web ;  the  senses  of  taste, 
smell,  arid  hearing  have  not  been  satisfactorily 
localized  in  any  special  organs.  The  eyes  are 
smooth  and  simple  stemmata,  variously  placed 
on  the  cephalothorax  according  to  the  mode 
of  life  of  the  species,  usually  eight,  sometimes 
six,  of  different  sizes,  grouped  symmetrically 
on  the  anterior  median  line  or  scattered  on  its 
lateral  border,  and  directed  accordingly  up 
ward  or  laterally ;  the  diurnal  species  have  the 
pigment  greenish,  reddish,  or  dark,  and  the 
nocturnal  splendidly  lustrous,  as  in  the  cats. 
The  cheliceres  or  fangs  have  the  form  of  bi- 
articulated  antennas,  the  basal  joint  being  very 
thick,  and  the  terminal  one  a  very  sharp  hook 
folded  under  the  former  when  not  in  use, 
but  capable  of  erection  for  defence  or  seizing 
prey,  and  having  at  the  apex  the  opening  of 
the  duct  of  a  poison  gland ;  the  first  pair  of 
maxillas  are  changed  into  very  long  tactile  or 
prehensile  organs,  the  upwardly  directed  prom 
inences  of  whose  basal  joints  cover  the  en 
trance  of  the  mouth,  and  serve  as  bruising 
organs ;  there  is  also  a  tumid  hairy  upper  lip ; 
the  borders  of  the  oral  cavity  may  be  approx 
imated  so  as  to  form  a  suctorial  canal,  as  well 
as  the  very  short  and  horny  oesophagus.  The 
stomach  is  in  the  cephalothorax,  and  is  divi 
ded  behind  the  sucking  apparatus  into  lateral 
halves  extending  in  an  arched  manner  in  front, 
where  they  become  contiguous  or  united  into 
a  ring,  from  which  are  given  off  four  or  five 
pairs  of  casca  directed  toward  the  insertion  of 


264 


SPIDER 


the  legs  and  palpi;  the  intestine  arises  from 
this  annular  stomach,  traverses  the  abdomen 
on  the  median  line,  and  before  ending  at  the 
anus  forms  a  cloacal  dilatation ;  salivary  glands 
exist  in  a  cavity  above  the  palate,  communi 
cating  with  the  mouth  by  a  slit  in  the  upper 
lip ;  .the  liver  is  very  large,  enveloping  most  of 
the  viscera,  of  a  dirty  yellow,  made  up  of  nu 
merous  branches  and  closely  aggregated  caeca, 
opening  into  the  middle  portion  of  the  intes 
tine.  The  blood  is  colorless ;  there  is  a  heart, 
dorsal  vessel  with  many  constrictions,  arteries, 
and  vessels  returning  the  blood  from  the  respi 
ratory  organs.  Respiration  takes  place  both 
by  pulmonary  sacs  and  trachea),  one  or  the 
other  penetrating  all  parts  of  the  body  and 
limbs ;  there  are  two  sacs  occupying  the  base 
of  the  abdomen,  containing  more  or  less  la 
mellae  ;  the  blood  penetrates  to  the  respiratory 
system  probably  by  a  kind  of  infiltration. 
Distinct  urinary  organs  are  present,  much 
ramified  glandular  tubes  pouring  a  whitish  or 
reddish  secretion  into  the  cloaca.  There  are 
two  poison  glands  at  the  base  of  the  cheli- 
ceres,  communicating  with  their  terminal  hook. 
The  apparatus  which  secretes  the  viscid  trans 
parent  liquid,  hardening  into  silk  on  expo 
sure  to  the  air,  consists  of  glandular  follicles 
and  tubes,  of  various  forms  and  arrangement, 
in  the  midst  of  the  abdominal  organs;  in 
most  spiders  there  are  three  pairs  (in  some 
two)  of  jointed  spinnerets  or  obtusely  conical 
papilla)  behind  the  anus  ;  the  apex  of  these 
papilko  is  surrounded  by  stiff  bristles  and 
hairs,  and  is  dotted  with  numerous  horny 
tubes,  the  prolongation  of  the  excretory  ducts; 
the  number  of  the  tubes  varies  from  1,000 
in  epe'ira  to  less  than  100  in  the  smaller  spe 
cies.  The  sexes  are  separate,  and  the  eggs  are 
numerous  and  spheroidal ;  a  single  impreg 
nation  is  sufficient  for  several  successive  gen 
erations.  There  is  generally  only  one  brood  in 
a  year;  the  embryos  are  developed  after  the 
deposition  of  the  eggs,  and  are  hatched  some 
times  in  a  few  weeks,  and  at  others  not  till  the 
following  spring  ;  the  eggs  are  enveloped  in  a 
silken  bag,  from  which  the  young  are  some 
times  helped  out  by  the  mother;  they  resemble 
the  parents  except  in  size,  and  undergo  no 
metamorphosis  but  change  of  skin ;  life  may  be 
prolonged  for  several  years.  Only  the  system 
of  classification  of  Walckenaer  will  be  briefly 
given  here,  as  it  places  stress  on  the  most  in 
teresting  points  in  their  economy,  though  not 
affording  a  sufficient  basis  for  natural  classifica 
tion.  He  divides  the  spinning  spiders  into  ter 
restrial  and  aquatic,  as  follows :  I.  Venantes, 
always  running  or  leaping  near  their  abode  in 
search  of  prey,  with  the  families  :  1,  latebrico- 
ICB,  hiding  in  holes  and  fissures,  like  my gale ;  2, 
tuMcolcs,  enclosing  themselves  in  silken  tubes 
(dysdera,  segestria) ;  3,  cellulicolce,  living  in 
small  cells  (scytodes) ;  4,  cursores,  swift  runners 
(lycosa,  ctenus) ;  5,  saltatores,  leaping  with 
agility  (attus).  II.  Vagantcs,  wandering  after 
prey,  without  fixed  residence  except  while  lay 


ing  eggs,  with  family  6,  laterigradw,  walking 
and  running  sideways  or  backward,  and  occa 
sionally  throwing  out  threads  to  entrap  their 
prey  (thomism).  III.  Errantes\  prowling  in 
the  neighborhood  of  their  nests  or  threads, 
with  families:  7,  niditelcG,  going  abroad,  but 
making  a  web  whence  issue  threads  to  entrap 
prey  (clubiona,  drassus) ;  8,  filiteloe,  spreading 
long  threads  about  their  prowling  places  (phol- 
cus,  cloiho).  IV.  Sedentes,  spinning  large  webs 
and  lying  in  wait  in  the  middle  or  at  the  side, 
with  families  :  '9,  tapitelm,  spinning  large  webs 
of  close  texture  in  which  they  dwell  (tegenaria, 
agelena) ;  10,  orbitelce,  spreading  orbicular  or 
spiral  webs  of  a  regular  open  texture,  living  in 
the  middle  or  at  the  side  (epeira)  ;  11,  retitelcB, 
spinning  irregular  webs  of  open  meshes,  re 
maining  in  the  middle  or  on  the  side  (theridion). 
V.  Natantes,  swimmers,  spreading  filaments  in 
water,  with  family:  12,  aquitelce  (argyroneta). 
— Spiders  are  found  in  every  habitable  portion 
of  the  globe,  but  are  largest  in  warm  climates ; 
the  males  and  females  live  separately,  and  the 
latter  are  most  frequently  seen  and  are  consid- 
era.bly  the  larger  ;  all  are  carnivorous,  devour 
ing  living  prey,  sucking  the  juices  and  some 
times  swallowing  the  fragments ;  the  females 
are  generally  ready  to  attack  and  feed  on  the 
males,  even  in  the  reproducing  season,  and 
both  sexes  are  fond  of  fighting,  the  vanquished 
being  devoured  ;  they  can  support  long  fasts, 
and  remain  torpid  during  the  winter  ;  they  are 
very  cleanly,  and  spend  much  time  in  clearing 
their  limbs  from  dust  and  dirt  by  the  toothed 
combs  and  brushes  on  the  mandibles.  In  ma 
king  their  webs  they  accommodate  themselves 
remarkably  to  circumstances,  displaying  great 
perseverance,  ingenuity,  and  almost  intelli 
gence  ;  they  carefully  guard  their  eggs,  some 
times  carrying  about  with  them  the  silken  bag 
which  contains  them,  and  are  affectionate  to 
their  young,  which  in  some  cases  devour  their 
mother.  They  descend  by  their  silken  threads 
head  downward,  but  climb  up  on  them  head 
upward,  rolling  them  into  a  bundle  during  the 
ascent ;  the  thread  cannot  be  used  a  second 
time  for  the  same  purpose.  When  they  wish  to 
go  from  tree  to  tree,  some  let  go  a  thread  in  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  and  when  it  has  reached 
the  object  they  strengthen  and  pass  over  it,  in 
this  way  travelling  long  distances  without  de 
scending  to  the  ground ;  their  tiny  cables  are 
very  abundantly  seen  in  dewy  mornings  of 
spring  and  autumn  ;  some  small  gossamer  spi 
ders  even  speed  through  the  air  buoyed  up  by 
their  light  threads.  They  are  capable  of  some 
domestication  ;  Pelisson,  a  prisoner  in  the  Bas- 
tile,  had  a  pet  spider  which  came  regularly,  at 
the  sound  of  a  musical  instrument,  to  get  its 
meal  of  flies ;  and  a  spider  raiser  in  France  is 
said  to  have  tamed  800,  which  he  kept  in  a  sin 
gle  apartment  for  their  silk.  The  supply  of  the 
silk  of  the  spider  seems  to  be  limited  to  suffi 
cient  to  make  six  or  seven  webs  in  a  season ;  it  is 
very  strong  and  very  fine,  and  is  used  in  astron 
omy  for  the  divisions  of  the  micrometer ;  ac- 


SPIDER 


265 


cording  to  Leeuwenhoek,  it  takes  4,000,000  of 
the  extremely  delicate  threads  from  the  thou 
sands  of  spinnerules  to  make  a  filament  as  large 
as  a  human  hair  ;  each  thread  of  the  spider  as 
used  in  the  web  is  made  up  of  thousands  of 
smaller  ones ;  one  or  all  the  spinnerets  may  be 
used  as  occasion  requires.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  render  the  silk  of  the  spider  avail 
able  for  manufacturing  purposes,  but  with  lit 
tle  success.  (See  COBWEB,  and  SILK  SPIDER.) 
Spiders  are  eaten  by  many  barbarous  tribes 
of  men,  as  the  American  Indians,  S.  Africans, 
and  Australians;  they  also  supply  abundant 
food  to  many  birds,  reptiles,  and  carnivorous 
insects.  They  are  affected  and  frequently  de 
stroyed  by  parasitic  mites,  and  their  eggs  serve 
•to  nourish  the  young  larvae  of  several  species 
of  ichneumon  flies ;  the  smallest  puncture  in 
the  chest  or  abdomen  is  fatal  from  the  impos-  ! 
sibility  of  arresting  the  escape  of  the  nutrient  | 
fluids;  their  colors  fade  rapidly  after  death, 
even  in  preservative  liquids.  A  single  wound 
from  a  spider  will  soon  kill  the  domestic  fly ; 
the  large  crab  spiders  of  South  America  (my- 
gale)  leap  upon  and  destroy  humming  birds  and 
creepers,  and  produce  dangerous  and  occasion 
ally  fatal  symptoms  in  debilitated  persons ; 
every  physician  knows  that  even  the  bite  of 
the  smaller  spiders  of  temperate  climates  may 
pierce  the  skin  in  certain  localities,  and  cause 
painful  irritation. — For  descriptions  and  figures 
of  the  species  of  the  United  States  see  papers 
by  N.  M.  Hentz  in  yols.  iv.,  v.,  and  vi.  of  the 
"Boston  Journal  of  Natural  History"  (1841- 
'57),  now  in  course  of  republication,  with  fig 
ures  by  the  same  society  (1875).  The  genus 
mygale  (Walck.)  contains  the  largest  of  the 
spiders,  of  dark  colors,  nocturnal,  living  in 
galleries  which  they  make  in  the  ground,  in 
clefts  of  trees,  crevices  in  rocks,  or  among 
leaves.  The  crab  or  bird  spider  of  South 
America  (M.  avicularia,  Walck.)  is  about  3  in. 
long,  its  legs  extending  over  a  space  of  8  or  10 
in. ;  the  body  is  very  hairy  and  blackish,  and 
the  ends  of  the  feet  are  reddish ;  it  is  very 
powerful,  jumping  upon  and  killing  small  birds ; 
it  spins  no  web ;  its  cell  is  in  the  form  of  a 
pointed  tube,  of  a  white  firm  tissue.  There  are 
some  large  species  in  the  southern  states,  feed 
ing  principally  on  the  large  orthoptera,  believed 
by  the  Indians  to  possess  valuable  medicinal 
properties,  and  eaten  accordingly.  A  large 
species  (J/.  Hentzii)  in  Texas  is  called  there  ta 
rantula  ;  other  species  in  California  are  called 
trap-door  spiders,  from  their  hollowing  a  more 
or  less  conical  nest,  about  3  in.  long  and  an 
inch  in  diameter,  in  the  clayey  soil ;  the  nests 
are  lined  with  silk,  with  an  accurately  fitting 
lid,  so  arranged  that  the  inmate  can  firmly 
hold  it  down  against  ordinary  enemies;  the 
cover  outside  so  nearly  resembles  the  surround 
ing  earth  in  color  and  roughness  as  to  be  rec 
ognized  with  difficulty.  For  an  account  of  the 
curious  devices  in  the  interior  arrangement  of 
these  nests,  see  "  Proceedings  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History"  for  1875.  The 


species  of  the  genus  lycosa  (Latr.)  are  well 
called  wolf  spiders,  for  they  are  the  most  sav 
age,  voracious,  and  quarrelsome  of  the  family  ; 
they  make  no  web,  but  prowl  on  the  ground 
by  night,  running  very  fast,  and  hiding  in  nat- 


Wolf  Spider  (Lycosa  fatifera). 

ural  or  artificial  holes  in  the  ground,  which 
they  strengthen  with  silk ;  the  females  carry 
the  cocoon  attached  to  the  posterior  part  of 
the  body,  and  defend  it  with  the  greatest  cour 
age,  some  guarding  it  under  stones  ;  the  young 
when  hatched  climb  on  the  abdomen  of  the 
mother,  giving  her  a  monstrous  appearance, 
and  are  said  finally  to  devour  her.  One  of 
the  largest  and  most  common  species  is  the  L. 
fatifera  (Hentz),  about  1-^  in.  long,  hairy,  and 
bluish  black ;  it  is  as  large  as  the  tarantula  of 
Europe,  which  belongs  to  this  genus,  and  is  not 
uncommon  in  Massachusetts ;  it  must  rarely 
bite  persons,  from  its  habits  and  haunts,  though 
its  poison  may  produce  ill  consequences  if 
introduced  under  the  skin,  not  however  to  be 
compared  with  those  from  the  mygale  of  the 
tropics  ;  it  is  very  savage  and  tenacious  of  life. 
The  genus  attus  (Walck.)  includes  the  small 
species  commonly  called  jumping  spiders ;  they 
make  no  web,  wander  in  search  of  prey,  and 
cast  the  skin  and  hibernate  in  silken- valved 
recesses  ;  they  are  common  in 
summer  on  walls  and  windows 
in  the  sun,  walking  by  jerks, 
crawling  stealthily  up  to  flies, 
and  jumping  with  rarely  failing- 
accuracy  when  near  enough. 
The  best  known  jumping  spi 
der  in  New  England  is  the  A. 
familiaris  (Hentz),  about  ^  in.  jumping  Spider 
long,  pale  gray  and  hairy,  the  (Altus  familiaris). 
abdomen  blackish  with  a  gray 
ish  angular  band ;  it  is  very  common  in  houses, 
dwelling  in  cracks  on  the  outside,  and  wan 
dering  about  in  the  sun  in  search  of  food  ; 
before  leaping  at  a  fly,  it  fixes  a  thread  to 
secure  itself  from  falling.  It  is  widely  dis- 


286 


SPIDER 


SPIDER  CRAB 


tributed.  Its  backward  gait  is  as  rapid  as 
its  forward.  The  long-legged  spider  (pholcus 
Atlanticus,  Hentz)  is  about  *  in.  long,  with 
a  narrow  body  and  very  long  slender  legs, 
which  are  easily  separated  at  the  will  of  the 
animal  when  seized  by  them  ;  the  color  is  pale 
gray ;  it  is  common  in 
corners  of  dark  and  rare 
ly  used  rooms,  in  cellars 
and  churches,  spinning  a 
very  loose  web  crossed 
in  all  directions,  which  is 
very  rapidly  shaken  when 
touched ;  the  eggs  are  car 
ried  in  the  jaws,  envel 
oped  in  a  silken  bag,  and 
about  200  young  are  rolled 
in  a  ball  not  larger  than  a 
pea ;  the  food  consists  of 


Common  House  Spider 
(Tegenaria  medicinulis). 


very  small  insects,  though 


they  eagerly  devour  each 
other,  especially  when 
young ;  they  are  favorite  food  for  wasps,  who 
store  their  cells  with  them  as  a  provision  for 
their  young.  The  European  representative  is 
the  P.  phalangioides  (Walck.).  The  common 
house  spider  (tegenaria  mcdicinalis,  Hentz)  is 
found  in  every  house  and  cellar  in  the  land ;  the 
cheliceres  are  moderate,  and  the  fourth  pair  of 
feet  the  longest;  the  upper  two  spinnerets  are 
remarkably  larger  than  the  others,  and  the  four 
anterior  eyes  in  a  line  curved  backward.  It  is 
sedentary,  making  in  an  obscure  corner  a  large 
and  nearly  horizontal  web,  with  a  tubular  hab 
itation  at  the  upper  part ;  it  is  not  quite  an 
inch  long,  varying  in  color  from  pale  brown  to 
bluish  black  according  to  the  absence  of  light 
in  its  retreat,  with  a  dark  band  on  each  side  of 
the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen  and  feet  varied 
with  blackish ;  the  specific  name  is  derived 
from  the  use  formerly  made  of  the  web  in 
cases  of  fever.  In  cpe'ira  (Walck.)  the  web  is 
either  vertical  or  inclined,  and  the  threads  are 
arranged  in  a  more  or  less  regularly  geometri 
cal  manner,  radiating  from  the  centre,  where 
the  animal  remains,  ac 
cording  to  the  absence  of 
disturbing  causes.  The 
common  epe'ira  (E.  vul 
gar  is,  Hentz)  is  less  than 
an  inch  long,  with  a  full 
body,  gray  with  blackish 
abdomen,  with  winding 
white  marks  and  a  white 
cross  in  the  middle  ;  it 
may  almost  be  said  to  be 
domesticated,  its  geomet 
rical  web  being  so  often 
met  with  near  the  win 
dows  of  houses.  The 
webs  of  the  spider,  like 
the  cells  of  the  bee,  are  not  geometrically  per 
fect  ;  their  irregularity  can  generally  be  de 
tected  even  by  the  unassisted  eye. — The  long- 
legged,  round-bodied  spider,  commonly  called 
"  father  long-legs,"  is  one  of  the  trachearian 


Common  Epe'ira 
(Epeira  vulgaris). 


arachnids,  so  named  from  the  respiratory  or 
gans  being  radiated  tracheae,  receiving  air 
through  two  stigmatic  openings  ;  it  is  the  har 
vest  spider  (phalangium  cornutum,  Linn.)  in 
Europe,  and  an  allied  species  in  the  United 
States.  The  eyes  are  two  ;  the  mandibles  end 
in  double  pincers ;  the  legs  are  eight,  slender, 
and  when  separated  from  the  body  exhibit 
signs  of  irritability  for  some  time.  They  are 
harmless,  preying  upon  mites  and  small  in 
sects,  and  are  very  common  in  the  fields. — 
Many  small  spiders  fly  about  on  their  silken 
threads,  carried  far  by  currents  of  wind. — Of 
the  arachnida,  the  scorpions  appeared  first  in 
the  carboniferous  epoch,  and  the  true  spiders 
in  the  Jurassic  age. — See  "  American  Natural 
ist,"  vols.  v.  (May,  1871),  vi.  (March,  1872), 
and  viii.  (October,  1874),  for  descriptions  and 
figures.  See  also  various  articles  on  spiders  by 
Dr.  Hurt  G.  Wilder,  in  "Proceedings  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science,"  1873,  and  the  "Popular  Science 
Monthly,"  April,  1875.  For  further  details 
sec  chap,  xviii.  of  Rennie's  "  Insect  Architec 
ture,"  the  works  of  Kirby  and  Spence,  arid 
particularly  the  JListoire  des  insectes  apteres 
(Nbuvelles  suites  d  Bvffon},  by  Baron  Walcke- 
naer  (vols.  i.,  ii.,  and  i'ii.,  8vo,  Paris,  1887-'44). 
(See  MITE,  SCORPION,  and  SILK  SPIDEII.) 

SPIDER   CttAB,  or  Sea  Spider,   the  name   of 
several  species  of  ten-footed  short-tailed  crus- 


Spider  Crab  (Maia  squinado.) 

taceans  of  the  crab  family,  and  more  particu 
larly  of  the  lilnnia  canaliciilata  of  North 
America  and  the  maia  squinado  of  Europe. 
In  L.  canaliciilata  (Say)  the  thorax  is  densely 
hairy,  with  spines  on  the  borders  and  on  the 
back ;  the  rostrum  is  grooved  at  the  tip  and 
channelled  between  the  eyes  ;  the  anterior  feet 
are  unarmed  and  granulated,  the  hands  elon 
gated,  and  the  fingers  white  at  tip.  The  body 
is  convex  and  heart-shaped,  4  in.  in  diameter, 
the  long  legs  spreading  over  12  to  16  in. ;  the 
eyes  small  and  very  short ;  it  is  blackish  green, 


SPIDER  MONKEY 


SPINACH 


267 


very  active,  and  ferocious-looking ;  it  is  often 
caught  in  nets,  and  from  the  wharves  and 
bridges  of  New  England ;  it  is  not  used  for 
food.  The  M.  squinado  (Latr.),  or  corwich, 
is  reddish,  and  4  to  6  in.  long;  the  body  is 
covered  with  spines  and  hairs ;  it  is  found 
along  the  coasts  of  W.  Europe  and  in  the  Med 
iterranean,  making  its  appearance  in  Great 
Britain  about  May  and  remaining  till  Septem 
ber,  greatly  annoying  the  fishermen  by  fright 
ening  away  fish  and  larger  crabs  and  lobsters 
from  the  nets  by  its  constant  movements ;  it 
is  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes  ;  the  young  when 
first  hatched  are  very  unlike  their  parents  ;  as 
many  as  80,000  eggs  have  been  found  on  a 
single  female.  The  ancients  believed  it  to  be 
endowed  with  reason,  and  represented  it  sus 
pended  from  the  neck  of  Diana  of  Ephesus  as 
an  emblem  of  wisdom  ;  it  is  also  figured  on 
their  medals. — Lithodes  arctica  (Latr.)  is  also 
called  spider  crab  ;  the  body  is  spiny,  and  the 
long  beak  bifurcated  ;  the  hands  small  and  un 
equal,  the  limbs  long  and  hairy,  and  the  fifth 
pair  imperfect ;  it  is  reddish  yellow,  spreading 
about  20  in.,  and  a  hideous-looking  species ; 
it  is  found  on  the  coast  of  Norway. 

SPIDER  MONKEY,  or  Coaita.     See  MONKEY. 

SPIEGEL,  Friedrich,  a  German  orientalist,  born 
at  Kitzingen,  near  Wiirzburg,  July  11,  1820. 
After  studying  at  Erlangen,  Leipsic,  and  Bonn, 
and  spending  several  years  in  travel,  he  be 
came  in  1849  professor  of  oriental  languages 
at  Erlangen.  Besides  editing  several  Persian 
works,  he  has  published  Einleitung  in  die 
traditionellen  Schriftcn  der  Parsen  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1856-'60);  Die  altpersischen  Keilin- 
scliriften  ^(Leipsic,  1802)  ;  Eranische  Alter- 
thumsknn'de  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1871-'3) ;  and 
several  grammars  and  minor  treatises  bearing 
on  Iranian  antiquities,  religion,  language,  liter 
ature,  and  ethnology. 

SPIELIIAGEN,  Friedrich,  a  German  novelist, 
born  in  Magdeburg,  Feb.  24,  1829.  He  studied 
at  Berlin,  Bonn,  and  Greifswald,  and  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  His  works  are :  Clara 
Vere  (1857);  Avf  d'er  Dane  (1858);  Proble- 
matisclte  Naturen  (1860,  English  translation 
"  Problematic  Characters,"  by  Prof.  Schele  de 
Vere,  New  York,  1869),  and  its  continuation, 
Durch  Naclit  zum  LicJit  (1861 ;  English  trans 
lation,  "  Through  Night  to  Light,"  by  the 
same,  New  York,  1869);  In  der  zwolften 
Stunde  (1862);  Die  Ton  Ilohcmtein  (1863; 
English  translation,  "The  Hohensteins,"  by 
the  same,  1870)  ;  Roschen  vom  Hofe  (1864) ; 
In  Reih  und  Glied  (1866) ;  Unterdcn  Tannen 
(1867);  Hammer  und  Amloss  (1869;  English 
translation,  "Hammer  and  Anvil,"  by  William 
Hand  Browne,  1873);  Die  Pioniere  (1871); 
Alle  Zeit  voran  (1872) ;  Was  die  Schwrdbe  sang 
(1873;  English  translation,  "  What  the  Swallow 
Sang,"  1873);  Ultimo  (1874);  and  Liebe  far 
Liele  (1875),  a  drama,  which  has  been  played 
in  Leipsic.  He  has  translated  Curtis's  "IIo- 
wadji  "  (Hanover,  1857),  Emerson's  "English 
Traits"  (1858),  American  poems  by  various 


authors  (Leipsic,  1859 ;  3d  ed.,  1871),  Roscoe's 
"Lorenzo  de' Medici"  (1859),  and  several  of 
Michelet's  works.  A  collected  edition  of  his 
works  has  been  published  at  Berlin  (10  vols., 
1872-'3). 

SPIESS,  Heinrich,  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Munich,  May  10,  1832,  died  there,  Aug.  8, 
1875.  He  was  the  son  of  an  engraver,  com 
pleted  his  studies  under  Kaulbach,  whom  he 
assisted  in  his  -cartoon  of  "  The  Crusaders," 
and  executed  a  celebrated  copy  of  his  "Angel 
carrying  a  Dead  Child  to  Heaven."  In  1855 
he  was  employed  by  Kaulbach  in  decorating 
the  Wartburg,  and  he  was  one  of  the  school 
of  artists  known  as  "young  Munich,"  led  by 
Faltz.  In  1856  he  obtained  a  prize  for  his 
"Jacob  Wrestling  with  the  Angel,"  and  in 
1861-'2  he  painted  for  the  museum  of  Munich 
the  great  frescoes  relating  to  the  pilgrimage 
of  Duke  Henry  the  Lion  to  Jerusalem,  and  to 
his  quelling  the  disturbances  at  St.  Peter's  at 
the  coronation  of  the  emperor  Frederick  I. 

SPIRE,     See  NAIL. 

SPIKENARD.  The  ancients,  under  the  name 
of  nard  (Heb.  nerd  ;  Gr.  vdpdos ;  Lat.  nardus), 
made  use  of  several  roots  having  properties 
similar  to  valerian ;  one  having  its  flowers  (or 
leaves)  in  spikes  was  called  spikenard  (nardus 
spicatus),  and,  according  to  Boyle,  was  the 
plant  now  known  to  botanists  as  nardostacliys 
Jatamansi,  which  belongs  to  the  valerian  fam 
ily  and  is  found  in  Bengal;  it  is  now  quite 
out  of  use  except  in  the  East.  There  were 
also  a  leafy  nard,  a  rooting  nard,  and  others 
designated  by  the  names  of  the  countries  pro 
ducing  them. — The  plant  called  spikenard  in 
tins  country  is  aralia  racemosa.  Other  species 
of  aralia  are  mentioned  under  GINSENG  and 
SARSAPAEILLA.  This  has  a  herbaceous,  widely 
branched  stem,  3  to  5  ft.  high,  from  a  perennial 
root;  the  large  decompound  leaves  ternately 
or  quinately  divided  with  heart-ovate  leaflets ; 
the  flowers,  in  umbels,  which  are  united  to 
form  large  panicles,  are  polygamous  or  perfect, 
greenish  white,  and  succeeded  by  small  dark 
purple  berries.  The  plant  is  found  from  Can 
ada  southward,  and  is  sometimes  seen  in  gar 
dens  of  medicinal  plants ;  both  root  and  ber 
ries  have  a  warm,  aromatic  taste,  and  a  tincture 
of  them  made  with  spirits  is  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  a  popular  domestic  stimulant. 
The  root  appears  to  be  a  stimulant  diaphoretic, 
and  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  Indians. 

SPINACH,  a  plant  of  the  clienopodiacece  or 
goosefoot  family,  S'pinacia  oleracea,  the  leaves 
of  which  are  used  as  food.  According  to  some 
authors,  the  botanical  and  common  names  are 
derived  from  the  Latin  spina,  a  thorn,  as  some 
varieties  have  prickly  seeds ;  others  say  that  it 
is  called  in  various  languages  by  names  equiv 
alent  to  Hispanica,  Spanish.  Spinach  was  not 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  it  was  a  novelty  in 
Europe  in  the  16th  century.  It  is  probably  a 
native  of  western  Asia.  The  plant  is  culti 
vated  both  as  an  annual  and  a  biennial ;  it  has 
petioled,  ovate  or  triangular,  succulent  leaves ; 


268 


SPINAL   COED 


SPINAL  DISEASES 


the  flower  stalks  are  2  to  3  ft.  high,  hollow, 
furrowed,  and  branching;  the  apetalous  flow 
ers  are  dioecious,  the  male  in  long  spikes,  the 
female  in  clusters  at  every  joint  of  the  stem ; 
the  calyx  in  the  pistillate  flowers  hardens  and 
forms  an  involucre  to  the  seeds,  and  in  some 


Spinach. 


varieties  has  two  or  three  horns  on  the  sides. 
But  few  varieties  are  known,  the  principal 
being  the  prickly,  the  smooth-seeded,  and  the 
lettuce-leaved. 

SPINAL  CORD.     See  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

SPOIAL  DISEASES,  the  common  appellation  of 
diseases  affecting  the  bony  spinal  column  and 
the  spinal  cord  and  its  membranes.  The  prin 
cipal  diseases  of  the  spinal  column  are  lateral 
curvature  and  angular  curvature  or  Pott's  dis 
ease,  sometimes  called  scrofulous  caries  of  the 
spine.  Lateral  curvature  is  the  more  common, 
and  usually  affects  girls  between  10  and  20 
years  of  age  and  women  of  sedentary  habits. 
Those  who  take  much  exercise  are  not  often 
its  subjects,  as  the  symmetry  of  the  spinal  col 
umn  is  preserved  principally  by  the  action  of 
the  muscles.  In  its  early  stages  lateral  curva 
ture  is  apt  to  escape  detection,  the  first  notice 
taken  of  it  being  generally  the  prominence 
of  one  shoulder,  more  frequently  the  right,  or 
some  elevation  of  the  hip.  The  curvature  is 
always  double ;  that  is,  when  a  curve  has  taken 
place  in  the  upper  dorsal  region,  a  complemen 
tary  curve  in  the  opposite  direction  will  be 
found  in  the  lumbar  region,  giving  the  spine  a 
sigmoid  appearance.  Lateral  curvature  is  also 
usually  accompanied  with  more  or  less  rotation 
of  the  spinal  column,  due  to  the  action  of  the 
ribs,  which  are  carried  down  on  one  side  more 
than  on  the  other.  The  treatment  in  slight 
cases  is  good  diet,  pure  air,  and  well  regulated 
exercise,  and  sometimes  the  administration  of 
ferruginous  tonics.  When  the  curvature  is 
considerable,  stays,  braces,  and  bandages  will 
be  of  service ;  but  they  must  not  take  the  place 
of  exercise,  and  should  be  regarded  as  expe 
dients  rather  than  curative  agents.  Posturing 
and  great  attention  to  the  position  of  the  body 


when  lying  in  bed  should  be  employed  as  the 
chief  hygienic  measures. — Angular  curvature, 
or  Pott's  disease,  is  caused  by  inflammation  of 
the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  and  of  the  inter  ver 
tebral  substance,  usually  commencing  in  the 
latter.  It  is  often  accompanied  with  tubercle, 
and  some  hold  that  it  is  essentially  a  scrofu 
lous  disease.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  cur 
vature  is  caries,  and  it  most  commonly  shows 
itself  during  the  period  of  bodily  development, 
usually  attacking  the  lower  dorsal  region. 
Recovery  sometimes  takes  place  without  pus 
making  its  appearance,  but  "spinal  abscess" 
is  a  common  accompaniment,  the  pus  point 
ing  in  the  groin,  and  finding  its  way  from  the 
dorsal  region  beneath  the  fascia  of  the  psoas 
muscle,  under  Poupart's  ligament,  forming 
what  is  known  as  "  psoas  abscess."  The  pus 
sometimes  burrows  beneath  the  muscles  and 
involves  the  whole  thigh.  The  abscess  some 
times  appears  above  Poupart's  ligament,  and 
sometimes  in  the  loin,  forming  in  the  latter 
case  "  lumbar  abscess."  "When  the  cervical 
vertebra)  are  affected,  the  abscess  appears  in 
the  pharynx.  Angular  curvature  is  not  diffi 
cult  of  diagnosis,  as  the  ill  health,  suppuration, 
and  deformity  are  highly  indicative.  The  in 
itiatory  symptoms  are  also  not  obscure,  the 
principal  being  the  persistent  local  pain  and 
difficulty  in  bending  the  back,  accompanied  by 
great  general  disturbance  and  hectic  fever. 
After  curvature  has  taken  place  recovery  is 
always  accompanied  by  anchylosis,  from  union 
of  newly  formed  bony  tissue.  The  treatment 
requires  careful  attention  to  the  general  health, 
including  good  diet  and  the  employment  of  ton 
ics  and  alteratives,  such  as  iron,  quinine,  iodine, 
and  cod-liver  oil.  The  local  applications  of  fo 
mentations  and  leeches  and  of  counter-irritants 
are  also  serviceable.  Setons,  moxas,  and  mer 
cury,  as  tending  to  exhaust  the  strength,  are  to 
be  avoided.  On  getting  up,  the  patient's  back 
should  be  supported  by  some  kind  of  mechanical 
appliance.  The  abscess  should  not  be  opened 
too  hastily,  for  it  may  be  absorbed;  but  when 
it  progresses  steadily  a  free  opening  should  be 
made,  under  a  piece  of  lint  saturated  with  car- 
bolated  oil,  to  prevent  entrance  of  air. — The 
principal  diseases  of  the  spinal  cord,  that  is, 
the  pathological  conditions  to  which  it  is  sub 
ject,  are  spinal  meningitis,  myelitis,  and  spinal 
apoplexy.  These  conditions  give  rise  to  or  aid 
in  developing  a  variety  of  symptoms,  which  in 
turn  are  classed  as  diseases,  such  as  paralysis 
(including  paraplegia  and  spinal  hemiplegia), 
general  spinal  paralysis,  and  locomotor  ataxia. 
The  diseases  known  as  progressive  muscular 
atrophy  and  infantile  paralysis,  although  their 
causes  are  not  clearly  made  out,  are  generally 
considered  to  be  connected  with  affections  of 
the  spinal  cord. — Spinal  Meningitis,  or  inflam 
mation  of  the  membranes  of  the  spinal  cord, 
corresponds  to  inflammation  of  the  correspond 
ing  membranes  of  the  brain,  and  rarely  occurs 
in  the  arachnoid  and  pia  mater  independently 
of  cerebral  meningitis,  except  in  cases  pro- 


SPINAL  DISEASES 


269 


duced  by  injuries  or  diseases  of  the  spinal  col 
umn,  or  structural  affections  within  'the  spi 
nal  canal.  The  affection  is  therefore  almost 
always  cerebro-spinal.  (See  BKAEST,  DISEASES 
or  THE.)  Fibrinous  exudation,  serous  effusion, 
and  generally  pus  follow  the  inflammation,  the 
serum  being  often  tinged  with  blood.  The  at 
tack  may  be  acute  or  chronic.  When  acute  it 
extends  over  the  whole  or  greater  part  of  the 
membranes  of  the  cord,  but  chronic  menin 
gitis  is  usually  limited  in  extent,  and  the  in 
flammation  is  accompanied  by  fewer  patholo 
gical  changes.  Acute  spinal  meningitis  is  re 
garded  by  many  authorities  as  incurable,  while 
others  assert  that  mild  cases  sometimes  recov 
er.  The  symptoms  are  pain  in  the  spine  and 
in  the  extremities,  increased  more  by  move 
ments  of  the  body  than  by  pressure.  There 
are  also  spasms  of  the  muscles  of  the  back, 
either  persistent  or  convulsive,  often  producing 
that  rigid  bending  of  the  body  backward  called 
opisthotonos ;  also  tonic  contraction  of  the 
thoracic  muscles,  and  consequently  difficulty  of 
breathing.  These  symptoms  are  followed  by 
paralysis,  caused  by  pressure  of  the  products  of 
the  inflammation  (fi  brinous  exudation,  effused 
serum,  or  pus).  The  paralysis  may  be  confined 
to  the  lower  extremities,  or  it  may  be  general, 
and  it  is  usually  limited  to  motion,  while  there 
is  preternatural  sensibility.  The  disease  runs 
a  rapid  course,  often  terminating  fatally  within 
a  week.  Apnoea,  or  suspension  of  the  respira 
tory  function  from  involvement  of  the  roots 
of  the  respiratory  nerves,  is  the  usual  mode  of 
death.  The  treatment,  in  cases  not  dependent 
on  blood  poisoning,  comprises  the  application 
of  cups  and  -  leeches,  setons,  moxas,  blisters, 
antimonial  ointment,  and  croton  oil,  and  also 
of  belladonna  and  chloroform  and  the  warm 
bath  to  relieve  pain.  Iodide- of  potassium  is 
often  given  in  large  doses  to  promote  absorp 
tion  of  the  products  of  inflammation.  The  diet 
should  be  nutritious,  but  some  authorities  in 
terdict  the  use  of  animal  food. — Epidemic 
Cerebro- Spinal  Meningitis.  Although  there 
are  cases  of  cerebro-spinal  meningitis  which 
are  idiopathic,  and  it  is  therefore  then  to  be 
'regarded  as  truly  a  spinal  disease,  the  vast  ma 
jority  of  cases  are  of  epidemic  origin,  and  the 
spinal  lesions  are  therefore  secondary  affec 
tions,  depending  upon  blood  poisoning.  The 
disease  is  then  called  epidemic  cerebro-spinal 
meningitis,  a  dangerous  affection  which  has 
of  late  prevailed  extensively  in  different  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  From  the 
appearance  of  certain  spots  upon  the  skin 
during  the  course  of  the  disease  it  has  been 
proposed  to  call  it  spotted  fever ;  but  as  these 
spots  are  not  a  constant  accompaniment,  the 
proposition  has  not  been  adopted.  The  name 
was  given  to  an  epidemic  which  prevailed  in 
New  England  between  1807  and  1810,  which 
is  supposed  by  many  to  be  the  same  disease, 
but  the  identity  is  not  established.  Some  have 
regarded  epidemic  cerebro-spinal  meningitis  as 
a  variety  of  typhus,  but  the  greater  suddenness 


of  the  attack  and  the  absence  of  the  mulberry 
rash  of  typhus  indicate  a  difference  of  origin. 
The  disease  usually  begins  with  a  chill,  fol 
lowed  by  great  vertigo,  violent  headache,  ob 
stinate  vomiting,  and  muscular  stiffness,  which 
soon  passes  into  tetanus.  The  face  is  pale,  the 
pupils  contracted,  the  conjunctivas  red,  and 
the  skin  exceedingly  sensitive.  The  head  is 
strongly  drawn  back,  even  at  the  end  of  the 
first  or  second  day,  and  there  is  delirium, 
which  soon  passes  into  the  stupor  of  coma. 
The  bodily  temperature  is  variable*,  the  high 
est  occurring  in  the  most  rapidly  fatal  cases. 
"Wunderlich  recognizes  three  forms.  One,  rap 
idly  fatal,  is  accompanied  by  a  high  tempera 
ture,  which  rises  toward  the  approach  of 
death  to  108°  F.,  and  continues  to  rise  for  some 
hours  after  death.  A  second  form  is  slight, 
with  fever  of  short  duration  and  very  irregu 
lar  course ;  a  third  is  protracted,  but  marked 
by  very  great  variation  of  temperature.  The 
pulse  at  the  commencement  is  usually  not 
more  frequent,  often  slower  than  normal,  and 
is  often  intermittent.  It  increases  with  the 
disease,  but  rarely  reaches  more  than  100  beats 
per  minute  until  near  the  fatal  termination, 
when  it  becomes  very  small  and  frequent.  The 
urine  is  increased  in  quantity  and  deposits  a 
large  amount  of  urates,  and  there  is  sometimes 
hasmaturia.  In  from  20  to  GO  hours  after  the 
commencement  a  peculiar  eruption  usually  ap 
pears  upon  the  skin  of  the  neck,  abdomen, 
back,  arms,  legs,  and  face,  composed  of  dis 
tinct  dark  red  or  purple  spots,  somewhat 
larger  than  a  pin's  head.  They  are  not  raised 
above  the  surface,  and  do  not  disappear  upon 
pressure ;  sometimes  they  do  not  become  visi 
ble  till  after  death.  The  tongue  is  moist  and 
creamy  until  the  spasmodic  stage  is  established, 
when  it  becomes  dry,  dark-colored,  and  cov 
ered  with  sordes.  The  duration  of  the  disease 
varies  from  a  few  hours  to  several  weeks ; 
cases  are  reported  as  terminating  fatally  in 
three  or  four  hours,  but  more  than  half  the 
deaths  occur  between  the  second  and  fifth  days. 
Convalesence  may  begin  from  the  fifth  day  to 
the  fourth  week  or  later,  and  is  always  tedious, 
relapses  being  common  and  often  fatal.  The 
treatment  is  various.  Bloodletting  has  been 
practised,  but  with  unfavorable  results,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  depression  of  the 
vital  powers.  The  use  of  quinia  is  regarded 
with  favor,  and  opium  has  its  advocates;  ether 
and  chloroform  have  been  used  by  inhala 
tion  as  sedatives;  and  tincture  of  cantharides 
is  said  to  be  of  service  in  cases  marked  by  ex 
treme  depression.  Counter-irritation,  by  the 
actual  cautery  applied  along  the  spine,  or  by 
blisters,  has  been  followed  by  alleviation  of 
symptoms.  The  use  of  cold  compresses  to 
the  head,  and  of  leeches  behind  the  ears,  is 
also  recommended. — Myelitis,  or  inflammation 
of  the  body  of  the  spinal  cord,  is  similar  to 
cerebritis,  or  inflammation  of  brain  tissue,  and 
may  terminate  fatally  either  in  the  acute  in 
flammatory  stage,  or  by  softening,  by  unde- 


270 


SPINAL  DISEASES 


fined  suppuration,  or  by  abscess;  the  most 
common  mode  being  by  softening,  the  disor 
ganization  involving  the  whole  cord  or  only 
one  column.  Acute  myelitis,  except  as  a  se 
quel  to  spinal  meningitis,  or  when  caused  by 
a  wound,  'is  rare.  The  symptoms  are  similar 
to  those  of  spinal  meningitis,  and  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  two  diseases  are  rarely 
unconnected,  one  inducing  the  other,  the  pri 
mary  disease  being  predominant.  Paralysis 
often  comes  on  in  a  few  hours,  and  is  more 
pronounced  than  in  meningitis.  It  is  usually 
confined  to  the  lower  limbs,  but  involves  the 
upper  extremities  when  the  affection  reaches 
as  high  as  the  fifth  pair  of  cervical  nerves. 
When  the  inflammation  is  in  the  upper  cervical 
and  occipital  sections  of  the  cord,  death  may 
take  place  almost  immediately  from  arrest  of 
respiration.  In  chronic  affections  the  palsied 
limbs  usually  become  atrophied,  and  indura 
tion  or  sclerosis  of  the  cord  ensues,  caused 
by  an  abnormal  growth  of  connective  cellular 
tissue,  accompanied  by  atrophy  of  nerve  tis 
sue.  Myelitis  attacks  subjects  of  all  ages,  but 
more  commonly  adults,  and  is  more  frequent 
in  the  male  than  in  the  female  sex.  The 
treatment  depends  upon  the  intensity  of  the 
attack ;  in  the  majority  of  acute  cases  little 
more  can  be  done  than  to  endeavor  to  relieve 
the  most  urgent  symptoms,  such  as  promoting 
the  action  of  the  bowels  and  preventing  re 
tention  of  urine.  Strychnia  may  be  some 
times  used  in  the  earlier  stages  of  acute  mye 
litis  with  advantage,  and  so  may  the  electric 
current,  and  in  chronic  cases  with  decided  bene 
fit. — Spinal  Apoplexy,  or  haemorrhage  within 
the  spinal  canal,  may  be  caused  by  injuries 
to  the  spinal  membranes,  or  by  degeneration 
of  the  cord.  Extravasations  of  blood  derived 
from  the  membranes  are  chiefly  formed  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  spinal  canal,  and  the  changes 
found  in  the  substance  of  the  cord,  and  the 
blood  clot,  are  similar  to  those  in  cerebral 
apoplexy,  as  described  in  BKAIX,  DISEASES  OF 
THE.  The  effusions  cause  irritation,  pain  in 
the  back,  spasm  of  muscles  below  the  seat  of 
injury,  and  finally  paralysis.  Spinal  apoplexy 
is  distinguished  from  other  paralytic  affections 
by  observing  that  the  attending  paralysis  is 
usually  not  accompanied  by  fever  or  general 
loss  of  nervous  power,  and  other  symptoms. 
The  treatment  is  rest  and  attention  to  the  gen 
eral  state  of  the  health,  with  moderate  counter- 
irritation. — Progressive  Locomotor  Ataxia  (Gr. 
ara£m,  want  of  order).  This  name  has  been 
given  to  a  form  of  paralysis  characterized 
by  disorderly  muscular  movements  in  conse 
quence  of  loss  of  coordinating  power,  which 
has  been  recognized  only  within  the  present 
century.  Duchenne  described  it  in  1858-'9 
more  fully  than  any  previous  author,  and  gave 
it  its  name.  Its  pathology  and  location  had 
been  pointed  out  by  Dr.  f  odd,  but  its  causes 
were  more  fully  investigated  by  Duchenne. 
Romberg  called  the  disease  tabes  dorsalis,  and 
it  has  also  been  called  myelo-phthisis.  There 


is  not  much  loss  of  muscular  power,  except  as 
general  debility  advances,  but  the  diminution  of 
sensation  is  more  marked.  The  patient  has  a 
peculiar  gait  in  walking,  throwing  the  legs  out 
in  a  jerking  and  uncertain  manner,  and  when 
the  disease  is  pretty  well  advanced  throws  his 
arms  out  like  a  man  balancing  on  a  tight  rope, 
lie  seems  to  be  somewhat  in  the  condition  of 
one  who  is  walking  in  the  dark  over  uneven 
ground.  That  which  has  been  termed  the 
"  muscular  sense  "  is  impaired.  The  harmony 
of  the  reflex  impressions  by  which  muscular 
contractions  are  regulated  and  the  limbs  moved 
and  adjusted  is  so  far  disordered  that  either 
too  much  or  too  little  contraction  is  produced 
at  each  step.  The  foot  will  be  thrown  out 
and  not  properly  brought  to  the  ground,  and 
as  if  to  relieve  this  deficiency  the  patient  by 
an  effort  of  the  will  brings  the  foot  down  at 
the  next  step  with  too  much  force.  A  chief 
characteristic  is  the  inability  to  walk  or  stand 
with  the  eyes  closed.  It  needs  the  assistance 
of  sight  to  keep  the  body  erect.  The  walk 
is  uncertain  and  reeling  even  with  the  eyes 
open,  but  if  the  patient  shuts  them  he  will 
fall.  As  the  disease  progresses,  the  upper  ex 
tremities  become  affected,  and  it  is  difficult  for 
the  patient  to  tie  his  cravat  or  button  his  coat, 
or  perform  any  motions  requiring  coordina 
tion  of  muscular  movements.  There  are  cer 
tain  premonitory  symptoms  which  have  been 
relied  upon,  such  as  fugitive  shooting  pains 
in  different  parts  of  the  body,  of  a  neural 
gic  character;  but  they  are  often  found  un 
connected  with  the  disease,  and  often  absent 
when  the  disease  is  present.  One  of  the  early 
symptoms  is  incontinence  of  urine  consequent 
upon  relaxation  of  the  sphincter  muscle,  and 
an  irritable  state  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  bladder ;.  and  there  is  often  increased 
sexual  activity,  which  however  declines  in  the 
progress  of  the  complaint,  and  at  last  ends  in 
impotence.  A  characteristic  feature  of  the 
disease  is  transient  localized  paralysis,  such 
as  that  of  the  sixth  pair  of  cranial  nerves, 
which  supply  the  external  straight  muscle  of 
the  eyeball,  or  the  third  pair,  which  supply 
the  elevators  of  the  eyelid,  and  the  constrictor 
of  the  iris,  so  that  there  is  drooping  of  the 
lid  and  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  one  eye  being 
usually  affected  more  than  the  other,  and  vis 
ion  is  sometimes  impaired  or  lost.  In  some 
cases  these  paralytic  affections  are  permanent. 
"When  the  paralysis  of  the  limbs  begins  on  one 
side,  which  it  frequently  does,  it  is  much  often- 
er  upon  the  left  than  the  right  side.  Before 
the  disease  is  much  advanced,  although  the 
gait  is  irregular  and  jerking,  the  patient  re 
tains  the  power  to  walk  considerable  distances 
in  spite  of  the  great  exertion  which  he  makes. 
After  a  time  the  power  of  locomotion  is  lost, 
the  patient  is  confined  to  his  bed,  he  becomes 
unable  to  feed  himself,  and  speech  is  difficult, 
sometimes  impossible.  The  disease  is  distin 
guished  from  ordinary  paraplegia,  or  anterior 
spinal  paralysis,  by  the  careful  and  circumspect 


SPINAL  DISEASES 


SPINNING 


271 


gait  of  the  latter;  and  although  it  has  some 
symptoms  in  common  with  general  paralysis 
of  the  insane,  the  totality  of  them  will  enable 
a  diagnosis  to  be  made.  The  prognosis  is  ex 
tremely  unfavorable ;  very  few  cases  ever  cease 
progressing,  and  fewer  still  recover.  The  most 
that  can  be  hoped  for  is  that  the  disease  will 
remain  stationary  or  progress  slowly.  Some 
times  it  develops  rapidly,  but  generally  years 
elapse  before  the  fatal  termination,  and  in  most 
cases  death  is  produced  by  some  intercurrent 
affection.  The  most  marked  pathological  con 
dition  is  induration  or  sclerosis  of  the  posterior 
columns  of  the  spinal  cord,  involving  the  gray 
substance  and  the  roots  of  the  posterior  nerves. 
The  sclerosis  is  an  abnormal  development  of 
the  connective  tissue,  and  produces  atrophy 
and  degeneration  of  the  nerve  fibres.  Among 
the  most  frequent  causes  of  progressive  loco- 
motor  ataxia  are  exposure  to  wet  and  cold,  me 
chanical  injuries,  and  syphilis.  Severe  blows 
and  falls,  and  the  concussion  produced  by  rail 
road  collisions  and  similar  shocks,  often  occa 
sion  that  congested  condition  of  the  spinal 
cord  which  ends  in  locomotor  ataxia.  Exces 
sive  and  continued  mental  exertion,  and  anxiety 
or  grief,  by  producing  a  hyperoemic  condition 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  sometimes  bring 
on  the  disease,  especially  if  there  is  a  constitu 
tional  fault.  Excessive  indulgence  in  the  sex 
ual  passion  has  been  regarded  as  a  frequent 
cause,  but  some  revision  of  opinion  will  need 
to  be  made  on  this  point.  The  irritable  condi 
tion  of  the  cord  often  produces  a  morbid  sexual 
desire  which  has  not  previously  been  charac 
teristic  of  the  patient,  and  in  which  he  has  not 
inordinately  indulged,  and  many  are  now  in 
clined  to  believe  that  the  cause  in  question  has 
been  overrated.  Males  are  more  often  affected 
than  females.  Of  60  cases  analyzed  by  Carre, 
42  were  males  and  18  females.  It  is  especially 
a  disease  of  middle  life,  between  the.  ages  of 
30  and  50,  although  it  sometimes  occurs  before 
30,  and  Trousseau  reports  a  case  in  a  patient 
80  years  old.  The  disease  is  sometimes  asso 
ciated  with  general  paralysis  of  the  insane, 
sometimes  one  and  sometimes  the  other  dis 
ease  appearing  first.  There  is  no  particular 
plan  of  treatment  established.  In  Europe  and 
in  this  country  success  has  seemed  to  attend 
the  employment  of  the  interrupted  galvanic 
current  (faradization),  and  cases  are  reported 
as  having  been  benefited  by  the  continuous 
current  of  a  powerful  battery.  (See  MEDICAL 
ELECTEICITY.)  Long  continued  and  well  regu 
lated  gymnastic  exercises  were  successfully  em 
ployed  by  Eisenmann  in  two  out  of  six  cases. 
The  iodide  and  the  bromide  of  potassium  are 
beneficial.  Counter-irritation  with  blisters,  is 
sues,  and  cautery  has  been  found  of  no  avail. 
Moderate  exercise  and  a  well  regulated  nutri 
tious  diet,  to  promote  as  much  as  possible  the 
healthy  assimilation  of  tissue,  should  be  re 
garded  as  a  main  indication.  Galvanism  prom 
ises  to  be  a  powerful  adjunct,  but  time  is  still 
required  to  measure  its  importance. 
VOL.  xv. — 18 


SPINDLER,  Karl,  a  German  novelist,  born  in 
Breslau,  Oct.  16,  1796,  died  at  Freiersbach, 
Baden,  July  12,  1855.  He  was  educated  at 
Strasburg,  joined  in  Germany  a  company  of 
strolling  players,  and  resided  from  1832  at 
Baden-Baden.  His  reputation  rests  on  his 
historical  romances,  Der  Bastard  (3  vols.,  Zu 
rich,  1826),  Der  Jude  (4  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1827), 
Der  Jesuit  (3  vols.,  1829),  and  Der  Invalide 
(5  vols.,  1831).  His  complete  works  include 
102  volumes  (1831-'54),  besides  minor  novels 
contained  in  his  periodical  publication  Vcrgiss- 
meinniclit  (1830-'55). 

SPINE.     See  SKELETON,  and  SPINAL  DISEASES. 

SPINEL  (Fr.  spinelle),  a  mineral,  sometimes 
ranked  among  the  precious  stones,  occurring 
in  regular  octahedrons  and  dodecahedrons,  va 
riously  modified ;  hardness,  8 ;  specific  gravity, 
3*5  to  4*9.  The  color  is  commonly  some  shade 
of  red,  but  is  sometimes  blue,  green,  yellow, 
brown,  black,  and  rarely  almost  white.  "When 
pure,  it  is  a  compound  of  magnesia  28,  alumina 
72 ;  but  the  magnesia  is  often  replaced  to  some 
extent  by  one  or  more  of  the  protoxides  of 
iron,  zinc,  or  manganese,  or  by  lime,  and  the 
alumina  also  by  peroxide  of  iron;  hence  the 
numerous  varieties  of  the  species.  These  are 
denominated  according  to  their  colors,  and 
some  among  them  are  often  supposed  to  belong 
to  other  species.  The  black  varieties  are  called 
pleonaste ;  the  scarlet,  spinel  ruby ;  the  rose 
red,  balas  ruby  ;  the  yellow,  or  orange  red, 
rubicelle ;  the  violet,  almandine  ruby ;  and  the 
green,  ceylonite.  The  goutte  de  sang  of  the 
jewellers  is  of  blood-red  or  cochineal  color. 
The  mineral  is  infusible  before  the  blowpipe 
alone,  and  is  not  attacked  by  acids.  The  most 
valuable  spinels  are  found  in  Ceylon,  Siam, 
and  other  eastern  countries,  in  the  form  of 
rolled  pebbles  in  river  beds.  They  are  also 
found  in  New  Jersey,  New  York,  and  central 
Massachusetts.  Perfect  specimens  fit  for  jew 
elry  are  rare ;  if  of  more  than  four  carats,  they 
are  sometimes  rated  as  worth  half  as  much  as 
diamonds  of  equal  size.  The  red  varieties  are 
said  to  be  sold  for  true  rubies,  from  which  they 
are  with  difficulty  distinguished  ;  and  many  of 
the  others  are  often  confounded  with  other 
precious  stones  of  similar  hardness  and  specific 
gravity.  The  optical  properties  alone  may 
decide  without  analysis  between  the  colorless 
spinel  and  the  limpid  topaz  of  Siberia.  Dufre- 
noy  was  obliged  to  apply  the  test  of  polariza 
tion  of  light  to  a  white  cut  spinel  from  India, 
which  was  supposed  to  be  either  a  diamond  or 
a  white  emerald.  He  describes  one  of  a  clear 
crimson  with  a  violet  tint,  weighing  1,129 
grains,  of  great  beauty,  valued  at  100,000  to 
110,000  francs. 

SPINK,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Dakota,  recently 
formed  and  not  included  in  the  census  of 
1870;  area,  about  800  sq.  m.  It  is  intersect 
ed  by  the  Dakota  or  James  river.  The  sur 
face  is  rolling. 

SPINNING.  See  COTTON  MANUFACTURE,  LIN 
EN,  ROPE,  and  WOOL,  MANUFACTURES  OF. 


272 


SPINOLA 


SPINOZA 


SPINOLA,  Ambrosio  de,  marquis,  a  Spanish  sol 
dier,  born  in  Genoa  in  1509,  died  near  Oasale, 
Piedmont,  Sept.  25,  1630.  He  was  a  son  of 
the  marquis  Filippo  Spinola,  a  party  leader  at 
Genoa  and  a  rich  Levant  merchant,  and  his 
mother  was  a  princess  of  Salerno.  After  fill 
ing  local  offices,  he  joined  his  brother  Federi- 
go,  who  had  become  admiral  in  the  Spanish 
navy,  in  the  war  against  the  Dutch  and  Eng 
lish.  In  1602  he  arrived  in  the  Netherlands 
with  a  corps  of  9,000  veterans  which  he  had 
raised  and  equipped  at  his  own  expense,  and 
with  which  he  came  to  the  rescue  of  the  Span 
iards  under  Archduke  Albert  against  Maurice 
of  Nassau.  His  brother  fell  in  a  naval  battle, 
May  26,  1603,  and  he  was  desired  to  succeed 
him  as  admiral,  but  preferred  to  become  chief 
commander  of  the  Spanish  army  in  the  Neth 
erlands.  He  covered  himself  with  glory  in 
September,  1604,  by  compelling  the  surren 
der  of  Ostend,  which  had  been  besieged  since 
July,  1601.  After  other  operations  against 
Maurice,  who  regarded  him  as  next  in  genius 
to  himself,  he  was  in  1609  among  the  first 
to  favor  the  truce  for  12  years  concluded  at 
the  Hague.  During  the  truce  lie  commanded 
Spanish  troops  in  Germany.  In  1622  he  took 
Julich  ;  in  the  same  year  he  was  repulsed  at 
Bergen-op-Zoom,  but  made  a  skilful  retreat ; 
and  in  1625  he  captured  Breda  after  a  siege 
of  ten  months.  He  afterward  reluctantly  be 
came  commander  of  the  Spanish  army  in  Italy, 
and  died  during  the  siege  of  Casale. 

SPLVOZA  (also  written  SPINOSA),  Barneh,  or 
Benedict,  a  Dutch  philosopher,  born  of  Jewish 
parents  in  Amsterdam,  Nov.  24,  1632,  died  at 
the  Hague,  Feb.  21,  1677.  He  translated  his 
Hebrew  name  Baruch  into  Latin  as  Bencd ic 
tus.  His  father,  a  Portuguese  merchant,  had 
fled  from  persecution  to  Holland.  The  son 
was  educated  for  the  rabbinical  profession, 
and  gained  the  admiration  not  only  of  the 
masters  of  the  Hebrew  school  in  Amsterdam, 
but  also  of  the  chief  rabbi  Morteira,  who  be 
came  his  instructor  in  the  Talmud  and  the 
Cabala.  But  he  was  suspected  even  before  his 
15th  year  of  verging  toward  heresy,  and  was 
accused  of  contemning  the  law  of  Moses  and 
denying  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the 
reality  of  angelic  communications.  Summoned 
before  a  rabbinical  tribunal,  he  anticipated  ex 
communication  by  withdrawing  himself  from 
the  synagogue.  He  neglected  the  repeated  sum 
mons  of  the  synagogue  to  trial,  and  at  length 
in  1656  the  anathema  maranatha,  or  greater 
excommunication,  was  uttered  against  him. 
He  was  already  familiar  with  the  Portuguese, 
Spanish,  Italian,  German,  and  Flemish  lan 
guages,  and  was  studying  Latin  under  the  phy 
sician  Van  Ende.  This  language  introduced 
him  not  only  to  Christian  learning,  but  also  to 
the  literature  and  philosophy  of  classical  an 
tiquity,  then  studied  with  special  enthusiasm, 
and  opened  to  him  the  writings  of  Descartes. 
The  Talmud  makes  it  the  duty  of  scholars  to 
learn  some  mechanical  art.  Spinoza  had  there 


fore,  while  in  the  synagogue,  learned  the  art  of 
polishing  lenses,  by  which  he  gained  his  subsis 
tence  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Exiled 
from  Amsterdam  by  the  magistrates  on  applica 
tion  of  the  rabbis,  he  lived  for  a  short  time  with 
a  friend  in  the  vicinity,  went  thence  to  Khyns- 
burg,  near  Leyden,  whence  in  1664  he  removed 
to  Voorburg,  near  the  Hague,  and  finally  yield 
ed  to  the  request  of  his  friends  to  reside  en 
tirely  at  the  Hague,  all  the  leisure  time  saved 
from  labor  being  given  to  philosophy.  After 
the  death  of  his  parents  his  sisters  attempted 
to  deprive  him  of  his  portion  of  the  inheri 
tance.  Having  established  his  rights  by  law,  he 
contented  himself  with  taking  only  a  bed.  In 
1673  the  professorship  of  philosophy  in  the  uni 
versity  of  Heidelberg  was  offered  to  him,  the 
condition  being  that  he  should  teach  nothing 
opposed  to  the  established  religion ;  but  he  de 
clined  it.  When  it  was  proposed  to  obtain  a 
pension  for  him  from  Louis  XIV.,  he  replied 
that  he  had  nothing  to  dedicate  to  that  monarch. 
Meanwhile  he  endured  the  toil  and  wants  of 
poverty,  and  was  wont  to  protract  his  labors 
into  the  night.  His  first  work,  Renati  Des 
Cartes  Principiorum  Philosophies  Pars  I.  et 
//.,  More  Geornctrico  Demonstrate  (Amster 
dam,  1663),  which  contains  in  an  appendix  the 
germ  of  his  Ethica,  immediately  gave  him  the 
reputation  of  a  great  philosopher.  Ilis  sec 
ond  work,  Tractatus  Theologico-Politkiis,  pub 
lished  anonymously  in  1670,  treats  the  relation 
between  church  and  state,  and  is  entirely  dis 
tinct  from  his  philosophical  writings.  lieligion, 
he  maintained,  is  neither  doctrine  nor  cultus, 
but  is  essentially  the  love  of  God,  the  expres 
sion  of  which  is  piety  and  obedience,  and  its 
worship  is  virtue.  Doctrines  belong  to  the 
domain  of  philosophy,  actions  to  that  of  the 
state,  feelings  to  that  of  religion.  Absolute 
freedom  should  prevail  in  the  first  and  the  last, 
while  the  second  should  be  regulated  by  the 
state  in  the  interest  of  order  and  tranquillity. 
He  therefore  advocated  a  state  religion,  which 
should  ordain  ceremonials,  but  leave  liberty  of 
thought  inviolate.  Ho  referred  for  support 'of 
his  opinions  to  the  Bible,  in  which  he  dis 
tinguished  between  the  facts  narrated  and  the 
coloring  received  from  the  minds  of  the  writers, 
and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  rationalis 
tic  school  of  interpretation  in  Germany.  Nu 
merous  refutations  of  his  work  appeared,  es 
pecially  from  Cartesian  theologians ;  yet  it  was 
read  throughout  Europe,  being  published  and 
translated  with  divers  devotional,  historical, 
antiquarian,  and  even  medical  titles  employed 
to  disguise  it.  Averse  to  controversy,  Spinoza 
withheld  his  other  and  more  important  works, 
which  were  first  published  after  his  death  by 
his  friend  Ludwig  Meyer,  a  physician  of  Am 
sterdam.  His  health,  never  vigorous,  suffered 
from  unremitted  confinement  and  devotion  to 
study.  He  sometimes  passed  entire  months 
without  leaving  his  chamber,  occupied  only 
with  meditation,  conversation  with  his  friends, 
and  answering  letters  on  philosophical  sub- 


SPINOZA 


273 


jects.  In  a  letter  dated  July  15,  1676,  he 
promises  further  explanations  "if  my  life  be 
continued."  x\fter  his  death  his  manuscripts 
were,  in  accordance  with  his  order,  sent  to 
his  publisher  at  Amsterdam,  and  within  a  year 
appeared  Ethica,  Ordine  Geometrico  Demon- 
strata,  containing  his  philosophical  doctrine, 
which  had  been  written  between  1663  and 
1666;  Tractatus  de  Intellectus  Emendatione, 
and  Tractatus  Politicus,  both  of  them  frag 
ments;  a  collection  of  letters  to  Oldenburg, 
Simon  de  Vries,  Ludwig  Meyer,  and  Bleyen- 
bergh ;  and  a  fragmentary  sketch  of  Hebrew 
grammar,  aiming  to  give  it  a  logical  devel 
opment. — The  whole  system  of  Spinoza  is  a 
demonstration  from  the  eight  definitions  and 
seven  axioms  of  the  first  book  of  the  Ethica. 
According  to  him,  it  follows  from  the  defini 
tion  of  substance  that  it  is  necessary  and  infi 
nite,  that  it  is  one  and  indivisible,  and  that  it 
is  therefore  God,  the  only  self-existent,  all- 
perfect,  and  absolutely  infinite  Being.  Noth 
ing  exists  except  substance  and  the  modes  of 
its  attributes.  Substance  cannot  produce  sub 
stance,  and  therefore  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  creation,  no  beginning  or  end,  but  all  things 
have  necessarily  fiowed  from  the  Infinite  Be 
ing,  and  will  continue  to  flow  on  for  ever,  in 
the  same  manner  as  from  the  nature  of  a  tri 
angle  it  follows,  and  will  follow  from  eter 
nity  to  eternity,  that  the  angles  of  it  are 
equal  to  two  right  angles.  Of  the  infinite 
number  of  infinite  attributes  of  Deity,  only 
two  are  known  to  us,  extension  and  thought, 
the  objective  and  subjective  of  which  he  is 
the  identity.  .Body  is  a  mode  of  extension, 
which  being  illimitable  cannot  be  divided  ; 
thought  is  also  infinite,  and  mental  acts  are 
modes  of  it.  It  follows  also  that  God  is  the 
only  free  cause  (causa  libera] ;  all  other  things 
and  beings  move  by  fixed  laws  of  causation, 
without  free  will  or  contingency.  He  is  the 
causa  immanens  omnium,  not  existing  apart 
from  the  universe,  but  expressed  in  it,  as  in  a 
living  garment.  As  conceived  in  his  attributes 
simply  and  alone,  he  is  natura  naturans ;  as 
conceived  in  the  infinite  series  of  modifica 
tions  which  follow  from  the  properties  of  these 
attributes,  he  is  natura  naturata.  Between 
bodies,  the  modes  of  extension,  and  ideas,  the 
modes  of  thought,  there  is  a  constant  parallel 
ism.  The  duality  everywhere  appears,  and  a 
soul  belongs  alike  to  animals,  vegetables,  and 
minerals.  Man  is  a  complex  example  of  this 
compound.  There  is  no  reciprocal  influence 
between  the  bodily  and  the  ideal  world,  but  a 
perfect  harmony,  since  it  is  the  same  substance, 
affected  in  the  same  manner,  but  expressed 
under  each  of  the  two  attributes.  Individual 
beings,  whether  ideas  or  bodies,  are  modes,  the 
changing  forms  of  substance,  to  which  they  are 
related  as  wavelets  to  the  ocean.  The  finite 
has  no  existence  as  such ;  substance  is  not  made 
up  of  modes,  but  is  prior  to  them  ;  and  Hegel 
therefore  remarks  that  Spinoza  rather  denies 
the  existence  of  the  material  universe  than 


identifies  God  with  it.  The  human  mind  has 
two  chief  ways  of  knowledge,  the  intuitive 
through  the  reason,  and  the  imaginative.  The 
imagination,  which  deals  with  the  objects  of 
experience,  represents  the  world  as  a  multi 
plicity  of  individuals.  It  obtains  a  partial  and 
inadequate  view  of  the  images  which  appear 
before  it,  considers  modes  as  things,  and  names 
them  man,  horse,  tree,  &c.  The  reason  sees 
together  in  their  unity  what  the  imagination 
isolates  and  individualizes,  and  attains  to  ade 
quate  or  exhaustive  knowledge,  to  universal  or 
divine  ideas,  which  are  pure  thoughts,  not  in 
volving  the  conception  of  extension,  and  not 
consisting  in  images  or  words.  The  mind  is 
passive  and  in  bondage  in  so  far  as  it  is  influ 
enced  by  inadequate  ideas,  and  is  active  and 
free  in  so  far  as  its  ideas  are  adequate.  If  all 
objects  of  knowledge  be  regarded  in  their  re 
lations  to  the  one  absolute  Being,  the  knowl 
edge  of  particular  outward  things,  nature, 
life,  or  history,  becomes  in  fact  a  knowledge 
of  God;  and  the  more  complete  such  knowl 
edge,  the  more  the  mind  is  raised  above  what 
is  perishable  in  the  phenomena  to  the  idea 
which  lies  beyond  them.  It  dwells  exclusively 
upon  the  eternal,  is  occupied  with  everlasting 
laws,  emancipates  itself  from  the  conditions  of 
duration,  and  secures  its  immortality,  by  be 
coming  "  of  such  a  nature  that  the  portion  of 
it  which  will  perish  with  the  body,  in  com 
parison  with  that  of  it  which  shall  endure, 
shall  be  insignificant."  The  law  of  passion  is 
that  all  things  desire  life,  seek  for  energy,  for 
fuller  and  ampler  being.  Every  single  being 
pursues  that  which  will  give  it  increased  vital 
ity.  Man  gathers  life  and  self-mastery  only 
from  the  absolute  Being;  the  love  of  God  is 
the  extinction  of  all  other  desires ;  and  virtue 
is  the  knowledge  and  power  of  God  in  the 
human  soul,  the  exhaustive  end  of  human  aspi 
ration.  The  ethical  principles  in  which  the 
philosophy  of  Spinoza  results  were  proposed 
by  him  as  identical  with  those  of  the  Christian 
religion. — The  best  complete  editions  of  his 
works  in  the  original  Latin  are  by  Paulus 
(2  vols.,  Jena,  1802-'3),  Gfrorer  (Stuttgart, 
1830),  and  Bruder  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1843-'6). 
There  are  German  translations  by  Berthold 
Auerbach,  with  a  biographical  notice  (5  vols., 
Stuttgart,  1841  ;  new  ed.,  enlarged,  1874),  and 
by  J.  II.  von  Kirchmann  and  Schaarschmidt 
(1871  et  seq.*)  ;  French  translations  by  £mile 
Saisset  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1843;  enlarged  ed.,  3 
vols.,  1861),  and  by  J.  G.  Prat  (1863  et  scq.). 
Spinoza's  newly  discovered  Tractatus  de  Deo 
et  Homine  has  been  edited  by  Van  Vloten  (Am 
sterdam,  1862;  German  and  Dutch  transla 
tions,  1870),  and  commented  upon  by  Sigwart 
(Gotha,  1866)  and  Trendelenburg  (Berlin,  1867). 
Among  his  biographers  are  Colerus  (Dutch, 
1698;  French,  1706;  German,  1733),  Lucas 
(Amsterdam,  1719),  Dietz  (Dessau,  1783),  Phi- 
lippson  (Brunswick,  1790),  A.  Saintes  (Paris, 
1842),  Van  Yloten  (Amsterdam,  1862),  and  R. 
Willis  (London,  1870).  See  also  F.  II.  Jacobi, 


274: 


SPIRAEA 


Ueber  die  LeJire  des  Spinoza  in  Brief  en  an  Men 
delssohn  (Berlin,  1785);  Herder,  G-ott,  einige 
GesprdcJie  (Gotha,  1787)  ;  Sigwart,  Der  Spi- 
nozismus  historisch  und  philosophisch  erlautert 
(Tubingen,  1839);  Kuno  Fischer,  B.  Spinoza's 
Leben  und  Character  (Mannheim,  18G8) ;  S.  E. 
Lowenhardt,  Benedict  von  Spinoza  in  seinem 
Verhilltniss  zur  Philosophic  und  Naturfor- 
scliung  der  neueren  Zeit  (Berlin,  1872) ;  and 
Die  Ethik  des  Spinoza,  with  the  original  text, 
edited  by  Hugo  Ginsberg  (Leipsic,  1875).  In 
1875  a  movement  was  commenced  for  erecting 
a  monument  to  Spinoza  at  the  Hague  on  the 
200th  anniversary  of  his  death,  Feb.  21,  1877. 
SPIREA  (supposed  to  be  from  Gr.  cTteipeiv, 
to  wind,  some  kinds  being  useful  to  form  gar 
lands),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  rose  family, 
comprising  about  50  species,  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  temperate  and  subarctic  por 
tions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  It  includes 
both  herbs  and  shrubs,  some  of  which  have 
received  popular  names,  while  for  many  culti 
vated  species  the  botanical  name  is  in  common 
use.  The  alternate  leaves  are  simple  or  com 
pound,  with  mostly  manifest  stipules;  the 
small  white  or  rose-colored  flowers  (sometimes 
dioecious)  are  in  dense  or  long,  loose,  terminal 
panicles  or  cymes,  or  in  axillary  umbel-like 
corymbs,  and  consist  of  a  short,  persistent,  five- 
cleft  calyx,  with  five  equal  petals,  numerous 
stamens,  and  mostly  five  pistils  (two  to  twelve), 


1.  Meadow  Sweet  (Spmra  salicifolia).    2.  Hardback  (Spira?a 
touientosa). 

the  ovaries  to  which  become  several-seeded 
pods  or  follicles  in  fruit.  In  some  rare  cases  the 
parts  of  the  flower  are  in  fours  instead  of  fives. 
— The^most  common  native  species,  S.  salici- 
folia,  is  known  as  meadow  sweet  and  queen 
of  the  meadows,  and  is  abundant  in  moist 


meadows  and  on  the  margins  of  swamps,  where 
its  slender,  purplish,  very  brittle  stems  form 
clumps  3  ft.  or  more  high  ;  the  variable  leaves, 
mostly  wedge-lanceolate,  are  simply  or  doub 
ly  serrate,  acute  or  obtuse,  thin,  and  mostly 
smooth;  the  flowers,  in  a  crowded  terminal 
panicle,  are  white  or  sometimes  flesh-colored ; 
it  remains  in  flower  from  July  to  September, 
and  is  sometimes  cultivated.  A  hybrid  variety, 
j  said  to  be  produced  from  this  and  Douglas's 
I  meadow  sweet  (S.  Douglasii),  of  the  N.  W. 
coast,  has  longer  flower  clusters,  of  a  lively 
rose  color,  and  is  a  garden  favorite  on  account 
of  its  long  continued  bloom. — Hardback  and 
steeple  bush  are  common  names  for  S.  tomen- 
tosa,  found  in  low  grounds  from  Canada  to 
Georgia,  but  more  abundant  in  New  England 
than  elsewhere ;  the  stems,  smooth  and  dark 
bronze-colored  when  old,  are  2  or  3  ft.  high 
and  thickly  furnished  with  ovate  or  oblong 
serrate  leaves,  covered  on  the  under  surface 
with  a  very  thick  woolly  down,  which  is  whitish 
or  slightly  rusty,  and  in  marked  contrast  with 
the  very  dark  green  of  the  upper  surface  ;  the 
flowers,  appearing  in  July  and  lasting  till  au 
tumn,  are  in  a  dense,  tapering,  spire-like  pani 
cle,  rose-purple,  or  rarely  white.  The  plant 
is  very  astringent,  and  is  used  as  a  domestic 
remedy,  and  by  physicians  as  a  tonic  and  as 
tringent  in  diarrhoea  and  other  bowel  com 
plaints. — The  largest  of  our  native  species,  S. 
opulifolia,  grows  in  its  different  forms  from 
Canada  to  the  gulf  states,  and  west  to  Oregon 
and  California ;  it  is  a  rugged  shrub,  from  4 
to  10  ft.  high,  with  long  recurved  branches 
and  a  loose  bark,  the  numerous  layers  of  which, 
spontaneously  separating,  have  caused  it  to  be 
called  nine-bark ;  its  roundish  heart-shaped 
leaves  are  often  three-lobed  and  doubly  ser 
rate  ;  the  abundant  white  flowers  are  in  um 
bel-like  clusters,  and  are  succeeded  by  bladdery 
pods  which  turn  purplish.  The  golden  spirasa 
(S.  aurea  of  the  catalogues)  is  only  a  variety 
of  this,  in  which  the  leaves  when  young  are 
bright  greenish  yellow ;  it  is  very  showy  in 
spring,  while  the  foliage  is  fresh  ;  this  is  some 
times  used  with  good  effect  for  ornamental 
hedges. — Among  the  many  shrubby  species  in 
cultivation  the  most  frequent  are :  the  plum- 
leaved  spirrea  (S.  pruni.  folia},  from  Japan,  with 
smooth  lanceolate  leaves,  and  in  the  form  gen 
erally  cultivated  very  double  pure  white  flow 
ers  ;  Reeves's  spirrea  (S.  Reevesiana  of  the 
catalogues,  but  properly  S.  lunceolata),  from 
China,  with  numerous  umbels  of  white  flow 
ers ;  St.  Peter's  wreath  or  Italian  May,  with 
long  recurved  branches  crowded  with  small 
sessile  umbels  of  white  flowers ;  Fortune's  spi- 
nea  (S.  Fortunei  or  callosa},  from  China,  with 
long  slender  stems  bearing  flat  corymbs  of 
rose-pink  or  white  flowers;  S.  aricrfolia,  from 
Oregon,  with  terminal  panicles  of  yellowish 
white  flowers ;  and  Thunberg's  spiraea  (S. 
Thunbergii),  from  the  mountains  of  Japan, 
a  dwarf  species,  with  small  flowers  in  clusters 
of  three.  The  tall  Chinese  shrub,  with  flowers 


SPIRAL  VESSELS 


SPIRITUALISM 


275 


several  times  larger  than  the  others,  and  for 
merly  called  8.  grandiflora,  is  now  placed  in 
a  separate  genus,  exochorda. — Among  the  her 
baceous  species,  the  finest  native  is  the  queen 
of  the  prairie  (8.  lolmta),  found  wild  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Kentucky,  and  common  in  cul- 


Dropwort  (Spiraea  fllipendula). 

tivation,  with  small  flowers  of  a  peach -blossom 
color.  Goats'  beard  (S.  aruncus)  is  another 
native  from  New  York  westward,  found  also 
in  Europe,  with  numerous  slender  spikes  of 
dioecious,  whitish  flowers.  Dropwort  (S.  fili- 
pendula),  from  Europe,  has  large  cymes  of 
white  or  pink-tipped  flowers.  The  fine  her 
baceous  plant  which  is  often  called  spiraea 
Japoniea  belongs  to  the  saxifrage  family ;  its 
proper  name  is  astilbe  Japoniea. 

SPIRAL  VESSELS.     See  AIR  VESSELS. 

SPIRE,  or  Spires  (Ger.  Speyer  or  Speier),  a 
town  of  Bavaria,  capital  of  the  district  of  the 
Palatinate,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at 
its  junction  with  the  Speyerbach,  16  m.  N.  E. 
of  Landau  ;  pop.  in  1871,  13,241.  It  has  a  ca 
thedral  in  the  Romanesque  style,  remarkable 
for  its  size  and  antiquity  ;  it  was  damaged  by 
the  French  in  1089,  but  has  been  partly  re 
stored  with  great  splendor;  it  contains  the 
tombs  of  eight  emperors,  fine  monuments,  and 
a  hall  of  antiquities.  Very  little  is  left  of  the 
imperial  palace,  where  in  1529  the  diet  was 
held  at  which  the  Reformed  princes  made  the 
protest  from  which  originated  the  name  of 
Protestants. — Spire  was  a  Roman  military  sta 
tion  under  the  name  of  Augusta  Nemetum  (pre 
viously  ISToviomagus),  and  is  said  to  have  had 
a  Christian  community  in  the  2d  century,  and 
a  bishop  in  the  3d.  In  the  7th  century  it  was 
known  under  the  Latin  name  of  Spira.  The 
town  became  of  great  importance  as  the  ordi 
nary  residence  of  the  emperors  of  Germany, 
and  the  seat  of  the  imperial  chamber  or  su 
preme  court  of  appeal  and  of  several  diets. 
The  French  laid  it  in  ashes  May  31,  1689.  It 
was  rebuilt  in  1699,  but  never  recovered  its 


ancient  prosperity.  After  the  French  occu 
pation  (1801-'14)  it  was  in  1816  given  to  Ba 
varia. — The  bishopric  of  Spire,  one  of  the 
oldest  in  Germany,  long  enjoyed  the  rights 
of  sovereignty,  and  the  prince-bishops,  whose 
castle  was  at  Bruchsal,  had  an  enormous  in 
come.  More  than  half  of  the  territory  was 
given  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Luneville, 
Feb.  9,  1801,  and  the  rest  to  Baden  in  1802. 

SPIRIT  OF  SALT.     See  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID. 

SPIRITUALISM,  a  term  formerly  used  to  de 
signate  the  doctrines  and  religious  life  of  a 
class  of  mystics  who  professed  to  be  under 
the  sensible  guidance  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  and 
who  were  distinguished  by  a  habit  of  spiritual 
izing  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  Jacob  Boehm, 
Miguel  de  Molinos,  Mme.  Guyon,  and  Mine, 
de  Bourignon,  though  not  all  ostensibly  of  the 
same  communion,  are  representatives  of  the 
somewhat  numerous  class  of  religionists,  par 
ticularly  of  the  17th  century,  to  whose  teach 
ings  and  practice  the  appellation  of  spiritualism 
has  been  applied.  Latterly,  however,  the  word 
has  been  employed  exclusively  to  designate 
the  belief  of  those  who  regard  certain  accred 
ited  phenomena,  physical  and  mental,  as  the 
result  of  the  action  of  spirits,  influencing  and 
using  persons  of  a  peculiarly  sensitive  organi 
zation,  known  as  mediums.  In  France  Allan 
Kardec  (the  pseudonyme  of  Leon  Ilippolyte 
Denisart  Rivail),  who  specially  investigated  the 
American  phenomena,  defined  it  as  follows: 
"  Properly  speaking,  spiritualism  is  the  op 
posite  of  materialism.  Whoever  believes  he 
has  within  him  something  distinguished  from 
matter  is  a  spiritualist ;  but  it  may  not  follow 
that  he  believes  in  the  existence  of  spirits,  or 
in  their  communications  with  the  visible  world. 
To  designate  this  latter  belief  we  employ,  in 
place  of  the  words  spiritualism,  spiritualist,  the 
words  spiritism,  spiritist."  Spiritualists  assert 
that  phenomena  nearly  identical  with  the  man 
ifestations  of  modern  spiritualism  appear  in 
many  ancient  histories,  in  the  Delphic  oracles, 
in  the  lives  of  seers  and  clairvoyants,  in  the 
facts  of  witchcraft  in  all  ages,  in  the  Ted- 
worth  occurrences  related  by  Glanvill  (1061), 
in  the  Camisard  marvels  in  France  (1686- 
1707),  in  the  occurrences  in  the  Wesley  family 
(1716),  in  Swedenborg's  alleged  full  and  open 
communication  with  the  spirit  world  and  dai 
ly  converse  with  spirits  and  angels  more  than 
a  century  ago,  in  the  records  of  mesmerism 
and  somnambulism,  in  the  traditions  of  count 
less  families,  and  in  the  innumerable  published 
accounts  of  remarkable  dreams,  predictions, 
and  physical  phenomena. — Clairvoyance  ap 
pears  to  have  played  an  important  part  in  the 
introduction  of  modern  spiritualism,  and  a 
historical  sketch  of  the  latter,  to  be  com 
plete,  must  include  some  notice  of  the  former. 
Jung-Stilling  (1740-1817),  in  his  writings  on 
pneumatology,  noticed  that  clairvoyants,  du 
ring  their  more  exalted  states  of  ecstasis,  pro 
fessed,  with  what  seemed  to  him  satisfactory 
evidence,  to  be  in  converse  with  invisible  in- 


276 


SPIRITUALISM 


telligences.  The  same  claims  to  open  inter-  I 
course  with  the  spiritual  world,  with  many 
phenomenal  evidences  which  he  regarded  as 
establishing  their  truth,  were  afterward  noted 
by  Dr.  Justinus  Kerner,  and  detailed  at  large 
in  his  biography  (1829)  of  one  of  his  patients, 
Frederica  Hauffe,  more  familiarly  known  as 
the  seeress  of  Prevorst,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  in  a  magnetic  »state  for  most  of  the  time  I 
during  the  last  seven  years  of  her  life,  descri-  ' 
bing  the  persons  and  repeating  the  language 
of  what  she  represented  to  be  spirits,  and  be 
ing  often  accompanied  with  mysterious  rap 
ping  sounds.  In  1830  Bertrand  and  other 
students  of  mesmerism  came  upon  the  borders 
of  spiritualism.  The  correspondence  (1836) 
between  the  French  mesmerists  Billot  and  De- 
leuze  shows  that  they  were  aware  of  some 
of  the  marvels  asserted  by  the  later  spiritual 
ists.  Billot  writes  that  he  and  his  co-sec 
taries  had  both  seen  and  felt  the  spirits.  De- 
leuze  declared  that  the  possibility  of  com 
municating  with  spirits  had  been  proved  to 
him,  and  he  also  cites  the  testimony  of  a  dis 
tinguished  physician  concerning  clairvoyants 
who  "  cause  material  objects  to  present  them 
selves."  Many  instances  of  alleged  intercourse 
with  the  invisible  world  subsequently  occurred 
in  France,  Germany,  and  other  parts  of  Eu 
rope,  and  in  the  United  States.  In  the  spring 
of  1843  the  societies  of  Shakers  at  New  Leba 
non  and  Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  and  several  other 
communities  of  that  fraternity,  almost  simul 
taneously  became  the  subjects  of  strange  psy 
chological  experiences,  during  which  certain 
of  the  members  would  lose  all  personal  con 
sciousness,  while  influences  purporting  to  be 
the  spirits  of  persons  of  different  nations,  who 
had  lived  in  the  world  in  different  ages,  took 
possession  of  their  bodies,  and  spoke  through 
their  vocal  organs.  None  of  the  phenomena 
of  clairvoyance  were  more  remarkable  than 
those  in  the  case  of  Andrew  Jackson  Da 
vis.  (See  DAVIS,  ANDREW  JACKSOX.)  Thrown 
into'an  abnormal  state  of  mind  and  body  by 
the  process  of  magnetism,  this  young  man, 
while  professing  to  be  in  immediate  converse 
with  the  spiritual  world,  dictated  a  large  oc 
tavo  volume,  which  was  published  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Principles  of  Nature,  her  Divine 
Revelations,  and  a  Voice  to  Mankind/'  In  a 
portion  of  this  book  that  was  dictated  in 
1845  (pp.  GTo-'G)  the  entranced  author  dis 
tinctly  predicted  that  the  communication  with 
the  spiritual  world  would  ere  long  assume 
"  the  form  of  a  living  demonstration."  It  is 
noteworthy  that,  although  Davis  was  almost 
wholly  uneducated,  his  first  and  subsequent 
works,  conceived  when  he  was  in  a  clairvoy 
ant  state,  or  while  more  or  less  illuminated,  as 
he  claims,  by  the  influence  of  invisible  spirits, 
are  written  in  correct  and  oftentimes  elegant 
language. — The  "spirit-rapping"  phenomenon 
began  in  March,  1848,  in  the  family  of  John 
D.  Fox,  in  Hydeville,  Wayne  co.,  N.  Y.  Be 
sides  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Fox,  only  their  two  young 


est  children,  Margaret,  12  years  old,  and  Kate, 
9  years  old,  were  at  home  when  the  family 
was  startled  by  mysterious  rappings  that  were 
heard  nightly  upon  the  floor  of  one  of  the  bed 
rooms,  and  sometimes  in  other  parts  of  the 
house.  They  endeavored  to  trace  the  sounds  to 
their  cause,  but  failed.  It  is  also  alleged  that  a 
patter  of  footsteps  was  sometimes  heard,  the 
bedclothes  were  pulled  off,  and  Kate  felt  a  cold  • 
hand  passed  over  her  face.  On  .the  night  of 
March  31,  when  the  raps  occurred,  Kate  imita 
ted  them  by  snapping  her  fingers,  and  the  raps 
responded  by  the  same  number  of  sounds. 
Kate  then  said  :  "  Now  do  as  I  do ;  count  1,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  6,"  at  the  same  time  striking  her  hands 
together.  The  same  number  of  raps  respond 
ed,  and  at  similar  intervals.  The  mother  of  the 
girls  then  said:  "Count  10;"  and  10  distinct 
raps  were  heard  :  "  Count  15,"  and  that  num 
ber  of  sounds  followed.  She  then  said  :  "  Tell 
us  the  age  of  Cathy  [the  youngest  daughter] 
by  rapping  one  for  each  year,"  and  the  num 
ber  of  years  was  rapped  correctly.  In  like 
manner,  the  ages  of  each  of  four  other  and 
then  absent  children  were  by  request  indicated 
by  this  invisible  agent.  Mrs.  Fox  asked  if  it 
was  a  human  being  that  was  making  that  noise, 
and  if  it  was,  to  manifest  it  by  making  the 
same  noise.  There  was  no  sound.  She  then 
said:  "If  you  are  a  spirit,  make  two  distinct 
sounds."  Two  raps  were  accordingly  heard. 
Three  weeks  afterward,  it  is  said,  it  was  made 
known  by  the  raps  that  the  body  of  a  murdered 
man  lay  buried  in  the  cellar,  and  the  exact 
spot  was  indicated  where  parts  of  a  human 
skeleton  were  actually  found.  The  name  of 
the  murdered  man  was  given,  and  it  was 
learned  that  five  years  before  such  a  person 
had  visited  the  house  and  had  suddenly  and 
mysteriously  disappeared.  After  a  while  the 
raps  occurred  only  in  the  presence  of  the  two 
sisters,  Margaret  and  Kate.  The  family  hav 
ing  removed  to  Rochester,  the  raps  accom 
panied  them,  and  new  phenomena,  including 
clairvoyance  and  the  movement  of  ponderable 
bodies  without  appreciable  agency,  were  de 
veloped.  In  November,  1849,  the  Fox  girls 
appeared  in  a  public  hall,  and  the  phenomena 
were  freely  manifested  and  subjected  to  many 
tests  ;  and  a  committee  appointed  for  their  in 
vestigation,  after  continuing  their  experiments 
there  and  elsewhere  for  several  days,  reported 
that  they  were  unable  to  trace  them  to  any 
mundane  agency.  In  May,  1850,  the  Fox  girls 
arrived  in  New  York ;  tjie  alleged  spiritual 
manifestations  became  the  subject  of  exten-. 
sive  newspaper  and  conversational  discussion ; 
their  facts  were  published  far  and  wide;  "  me 
diums,"  through  whom  they  were  said  to  oc 
cur,  sprang  up  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
and  were  multiplied  by  hundreds  and  almost 
by  thousands.  In  that  year  D.  D.  Home  (see 
HOME,  DANIEL  DUXGLAS),  at  the  age  of  17,  be 
came  known  as  a  medium,  and  in  the  five  fol 
lowing  years  he  attained  a  wide-spread  reputa 
tion,  especially  for  his  materialization,  levita- 


SPIRITUALISM 


27Y 


tion,  and  other  phenomena  far  surpassing  the 
previous  manifestations  of  ordinary  mediums. 
Some  of  the  most  remarkable  manifestations 
through  his  mediumship  occurred  in  Spring 
field,  Mass.,  and  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  at  the 
residences  of  Henry  C.  Deming,  Isaac  "W.  Stu 
art,  Alfred  E.  Burr,  and  others.  In  1855  he 
went  abroad,  and  gave  sittings  with  manifesta 
tions  in  the  presence  of  Napoleon  III.  in  Paris 
and  Alexander  II.  in  St.  Petersburg ;  and  both 
emperors  gave  him  large  presents  in  jewels 
and  money.  Nearly  contemporary  with  Home, 
and  since  his  publicity  as  a  medium,  many 
others  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe  have 
obtained  an  almost  equal  celebrity  for  materi 
alizing  manifestations.  Among  the  mediums 
of  the  alleged  spiritual  manifestations  there 
have  been  representatives  from  all  classes  and 
conditions  of  mankind.  The  alleged  mediums 
have  been  classified  as  rapping  mediums  ;  me 
diums  for  tipping  and  turning  tables  by  a  slight 
touch  of  the  finger ;  for  the  movement  of 
ponderable  bodies  without  contact;  for  the 
production  of  phosphorescent  lights  in  a  dark 
room ;  for  playing  on  musical  instruments  in 
a  manner  beyond  their  ordinary  abilities  ;  for 
involuntary  writing,  and  for  writing  indepen 
dent  of  any  apparent  aid  from  human  hands  ; 
for  direct  spirit  speech,  and  for  impressional 
speaking  and  personation  ;  for  stigmata ;  for 
the  diagnosis  and  healing  of  disease  ;  for  levi- 
tation;  for  producing  drawings  and  colored 
pictures ;  for  photographing  spirits ;  for  the 
introduction  of  flowers,  fruits,  vegetables,  and 
many  other  things  into  closed  rooms ;  for  the 
development  of  other  mediums ;  and  finally, 
what  spiritualists  consider  the  crowning  mar 
vel  of  all  the  manifestations,  for  the  material 
ization  of  spirit  forms  identical  in  appearance 
with  those  of  deceased  persons.  Indeed,  the 
powers  that  are  claimed  for  mediums  are  pro 
tean  in  variety.  By  the  raps  and  tipping  of 
tables,  and  by  the  control  of  the  medium's 
organs  to  write  and  speak,  the  spirits  are  sup 
posed  to  express  their  own  peculiar  intelli 
gence  in  a  degree  of  perfection  proportioned 
to  the  development  and  passivity  of  the  me 
dium.  It  is  averred  that  persons  while  under 
the  spiritual  afflatus  have  often  spoken  in  for 
eign  tongues  which  they  had  never  learned ; 
and  writings  in  languages  to  them  unknown 
have  been  produced  in  their  presence,  as  we 
are  told,  by  invisible  hands.  To  all  these 
modes  of  manifestation  there  are  countless 
witnesses  of  high  character  and  intelligence. 
In  the  "London  Quarterly  Journal  of  Sci 
ence  "  for  January,  1874,  William  Crookes, 
the  editor,  classifies  some  of  the  phenomena 
exhibited  in  repeated  experiments  with  the. 
mediums  D.  D.  Home  and  Kate  Fox  (after 
ward  Mrs.  Jencken)  as  follows:  1,  the  move 
ment  of  heavy  bodies  with  contact,  but  with 
out  mechanical  exertion ;  2,  the  phenomena 
of  percussive  and  other  allied  sounds ;  3,  the 
alteration  of  weight  of  bodies ;  4,  movements 
of  heavy  bodies  when  at  a  distance  from  the 


medium  ;  5,  the  rising  of  tables  and  chairs  off 
the  ground  without  contact  with  any  person  ; 
6,  the  levitation  of  human  beings  ;  7,  move 
ments  of  various  small  articles  without  contact 
with  any  person  ;  8,  luminous  appearances  ;  9, 
the  appearance  of  hands,  either  self-luminous 
or  visible  by  ordinary  light ;  10,  direct  writing ; 
11,  phantom  forms  and  faces;  12,  special  in 
stances  which  seem  to  point  to  the  agency  of 
an  exterior  intelligence  ;  13,  miscellaneous  oc 
currences  of  a  complex  character.  The  exhibi 
tions  which  Mr.  Crookes  and  a  few  friends  wit 
nessed  were  mostly  in  his  own  house,  in  the 
light ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  existence  of  an 
unexplained  force,  with  its  amount  and  direc 
tion,  was  accurately  tested  by  means  of  an  in 
genious  apparatus.  In  the  spring  of  1874  Mr. 
Crookes  with  others  began  the  investigation  of 
phenomena  exhibited  in  London  through  the 
mediumship  of  Florence  Cook,  afterward  Mrs. 
Corner.  It  is  asserted  that  in  a  series  of  sit 
tings  extending  through  several  months  a  fe 
male  spirit  form,  temporarily  materialized  and 
not  distinguishable  from  a  human  being,  re 
peatedly  came  from  a  cabinet  into  the  light, 
conversed,  sang,  submitted  to  various  tests,  and 
then  disappeared.  Mr.  Crookes,  who  took 
several  photographs  of  the  figure,  says :  "  It 
was  a  common  thing  for  the  seven  or  eight  of 
us  in  the  laboratory  to  see  Miss  Cook  and 
'  Katie'  (the  spirit)  at  the  same  time  under  the 
full  blaze  of  the  electric  light."  On  one  oc 
casion  Mr.  Yarley,  the  electrician,  by  means 
of  a  galvanic  battery  and  cable-testing  appa 
ratus,  showed  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  spec 
tators  that  the  medium  was  inside  of  the  cabi 
net  while  the  supposed  spirit  form  was  visible 
and  moving  outside.  Two  years  previously 
the  phenomena  of  materialization  appeared  at 
Moravia,  1ST.  Y.,  where  Mrs.  Mary  Andrews 
was  the  medium;  and  Thomas  E.  Hazard  of 
Rhode  Island,  the  Rev.  R.  S.  Pope  of  Hyan- 
nis,  Mass.,  and  other  respectable  persons  pres 
ent  at  these  sittings,  declared  that  they  saw 
and  conversed  with  the  spirits  of  their  de 
ceased  relatives  and  friends.  Numerous  cred 
ible  witnesses,  prominent  among  them  Henry 
S.  Olcott  of  New  York,  who  devoted  weeks  to 
special  investigation,  testify  that  similar  phe 
nomena  occurred  in  1874— '5  at  the  sittings 
with  the  Eddy  brothers  in  Chittenden,  Yt. 
Mr.  Mott  of  Memphis,  Mo.,  Mrs.  Anna  Stew 
art  of  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  and  Mrs.  Markee  of 
Havana,  N.  Y.,  have  the  reputation  of  being 
remarkable  mediums  for  the  materialization 
phenomena.  The  fraudulent  character  of  some 
exhibitions  has  been  exposed,  notably  of  that 
of  the  Holmeses  in  Philadelphia  in  1874,  in 
which  the  supposed  spirit  form  called  "  Katie 
I  King"  appeared.  To  this  exhibition  Robert 
|  Dale  Owen  at  first  gave  full  credence,  but  he 
ultimately  withdrew  his  confidence,  though 
subsequent  investigations  threw  doubt  on  the 
charges  of  imposture  through  a  confederate. 
Almost  from  the  time  of  the  first  sittings  the 
phenomena  of  materialized  spirit  hands  and 


278 


SPIRITUALISM 


SPITZBERGEN 


feet  have  been  common.  Instruments  have 
been  floated  around  and  spirit  voices  heard, 
phenomena  supposed  to  be  produced  by  the 
exercise  of  the  materializing  power.  But  not 
withstanding  the  accumulated  assumed  testi 
mony  in  regard  to  spirit  photographs  and 
materializations,  spiritualists  themselves  are 
not  yet  unanimous  in  admitting  them  among 
what  they  believe  to  be  fully  verified  phenom 
ena. — Besides  the  thousands  in  every  grade 
of  society,  throughout  the  civilized  world, 
who  are  more  or  less  influenced  by  a  belief  in 
the  supernatural  origin  of  the  manifestations, 
many  persons  in  Europe  and  America,  distin 
guished  in  the  walks  of  science,  philosophy, 
literature,  and  statesmanship,  have  become 
avowed  converts,  or  have  admitted  the  phe 
nomena  so  far  as  to  believe  in  a  new  force 
not  recognized  by  science,  or  have  testified 
that  the  manifestations  they  have  witnessed 
are  not  capable  of  explanation  on  the  ground 
of  imposture,  coincidence,  or  mistake,  or  at 
least  have  considered  the  subject  worthy  of 
serious  attention  and  careful  consideration. 
Among  these  are :  Alexander  Aksakoff,  Robert 
Chambers,  Hiram  Oorson,  Augustus  De  Mor 
gan,  J.  AV.  Edmonds,  Dr.  Elliotson,  I.  II.  von 
Eichte,  Camille  Flammarion,  Hermann  Gold- 
schmidt,  Dr.  Hofflo,  Robert  Hare,  Lord  Lynd- 
hurst,  Robert  and  Robert  Dale  Owen,  W. 
M.  Thackeray,  T.  A.  Trollope,  Alfred  Russel 
Wallace,  Nicholas  Wagner,  and  Archbishop 
Whately.  As  the  organized  bodies  of  spirit 
ualists  include  but  a  small  proportion  of  those 
who  wholly  or  partially  accept  these  phe 
nomena,  it  is  impossible  to  make  even  an  ap 
proximate  estimate  of  their  numbers.  While 
spiritualism  has  its  converts  from  every  reli 
gious  denomination,  no  small  proportion  of 
its  advocates  are  from  the  ranks  of  those  who 
previously  doubted  or  totally  disbelieved  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  and  who  affirm  that 
they  carry  their  skeptical  tendencies  into  the 
investigation  of  this  subject.  On  matters  of 
speculative  theology,  there  seems  to  be  among 
them  the  widest  latitude  of  opinion,  though  a 
majority  of  them  perhaps  are  in  their  specula 
tions  inclined  to  what  may  be  termed  a  subli 
mated  naturalism.  They  tell  us  that  it  is  not 
the  object  of  the  spirits  to  teach  theological 
dogmas  as  by  any  authority  superior  to  that 
of  man,  but  rather,  by  the  mental  and  physical 
phenomena  incidentally  presented  in  the  course 
of  their  manifestations,  to  furnish  those  ele 
ments  of  reasoning  from  which  each  one  may 
workout  his  o\vn  conclusions;  while  we  are 
told  that  the  main  object  of  their  manifesta 
tions  is  to  furnish  actual  demonstration  of  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  and  of  some  of  the 
conditions  and  laws  of  the  post  mortem  exis 
tence. — The  books  relating  to  spiritual  manifes 
tations  may  be  reckoned  by  hundreds.  The 
following  are  a  few  of  the  more  important : 
J.  Kerner,  Die  Seherin  ron  Prerorst  (Stutt 
gart,  1829;  translated  by  Mrs.  Crowe,  London, 
18-io) ;  Allan  Kardec,  Le  livre  ties  esprits  (Paris, 


1853), with  a  supplementary  work,  Le  lure  des 
mediums  (1863),  the  first  translated  into  Eng 
lish  by  Anna  Blaokwell  under  the  title,  "  The 
Spirits'  Book"  (Boston,  1875),  and  the  second 
by  Emma  A.  Wood,  "The  Book  of  Mediums" 
(Boston,  1875);  S.  B.  Brittan  and  B.  W.  Rich 
mond,  "A  Discussion  of  the  Facts  and  Phi 
losophy  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Spiritualism" 
(New  York,  1853) ;  John  W.  Edmonds  and  G. 
T.  Dexter,  "  Spiritualism  "  (2  vols.,  New  York, 
1854-'o) ;  Charles  Linton,  "  The  Healing  of  the 
Nations,"  with  an  introduction  and  appendix 
by  N.  P.  Tallmadge  (New  York,  1855) ;  Hud 
son  Tuttle,  "  Scenes  in  the  Spirit  World,  or 
Life  in  the  Spheres "  (New  York,  1855)  ;  E. 
W.  Capron,  "Modern  Spiritualism,  its  Facts 
and  Fanaticisms  "  (Boston,  1855)  ;  Robert  Hare, 
"Experimental  Investigations  of  the  Spirit 
Manifestations  "  (New  York,  1856) ;  Louis  de 
Guldenstubbe,  La  realite  des  esprits  et  le  phe- 
nomene  merveilleux  de  Vecriture  directe  demon- 
tres  (Paris,  1857);  Catharine  Crowe,  "Spirit 
ualism  and  the  Age  we  Live  in  "  (London, 
1859)  ;  Robert  Dale  Owen,  "  Footfalls  on  the 
Boundary  of  Another  World "  (Philadelphia, 
1860),  and  "The  Debatable  Land  between  this 
World  and  the  Next"  (New  York,  1872);  D. 
D.  Home,  "  Incidents  of  my  Life  "  (London, 
Paris,  and  New  York,  18(52  ;'  a  second  volume 
with  the  same  title,  1872,  and  a  third  an 
nounced  in  1875)  ;  Mrs.  A.  DC  Morgan,  "  From 
Matter  to  Spirit "  (London,  1863)  ;  J.  E.  do 
Mirville,  Question  des  esjjrits  et  de  leurs  mani- 
festations  diverses  (¥\\.v\*,  1863) ;  William  IIow- 
itt,  "  History  of  the  Supernatural  in  all  Ages 
and  Nations"  (London,  1863);  C.  W.  Upham, 
"  Salem  Witchcraft,  and  a  History  of  Opinions 
on  Witchcraft  and  Kindred  Subjects  "  (2  vols., 
Boston,  1867);  Epes  Sargent,  "Planchette,  or 
the  Despair  of  Science"  (Boston,  1869),  and 
"  The  Proof  Palpable  of  Immortality  "  (1875) ; 
Emma  Hardinge,  "  Modern  American  Spirit 
ualism  "  (New  York,  1870) ;  William  Crookes, 
"  Researches  in  the  Phenomena  of  Spiritual 
ism  "  (London,  1874) ;  A.  R,  Wallace,  "  On  Mi 
racles  and  Modern  Spiritualism,  three  Essays  " 
(London,  1875);  and  II.  S.  Olcott,  "People 
from  the  Other  World "  (Hartford,  1875). 
With  the  exception  of  these  and  a  few  other 
books,  the  best  portion  of  the  literature  of 
spiritualism  is  to  be  found  in  the  various  pe 
riodicals  devoted  to  that  subject,  the  num 
ber  of  which  in  1875,  in  Europe,  America,  and 
Australia,  was  at  least  60.t 

SPITZBERGEN,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Arc 
tic  ocean,  between  lat.  76°  30'  and  80°  30'  N., 
and  Ion.  10°  and  28°  E.,  and  nearly  midway 
between  Greenland  on  the  west  and  Nova 
Zembla  on  the  east ;  area  estimated  at  30,000 
sq.  m.  The  principal  islands  are  Spitzbergen, 
Northeast  land,  Prince  Charles,  Edge,  and  Ba- 
rentz.  Spitzbergen  proper,  the  largest  of  the 
islands,  is  nearly  divided  N.  and  S.  by  two 
arms  of  the  sea,  Weyde  bay  and  Ice  fiord, 
which  stretch  so  far  inland  that  their  heads 
are  separated  by  only  a  narrow  peninsula  5 


SPITZBERGEN 


SPITZ  DOG 


279 


or  6  m.  in  breadth.  The  two  divisions  are 
sometimes  called  respectively  West  Spitzber- 
gen  and  East  Spitzbergen  or  New  Friesland. 
E.  of  Spitzbergen  lie  Barentz  island  and  Edge 
island  (Russ.  Maloi  Bruri),  separated  from  it 
by  a  strait  called  Wybe  Jans  water,  or  by  the 
Swedes  Stor  fiord.  Between  Edge  and  Ba 
rentz  islands  is  Freeman  or  Thymen  strait,  and 
between  Barentz  island  and  Spitzbergen  on 
the  north  Heley's  sound.  Ilinlopen  or  Way- 
gat  strait  separates  Spitzbergen  from  North 
east  laud,  so  called  from  its  relative  position 
to  the  larger  island.  Its  coast  line  is  rugged 
and  penetrated  by  numerous  fiords,  and  it  is 
surrounded  by  many  islands,  the  principal  of 
which  are  High  island  on  the  east,  the  group 
called  the  Seven  islands  on  the  north,  and  Low 
island  on  the  west.  Near  the  southern  mouth 
of  Ilinlopen  strait  is  Waygator  Wilhelm  island, 
explored  by  Smyth  in  1871.  W.  of  Spitzber 
gen,  and  separated  from  it  by  Foreland  strait, 
lies  Prince  Charles  island  or  foreland.  Little 
is  known  of  the  interior  of  Spitzbergen,  but 
many  mountains' are  visible  from  the  coast, 
some  of  them  3,000  to  4,000  ft.  high,  the  val 
leys  of  which  are  filled  with  glaciers.  On  the 
W.  coast  the  mountains  rise  generally  within 
3  m.  of  the  shore,  leaving  a  level  space  between 
them  and  the  sea.  The  N.  shores  are  not  so 
high,  but  inland  the  ice  hills  gradually  rise  to 
an  elevation  of  more  than  2,000  ft.  Around 
the  South  cape  or  Point  Lookout,  the  S.  ter 
mination  of  Spitzbergen,  the  coast  is  flat,  but 
it  soon  rises  into  a  mountain  chain  which 
extends  northward.  The  E.  coasts  have  not 
been  thoroughly  explored.  Spitzbergen  feels 
the  influence  of  two  ocean  currents  flowing 
from  nearly  opposite  directions :  a  polar  cur 
rent,  which  blocks  up  the  E.  and  N.  E.  sides 
with  ice  and  renders  navigation  dangerous,  if 
not  impossible ;  and  a  warmer  Atlantic  cur 
rent,  which  flows  up  the  W.  coast  and  keeps  it 
comparatively  free  from  ice.  The  climate  is 
intensely  cold,  the  mean  temperature  on  the 
W.  coast  during  the  three  warmest  months  not 
exceeding  34'5°.  The  longest  day  in  the  N. 
parts  is  four  months,  and  from  Oct.  22  to  Feb. 
22  the  sun  does  not  rise  above  the  horizon ; 
but  the  long  night  is  relieved  by  a  faint  twi 
light  and  the  occasional  brilliant  light  of  the 
aurora  borealis,  and  the  moon  and  stars  shine 
with  great  brightness.  Winter  begins  at  the 
end  of  September,  and  by  the  middle  of  Octo 
ber  the  cold  is  intense.  Storms  are  frequent, 
and  great  quantities  of  snow  fall.  During  the 
short  summer  the  climate  is  temperate  for  the 
latitude,  and  a  scanty  vegetation  springs  up. 
About  40  species  of  plants  have  been  classi 
fied,  the  most  vigorous  of  which  do  not  exceed 
3  or  4  in.  in  height.  The  animals  are  polar 
bears,  polar  foxes,  and  reindeer.  Sea  fowl  are 
numerous,  and  the  surrounding  waters  abound 
with  whales,  seals,  walruses,  and  large  fish. 
Marble  and  coal  of  good  quality  have  been 
found.  These  islands  have  been  visited  by 
whalers  for  2-J-  centuries,  and  though  there 


is  no  permanent  settlement  on  any  of  them, 
Russian  sailors  have  lived  for  years  at  a  time 
on  the  W.  coast.  Their  sovereignty  is  claimed 
by  Russia. — Spitzbergen  is  supposed  to  have 
been  first  seen  by  Willoughby  in  1553,  in  the 
voyage  in  which  he  perished  with  his  crew. 
Barentz  came  in  sight  of  the  N.  end  of  the 
W.  coast,  hit.  77°  49',  on  June  19,  1506.  He 
named  it  Greenland,  and  the  Dutch  naviga 
tors  who  followed  him  called  it  Nieuwland. 
By  the  English  it  was  called  King  James's 
Newland.  The  name  Spitzbergen  (pointed 
mountains)  first  appears  in  a  tract  published 
by  Hessel  Gerard  in  1613.  Henry  Hudson 
visited  the  N.  and  W.  coasts  in  1G07,  and  soon 
after  the  seas  around  Spitzbergen  became  a 
favorite  fishing  ground  for  whalers,  principally 
English  and  Dutch.  In  1017  a  ship  of  Capt. 
Edge's  fleet  explored  the  E.  coast  as  far  as  lat. 
79°,  and  discovered  Wiche's  land  E.  of  Spitz 
bergen.  This  was  renamed  King  Karl  land 
in  1870  by  Baron  von  Ileuglin,  who  saw  it 
from  off  Edge  island  and  supposed  he  had 
made  a  new  discovery.  It  was  visited  for  the 
first  time  in  1872  by  Nils  Jansen,  a  Norwe 
gian  whaling  captain.  Important  additions 
to  our  knowledge  of  Spitzbergen  and  its  sur 
roundings  have  been  made  by  the  Swedish  ex 
peditions  under  Nordenskjold  in  1858,  '61,  '6.4, 
'68,  and  '72 ;  by  B.  Leigh  Smyth  and  Ulve  in 
1871-'2  ;  and  by  Altmann  and  Nilsen  in  1872. 
SPITZ  DOG,  a  small  variety  of  the  Pomera 
nian  dog.  It  is  evidently  derived  from  some 
of  the  arctic  or  wolf  dogs,  and  resembles  in 
its  short,  ovate,  erect,  and  hairy  ears,  pointed 
muzzle,  much  curved  and  bushy  tail,  the  Es 
quimaux,  Hare  Indian,  Siberian,  Lapland,  and 
Iceland  dogs,  though  of  smaller  size  and  with 
finer  and  longer  hair.  The  hair  is  long,  espe- 


Spitz  Dog. 

cially  on  the  head  and  neck,  and  varying  from 
pure  white,  which  is  most  common,  to  cream 
color  and  occasionally  jet-black.  It  is  very 
active,  intelligent,  and  handsome,  an  excellent 
watch  dog,  with  many  of  the  qualities  of  the 
shepherd's  dog,  and  probably  of  the  same  ori- 


280 


SPLEEN 


SPOHR 


gin.  It  is  not  improbable  that  it  may  have 
come  from  a  cross  between  some  of  the  small 
er  arctic  wolf-like  dogs  and  the  arctic  fox. 

SPLEEN  (Gr.  vrrM/v),  the  largest  of  the  vas 
cular  or  ductless  glands,  whose  probable  func 
tion  is  subsidiary  to  the  process  of  sanguifica 
tion.  It  is  situated  in  the  left  hypochondriac 
region,  below  the  diaphragm,  above  the  de 
scending  colon,  between  the  cartilages  of  the 
false  ribs  and  the  cardiac  extremity  of  the 
stomach,  to  which  it  is  united  by  short  ves 
sels.  It  is  in  health  from  4  to  5  in.  long,  and 
1£  in.  thick,  of  an  elongated  flattened  form, 
and  about  (5  oz.  in  weight ;  on  the  inner  sur 
face  is  a  longitudinal  groove  in  which  are  the 
blood  vessels,  posteriorly  resting  on  the  verte 
bral  column ;  below,  it  is  in  relation  with  the 
left  kidney  and  capsule,  and  with  the  pancreas 
behind.  It  is  soft  and  spongy,  and  dusky  red. 


~ 


A  portion  of  the  Splenic  Artery,  its  ramifications  being 
studded  with  Malpighian  corpuscles  (from  the  dog). 
(Magnified  10  diameters.) 

Its  external  surface  is  covered  with  the  peri 
toneum  ;  beneath  this  is  a  coat  of  white  fibrous 
tissue  with  some  elastic  fibres,  from  the  inner 
surface  of  which  extends  through  the  entire 
organ  a  network  of  fibrous  bands  and  threads, 
the  trabecular  tissue.  The  splenic  artery  comes 
from  the  coeliac  axis,  the  trunks  not  anasto 
mosing,  but  subdividing  like  the  branches  of  a 
tree,  to  which  the  Malpighian  corpuscles  are 
attached  as  fruits  on  short  peduncles,  and  end 
ing  generally  in  capillaries  with  very  thin  walls, 
passing  in  every  direction  through  the  organ 
and  into  the  interior  of  the  corpuscles.  The 
veins  are  branched  like  the  arteries,  have  no 
valves,  and  their  principal  stem  is  one  of  the 
trunks  of  the  vena  portro ;  the  nerves  form 
the  splenic  plexus,  and  proceed  from  the  solar 
plexus  of  the  great  sympathetic;  the  lymphat 
ics  are  few  and  superficial.  The  parenchyma 
consists  of  a  homogeneous  mass  of  colorless 


nucleated  corpuscles  and  cells  imbedded  in  a 
granular  plasma.  The  splenic  corpuscles,  or 
Malpighian  bodies  of  the  spleen,  are  whitish 
spherical  bodies,  about  fa  of  an  inch  in  diame 
ter,  attached  to  the  smaller  ramifications  of 
the  splenic  artery.  Each  corpuscle  consists  of 
a  closed  sac  or  capsule,  containing  in  its  inte 
rior  a  viscid  semi-solid  mass  of  cells,  cell  nu 
clei,  and  homogeneous  substance.  Each  Mal 
pighian  body  is  covered  with  a  network  of  ca 
pillary  blood  vessels ;  and  small  blood  vessels 
also  penetrate  into  its  interior,  through  the  in 
vesting  capsule,  and  form  a  vascular  capillary 
plexus  in  the  substance  of  the  body  itself. — 
The  precise  details  of  the  function  of  the  spleen 
are  unknown.  It  belongs  to  the  class  of  "duct 
less  glands,"  that  is,  of  organs  having  a  glan 
dular  texture  but  no  outlet  or  duct,  and  not 
supplying  any  distinct  secretion  like  those  of 
the  glands  proper.  Their  purpose  undoubted 
ly  is  to  effect  some  necessary  change  in  tho 
blood  itself,  producing  in  their  glandular  tis 
sue  some  substance  which  is  appropriated  and 
carried  away  by  the  blood  vessels  distributed 
to  them.  Thus  the  veins  of  these  organs  are 
supposed  to  serve  as  their  excretory  ducts. 
The  spleen,  though  so  large,  is  not  directly 
essential  to  life,  and  has  been  several  times 
removed  in  the  lower  animals  without  an 
immediately  fatal  result.  It  is  liable  to  acute 
and  chronic  enlargements  in  various  forms  of 
typhoid  and  intermittent  fevers,  and  is  some 
times  excessively  enlarged  and  solidified  in  the 
strumous  diseases  of  infancy  and  childhood. 

SPOFFORD,  Harriet  Elizabeth  (PKESCOTT),  an 
American  authoress,  born  in  Calais,  Me!,  April 
3,  1835.  She  was  educated  at  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  and  in  1805  married  Richard  S.  Spofford 
of  that  place.  She  has  published  "  Sir  Rohan's 
Ghost "  (1859) ;  "  The  Amber  Gods,  and  Other 
Stories  "(1863);  "Azarian,  an  Episode  "(1804); 
"New  England  Legends"  (1871);  and  "The 
Thief  in  the  Night"  (1872). 

SPOHR,  Lndwig,  a  German  composer,  born 
in  Brunswick,  April  5,  1784,  died  in  Cassel, 
Oct.  22,  1859.  He  received  instruction  on  the 
violin  from  Maucourt,  and  made  his  debut  at 
Brunswick  at  the  age  of  12,  playing  then  a 
concerto  of  his  own  composition.  At  18  he 
accompanied  the  violinist  Eck  to  Russia.  At 
19  he  composed  the  work  since  published  as 
his  first  violin  concerto  (Opus  1).  At  21  he 
made  a  tour  through  Germany,  bringing  out 
at  one  of  his  concerts  the  since  celebrated  com 
poser  Meyerbeer.  In  1805  he  was  appointed 
chapelmaster  at  Gotha.  In  180G  he  married 
Dorothea  Scheidler  the  harpist,  and  afterward 
composed  many  pieces  for  the  harp  in  connec 
tion  with  the  violin.  In  1816  he  visited  Italy 
on  a  concert  tour,  and  in  1817  he  undertook 
the  directorship  of  the  Frankfort  theatre.  In 
1820  he  visited  England,  and  conducted  there 
the  philharmonic  society's  concerts.  In  1821 
he  was  appointed  chapelmaster  at  Cassel,  where 
he  resided  during  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
He  brought  out  there  his  operas  Der  Bcrggeist, 


SPOLETO 


SPONGE 


281 


Jewonda,  and  Der  Alcliymist,  his  oratorios  Die 
letzten  Dinge  and  Des  Heilands  letzte  Stunden 
(known  in  the  respective  English  versions  as 
"  The  Last  Judgment "  and  "  The  Crucitixion  "), 
his  symphony  Die  Weihe  der  Tone  or  "The 
Consecration  of  Tone,"  and  other  works.  In 
1852-'3  he  directed  the  performances  of  his 
operas  at  the  royal  Italian  opera  house  in  Lon 
don.  In  1857  he  resigned  his  office  at  Cassel. 
He  exercised  a  decided  influence  upon  the  art 
of  music  both  by  his  Violinscliule  (fol.,  Yienna, 
1831)  and  by  his  compositions.  Among  these 
were  nine  spmphonies,  eight  operas,  a  great 
number  of  quartets  and  quintets  for  stringed  in 
struments,  and  other  chamber  music. — See  Louis 
Spo'hr's  Selbsibiographie  (2  vols.,  Gottingen, 
1862),  which  has  been  translated  into  English. 

SPOLETO  (anc.  Spoletium),  a  city  of  central 
Italy,  formerly  capital  of  a  papal  delegation  of 
the  same  name,  and  since  1860  of  a  district  in 
the  province  of  Perugia  (division  of  Umbria), 
on  the  Mareggia,  60  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Rome ;  pop. 
in  1872,  20,748.  The  streets  are  steep,  the  city 
being  built  around  a  hill;  on  the  top  of  this 
is  the  citadel,  which  was  built  by  Theodoric, 
destroyed  by  Totila,  restored  by  Narses,  and 
subsequently  enlarged.  Spoleto  has  a  tine  ca 
thedral  and  many  other  churches,  palaces,  and 
relics  of  antiquity,  including  the  arch  known 
as  the  gate  of  Hannibal,  who  was  repulsed 
here  in  217  B.  0.  The  chief  articles  of  trade 
are  maize,  wine,  fruit,  and  silk. — The  ancient 
Spoletium  was  a  flourishing  Roman  colony. 
After  the  fall  of  the  western  empire  it  was 
taken  by  the  Goths.  Under  the  Lombard 
kings  it  became  the  capital  of  a  duchy,  which 
soon  acquired  independence  and  authority  over 
a  considerable  part  of  central  Italy,  and  after 
various  changes  was  in  the  13th  century  an 
nexed  to  the  Roman  see.  The  town  was  sacked 
by  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  in  1324  devas 
tated  by  the  Perugians;  and  it  has  suffered 
much  from  earthquakes. 

SPONGE,  the  common  name  applied  to  the 
order  spongida,  of  the  class  of  rhizopods,  the 
most  characteristic  of  the  subkingdom  pro 
tozoa.  Sponges  were  for  a  long  time  regard 
ed  as  plants,  but  the  best  naturalists  are  now 
agreed  that  they  belong  to  the  animal  king 
dom.  Prof.  H.  J.  Clark  placed  them  nearest 
to  the  compound  protozoans  known  as  the 
flagellate  infusoria,  and  it  has  been  proved  by 
him,  and  by  others  since,  that  the  collar  round 
the  cilium  must  be  regarded  as  the  sponge 
animal;  Kent  classes  them  between  the  flagel 
late  infusoria  and  the  rhizopods ;  and  Ilaeckel 
stands  alone  in  placing  them  nearest  to  the 
corals  or  calenterata.  (See  "Annual  and  Mag 
azine  of  Natural  History,"  London,  January, 
1870.)  A  sponge  is  really  an  aggregation  of 
separate  masses  of  an  amoeba-like  sarcode,  se 
creting  a  supporting  network  of  fibro-corne- 
ous,  calcareous,  or  silicious  matter,  the  com 
pound  mass  being  traversed  by  canals  opening 
on  the  surface.  The  apparently  homogeneous 
jelly,  or  sponge  flesh,  which  covers  the  out 


side  and  lines  the  canals  of  the  living  sponge, 
is  made  up  of  an  enormous  number  of  sarcode 
masses,  composed  of  separate  sarcoids,  each 
capable  of  pushing  out  its  pseudopodia,  gener 
ally  with  a  vibrating  cilium,  and,  if  detached, 
able  to  move  and  live  independently.  Large 
rounded  orifices,  or  oscula,  are  scattered  over 
the  surface  of  most  sponges,  which  lead  into 
sinuous  canals  permeating  the  substance  in 
every  direction ;  water  is  continually  absorbed 
by  the  smaller  pores  of  the  sponge,  tilling  every 
part,  and,  having  supplied  air  and  food,  is 


r^ 


Diagrammatic  Section  of  Spongilla  (after  Huxley). 
a  a.  Outer  or  superficial  layer  of  sponge.      &  b.   Inhalant 
apertures,  or  pores,    c  c.   Ciliated  chambers,    d.  An  ex- 
halant  aperture,  or  osculum.     The  arrows  indicate  the 
direction  of  the  currents. 

driven  out  through  the  oscula;  the  currents 
are  kept  up  by  the  action  of  the  minute  vibra- 
tile  cilia.  In  the  words  of  Prof.  Huxley,  the 
sponge  "represents  a  kind  of  subaqueous  city, 
where  the  people  are  arranged  about  the  streets 
and  roads  in  such  a  manner  that  each  can 
easily  appropriate  his  food  from  the  water  as  it 
passes  along."  Many  sponges  contain  a  large 
amount  of  silica,  in  the  form  of  spicules  of  va 
rious  shapes,  both  formed  in  their  substance 
and  introduced  from  without ;  two  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  silicious  sponges  will  be  found 
described  under  GLASS  SPONGE  and  VENUS'S 
FLOWER  BASKET. — There  is  a  gradual  passage 
from  the  soft  sponges  of  commerce  to  those  of 
stiff  and  compact  texture,  with  the  fibres  loaded 
with  silicious  spicula,  crumbling  easily  when 
dry,  and  useless  in  the  arts  ;  others  are  rather 
of  a  felted  character,  usually  grayish  white. 
Sponges  vary  much  in  form,  being  irregularly 
branched,  round,  pear-shaped,  or  cup-like,  and 
are  fixed  by  a  kind  of  root  at  the  base,  or  in- 
crust  other  bodies,  growing  mostly  in  groups 
attached  to  all  kinds  of  objects,  living  or  dead, 
fixed  or  floating;  most  are  marine,  but  spon- 
gilla  (Lam.)  grows  in  fresh  water;  they  often 
have  brilliant  colors.  Some,  like  diona,  in 
stead  of  incrusting  other  objects,  excavate 
branching  cavities  in  shells,  which  they  in 
habit.  Sponges  are  propagated  sometimes  by 
ciliated  gemmules,  yellowish  and  oval,  arising 
from  the  sarcode  mass  and  carried  out  by  the 
currents  ;  they  are  mostly  formed  in  the 
spring,  and,  after  swimming  freely  about  for 
some  time,  become  fixed  and  grow.  They  also 
produce  internal,  unciliated,  oviform  bodies, 
resembling  winter  ova,  which,  when  thrown 
out,  swell,  burst,  and  give  issue  to  the  locorno- 


282 


SPONGE 


SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION 


live  germs  within ;  they  are  said  also  to  grow 
by  division,  or  growth  of  detached  portions 
of  the  parent  body;  they  are  believed  to  be 
nourished  by  minute  algec  drawn  within  their 
pores.  Some  live  in  shallow,  others  in  very 
deep  water ;  scarce  and  small  in  cold  latitudes, 


Sponge  attached  to  its  rocky  bed. 

they  increase  in  size  and  number  toward  the 
tropics,  being  most  abundant  in  the  Austra 
lian  seas.  According  to  Dr.  Bowerbank,  there 
are  24  genera  on  the  shores  of  Great  Britain. 
While  spongia  is  the  type  of  the  corneous 
sponges,  thethys  (Guv.)  and  Grantia  (Flem.) 
are  types  of  the  silicious  and  calcareous 
sponges  respectively.  (See  PKOTOZOA.) — For 
the  latest  researches  on  the  sponges  see  the 
papers  now  in  course  of  publication  (1876)  by 
Prof.  A.  Hyatt,  in  the  "Memoirs  of  the  Bos 
ton  Society  of  Natural  History,"  with  figures 
and  bibliography.  Haeckel  (Monographic  der 
Kalkschwammer,  18T2)  regards  the  sponges 
and  acalepha  as  having  been  evolved  from  a 
common  ancestor,  which  he  calls  protascus,  de 
scribed  as  a  body  cavity  surrounded  by  two 
layers  of  cells;  he  compares  the  sponge  to 
the  embryos  of  higher  animals,  both  verte 
brate  and  invertebrate.  In  his  view,  the  germ 
of  all  animals,  and  the  adult  of  such  forms  as 
hydra,  may  be  reduced  to  the  simple  form  of 
the  young  of  a  calcareous  sponge,  which  he 
calls  gofitrula ;  this  he  considers  the  "truest 
and  most  significant  embryonal  form  of  the 
animal  kingdom." — The  sponges  of  commerce 
are  procured  chiefly  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Bahama  islands;  most  of  them  are  obtained 


by  diving,  to  which  persons  are  trained  from 
childhood  in  the  Greek  islands ;  the  adhesion  to 
the  bottom  is  generally  firm,  and  the  growth 
slow.  To  bleach  sponges,  the  finest  and  soft 
est  are  selected,  washed  several  times  in  water, 
and  immersed  in  very  dilute  hydrochloric  acid 
to  dissolve  out  the  calcareous  matters ;  having 
been  again  washed,  they  are  placed  in  anoth 
er  bath  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  to  which  6 
per  cent,  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  dissolved  in  a 
little  warm  water  has  been  added ;  the  sponge 
is  left  in  this  bath  24  hours,  or  until  it  is  as 
white  as  snow.  Smyrna  is  the  chief  place  for 
the  export  of  fine  sponges.  The  coarse  sponges 
used  for  horses  and  carriages,  &c.,  are  ob 
tained  chiefly  from  the  Bahamas;  when  taken 
from  the  water  they  have  a  sickish,  disagree 
able  odor,  which  soon  becomes  disgusting,  like 
that  of  decomposing  animal  matter ;  they  are 
first  buried  in  dry  sand,  and  when  decomposi 
tion  has  ceased  are  exposed  in  wire  cages  to 
the  action  of  the  tide  for  purification. — Fossil 
sponges  are  found  in  the  Trenton  limestone, 
and,  if  scolitJtus  be  a  mining  sponge,  even  as 
low  as  the  Potsdam  sandstone,  and  probably 
were  in  existence  long  before  the  oldest  Silu 
rian  epoch.  Brachiospongia,  discovered  by 
the  liev.  Mr.  Ilovey  in  the  Birdseye  group  of 
the  lower  Silurian,  is  characterized  by  arm- 
like  processes  radiating  from  a  central  cup. 
Eospongia  of  Billings  has  been  found  in  the 
lowest  Potsdam. 

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION.  See  COMBUS 
TION,  SPONTANEOUS. 

SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION,  the  direct  pro 
duction  of  living  beings  from  inanimate  ma 
terial,  in  contradistinction  to  the  ordinary 
mode  of  generation,  in  which  young  animals 
or  plants  appear  only  as  the  progeny  of  other 
living  organisms.  The  views  held  by  physi 
ologists  on  the  question  of  spontaneous  gen 
eration  have  varied  greatly  at  different  times. 
In  the  earlier  periods  of  scientific  culture,  the 
Grecian  naturalists,  as  represented  by  Aris 
totle,  recognized  among  animals  three  differ 
ent  modes  of  generation :  1,  viviparous  genera 
tion,  as  in  man  and  the  quadrupeds,  where  the 
young  were  known  to  be  produced  alive  from 
the  bodies  of  their  parents;  2,  oviparous  gen 
eration,  as  in  birds,  reptiles,  and  fish,  where  the 
young  were  hatched  from  eggs  produced  by  the 
female;  3,  spontaneous  generation,  where  no 
connection  could  be  traced  between  the  young 
animals  and  any  previously  existing  parents, 
and  where  they  were  consequently  thought 
to  be  formed  by  the  spontaneous  organization 
of  earthy  deposits  or  decaying  organic  mate 
rial.  Spontaneous  generation  was  therefore 
regarded  as  one  of  the  regular  and  natural 
methods  for  the  production  of  living  forms; 
but  as  a  physiological  doctrine  it  rested  en 
tirely  upon  negative  grounds,  and  was  due  to 
the  incomplete  knowledge  then  possessed  by 
naturalists  as  to  the  real  origin  of  many  ani 
mal  species.  Maggots,  for  instance,  were 
thought  to  be  formed  by  spontaneous  genera- 


SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION 


283 


tion  from  putrefying  meat,  because  they  al 
ways  appeared  at  a  certain  stage  of  its  decom 
position,  although  no  similar  creatures  existed 
in  it  beforehand,  and  because  there  was  no 
other  apparent  cause  for  their  production.  A 
great  change  in  opinion  on  this  subject  was 
introduced  by  the  discoveries  of  Francesco 
Redi  in  1668.  He  exposed  fresh  meat,  during 
summer  weather,  in  wide-mouthed  bottles, 
protected  by  pieces  of  paper  fastened  over 
their  necks.  In  the  bottles  thus  secured  no 
maggots  were  developed,  notwithstanding  that 
the  putrefaction  of  the  meat  went  on  as  usual ; 
Avhile  in  other  similar  vessels,  unprotected  by 
paper  covers,  maggots  swarmed  in  abundance 
at  the  customary  time.  It  was  evident  there 
fore  that  their  origin  was  due  to  something 
introduced  from  without,  and  it  soon  appeared 
that  .they  were  really  the  progeny  of  flesh  flies, 
which,  attracted  by  the  odor  of  the  meat, 
hovered  over  it  until  they  gained  access  to  it, 
and  deposited  their  eggs  upon  its  surface. 
The  eggs  then  hatched  into  maggots,  which, 
after  a  certain  period  of  growth,  became  trans 
formed  into  perfect  insects  similar  to  their 
parents.  The  idea  thus  suggested  was  rapidly 
carried  out  by  means  of  further  observations 
on  the  reproduction  and  metamorphosis  of  in 
sects  in  general.  The  investigations  showed 
that  in  what  had  been  supposed  to  be  cases 
of  spontaneous  generation  the  animals  were 
really  produced  from  parents  like  themselves. 
The  microscope  soon  brought  into  view  many 
minute  forms  of  life  not  previously  known. 
The  multiplicity  of  these  forms,  their  endless 
variation,  their  small  size,  and  their  different 
conditions  of  life  made  it  impossible  at  first  to 
ascertain  their  complete  physiological  history 
or  their  mode  of  origin  ;  and  in  regard  to 
many  of  them  the  idea  of  spontaneous  genera 
tion  was  again  adopted.  This  was  especially  the 
case  with  the  class  known  as  infusoria  ;  that  is, 
microscopic  animals  living  in  water  or  in  wa 
tery  infusions  of  organic  material,  some  of  the 
smallest  of  which  received  the  name  of  mo 
nads.  Investigations  upon  this  point  were  con 
sequently  taken  up  afresh,  with  a  view  of  deter 
mining  whether  the  infusoria  in  a  watery  liquid 
were  produced  by  the  ingredients  of  the  solu 
tion  itself,  or  by  germs  derived  from  without. 
Experimenters  boiled  the  watery  infusions,  to 
destroy  the  vitality  of  any  animalcules  or  germs 
which  they  might  already  contain,  and  after 
ward  kept  them>  with  a  due  supply  of  air,  in 
hermetically  sealed  flasks.  If,  under  these  cir 
cumstances,  living  forms  still  made  their  ap 
pearance  in  the  infusion^;  they  must  be  attrib 
uted  to  spontaneous  generation ;  if  not,  they 
must  be  regarded  as  dependent  on  the  preex- 
istence  or  introduction  of  germs.  These  ex 
periments  were  tried  by  different  observers, 
with  results  which  varied  according  to  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  precautions  adopted ; 
but  the  general  conclusion,  derived  especially 
from  the  investigations  of  Spallanzani  in  1775, 
was  that  a  preliminary  boiling  in  closed  flasks, 


for  a  few  minutes,  effectually  prevented  the 
appearance  of  all  the  larger  and  more  highly 
organized  infusoria ;  while,  if  the  boiling  were 
prolonged  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour,  the 
infusion  afterward  remained  absolutely  desti 
tute  of  all  forms  of  life,  even  the  smallest  and 
simplest.  Although  at  that  time  the  real  mode 
of  generation  of  the  infusoria  had  never  been 
ascertained,  nor  their  eggs  detected  by  the 
microscope,  it  was  considered  certain  that 
these  animalcules  must  require  for  their  pro 
duction  the  existence  of  living  germs,  and  con 
sequently  that  they  did  not  originate  by  spon 
taneous  generation.  During  the  early  and 
middle  part  of  the  present  century  the  com 
mon  opinion  of  naturalists  became  gradually 
more  decided  in  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of 
spontaneous  generation,  owing  to  the  occa 
sional  repetition  of  experiments  like  Spallan- 
zani's,  and  also  to  important  discoveries  in 
regard  to  the  sexless  internal  parasites,  such 
as  cystlcercus  and  trichina.  These  creatures 
were  found  inhabiting  the  solid  tissues  of  other 
animals,  and  furthermore  were  seen  to  be  in 
capable  of  exercising  the  function  of  genera 
tion.  It  was  difficult  therefore  to  account  for 
their  presence  in  the  animal  tissues  unless  by 
a  growth  upon  the  spot,  and  also  to  understand 
how  the  species  could  be  reproduced  by  ordi 
nary  modes  of  generation.  But  continued  in 
vestigation  removed  both  of  these  difficulties. 
It  was  shown  by  the  researches  of  Siebold, 
Ktichenmeister,  Leuckart,  Pagenstecher,  and 
others,  that  the  sexless  parasites  were  in  real 
ity  the  embryonic  or  youthful  progeny  of  per 
fectly  developed  parents ;  their  mode  of  intro 
duction  into  the  internal  cavities  and  tissues 
of  the  body  was  ascertained ;  and  they  were 
found  to  acquire  after  a  time  sexual  organs, 
and  to  produce  a  new  progeny  by  sexual  gen 
eration.  Thus,  one  by  one,  a  great  variety  of 
obscure  animal  species  became  more  perfectly 
known ;  and  a  complete  study  of  their  physio 
logical  history  revealed  in  every  instance  the 
regular  mode  of  their  origin  and  reproduction. 
But  the  class  of  infusoria  still  remained  some 
what  refractory  in  this  respect,  and  notwith 
standing  that  the  question  had  been  for  some 
years  regarded  as  settled,  it  was  reopened  in 
1858.  M.  Pouch et,  an  eminent  naturalist  and 
physiologist  of  Rouen,  took  the  ground  that 
the  former  experiments  in  regard  to  boiled  in 
fusions  were  incorrect,  and  that  in  point  of 
fact  a  preliminary  boiling  did  not  prevent  the 
appearance  of  infusorial  life.  Pouchet's  views 
and  assertions  were  supported  by  the  testimony 
of  several  other  experimenters,  among  the 
most  distinguished  of  whom  have  been  Mante- 
gazza  and  Bastian.  They  were  opposed  by 
many  others,  of  equal  reputation ;  and  the 
weight  of  the  discussion  turned  for  a  time 
upon  the  dissemination  of  germs  in  the  atmos 
phere,  as  the  supposed  source  of  life  in  organ 
ic  infusions.  The  most  important  experiments 
in  this  direction  were  those  of  Pasteur,  from 
1860  to  1865.  This  chemist  had  been  espe- 


284: 


SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION 


cially  interested  in  the  study  of  fermentation, 
which  was  shown  to  be  a  change  dependent  on 
the  presence  and  growth  of  microscopic  vege 
table  cells.  He  boiled  a  suitable  organic  infu 
sion  in  glass  flasks,  the  necks  of  which  were 
drawn  out  and  sealed  while  ebullition  was  go 
ing  on,  thus  excluding  completely  the  atmos 
pheric  air.  Afterward,  when  the  flask  and  its 
contents  had  become  cooled,  the  air  was  read 
mitted  through  the  neck  of  the  flask,  by  break 
ing  off  its  narrow  end.  But  this  operation 
was  done,  with  different  sets  of  flasks,  in  dif 
ferent  localities,  in  order  to  determine  whether 
the  difference  of  locality  had  any  influence 
upon  the  subsequent  appearance  or  non-ap 
pearance  of  life  within  the  flask.  The  bearing 
of  these  experiments  upon  the  question  at  issue 
was  as  follows.  If  it  were  the  constituent 
gases  of  the  atmosphere  alone  which  excited 
the  spontaneous  growth  of  living  forms  by  the 
necessary  supply  of  oxygen,  then  the  produc 
tion  of  these  forms  should  follow  with  the 
same  readiness  in  all  localities,  because  the 
gaseous  constitution  of  the  atmosphere  is  every- 
Avhere  the  same.  But  if,  in  order  to  produce 
life,  the  atmosphere  must  also  bring  with  it 
certain  organic  germs,  then  the  locality  might 
make  a  difference  in  the  result,  because  these 
floating  particles  would  naturally  vary  in  abun 
dance  in  different  regions.  Investigation  showed 
a  manifest  difference,  according  to  the  place 
where  the  air  was  admitted  to  the  flask.  In 
one  of  the  most  significant  of  Pasteur's  experi 
ments,  a  flask  containing  an  organic  infusion 
was  boiled,  sealed,  allowed  to  cool,  and  after 
ward  carried  to  the  valley  of  Chnmouni  in  Sa 
voy,  where  its  neck  was  opened  and  the  air  ad 
mitted  on  the  Montanvert,  0,000  ft.  above  the 
se:i  level.  It  was  immediately  resealed,  brought 
back  to  Paris,  and  kept  for  four  years  perfect 
ly  unchanged.  It  was  then  reopened  and  again 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  in  three  days  after 
ward  contained  a  growth  of  microscopic  vege 
tation.  These  experiments  were  considered 
by  Pasteur  and  his  associates  as  demonstrating 
the  existence  in  the  atmosphere  of  extraneous 
particles,  the  introduction  of  which  into  an 
infusion  was  the  necessary  condition  of  infu 
sorial  life.  A  further  difficulty  now  began  to 
be  appreciated  in  this  method  of  investigation. 
It  had  at  first  been  taken  for  granted  that  a 
boiling  temperature  would  necessarily  destroy 
the  vitality  of  both  the  infusoria  and  their 
germs.  But  this  gradually  became  a  matter 
of  doubt,  especially  as  the  length  of  time  du 
ring  which  the  boiling  was  continued  evident 
ly  had  an  influence  on  the  subsequent  appear 
ance  of  life  /in  the  infusion.  It  was  found 
necessary  to  determine  more  exactly  the  limits 
of  this  influence ;  and  among  the  most  valua 
ble  experiments  in  that  respect  were  those  of 
Jeffries  Wyman  in  1867.  lie  showed  that,  in 
infusions  of  a  certain  constitution,  the  minute 
forms  known  as  bacteria  might  appear  in  closed 
flasks  after  boiling ;  that  the  longer  the  boil 
ing  was  continued,  the  fewer  the  instances  in 


which  bacteria  were  afterward  developed  ;  and 
that  they  never  made  their  appearance  in  infu 
sions  which  had  been  boiled  continuously  for 
five  or  six  hours.  These  results  were  variously 
interpreted  by  different  observers;  a  certain 
number  still  maintaining  that  bacteria  might 
often  be  developed  after  the  application  of  a 
heat  sufficient  to  destroy  their  previous  vital 
ity. — In  the  modern  renewal  of  the  question  of 
spontaneous  generation,  dating  from  Pouchet 
in  1858,  another  element  has  had  its  influence 
upon  this  discussion ;  that  is,  the  idea  of  evolu 
tion,  as  accounting  for  the  present  existence  of 
organic  life  upon  the  earth.  It  is  assumed  that 
there  was  once  a  period  in  the  history  of  the 
earth  wljen,  from  its  elevated  temperature  and 
the  different  combination  of  its  chemical  ele 
ments,  life  could  not  possibly  exist  upon  it ; 
that,  as  living  beings  subsequently  made  their 
appearance,  they  must  necessarily  have  origi 
nated  by  the  spontaneous  organization  of  in 
animate  materials  ;  and  that  these  primitive 
and  imperfect  structures  have  gradually,  by 
modification  and  descent,  given  rise  to  all  the 
forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  now  inhab 
iting  the  globe.  Some  of  those  who  accept  the 
evolution  doctrines  believe  that  the  conditions 
necessary  for  a  spontaneous  production  of  life 
have  long  since  passed  away,  with  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  world's  history ;  others  maintain 
that  these  conditions  still  exist,  and  are  effec 
tive  for  the  continued  creation  of  bacteria  and 
their  allied  forms.  It  is  common  to  meet  with 
expressions,  among  writers  of  this  class,  which 
declare  that  spontaneous  generation  is  not  so 
much  a  matter  of  question  or  experiment  as  a 
logical  sequence  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution. 
The  stricter  school  of  physiologists  maintain, 
on  the  contrary,  that  it  is  a  subject  to  be  inves 
tigated  on  its  own  merits,  by  means  of  observa 
tion  and  experiment,  like  any  other  question  re 
lating  to  the  phenomena  of  life. — Of  late  years 
the  experimental  evidence  bearing  on  this  topic 
has  received  an  important  addition  from  the 
independent  researches  of  naturalists  in  regard 
to  the  infusoria.  Some  of  the  forms  originally 
included  in  this  group  have  been  found,  on 
more  extended  examination,  to  possess  a  higher 
organization,  and  have  been  by  common  con 
sent  transferred  to  the  class  of  worms.  Like 
others  of  this  class,  they  reproduce  their  spe 
cies  by  sexual  generation,  and  often  contain 
living  embryos  in  the  interior  of  their  bodies. 
The  infusoria  proper  are  now  known  to  be 
mostly  ciliated  animalcules ;  that  is,  they  are 
provided  with  minute,  vibrating,  hair-like  ap 
pendages,  by  which  they  perform  rapid  move 
ments  of  locomotion.  They  have  also  been 
shown,  principally  by  the  labors  of  Stein,  Bal- 
biani,  Engelmann, .  and  Claparede  and  Lach- 
mann,  to  perform  the  act  of  sexual  generation, 
and  to  produce  their  young  by  means  of  fertile 
eggs,  from  which  embryos  are  developed.  The 
more  minute  and  lowly  forms,  on  the  other 
hand,  usually  included  under  the  general  term 
bacteria,  do  not  belong  to  the  animal  kingdom, 


SPONTINI 


SPOONBILL 


285 


but  are  microscopic  vegetables.  They  have  a 
remarkable  power  of  multiplication  by  division 
or  doubling  of  their  cells ;  and  certain  species 
appear  to  be  the  active  agents  in  causing  the 
putrefactive  decomposition  of  albuminoid  or 
ganic  substances.  The  more  modern  investi 
gations  on  spontaneous  generation  with  boiled 
infusions  have  been  almost  exclusively  confined 
to  this  class.  But  even  in  bacteria  there  are 
indications  of  a  reproduction  by  germs.  Cohn 
in  1872  observed  certain  bodies  in  connection 
with  bacteria,  which  he  regarded  as  resting 
spores ;  that  is,  spores  which  do  not  immedi 
ately  germinate,  but  remain  quiescent  for  a 
certain  interval  and  afterward  become  devel 
oped  under  other  conditions.  These  resting 
spores  were  more  fully  described  in  1874:  by 
Billroth,  whose  description  has  been  confirmed 
by  Stimson  in  1875.  According  to  Billroth, 
although  the  vitality  of  bacteria  is  destroyed 
by  boiling,  their  resting  spores  will  withstand 
this  temperature,  and  are  afterward  capable  of 
development  into  active  forms.  This  may  ex 
plain  the  occasional  appearance  of  microscopic 
life  in  organic  'solutions  which  have  been  sub 
jected  to  ebullition. — For  the  most  complete 
recent  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous 
generation,  see  "  The  Beginnings  of  Life,"  by 
H.  Charlton  Bastian,  F.  IS.  S.  (2  vols.,  London 
and  New  York,  1872). 

SPOSTIM,  Gaspare  Laigi  Pacifico,  an  Italian 
composer,  born  at  Majolati,  near  Ancona,  Nov. 
14,  1774,  died  there,  Jan.  24,  1851.  At  the  age 
of  13  he  entered  the  conservatory  of  La  Pieta 
at  Naples,  and  was  for  a  time  a  teacher  there. 
In  1796  he  produced  /  puntigli  delle  donne, 
which  was  followed  during  the  succeeding  10 
years  by  12  other  operas,  tragic  and  comic.  In 
1803  he  went  to  Paris,  where  his  first  great 
work,  La  Vestale,  was  brought  out  in  Decem 
ber,  1807,  and  at  once  established  his  reputa 
tion  throughout  Europe.  It  was  succeeded  in 
1809  by  another  work  of  equal  vigor,  Fernan 
do  Cortez.  The  success  of  these  works  ob 
tained  for  Spontini  in  1810  the  directorship 
of  the  Italian  opera.  lie  accepted  the  post 
of  director  general  of  music  at  the  court  of 
Prussia  in  1820,  and  remained  at  Berlin  for  22 
years.  In  1842  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  near 
the  close  of  his  life  resumed  his  residence  in 
his  native  village.  He  received  the  title  of 
count  of  Sant'  Andrea  from  the  pope,  and  that 
of  doctor  of  philosophy  and  arts  from  the  uni 
versity  of  Halle,  and  was. made  a  member  of 
the  French  institute. 

SPOONBILL,  the  common  name  of  the  wading 
birds  of  the  family  plataleida,  characterized 
by  a  much  depressed  bill,  very  broad,  and  di 
lated  at  the  end  in  the  shape  of  a  rounded 
spoon.  In  the  genus  platalca  (Linn.)  the  bill 
is  long,  straight,  thin,  slightly  bent  downward 
at  the  tip,  the  mandibles  in  close  opposition 
and  the  edges  not  lamellar  ;  nostrils  basal  and 
in  the  lateral  groove  ;  wings  long,  second  quill 
the  longest;  tail  short;  legs  longer  than  in  the 
typical  waders,  tibia  bare  for  nearly  one  half ; 


tarsi  not  much  longer  than  middle  toe,  cov 
ered  with  small  hexagonal  scales  ;  toes  webbed 
at  the  base,  the  outer  longer  than  the  inner, 
the  middle  not  pectinated,  and  the  hind  one 
only  partly  resting  on  the  ground  ;  claws  short 
and  obtuse.  There  are  about  a  half  dozen 
species,  found  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe, 
migrating  to  warm  climates  at  the  approach 
of  winter  ;  they  frequent  marshy  inlets  of  the 
sea,  and  the  borders  of  lakes  and  rivers,  wa 
ding  about  in  search  of  fish  fry,  worms,  frogs, 
and  aquatic  insects ;  they  can  swim  and  dive. 
The  nest  is  made  either  on  trees  or  among 
rushes  in  swampy  places,  and  composed  of 
coarse  sticks ;  the  eggs  are  two  to  four,  whitish. 
The  roseate  spoonbill  {P.  ujaja.  Linn.)  is  about 
30  in.  long,  and  4£  ft.  in  alar  extent ;  the  bill 
is  7  in.  and  covered  with  a  soft  skin ;  the 
head  is  of  moderate  size,  bare,  the  skin  yel 
lowish  green  ;  the  neck  is  long  and  slender, 
and  the  body  compact  and  muscular.  The 
prevailing  color  is  rosy  red,  paler  in  front, 
and  nearly  white  on  the  neck ;  lesser  wing 
coverts,  upper  and  lower  tail  coverts,  and 
lower  part  of  throat,  bright  carmine ;  tail 
feathers  ochrey  yellow  ;  the  young  have  the 
head  feathered,  the  carmine  tint  wanting,  and 
the  tail  rosy.  It  is  found  in  the  southern  At 
lantic  and  gulf  states,  and  is  very  abundant  in 
the  breeding  season  on  Indian  river,  Florida ; 
it  does  not  go  above  North  Carolina,  nor  far 
from  the  sea.  These  birds  are  essentially  noc 
turnal,  though  they  often  feed  by  day  when 
the  tide  suits ;  they  are  fond  of  the  company 
of  herons ;  they  fly  with  the  neck  and  legs 
extended,  and  rise  rapidly  to  a  great  height ; 
they  alight  easily  on  trees,  and  can  walk  on 
the  large  branches.  The  breeding  time  in  the 
Florida  keys  begins  in  February,  the  young 


European  Spoonbill  (Platalea  leucorodia). 

being  out  of  the  nest  by  April  1 ;  the  nest 
is  usually  in  the  top  of  a  mangrove,  coarsely 
made ;  the  eggs  are  commonly  three,  elongated, 
2£  by  1|-  in.,  white,  sprinkled  all  over  with 


286 


SPORADES 


SPRAGUE 


bright  rufous  spots,  forming  a  ring  near  the 
large  end  ;  they  breed  and  are  commonly  seen 
in  flocks.  The  flesh  is  oily  and  poor  eating ; 
the  beautiful  feathers  of  the  wings  are  made 
into  fans  in  Florida.  The  European  spoonbill 
(P.  leucorodia,  Linn.)  is  about  the  same  size, 
white  with  reddish  yellow  patch  on  breast,  pale 
yellow  naked  space  around  eyes  and  throat, 
and  a  yellowish  white,  long  occipital  crest; 
it  is  rare  in  England,  but  common  in  Holland 
and  S.  Europe  and  all  over  Africa. 

SPORADES  (G-r.,  the  scattered),  the  lesser  isl 
ands  of  the  Grecian  archipelago  surrounding 
the  group  of  the  Cyclades,  divided  into  the 
northern,  western,  and  eastern  Sporades.  The 
northern  group  includes  the  islands  of  Ski- 
atho  (in  antiquity  Sciathus),  Scopelos,  Khili- 
dromi  (probably  Icus),  and  Skyros;  these  lie 
off  the  N.  E.  coast  of  Negropont  or  Eubcea, 
and  belong  to  the  kingdom  of  Greece.  The 
western  group,  which  also  belongs  to  Greece, 
lies  off  the  E.  coast  of  Argolis,  and  includes 
Hydra  (Ilydrca),  Spezzia  (Tiparenos),  Poros 
(Calauria),  ^Egina,  and  Kuluri  (Salamis).  The 
eastern  group  belongs  to  Turkey,  and  lies  off 
the  S.  W.  coast  of  Asia  Minor;  it  includes 
Psara  or  Ipsara  (Payra),  Scio  (Chios),  Samos, 
Nikaria  (Icarus  or  Icaria),  Patmos,  Leros,  Ca- 
lymno  (Calymna),  Stanko  (Cos),  Stampalia  or 
Astropalia  (Astypaleea),  and  Scarpanto  (Carpa- 
thus).  The  Sporades  of  the  ancients  included 
only  the  eastern  group,  and  this  with  the  ex 
ception  of  the  northernmost  islands. 

SPOTSWOOD,  John,  a  Scottish  prelate,  born 
in  Edinburghshire  in  1565,  died  in  London, 
Nov.  26,  1039.  He  graduated  at  the  univer 
sity  of  Glasgow  at  the  age  of  16,  and  at  20 
succeeded  his  father  as  minister  of  Calderkirk. 
At  first  he  strenuously  opposed  episcopacy,  but 
soon  yielding  to  the  court  party,  he  began  to 
favor  it  in  a  moderate  form.  In  1603  he  was 
one  of  five  clergymen  selected  by  James  I.  to 
accompany  him  to  London  for  his  coronation, 
and  while  there  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Beatoun  as  archbishop  of  Glasgow.  From 
this  time  he  earnestly  sought  to  establish  epis 
copacy  in  Scotland,  incurring  much  odium 
among  the  great  body  of  the  Scottish  people. 
In  1609  he  was  appointed  an  extraordinary 
lord  of  session,  but  was  obliged  to  remain 
subject  to  the  ordinary  church  courts  till 
1610,  when  he  and  two  other  Scottish  bishops 
received  episcopal  ordination  at  the  hands  of 
English  bishops.  lie  became  primate  of  all 
Scotland  in  1615,  and  in  1633  placed  the  crown 
on  the  head  of  Charles  I.  as  king  of  Scotland. 
He  had  for  some  years  been  the  head,  first  of 
one  of  the  two  courts  of  high  commission  for 
trying  offences  against  the  church,  and  then 
of  the  two  combined;  and  in  1635  he  was 
appointed  lord  high  chancellor  of  Scotland. 
Contrary  to  his  own  inclinations,  as  alleged, 
but  by  order  of  the  king,  he  introduced  a 
new  liturgy  and  book  of  canons,  which  so 
aroused  Scottish  indignation  that  he  retired 
in  1637  to  Newcastle,  and  finally  to  Lon 


don.  He  wrote  a  "History  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  from  the  Year  203  to  the  Close  of 
the  Reign  of  James  VI."  (fol.,  London,  1655), 
and  one  or  two  smaller  works. 

SPOTTED  FEVER.  See  FEVERS,  vol.  vii.,  p.  1 68. 

SPOTTSYLVANIA,  an  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Rappahannock  and  S. 
W.  by  the  North  Anna  river,  and  drained  by 
the  Mattapony ;  area,  about  450  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  11,728,  of  whom  4,659  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  fertile.  Gran 
ite  and  freestone  are  abundant.  It  is  inter 
sected  by  the  Rappahannock  canal  and  the 
Richmond,  Fredericksburg,  and  Potomac  rail 
road.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
56,050  bushels  of  wheat,  104,210  of  Indian 
corn,  50,832  of  oats,  132,502  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
4,527  of  wool,  and  30,678  of  butter.  There 
were  906  horses,  1,388  milch  cows,  1,684  other 
cattle,  1,928  sheep,  and  3,662  swine.  Capital, 
Spottsylvania  Court  House. 

SPOTTSYLVANIA  COURT  HOISE,  Battles  at. 
See  WILDERNESS. 

SPRAGIE,  Charles,  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Boston,  Oct.  26, 1791,  died  there,  Jan.  14,  1875. 
At  the  age  of  13  he  entered  a  mercantile 
house  as  clerk,  and  subsequently  became  a 
partner.  In  1820  he  became  teller  in  the  State 
bank ;  and  in  1825,  on  the  establishment  of 
the  Globe  bank,  he  was  appointed  its  cashier, 
an  office  which  he  held  till  1865.  From  1821 
to  1830  he  gained  five  prizes  for  prologues  to 
bo  recited  at  the  opening  of  theatres  in  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Salem,  and  Portsmouth. 
In  1823  he  obtained  the  prize  for  the  best  ode 
to  be  recited  at  the  exhibition  at  the  Boston 
theatre  of  a  pageant  in  honor  of  Shakespeare; 
and  in  1830  he  pronounced  an  ode  at  the  cen 
tennial  celebration  of  the  settlement  of  Bos 
ton.  In  1829  he  delivered  a  poem  on  "Curi 
osity  "  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society  in 
Cambridge,  considered  his  best  production.  A 
collection  of  his  writings  was  published  in 
New  York  (1841 ;  ne\v  ed.,  1850),  and  a  com 
plete  revised  collection  in  Boston  (1850;  new 
ed.,  1855). 

SPRAGUE,  William  Bnell,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  in  Andover,  Conn.,  Oct.  16,  17t>5. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1815,  studied 
in  the  theological  seminary  at  Princeton,  and 
in  August,  1819,  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
first  Congregational  church  at  West  Spring 
field,  Mass.,  as  a  colleague  of  the  Rev.  Jo 
seph  Lathrop,  whom  he  succeeded  as  pastor 
in  1820.  In  1829  he  was  installed  pastor  of 
the  second  Presbyterian  church  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.  He  resigned  this  charge  in  1869,  and 
removed  to  Flushing,  N.  Y.,  where  he  still  re 
sides  (1876).  He  has  made  large  collections 
of  pamphlets  and  autographs,  the  former  of 
which  he  presented  in  1875  to  the  state  libra 
ry  at  Albany.  He  has  published  "Letters  to  a 
Daughter  "  (1822),  republished  under  the  title 
"The  Daughter's  Own  Book;"  "Letters  from 
Europe1'  (1828);  "Lectures  to  Young  Peo 
ple"  (1830);  "Lectures  on  Revivals  of  Re- 


SPRAT 


SPRING 


287 


ligion"  (1832);  ".Hints  on  Christian  Inter 
course  "  (1834)  ;  "  Lectures,  illustrating  the 
Contrast  between  true  Christianity  and  vari 
ous  other  Systems"  (1837);  "Life  of  E.  D. 
Griffin"  (1838);  "Life  of  Timothy  Dwight, 
D.  D.,  President  of  Yale  College,"  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography"  (1845);  "Letters  to 
Young  Men,  founded  on  the  History  of  Jo 
seph"  (2d  ed.,  1845);  "Aids  to  Early  Reli 
gion  "  (1847)  ;  "  Words  to  a  Young  Man's 
Conscience  "  (1848) ;  "  Women  of  the  Bible  " 
(1850)  ;  "  Visits  to  European  Celebrities  " 
(1855)  ;  "  Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit,"  a 
collection  of  biographies  of  leading  clergymen 
of  all  the  denominations  (9  vols.  8vo,  New 
York,  1856-'69);  and  "Memoirs  of  Rev.  John 
and  W.  A.  M'Dowell,  D.  D."  (1864). 

SPRAT,  a  small  fish  of  the  herring  family, 
and  genus  harengula  (Val.).  There  are  teeth 
'on  the  jaws,  tongue,  palate,  and  pterygoid 
bones,  but  none  on  the  vomer ;  the  branchios- 
tegal  rays  are  six  or  seven.  There  are  about 
ten  species,  of  which  the  most  common  is  the 
English  sprat  (H.  sprattus,  Val.),  called  garvie 
in  Scotland ;  it  is  5  or  6  in.  long,  with  the 
body  proportionately  deeper  than  in  the  her 
ring,  and  the  edge  of  the  abdomen  strongly 
serrated;  the  scales  are  large,  round,  and  de 
ciduous  ;  the  upper  part  of  head  and  back 
dark  blue,  with  green  reflections,  passing  into 
silvery  white  on  the  gill  covers,  sides,  and 
abdomen ;  dorsal  and  caudal  dusky,  other  fins 
white.  It  is  found  on  the  coasts  of  Great 
Britain  and  Sweden ;  it  ascends  the  rivers  in 
large  shoals  in  November,  after  the  herrings 
have  disappeared.  Though  smaller  than  the 
herring,  it  furnishes  in  winter  an  abundant, 
cheap,  and  wholesome  food,  and  is  generally 
eaten  fresh.  The  fishery  is  prosecuted  by  drift 
or  stationary  nets,  and  with  most  success  in 
dark  and  foggy  nights.  Several  species  in  the 
West  Indian  seas  are  called  sardines. 

SPRAT,  Thomas,  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Tallaton,  Devonshire,  in  1636,  died  at  Brom 
ley,  Kent,  May  30,  1713.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  became  chaplain  first  to  the  duke 
of  Buckingham,  and  afterward  to  Charles  II. 
In  1668  he  was  made  prebendary  of  Westmin 
ster,  in  1680  canon  of  Windsor,  in  1683  dean 
of  Westminster,  and  in  1684  bishop  of  Roches 
ter.  He  was  clerk  of  the  closet  to  James  II., 
and  in  1686  was  made  one  of  the  commis 
sioners  for  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He  published 
"  The  Plague  of  Athens"  and  "  The  Death  of 
Oliver  Cromwell,"  poems  (1659)  ;  "  The  His 
tory  of  the  Royal  Society,"  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  original  fellows  (167.7);  a  history 
of  the  Rye  House  plot  (1685);  and  a  volume 
of  sermons  (1710);  and  ho  edited  Cowley's 
"Poems,"  with  a  life  in  Latin  (1668),  after 
ward  in  English  with  additions. 

SPRENGEL,  Kurt,  a  German  physician,  born 
at  Boldekow,  Prussia,  Aug.  3,  1766,  died  in 
Halle,  March  15,  1833.  He  took  his  degree  at 
Halle  in  1787,  and  became  professor  there  of 
medicine,  and  in  1797  also  of  botany.  His 
VOL.  xv. — 19 


works  include  Versuch  einer  pragmatischen 
Geschichte  der  Arzneikunde  (5  vols.,  Halle,  1792 
-1803;  3d  ed.,  1821-'8;  4th  ed.  by  Rosen- 
baum,  1846  et  scq.} ;  Ilandluch  der  Pathologic 
(3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1795-'7 ;  4th  ed.,  1815)  ;  Imti- 
tutiones  Medicce  (6  vols.,  1809-'16;  new  ed.  of 
the  last  5  vols.,  1819);  IListoria  Rei  Herbaria, 
(2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1807-'8);  Geschichte  der 
Botanik  (2  vols.,  Altona  and  Leipsic,  1817-'18) ; 
and  Neue  Entdeckungen  im  gcmzen  Umfange 
der  Pflanzenkundc  (3  vols.,  1819-'22). 

SPRENGER,  Aloys,  a  German  orientalist,  born  at 
Nassereut,  Tyrol,  Sept.  3,  1813.  After  study 
ing  at  Vienna,  he  went  in  1836  to  London, 
where  he  assisted  the  earl  of  Munster  in  his 
work  on  the  "  Military^  Science  of  the  Moham 
medan  Nations."  He*  joined  the  East  India 
service,  in  1845  became  president  of  the  college 
of  Delhi,  and  in  1850  examiner  at  the  college 
of  Fort  William,  Calcutta,  government  inter 
preter,  and  secretary  of  the  Asiatic  society. 
He  published  in  the  Bibliotheca  Indica  trans 
lations  from  the  Arabic  and  Persian,  besides 
works  in  the  Urdu  dialect,  and  a  "Life  of 
Mohammed"  (vol.  i.,  Allahabad,  1851).  He 
returned  to  Europe  in  1857,  became  profes 
sor  of  oriental  languages  in  Bonn,  and  pub 
lished  Das  Leben  und  die  Lehre  des  Mohamad 
(3  vols.,  Berlin,  1861-'5;  2d  ed.,  1868  et-scg.). 

SPRING,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  four  sea 
sons  of  the  year,  beginning  for  the  northern 
hemisphere  at  the  time  of  the  vernal  equinox, 
or  on  March  21,  and  ending  at  the  time  of  the 
summer  solstice,  or  June  21.  In  the  United 
States  the  spring  is  regarded  as  including 
March,  April,  and  May.  (See  SEASONS.) 

SPRING,  Samuel.  I.  An  American  clergyman, 
born  at  Northbridge.  Mass.,  Feb.  27,  1746,  died 
in  Newburyport,  M"arch  4,  1819.  He  grad 
uated  at  Princeton  college  in  1771,  and  in  1775 
became  a  chaplain  in  the  continental  army,  and 
accompanied  the  expedition  under  Col.  Arnold 
to  Canada.  In  1777 he  was  ordained  pastor  of 
a  church  in  Newburyport.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  influence  and  weight  of  character,  and  as 
the  leading  minister  of  the  Hopkinsian  party 
was  active'  in  promoting  the  union  of  the  two 
parties  in  the  Congregational  churches,  effected 
by  the  establishment  of  the  Andover  theologi 
cal  seminary,  and  also  in  originating  the  Amer 
ican  board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  mis 
sions.  II.  GardiDer,  an  American  clergyman, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  Feb.  24,  1785,  died  in  New  York,  Aug. 
18, 1873.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1805, 
and  taught  and  studied  in  Bermuda  nearly  two 
years.  After  his  return  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  December,  1808,  and  practised  more 
than  a  year.  He  then  studied  at  Andover  sem 
inary,  and  was  ordained  as  pastor  of  the  Brick 
church  (Presbyterian)  in  Beekman  street,  New 
York,  Aug.  10,  1810,  in  which  office  he  con 
tinued  till  his  death.  In  1856  he  removed  with 
his  congregation  to  the  new  church  on  Mur 
ray  hill.  During  the  last  years  of  his  life  Dr. 
Spring  seldom  preached,  his  place  being  filled 


288 


SPRINGBOK 


SPRINGFIELD 


by  an  assistant.  His  works,  chiefly  courses 
of  sermons  and  lectures,  are:  "Essays  on  the 
Distinguishing  Traits  of  Christian  Character  " 
(1813) ;  "  Fragments  from  the  Study  of  a  Pas 
tor"  (1838);  "Obligations  of  the  World  to 
the  Bible"  (1844);  "The  Attraction  of  the 
Cross  "  (1845) ;  "  The  Bible  not  of  Man  "  (1847) ; 
"Discourses  to  Seamen"  (1847);  "The  Pow 
er  of  the  Pulpit"  (1848);  "The  Mercy  Seat" 
(1849);  "First  Things"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1851); 
"  The  Glory  of  Christ "  (2  vols.,  1852) ;  "  Con 
trast  between  Good  and  Bad  Men  "  (2  vols., 
1855) ;  "  Pulpit  Ministrations  "  (2  vols.,  1864) ; 
and  "  Personal  Reminiscences  of  the  Life  and 
Times  of  Gardiner  Spring"  (2  vols.,  1866). 

SPRINGBOK  (antidorcas  euchorc),  a  true  an 
telope  of  the  fields,  coming  near  the  gazelles 
in  size  and  habits,  so  named  from  the  extra 
ordinary  leaps  of  7  to  10  ft.  in  height  which 
it  makes  when  alarmed.  They  wander  in 
search  of  food  in  immense  herds  over  the 
vast  open  plains  of  S.  Africa,  an  easy  prey 
to  man  and  the  carnivora.  The  general  color 
is  cinnamon  brown  above,  white  below,  with 


Springbok  (Antidorcas  euchorc). 

long  white  hairs  on  the  croup  very  conspicuous 
when  jumping;  its  flesh  and  skin  are  much 
esteemed.  The  horns  in  the  adult  are  lyrate. 

SPRINGFIELD,  a  city  and  the  shire  town  of 
Ilampden  co.,  Massachusetts,  on  the  E.  bank 
of  Connecticut  river,  opposite  the  town  of  West 
Springfield,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
railroad  and  a  highway  bridge  and  by  ferry, 
80  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Boston,  and  120  m.  N.  N.  E. 
of  New  York;  pop.  in  1850,  11,766;  in  1860, 
15,199;  in  1870,  26,703,  of  whom  6,930  were 
foreigners ;  in  1 875,  31 ,053.  It  is  noted  for  the 
great  variety  of  its  skilled  industries,  mostly 
dependent  on  steam  power,  and  for  the  richness 
of  its  churches,  of  which  rive  are  built  of  stone 
and  are  of  considerable  architectural  merit. 
Portions  of  the  city  are  elevated  and  hilly,  but 
along  the  river  it  is  level.  It  is  well  built,  and 
has  wide  streets  shaded  with  elms  and  maples. 
The  city  hall  is  a  noble  building  in  the  Roman 
esque  style,  and  has  a  large  public  hall  which 
will  accommodate  2,700  persons.  There  are 
several  other  public  halls,  of  which  the  music 
hall,  seating  1,200,  is  the  largest.  The  court 


house  is  a  fine  granite  building,  which  cost 
$200,000.  The  city  library  contains  36,500 
volumes.  The  new  library  building  is  one  of 
the  handsomest  public  edifices  in  the  city.  It 
is  of  brick,  with  facings  of  granite  and  Ohio 
stone,  and  cost  with  land  about  $100,000.  Be 
sides  the  library  it  contains  a  museum  of  nat 
ural  history  and  antiquities.  The  new  high 
school  building  is  a  fine  structure  of  pressed 
brick,  with  trimmings  of  gray  Ohio  sandstone, 
three  stories  above  the  basement.  Ilampden 
park,  on  the  bank  of  the  Connecticut,  contains 
60  acres,  with  a  costly  dike  to  protect  it  from 
the  spring  freshets,  and  has  a  celebrated  race 
course.  The  Springfield  cemetery  contains 
about  40  acres,  with  a  great  variety  of  shade 
trees  and  fountains.  Springfield  is  an  impor 
tant  railroad  centre,  four  lines  meeting  in  one 
large  depot,  each  having  extensive  connections, 
viz. :  the  Boston  and  Albany,  the  New  Haven,' 
Hartford,  and  Springfield,  the  Connecticut  Riv 
er,  and  the  Springfield,  Athol,  and  Northeast 
ern.  The  United  States  armory  employs  from 
500  to  7QO  men,  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of 
rifles  and  carbines.  1  Hiring  the  civil  war  about 
3,000  men  were  employed.  The  arsenal,  offices, 
storehouses,  and  principal  shops  occupy  nearly 
the  highest  ground  in  the  city,  on  State  street, 
and  command  a  fine  view  of  the  Connecticut 
valley.  The  grounds  (72  acres)  are  enclosed 
with  an  iron  fence  and  beautifully  laid  out  with 
trees,  shrubbery,  and  flowers.  The  arsenal 
contains  about  275,000  stand  of  arms.  The 
heavier  work  is  done  at  the  shops  on  Mill  river. 
The  germ  of  the  armory  existed  during  the 
revolution,  but  it  was  not  formally  established 
till  1794.  Among  the  more  important  private 
manufactories  are  one  of  railroad  cars,  one 
of  sporting  arms,  one  of  revolvers,  several  of 
steam  engines,  boilers,  &c.,  two  of  gold  chains, 
one  of  gold  leaf,  one  of  gold  rings,  three  of 
buttons,  two  of  card  and  glazed  paper,  one  of 
blankets,  one  of  cartridges,  two  of  desks  and 
counters,  three  of  elevators,  foifr  of  envelopes, 
one  of  corrugated  iron,  one  of  filters,  several  of 
furniture,  three  of  hand  stamps,  four  of  hard 
ware,  one  of  gas  machines,  one  of  gilt  mould 
ing,  several  of  harness,  saddlery,  and  trunks, 
one  of  levels,  two  of  mattresses,  one  of  sewing 
machine  needles,  one  of  paint,  three  of  paper 
boxes,  one  of  collar  paper,  three  of  paper  col 
lars,  two  of  rubber  goods,  one  of  sieves,  two  of 
show  cases,  one  of  skates,  two  of  slippers,  one 
of  spectacles  and  thimbles,  two  of  steam  pumps, 
one  of  watches,  one  of  woollens,  five  of  brick, 
and  one  of  boots  and  shoes,  two  cotton  mills, 
and  two  brass  founderies.  The  Morgan  enve 
lope  company  also  manufacture  fancy  station 
ery  and  writing  materials,  and  print  the  postal 
cards  for  the  government.  There  are  five  book- 
publishing  houses ;  eight  national  banks,  with  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $2,950,000  ;  three  savings 
banks,  with  deposits  to  the  amount  of  $8,500,- 
000  ;  and  three  insurance  companies  (two  fire 
and  one  life).  The  city  is  divided  into  eight 
wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  a  board  of 


SPRINGFIELD 


289 


aldermen  of  one  member  from  each  ward,  and 
a  common  council  of  18  members.  Water  is 
supplied  by  works  recently  erected,  there  being 
three  reservoirs  for  low  service,  with  an  aggre 
gate  capacity  of  110,577,000  gallons,  and  one 
for  high  service,  with  a  capacity  of  2,132,- 
817,000  gallons.  The  expenditures  in  1874 
amounted  to  $781,8-47,  viz. :  pauper  depart 
ment,  $23,153  17;  highways,  $117,310  83; 
salaries,  &c.,  $110,118  79;  erection  and  re 
pair  of  school  houses,  $81,849  78 ;  fire  depart 
ment,  $35,735  55;  interest,  $58,742  77;  po 
lice,  $29,046  63  ;  sewers,  $45,004  80 ;  miscel 
laneous,  $228,815  30.  The  valuation  of  prop 
erty  was  $38,336,778;  interest-bearing  debt 
at  the  close  of  the  year,  $1,794,875.  The 
principal  charitable  institutions  are  the  alms- 
house,  city  hospital,  home  for  women,  and 
home  for  children.  The  public  schools  are 
under  the  general  management  of  a  committee 
of  one  member  from  each  ward,  and  under  the 
immediate  supervision  of  a,  superintendent. 
In  1873-'4  there  were  26  school  houses,  with 
a  high  school,  140  teachers,  and  an  average 
attendance  of  about  4,000 ;  current  expenses, 
$110,185  79,  of  which  $85,593  41  were  for 
teachers'  wages.  Two  newspapers  with  daily 
and  weekly  editions  and  two  weeklies  are  pub 
lished.  There  are  26  churches,  viz. :  1  Adven- 
tist,  3  Baptist,  6  Congregational,  1  Episco 
pal,  5  Methodist,  5  Roman  Catholic,  1  Spiritu 
alist,  1  Swedenborgian,  1  Union  Evangelical, 
1  Unitarian,  and  1  Universalist. — Springfield 
was  first  settled  in  1635  by  emigrants  from 
Roxbury,  who  on  May  14  drew  up  and  signed 
an  agreement  for  self-government.  The  place 
was  first  named  Agawam,  the  Indian  name 
of  a  river  of  West  Springfield,  which  with 
several  adjacent  towns  of  the  present  day  was 
then  included  in  its  boundaries.  In  1637  a 
church  was  formed.  In  1638  the  settlers 
chose  William  Pyn- 
chon  magistrate,  and 
in  April  of  the  same 
year  named  the  settle 
ment  Springfield,  from 
the  name  of  his  resi 
dence  in  England.  Mr. 
Pynchon  returned  to 
England  in  1652;  but 
his  son  John  remained, 
and  in  1662  erected 
the  famous  "  Pynchon 
house,"  the  first  brick 
house  in  the  Connecti 
cut  valley,  and  long  a 
fortress  against  the  In 
dians.  In  1675,  du 
ring  King  Philip's  war, 
the  Indians  burned  the 
settlement,  destroying 
about  30  houses  and 
25  barns.  The  growth 
of  the  town  was  slow 

till   the   opening  of  the  Boston  and  Albany 
railroad  in  1838.     It  was  made  a  city  in  1852. 


SPRINGFIELD,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Clark 
co.,  Ohio,  at  the  junction  of  Lagonda  creek 
with  Mad  river,  45  m.  W.  of  Columbus  and  70 
m.  1ST.  E.  of  Cincinnati;  pop.  in  1850,  5,108; 
in  1860,  7,002;  in  1870,  12,652,  of  whom 
2,169  were  foreigners.  It  is  in  the  heart  of 
one  of  the  richest  and  most  populous  agri 
cultural  regions  in  the  Union,  and  is  well  laid 
out  and  handsomely  built.  Six  lines  of  rail 
road  intersect  here,  viz. :  the  Cleveland,  Colum 
bus,  Cincinnati,  and  Indianapolis;  Cleveland, 
Sandusky,  and  Cincinnati;  Columbus,  Spring 
field,  and  Cincinnati  ;  Little  Miami  (Spring 
field  branch) ;  Springfield  and  Jackson  (nar 
row-gauge  coal  road) ;  and  Atlantic  and  Great 
Western.  A  large  trade  is  carried  on  in  wheat, 
flour,  Indian  corn,  and  other  produce,  and 
many  cattle  and  swine  are  shipped  to  eastern 
markets.  Water  power  is  abundant,  and  about 
80  factories  are  in  operation,  employing  4,000 
hands.  These  include  flouring  mills,  iron 
founderies,  machine  shops,  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  linseed  oil  mills,  and 
a  paper  mill.  More  than  30,000  mowers  and 
reapers  are  manufactured  annually.  Lime 
stone  is  largely  quarried  and  burned.  Four 
national  banks  have  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$900,000.  There  are  six  large  public  school 
buildings,  including  a  fine  new  high  school 
house.  The  Springfield  seminary  is  a  flourish 
ing  institution.  Wittenberg  college,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  church, 
was  opened  in  1845;  in  1874-'5  it  had  10  in 
structors,  163  students  (100  in  the  collegiate 
department),  and  a  library  of  6,000  volumes. 
Springfield  has  a  free  public  library  of  4,000 
volumes,  a  daily,  a  tri- weekly,  and  five  week 
ly  newspapers,  two  monthly  periodicals,  and 
20  churches. 

SPRINGFIELD,  a  .city  and  the  capital  of  Illi 
nois,  and  seat  of  justice  of  Sangamon  co.,  178 


New  State  Capitol  of  Illinois. 

m.  S.  W.  of  Chicngo;  Int.  39°  48'  N".,  Ion.  89° 
33'  W. ;  pop.  in  1840,  2,579 ;  in  1850,  4,533 ;  in 


290 


SPRINGFIELD 


SPEUCE 


1860,  9,320 ;  in  1870,  17,364,  of  whom  4,456 
were  foreigners;  in  1875,  25,116.  It  is  on  a 
beautiful  prairie,  5  m.  S.  of  Sangamon  river. 
Its  streets  are  broad,  intersect  each  other  at 
right  angles,  and  are  tastefully  adorned  with 
shade  trees.  From  the  beauty  of  the  place 


Lincoln  Monument. 

and  its  surroundings,  it  is  termed  the  "Flower 
City."  The  capitol,  in  a  square  near  the  cen 
tre  of  the  city,  is  one  of  the  finest  buildings 
of  the  kind  in  the  country.  Other  noteworthy 
buildings  arc  the  United  States  court  house 
and  custom  house  and  post  office  building,  the 
county  court  house,  state  arsenal,  high  school 
house,  and  several  handsome  churches  and 
commodious  hotels.  A  new  state  house  is 
nearly  completed.  Two  miles  N.  of  the  city 
is  Oak  Ridge  cemetery,  a  picturesque  and  well 
kept  burying  ground  of  72  acres,  containing 
the  remains  of  Lincoln  and  a  monument  to 
his  memory  which  cost  $206,550,  dedicated 
on  Oct.  15,  1874.  Springfield  is  the 'point  of 
intersection  of  the  Springfield  and  Northwest 
ern,  the  Oilman,  Clinton,  and  Springfield,  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi,  the  Chicago,  Alton,  and 
St.  Louis,  and  the  Toledo,  W abash,  and  West 
ern  railroad  lines.  There  are  coal  mines  in  the 
vicinity,  and  the  surrounding  country  is  very 
productive.  The  trade  is  extensive,  and  the 
manufactures  are  important.  The  principal 
establishments  are  flouring  mills,  founderies 
and  machine  shops,  rolling  mills,  breweries, 
woollen  mills,  a  watch  factory,  and  manufac 
tories  of  woodwork,  brooms,  cordage,  harness 
and  saddlery,  carriages  and  wagons,  furniture, 
washing  machines,  and  sash,  doors,  and  blinds. 
There  are  three  national  banks,  a  private  bank, 
a  savings  institution,  and  an  insurance  compa 
ny.  The  city  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  18 


aldermen  (3  from  each  ward).  It  is  supplied 
with  water  from  Sangamon  river.  It  contains 
three  academies  and  five  public  schools  (one 
high  and  four  ward  schools),  the  latter  having 
in  1874-'5  2,530  pupils  enrolled,  and  an  aver 
age  attendance  of  1,876.  There  are  two  daily 
and  four  weekly  (one  German)  newspapers,  a 
library  association,  and  22  churches,  viz.  :  4 
Baptist,  1  Christian,  1  Congregational,  2  Epis 
copal,  1  Jewish,  3  Lutheran,  4  Methodist,  4 
Presbyterian,  and  2  Roman  Catholic. — Spring 
field  was  laid  out  in  1822,  was  made  the  state 
capital  in  1837,  and  a  city  in  1840. 

SPRINGFIELD,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of 
Greene  co.,  Missouri,  on  Wilson  creek  and  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad,  195  m.  in  direct 
line  S.  W.  of  St.  Louis ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,555, 
of  whom  1,090  were  colored ;  in  1875,  about 
8,000.  It  is  on  a  table  land  1,500  ft.  higher 
than  St.  Louis.  Its  trade  and  manufactures 
are  important.  The  principal  establishments 
are  four  flouring  mills,  two  planing  mills,  a 
cotton  mill,  a  woollen  mill,  a  carriage  factory, 
two  iron  establishments,  two  wagon  factories, 
and  the  railroad  shops.  There  are  two  hotels, 
two  national  banks,  good  public  schools,  a  dai 
ly  and  four  weekly  newspapers,  and  13  church 
es.  It  is  the  seat  of  Drury  college  (Congre 
gational),  founded  in  1873. — Springfield  was 
known  as  an  Indian  trading  post  and  frontier 
village  as  early  as  1820.  It  was  incorporated 
in  1830.  Its  prosperity  dates  from  the  close 
of  the  civil  war.  In  the  autumn  of  1861  and 
the  early  part  of  1862  it  was  alternately  in  the 
possession  of  the  federal  and  the  confederate 
forces ;  and  several  fights  occurred  in  the  town 
and  its  vicinity,  in  one  of  which  (Aug.  10, 
1861)  the  federal  general  Nathaniel  Lyon  Avas 
defeated  and  killed. 

SPRl'CE,  the  name  for  coniferous  trees  of  a 
section  of  the  genus  cibies,  which  includes  those 
with  scattered 
leaves  and  pen 
dent  cones,  the 
scales  of  which 
are  persistent. 
(See  FIR,  HEM 
LOCK  SPRFCE, 
andPixE.)  The 
needle  -  shaped 
leaves  are  four- 
sided,  and  point 
in  every  direc 
tion  ;  the  cones 
hang  from  or 
near  the  ends 
of  the  branch 
es,  the  scales  re 
maining  attach 
ed  to  the  axis; 
the  seed  parting  freely  from  the  wing,  and  with 
out  balsamiferous  vesicles;  the  anther  cells 
opening  lengthwise.  The  black,  or  as  it  is 
often  called  double  spruce  (A.  nigra\  extends 
from  Maine  to  Wisconsin  and  further  southward 
along  the  higher  ranges,  and  in  Canada  reach- 


Black  Spruce  (Abies  nigra). 


SPRUCE 


291 


69  northward  to  65°,  it  being  partial  to  cold, 
swampy  localities  among  the  mountains.  Its 
straight,  tapering  trunk,  often  75  ft.  high,  bears 
a  handsome  conical  head,  if  ^it  has  room  to  de 
velop  ;  but  in  a  crowded  forest  the  trunks  are 
branchless,  save  a  small  tuft  at  the  summit. 
The  very  short  leaves,  rarely  more  than  half  an 
inch  long,  are  erect,  stiff,  and  very  dark  green ; 
the  cones  are  1  to  1$  in.  long,  dark  purple 
when  young,  but  when  ripe  (in  November)  pale 
brown ;  the  seeds  are  shed  the  following  spring, 
but  the  cones  remain  several  years ;  the  scales  of 
the  cones  are  uneven  on  the  margin,  and  often 
notched  or  toothed.  The  wood  is  very  strong, 
light,  and  durable,  and  is  much  used  in  ship 
building,  not  only  for  rnasts  and  spars,  but  in 
the  hull,  where  it  outlasts  oak ;  it  is  much  used 
for  the  sides  of  ladders,  for  the  smaller  tim 
bers  in  house  building,  and  for  shingles.  The 
recent  shoots  of  this  species  are  used  in  this 
country  for  making  domestic  beer.  The  tree 
is  sometimes  planted  for  ornament,  and  young 
specimens  are  very  regular  in  form ;  but  they 
get  ragged  as  they  grow  older.  The  color 
of  the  foliage  is  rather  sombre,  -and  the  so- 
called  red  spruce  is  merely  a  form  of  this  with 
larger  and  redder  cones  and  the  wood  tinged 
with  red.  The  white  or  single  spruce  (A.  alba} 
has  a  range  similar  to  the  preceding,  and  ex 
tends  even  further  north  than  that ;  Richard 
son  found  it  within  20  m.  of  the  Arctic  sea. 
The  leaves  are  somewhat  longer  than  those 
of  the  black  spruce,  and  of  a  pale  glaucous 
green ;  though  the  leaves  are  attached  equally 
on  all  sides  of  the  shoots,  yet  on  the  horizontal 
branches  they  curve  upward  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  appear  two-ranked ;  the  cones,  about  2 
in.  long,  fall  the  first  winter,  and  their  scales 
have  a  firm,  even  edge.  The  wood  of  this  is 
also  valuable,  some  considering  it  not  inferior 
to  that  of  black  spruce,  and  superior  to  it  for 
spars;  the  long  roots  are  remarkably  tough, 
and  the  Indians  prepare  from  them  thongs 
or  threads  with  which  to  sew  their  birch- 
bark  canoes.  The  white  spruce,  when  young, 
is  of  a  regular  conical  shape,  very  compact, 
and  its  pale  but  lively  green  color  makes  a 
most  effective  contrast  when  it  is  planted  near 
evergreens  with  darker  foliage.  In  the  for 
ests  of  northern  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  the 
lumbermen  distinguish  a  blue  spruce,  which 
has  more  bluish  leaves,  while  its  cones  are 
more  like  those  of  the  black  spruce.  Several 
species  are  peculiar  to  the  Rocky  mountains 
and  the  Pacific  coast ;  notable  among  these  is 
Menzies's  spruce  (A.  Menziesii),  discovered  by 
Douglas  in  northern  California ;  it  is  abundant 
in  Alaska,  and  extends  eastward  to  the  Rocky 
mountains,  where  it  is  known  as  balsam ;  it  is 
a  subalpine  species,  rarely  found  at  a  less  ele 
vation  than  7,000  ft.,  and  prefers  low  marshy 
soils  or  the  margins  of  streams.  It  reaches  100 
ft.,  but  the  average  height  is  GO  or  70  ft. ;  it 
has  a  straight  trunk  and  a  regular  pyramidal 
outline ;  the  leaves  are  broader  than  in  east 
ern  species,  silvery  whitish  beneath,  very  stiff, 


and  almost  spine-like ;  the  cylindrical  cones 
are  about  3  in.  long,  their  pale  and  thin  scales 
irregular  on  the  margin.  The  wood  is  very 
compact,  but  rather  coarse-grained  and  resin 
ous,  and  the  trunks  taper  too  rapidly  to  saw 
up  to  advantage.  As  an  ornamental  tree  it  is 
likely  to  become  popular ;  it  is  quite  hardy 
near  Boston  and  in  other  northern  localities ; 
its  growth  in  rich  moist  soils  is  very  rapid. 
Engelmann's  spruce  (A.  Engelmanni),  80  to 
100  ft.  high,  was  first  discovered  by  Dr.  Parry 
in  the  Rocky  mountains,  where  it  occurs  from 
New  Mexico  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Colum 
bia  and  Missouri,  forming  almost  the  entire 


Norway  Spruce  (Abies  excelsa). 

forest  growth  of  some  of  the  mountain  slopes, 
and  is  most  luxuriant  at  the  altitude  of  9,000 
to  10,000  ft.;  much  higher  than  this  it  be 
comes  dwarfed ;  it  resembles  the  eastern  black 
spruce.  Patton's  spruce  (A.  Pattoniana)  is 
a  fine  species  found  in  the  mountains  of  upper 
California  and  northward,  and  is  described  as 
reaching  the  height  of  150  ft.  and  over. — Of 
the  exotic  spruces  none  is  so  well  known  as  the 
Norway  (A.  excelsa),  which  is  indeed  the  pop 
ular  evergreen  of  this  country ;  it  is  indigenous 
throughout  northern  Europe  and  Asia,  in  Rus 
sia  and  Siberia  extending  beyond  the  arctic 
circle,  especially  abundant  in  Norway,  Sweden, 


292 


SPUKGEON 


and  the  neighboring  countries,  and  further 
south  in  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  and  other  ranges. 
It  reaches  a  height  of  120  to  150  ft.  and  a  diam 
eter  of  3  to  5  ft.,  requiring  a  century  to  attain 
this  development ;  when  not  crowded,  its  long 
stout  branches  spread  out  regularly  on  every 
side,  forming  a  perfect  pyramid;  its  dark 
green  leaves  are  larger  than  in  our  black  and 
white  spruces,  rigid  and  curved,  and  the  con 
spicuous  terminal  cones  are  G  or  7  in.  long  and 
pendent  at  maturity.  The  wood  of  the  Norway 
spruce  is  of  great  value  for  many  uses ;  sawn 
into  boards,  it  forms  a  large  part  of  the  deals 
used  for  floors  and  other  inside  work,  box 
making,  cheap  furniture,  &c.,  while  the  round 
timber  serves  for  masts,  spars,  scaffoldings, 
and  framework ;  the  wood  is  very  durable,  es 
pecially  when  the  bark  is  left  on ;  the  bark  is 
used  for  tanning.  The  resin  of  the  tree  rarely 
exudes  spontaneously,  but  is  obtained  by  re 
moving  a  strip  of  bark,  an  inch  or  more  wide 
and  deep,  and  3  ft.  long,  from  the  south  side 
of  the  tree ;  the  following  year  the  groove 
is  found  filled  with  the  turpentine,  which  is 
scraped  off,  and  the  groove  enlarged  by  the 
removal  of  a  thin  strip  of  bark  from  each  side 
of  it ;  the  product  so  obtained  is  one  of  the 
several  turpentines  called  frankincense  or  thus 
(see  FKANKIXCEXSE),  and  when  melted  in  boil 
ing  water  and  strained  it  forms  the  true  Bur 
gundy  pitch.  (See  PITCH.)  The  Norway  spruce 
being  so  largely  raised  from  seeds,  there  are 
numerous  deviations  or  sports  from  the  nor 
mal  form,  of  which  20  or  30  are  in  cultivation  ; 
some  vary  in  foliage,  others  are  dwarfs,  while 
a  few  are  curious  monsters;  in  var.  inverta 
the  branches  are  turned  directly  downward, 
and  in  var.  monstrosa  there  is  such  a  strong 
indisposition  to  branch,  that  it  will  throw  up 
a  leader  10  or  15  ft.  high  and  perfectly  naked. 
A.  olovata  from  Siberia,  and  A.  orientalis 
from  the  Black  sea,  are  too  near  the  Norway 
in  appearance  to  be  popular. — The  Himalay 
an  spruce  (^1.  Smiihiana),  found  high  up  the 
Himalaya  mountains,  and  also  in  China  and 
Japan,  is  a  remarkably  handsome  species ;  it  is 
not  quite  hardy  at  Philadelphia,  but  valuable 
further  south. 

SPUKGEOIV,  Charles  Haddon,  an  English  preach 
er,  born  at  Kelvedon,  Essex,  June  19,  183L 
His  father  and  grandfather  were  preachers  in 
the  Independent  denomination.  At  the  age 
of  10  he  became  an  usher  at  Newmarket,  and 
subsequently  at  Cambridge.  Not  long  after 
going  to  Cambridge  he  connected  himself  with 
a  u lay  preachers'  association"  there,  and  be 
fore  ho  was  18  became  pastor  of  a  small  Bap 
tist  congregation  at  Waterbeach.  In  1853  ho 
was  called  to  the  New  Park  street  Baptist 
chapel  in  Southwark,  London,  to  which  his 
preaching  attracted  such  crowds  that  the  con 
gregation  removed  first  to  Exeter  hall,  and  then 
to  Surrey  music  hall.  In  1861  a  new  chapel  ca 
pable  of  seating  between  5,000  and  6,000  was 
completed  for  his  congregation  in  Newington 
Butts.  Mr.  Spurgeon  has  received  more  than 


SPY 

13,000  persons  into  his  church,  and  has  erected 
36  chapels  in  London,  supplied  with  ministers 
trained  in  a  college  of  his  own  founding.  His 
sermons  have  been  printed  weekly,  and  16 
volumes  have  been  published  collectively,  be 
sides  a  volume  entitled  "  Gems:  Brilliant  Pas 
sages  from  the  Discourses  of  C.  II.  Spurgeon" 
(1859).  He  has  also  published  "  The  Saint 
and  his  Saviour"  (1857);  "Gleanings  among 
the  Sheaves"  (2d  ed.,  1808);  "John  Plough 
man's  Talk,  or  Plain  Advice  for  Plain  Peo 
ple,"  and  "  Evening  by  Evening :  Readings 
for  the  Family  and  the  Closet"  (1869); 
"  Feathers  for  Arrows,  or  Illustrations  from 
my  Note  Book"  (1870);  "Types  and  Em 
blems  "  (1875) ;  and  "  Lectures  to  my  Stu 
dents "  (1875).  Since  1805  he  has  edited  a 
journal,  "The  Sword  and  Trowel." 

SPIRZHEOI,  Joliann  Gaspar,  a  German  phre 
nologist,  born  at  Longwich,  near  Treves,  Dec. 
31,  1770,  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  10,  1832. 
In  1795  the  French  invasion  interrupted  his 
studies  at  the  university  of  Trcvcs,  but  he  con 
tinued  them  at  Vienna.  Here  he  became  the 
most  eminent  pupil  of  Gall,  whom  he  after 
ward  aided  in  the  development  and  popular 
ization  of  his  doctrines.  In  1805  he  joined  him 
in  his  travels  and  lectures  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  settled  with  him  in  Paris  in  1807,  and 
was  intimately  associated  with  him  till  1813. 
lie  then  delivered  lectures  in  London,  which 
were  attacked  by  Dr.  John  Gordon  in  the 
"Edinburgh  Review."  In  reply  Spurzheim 
demonstrated  at  Edinburgh,  before  hundreds 
of  Gordon's  students,  the  fibrous  character  of 
the  brain,  which  the  latter  had  denied.  After 
residing  several  years  in  Paris,  he  resumed  his 
lectures  in  Great  Britain  in  1825,  and  in  1832 
went  to  Boston,  where  he  delivered  several 
lectures.  Besides  his  share  in  the  most  impor 
tant  publications  of  Gall,  and  several  works  of 
his  own  in  French,  he  published  "The  Physi 
ognomical  System  of  Dr.  Gall  and  Spurzheim" 
(London,  1815);  "  Outlines  of  the  Physiogno 
mical  System"  (1815) ;  "  View  of  the  Elementa 
ry  Principles  of  Education"  (Edinburgh,  1821 ; 
enlarged  ed.,  London,  1828)  ;  "  Phrenology  in 
connection  with  the  Study  of  Physiognomy  " 
(London,  1826) ;  "  The  Anatomy  of  the  Brain, 
with  a  General  View  of  the  Nervous  System  " 
(1826);  "Outlines  of  Phrenology"  (1827); 
and  "Sketch  of  the  Natural  Laws  of  Man" 
(1828).— See  "Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Philos 
ophy  of  Spurzheim,"  by  Andrew  Carmichael 
(Dublin,  1833). 

SPY,  in  war,  one  employed  to  penetrate  the 
enemy's  lines  and  ascertain  his  condition  and 
plans.  Spies  have  always  been  employed  in 
warlike  operations,  and  writers  on  the  laws  of 
war  lay  down  the  principles  which  are  to  reg 
ulate  their  conduct.  Though  thus  recognized, 
a  stigma  is  attached  to  their  employment  as 
one  to  which  falsehood  and  treachery  are  in 
dispensable,  and  a  captured  spy  is  not  admitted 
to  the  privileges  of  a  prisoner  of  war,  but  is  put 
to  an  ignominious  death.  The  difficulty  of 


IM  V  Ki:s  i  TV   OF 


SQUASH 


determining  who  is  to  be  treated  as  a  spy  is 
sometimes  very  great.  Presumptively  one  who 
is  within  the  enemy's  lines  in  disguise  or  wear 
ing  the  enemy's  uniform  is  a  spy;  but  the 
dress  is  only  a  circumstance  indicative  of  an  in 
tent  to  deceive,  and  other  circumstances  might 
be  equally  conclusive.  One  belligerent  may 
employ  the  subjects  of  the  other  as  spies,  but 
a  peculiar  infamy  attaches  to  one  who  to  a  dis 
creditable  occupation  adds  the  atrocious  crime 
of  treason.  A  spy  is  not  restricted  to  obtain 
ing  information ;  he  may  inflict  injury  upon 
the  enemy,  so  that  he  do  not  resort  to  assassi 
nation,  poisoning,  or  other  means  which,  in 
the  words  of  Vattel,  "  affect  the  common  safety 
of  human  society."  Inciting  a  spy  to  such 
atrocity  would  subject  a  commander  and  his 
forces  to  retaliation.  An  employment  at  once 
so  dangerous  and  so  discreditable  cannot  be 
forced  upon  any  one ;  the  commander  must 
usually  procure  his  spies  by  heavy  rewards. 

SQUASH,  the  name  of  several  species  and  va 
rieties  of  cucurfrita,  of  the  order  cucurbitacem 
or  gourd  family,  called  by  the  North  American 
Indians  aslcutasquash.  The  characters  of  the 
family  are  given  under  GOUED,  and  those  of 
the  genus  under  PUMPKIN.  In  no  genus  of 
cultivated  plants  is  there  more  difficulty  in 
tracing  varieties  to  the  species  from  which 
they  are  derived,  or  in  ascertaining  the  coun 
tries  in  which  they  originated,  than  in  cucur- 
lita,  and  in  this  country  the  terms  pumpkin 
and  squash  are  used  very  indefinitely,  large 
forms  of  what  are  evidently  squashes  being- 
called  pumpkins.  Naudin,  who  experimented 
with  over  1,200  living  plants,  could  make  but 
four  distinct  species,  to  all  of  which  he  ascribes 
an  eastern  origin ;  only  three  of  these  are  cul 
tivated  in -this  country.  On  the  other  hand, 
Ptoger  Williams  and  other  writers  on  early 
New  England  history  found  some  cucurlita 
in  general  cultivation  among  the  Indians,  and 
we  derive  from  them  the  common  name  by 
which  the  plants  are  known  in  this  country. 
One  species,  C.  ovifera,  is  cultivated  for  orna 
ment  as  orange  gourd,  mock  orange,  egg  gourd, 
or  fancy  gourd,  and  rarely  in  vegetable  gar 
dens  as  egg  squash,  to  be  eaten  while  young ; 
this,  which  in  cultivation  presents  a  great  va 
riety  of  shapes  and  markings,  grows  wild  in 
Texas,  and  Gray  thinks  it  is  probably  the  origi 
nal  of  all  the  crook-necked  squashes,  vegetable 
marrows,  and  even  the  common  pumpkins. 
It  will  serve  the  present  purpose  to  enumerate 
the  leading  varieties  in  cultivation,  without 
attempting  the  difficult  task  of  tracing  them 
to  their  original  species. — The  ordinary  early 
summer  squashes  are  also  called  bush  squashes ; 
the  vine  has  lost  its  tendency  to  run  a  long 
distance,  the  tendrils  have  disappeared,  the 
petioles  or  leaf  stalks  are  much  longer  than 
in  any  others,  and  the  fruits  all  have  angled 
stems  ;  the  most  common  of  these  are  the  scal 
loped  bush  sorts,  in  which  the  fruit  is  some 
what  hemispherical  with  an  expanded  edge, 
which  is  deeply  and  regularly  scalloped ;  of 


these  there  are  varieties  with  the  rind '  pure 
white,  yellow,  green,  green  striped  with  white, 
and  yellow  marked  with  green  ;  from  their 
peculiar  shape  they  are  often  called  "patty 
pans,"  and  in  Virginia  they  are  known  as  cym- 
lings.  Another  very  distinct  bush  variety  is 


1.  Crook-neck  Squash.     2.  Scalloped  Squash. 

the  summer  crook-neck,  in  which  the  fruit  is 
about  8  in.  long,  largest  near  the  base  and 
tapering  toward  the  stem,  where  it  is  usually 
curved ;  the  skin  is  bright  yellow,  and  nearly 
covered  with  warty  protuberances ;  this  is  the 
best  of  the  early  varieties,  all  of  which  should 
be  used  while  the  rind  is  tender.— The  late 
varieties  all  have  strong  running"  vines,  ex 
tending  12  ft.  or  more,  and  taking  root  at  the 
joints;  they  differ  in  their  times  of  ripening 
and  in  their  keeping  qualities,  but  all  of  them, 
even  if  taken  when  quite  young,  are  better  for 
the  table  than  any  of  the  bush  sorts.  The  Can 
ada  crook-neck  is  small,  with  a  curved  neck, 
and  cream  yellow  or  darker  when  ripe  ;  the 
skin  never  gets  very  hard.  The  winter  crook- 
neck  is  many  times  larger,  and  though  not  so 
fine  in  quality  is  more  generally  cultivated,  and 
both  with  care  will  keep  the  year  round  ;  both 
have  angled  stems,  which  indicate  a  relation 
ship  with  the  bush  sorts,  as  have  the  various 


Winter  Squash — the  Hubbard. 

vegetable  marrows,  which  are  almost  the  only 
squashes  of  English  gardens.  The  fruit  of  the 
marrows  is  elliptical,  9  in.  or  more  long,  and 
of  a  pale  straw  color ;  there  are  several  sub- 
varieties.  The  autumnal  or  Boston  marrow 
has  an  egg-shaped  fruit,  pointed  at  each  end, 


294: 


SQUASH  BUG 


SQUID 


the  stem  large  and  fleshy,  skin  never  becoming 
hard ;  color  reddish  at  maturity ;  quality  ex 
cellent.  This  has  for  a  long  time  been  regard 
ed  as  the  best  of  all  winter  varieties,  but  it  is 
excelled  by  the  Hubbard,  which  is  somewhat 
similar  in  shape  and  in  character  of  stem ;  the 
color  of  the  often  ribbed  rind  is  clay-blue  or 
olive-green,  and  it  becomes  so  extremely  hard 
that  it  requires  to  be  cut  with  a  hatchet ;  the 
flesh  is  thick,  dry,  and  sweet;  it  keeps  till 
spring.  The  Butnian  is  similar  in  form,  skin 
white  and  green,  and  regarded  as  the  finest  of 
all.  The  Yokohama,  from  Japan,  is  a  singu 
larly  flattened  variety,  with  a  much  warted 
green  skin,  which  turns  to  orange ;  this  has  a 
very  long  and  angled  stem.  The  turban  va 
riety  is  of  good  quality,  and  is  remarkable  for 
a  projection  of  a  portion  of  the  fruit  beyond 
the  line  which  shows  where  the  calyx  tube 
was  attached  to  the  ovary. 

SQUASH  BUG,  a  well  known  hemipterous  in 
sect,  the  corcm  tristis  (De  Geer).  It  is  about 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  triangu 
lar  head ;  the  general  color  is  ochre  yellow, 
rendered  dusky  above  by  numerous  black  dots ; 
the  sharp  edges  of  the  abdomen  project  beyond 
the  closed  wing  covers ;  on  the  back  of  the 
head,  behind  the  eyes,  are  two 
glassy  raised  eyelets.  They 
appear  by  the  last  of  June  or 
beginning  of  July,  when  the 
squash  vines  have  put  out  a 
few  leaves,  pair,  and  soon  be 
gin  to  lay  their  eggs ;  they  con 
ceal  themselves  by  day,  and 
in  the  evening  fasten  their 
eggs  in  little  patches  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves  by  a 
gummy  substance ;  the  eggs 
are  soon  hatched,  and  the  young,  palo  ashy 
.and  with  large  antenna,  appear  in  successive 
broods  during  summer,  pass  through  their  last 
change,  attain  their  full  size  in  September  and 
October,  and  pass  the  winter  and  spring  in 
a  torpid  state  in  crevices.  The  loss  of  sap 
from  the  punctures  of  these  insects  causes  the 
leaves  to  become  brown,  dry,  and  wrinkled, 
when  they  are  deserted  for  fresh  ones.  When 
irritated,  and  particularly  when  crushed,  they 
give  out  a  strong,  nauseous  odor.  It  is  best  to 
destroy  them  before  they  have  laid  their  eggs. 
SQUID,  a  cephalopodous  mollusk,  of  the  di- 
branchiate  order,  tribe  decapoda,  family  teu- 
thidcB,  of  which  the  typical  genus  is  loligo 
(Lam.).  The  body  is  elongated,  tapering  be 
hind,  with  a  pair  of  terminal  fins ;  branchiae 
two  ;  arms  eight,  with  two  rows  of  peduncu- 
lated  suckers,  and  two  very  long  tentacles ;  the 
internal  shell,  or  gladim,  is  reduced  to  a  horny 
quill-shaped  plate,  with  two  lateral  expansions ; 
the  ink  bag  is  well  developed,  and  its  secretion 
jet  black.  They  are  good  swimmers,  all  ma 
rine,  and  never  leave  the  water ;  they  can  creep 
head  down  on  the  cephalic  disk ;  the  ova  are 
enclosed  in  long,  gelatinous,  cylindrical  sheaths, 
called  sea  grapes,  and  may  be  nearly  40,000  in 


Squash  Bug 
(Corcus  tristis). 


number  ;  the  sight  is  good,  and  the  movements 
are  rapid.  They  are  sometimes  called  calama- 
ries,  from  the  internal  pen-like  bone  and  ink 
bag,  and  the  general  cylindrical  form  like  an 
ancient  escritoire.  The  small  species  are  gre 
garious,  but  the  large  hooked  squids  are  solitary 
and  oceanic.  The  common  squid  of  the  New 
England  coast,  the  L.  [ommastrephes]  illecebrosa 
(Lesueur),  is  from  0  to  12  in.  long ;  the  colors 
vary  rapidly,  with  the  will  of  the  animal,  from 
yellowish  white  to  bluish,  violet,  brown,  red, 
and  orange,  in  spots  or  general  tint.  They 
swim  rapidly  backward  by  dilating  and  con 
tracting  the  sac-like  body,  and  forward  by  the 
terminal  fin ;  they  devour  numbers  of  small 
fish  and  crustaceans,  and  are  eaten  by  larger 
fishes,  and  used  as  bait  by  cod  fishers.  Squids 
are  found  from  Norway  to  New  Zealand  ;  the 
Z.  vulgar  is  (Lam.),  common  about  the  shores 
of  Great  Britain,  and  used  in  Cornwall  as  a 
bait  for  cod,  attains  a  length  of  1  to  1£  ft. 
The  occurrence  of  large  squids  on  the  North 
American  coast  has  within  a  few  years  directed 


Common  Squid  of  Great  Britain  (Loligo  vulgaris). 

attention  to  old  stories  of  the  gigantic  mythical 
kraken  of  Pontoppidan.  Prof.  Steenstrup  has 
collected  many  instances  of  gigantic  squids  on 
the  coasts  of  northern  Europe  from  1549  to  the 
present  time;  they  have  also  been  found  in 
tropical  and  southern  waters,  and  were  known 
to  Aristotle  and  Pliny.  It  is  proved  that  the 
sperm  whale  feeds  chiefly  upon  these  large 
squids,  and  many  interesting  fragments  have 
been  obtained  from  the  stomach  of  this  ceta 
cean.  In  1872  one  was  found  floating  dead 
on  the  Grand  Banks,  15  ft.  long,  4f  ft.  in 
circumference,  and  the  longest  arms  9  ft. ; 
this  was  probably  the  architeuth/s  monachus 
(Steenstrup),  or  the  sea  monk.  (See  "Ameri 
can  Naturalist,"  February,  1873.)'  In  October, 
1873,  one  was  seen,  and  a  piece  of  an  arm  cut 
off,  near  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  ;  the  body 
was  about  10  ft.  long,  with  a  diameter  of  2£ 
ft.,  head  2  ft.  long,  and  caudal  fin  22  in.  wide. 
The  creature  being  wounded  attacked  the  boat, 
when  the  fisherman  cut  off  one  of  the  arms 
with  his  axe,  about  20  ft.  long  and  at  least  10 


SQUIER 


SQUILL 


295 


ft.  from  the  body,  the  whole  arm  being  more 
than  30  ft.,  and  the  total  length  of  the  animal 
about  44  ft.  The  most  characteristic  features 
are :  the  irregularity  of  the  rows  of  lingual 
teeth,  the  very  simple  internal  shell  or  pen, 
embryonic  form  of  caudal  fin,  and  clusters  of 
small  suckers  and  tubercles  on  long  arms ;  the 
first  three  indicate  a  low  rank  in  the  family, 
below  loligo  and  ommastrephcs ;  it  may  be  a 
modification  of  the  Jurassic  teudopsis  preserved 
by  its  oceanic  habitat  to  the  present  time,  like 
other  huge  marine  types  having  a  mesozoic 
aspect.  (See  SEA  SEEPENT.)  Probably  some 
of  these  great  squids  of  the  genus  architeuthis 
attain  a  total  length  of  50  ft.,  including  the 
long  tentacles ;  the  largest  known  is  probably 
the  A.  princeps  (Verrill),  from  Newfoundland. 
SQIIIER,  Ephraim  George,  an  American  archae 
ologist,  born  in  Bethlehem,  N.  Y.,  June  17, 
1821.  Pie  early  became  an  engineer  and  a  jour 
nalist.  In  1845  he  made  a  survey,  in  conjunc 
tion  with  E.  H.  Davis,  M.  D.,  of  the  ancient 
monuments  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  the  re 
sults  of  which  were  published  in  1848  in  "  An- 
,  cient  Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley," 
being  vol.  i.  of  the  "Smithsonian  Contribu 
tions  to  Knowledge;"  and  in  1848  he  explored 
the  aboriginal  monuments  of  the  state  of  New 
York.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  charge 
d'affaires  to  Guatemala;  in  1853  assisted  in 
the  survey  of  an  interoceanic  railway  route 
through  Honduras,  for  the  construction  of 
which  he  formed  a  company;  in  1863-'4  was 
United  States  commissioner  to  Peru  to  adjust 
claims,  devoting  many  months  to  exploring 
the  ancient  monuments  of  that  country ;  and 
in  1808  was  for  a  time  United  States  consul 
general  to  Honduras.  At  intervals  he  has 
edited  newspapers  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Cliilli- 
cothe,  0.,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  New  York^ 
and  has  several  times  visited  Europe.  Be 
sides  the  above  mentioned  work  and  numerous 
archaeological  papers  contributed  to  American 
and  European  scientific  periodicals,  ne  has  pub 
lished  "Aboriginal  Monuments  of  the  State 
of  New  York  "  (4to,  Washington,  1851,  being 
vol.  ii.  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  ")  ; 
"Antiquities  of  the  State  of  New  York" 
(8vo,  Buffalo,  1851),  with  a  supplement  on 
the  antiquities  of  the  west ;  "  Nicaragua,  its 
People,  Scenery,  Ancient  Monuments,  and 
proposed  Interoceanic  Canal "  (2  vols.  8vo, 
New  York  and  London,  1852);  "The  Ser 
pent  Symbol,  or  Worship  of  the  Reciprocal 
Principles  of  Nature  in  America"  (8vo,  New 
York,  1852) ;  "  Notes  on  Central  America," 
&c.  (1854);  "Waikna,  or  Adventures  on  the 
Mosquito  Shore,"  under  the  nom  de  plume  of 
Samuel  A.  Bard  (12mo,  1855) ;  Question  Anqlo- 
Americaine,  &c.  (8vo,  Paris,  1856) ;  "  The 
States  of  Central  America,"  &c.  (8vo,  New 
York,  1857) ;  "  Report  of  the  Survey  of  the 
Honduras  Interoceanic  Railway  "  (4to,  .London, 
1859);  "  Translation,  with  Notes,  of  the  Letter 
of  Don  Diego  de  Palacio  (1571)  to  the  Crown 
of  Spain  on  the  Provinces  of  Guatemala,  San 


Salvador,  &c."  (New  York,  1860);  "Mono 
graph  of  Authors  who  have  written  on  the 
Aboriginal  Languages  of  Central  America " 
(1861) ;  "  Tropical  Fibres  and  their  Economic 
Extraction  "  (1861)  ;  "  Is  Cotton  King?  Sources 
of  Cotton  Supply "  (1861)  ;  "  Honduras,  De 
scriptive,  Historical,  and  Statistical "  (London 
and  New  York,  1870)  ;  and  "  Peru  :  Incidents 
of  Travel  and  Exploration  in  the  Land  of  the 
Incas  "  (New  York,  1876).  Most  of  his  books 
have  been  translated  into  German,  French, 
and  Spanish. 

SQUILL  (Lat.  squilla  or  scilla),  a  drug  con 
sisting  of  the  sliced  and  dried  bulbs  of  the 
scilla  maritima  of  Linnaeus,  but  the  plant  has 
been  separated  from  this  genus  and  is  now  the 
urginea  maritima  of  Baker  ;  it  belongs  to  the 
lily  family,  and  is  a  native  of  the  Mediterra 
nean  region.  It  has  a  large,  pear-shaped,  onion- 
like  bulb,  sometimes  weighing  4  Ibs. ;  the  leaves 
are  long,  flat,  and  spreading ;  the  scape  about 
2  ft.  high,  terminated  by  a  long  dense  raceme 
of  white  flowers.  It  is  not  rare  in  cultivation 
as  a  window  plant,  but  has  no  great  beauty. 
The  only  preparation  given  the  bulbs  is  to  slice 
them  transversely  and  dry  the  pieces  in  the 
sun ;  there  are  two  varieties,  the  white  and 
the  rose-tinted  bulbs,  the  later  making  a  dark- 
colored  and  less  esteemed  product.  As  found 
in  the  shops,  squill  is  in  the  form  of  horn -like, 
curved  strips,  which  can  only  be  pulverized' 
by  thorough  drying,  and  unless  the  air  be  ex 
cluded  from  the  powder  it  absorbs  moisture 
and  soon  becomes  a  solid  mass.  The  taste  is 
mucilaginous,  bitter  and  acrid;  its  properties 


Squill  (Urginea  [Scilla]  maritima). 

are  ascribed  to  a  principle  called  scillitine, 
which  has  not  yet  been  isolated.  Squill  is  one 
of  the  oldest  of  medicines,  and  its  use  is  men 
tioned  by  the  earliest  writers ;  some  antiqua 
ries  think  that  the  onion  which  the  Egyptians 
regarded  as  sacred  was  really  the  squill  bulb. 


296 


SQUILL 


SQUINTING 


Its  medicinal  effects  are  diuretic  and  expecto 
rant,  and  in  large  doses  emetic  and  purgative. 
It  is  largely  employed  as  an  expectorant  in  do 
mestic  practice,  for  croup  and  similar  affec 
tions  of  children.  Vinegar  or  dilute  acetic 
acid  is  found  the  best  solvent  of  the  active 
principles  of  squill ;  the  drug  is  first  exhausted 
by  the  acid,  and  the  vinegar  of  squill  thus  ob 
tained  is  made  into  a  sirup  with  sugar. 

SQUILL  (squilla,  Fabr.),  a  genus  of  crusta 
ceans  of  the  division  stomapoda,  so  called  from 
having  the  feet  placed  around  the  mouth.  The 
body  is  elongated  and  generally  slender,  the 
head  distinct  from  the  thorax,  the  carapace 
leaving  uncovered  four  of  the  thoracic  rings, 
and  the  abdomen  terminating  in  a  wide  caudal 
fin  of  several  plates  adapted  for  swimming. 
The  antennas  of  the  first  segment  of  the  body 
are  long,  ending  in  three  many-jointed  fila 
ments,  cannot  be  bent  under  the  head,  and 
are  inserted  below  the  eyes  near  the  median 
line ;  the  antennas  of  the  second  segment  are 
shorter,  more  external,  having  at  the  base  a 
large  ciliated  plate,  and  terminate  in  a  single 
many-jointed  filament ;  the  eyes  are  at  the  end 
of  movable  appendages.  The  mouth  is  toward 
the  posterior  third  of  the  carapace,  and  has 
an  upper  and  under  lip,  a  pair  of  mandibles, 
and  two  pairs  of  jaw  feet  arranged  around  it ; 
the  third  pair  of  feet  are  prehensile,  strong, 
bent  back  on  themselves,  serrated  and  spined, 

and  used  very 
much  like  the 
first  pair  of  feet 
in  the  soothsay 
er  (mantis) ;  the 
next  three  pairs 
are  directed  for 
ward,  applied 
against  the  buc- 
cal  apparatus, 
and  inserted  close 
together,  with  a 
wide,  rounded, 
ciliated  plate  at 
the  end ;  the  last 
three  thoracic 
limbs  are  slen 
der,  with  styli- 
f  orin  process  and 
ciliated,  the  seg 
ments  to  which 
they  are  attached 
resembling  those 
of  the  abdomen. 
Most  of  the  rings 
of  the  body  are 
complete,  very 
nearly  equal,  and 
movable  on  each 
other;  the  carapace  is  nearly  quadrilateral, 
longitudinally  divided  by  two  more  or  less  dis 
tinct  grooves ;  the  first  five  abdominal  rings 
have  large  false  feet,  to  the  posterior  part 
of  the  base  of  which  are  attached  the  respira 
tory  organs  in  the  shape  of  floating,  ramified, 


Squill  (Squilla  mantis). 


and  fringed  gills,  which  are  kept  constantly  in 
motion.  The  heart  extends  almost  the  length 
of  the  abdomen  and  thorax,  a  little  dilated  an 
teriorly,  sending  off  lateral  branches  to  each 
ring ;  the  venous  sinuses  in  which  the  blood 
is  collected  before  going  to  the  gills  are  very 
large ;  the  stomach  advances  far  into  the  head. 
There  are  many  species,  all  marine,  most  abun 
dant  in  the  tropics,  but  occasionally  seen  as  far 
north  as  the  English  channel ;  they  are  usually 
met  with  far  from  shore  and  in  deep  water ; 
they  swim  rapidly ;  they  are  voracious  and 
carnivorous.  The  best  known  species  is  the 
8.  mantis  (Fabr.),  6  or  V  in.  long,  pale  yellow 
ish  gray,  found  in  the  Mediterranean. 

SQUINTING  (Lat.  strabismus),  a  deformity  con 
sisting  in  a  want  of  parallelism  between  the 
visual  axes  of  the  eyes.  Except  in  cases  where 
it  is  caused  by  paralysis,  spasmodic  or  hydrop- 
ical  affections,  or  irritation  of  the  brain,  it  is 
not  a  disease,  and  is  not  accompanied  with  pain. 
Ophthalmic  surgeons  notice  three  degrees  of 
squinting :  1,  where  there  is  but  a  slight  con 
vergence  or  divergence  from  the  normal  axis, 
such  as  is  ordinarily  called  a  "cast  of  the  eye ;" 
2,  where  the  inclination  is  strongly  marked,  but 
less  than  half  the  cornea  is  thrown  under  the 
eyelid  or  within  the  orbit,  which  is  the  most 
frequent  variety ;  3,  where  the  cornea  is  nearly 
or  quite  thrown  under  the  eyelid  or  within 
the  orbit,  common  among  those  who  are  born 
blind,  but  rare  in  the  case  of  those  who  can 
see.  The  surgeons  also  distinguish  it  accord 
ing  to  the  departure  from  the  normal  axis  ;  as 
convergent,  where  the  pupil  is  drawn  toward 
the  nose  ;  divergent,  where  it  is  drawn  toward 
the  outer  corner  of  the  eye ;  ascendent,  where 
it  is  drawn  upward ;  and  descendent,  where 
it  is  drawn  downward.  Of  these,  the  conver 
gent  form  is  by  far  the  most  frequent,  and 
next  in  order  the  divergent  and  ascendent. 
The  descendent  is  the  rarest  of  all.  Squinting 
may  also  be  double  or  single  as  one  or  both 
eyes  are  aftected ;  it  may  be  congenital,  i.  e., 
existing  from  birth,  or  accidental,  occurring 
from  accident  or  improper  treatment  of  the 
eye  ;  the  former  is  rare.  It  may  be  also  con 
tinuous,  or  rarely  intermittent.  When  not  due 
to  one  of  the  causes  mentioned  above,  it  de 
pends  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  on  parallel 
rays  of  light  not  focusing  on  the  retina.  To 
correct  this  the  eye  turns  in,  as  in  so  doing  the 
power  of  accommodation  is  increased,  because 
the  same  nerve  which  supplies  the  internal 
rectus  also  supplies  the  muscle  of  accommoda 
tion.  (See  EYE.)— The  treatment  prior  to  1839 
consisted  in  attempting  by  various  methods  to 
strengthen  the  weaker  muscles,  bandaging  the 
normal  eye,  and  compelling  the  constant  use 
of  the  other ;  or  by  the  use  of  goggles,  specta 
cles,  &c.,  in  which  all  except  the  centre  was 
opaque.  In  1838  Stromeyer  described  the  op 
eration  of  dividing  one  of  the  recti  muscles, 
but  without  having  tried  it  on  the  living  sub 
ject.  In  1839  Dieffenbach,  an  eminent  sur 
geon  of  Berlin,  performed  it  successfully,  and 


SQUIRREL 


297 


was  followed  by  many  English  and  French 
surgeons.  The  operation  has  now  become  very 
common,  though  the  best  surgeons  admit  that 
there  are  three  classes  of  cases  in  which  it 
should  not  be  performed,  viz. :  those  in  which 
the  position  of  the  eye  is  fixed,  those  which 
result  from  the  paralysis  of  the  antagonist 
muscle,  and  those  occurring  in  infants  before 
dentition.  The  operation  is  not  difficult  nor 
particularly  dangerous,  and  is  generally  suc 
cessful.  There  are  two  methods  of  perform 
ing  it,  the  ordinary  or  that  of  Dieffenbach, 
where  the  conjunctiva  is  divided  and  the  mus 
cle  to  be  severed  is  laid  bare,  and  the  subcon- 
junctival,  where  the  conjunctiva  is  divided  to 
a  much  less  extent.  The  latter  is  generally 
preferred. 

SQUIRREL,  the  popular  name  of  the  rodents 
of  the  family  sciuridce,  which  is  very  numerous 
in  species,  and  widely  spread  over  the  world, 
except  in  Australia.  They  are  characterized  by 
a  broad  head,  the  frontal  bone  being  dilated 
into  a  post-orbital  process ;  the  muzzle  wide, 
from  the  development  of  the  frontal  and  na 
sal  bones;  eyes  large  and  prominent,  ears 
moderate,  and  whiskers  long;  the  hind  feet 
five-toed,  the  fore  feet  four-toed,  with  a  wart- 
like  thumb,  all  the  fingers  and  toes  with  com 
pressed  and  curved  claws;  the  fur  is  gener 
ally  soft,  especially  in  the  northern  species, 
and  the  tail  is  long,  hairy,  expanded  laterally 
in  the  arboreal  genera,  and  shorter  and  bushy 
in  the  terrestrial,  and  in  both  carried  grace 
fully  over  the  back ;  the  upper  lip  is  cleft,  the 
ca3cum  large,  clavicles  perfect,  enabling  them 
to  use  the  fore  limbs  to  convey  food  to  the 
mouth,  and  the  tibia  and  fibula  distinct ;  some 
have  a  membrane  extended  between  the  fore 
and  hind  limbs.  (See  FLYING  SQUIEEEL.)  The 
incisors  are  |,  smooth  in  front,  brown  or 
orange,  the  lower  compressed  and  sharp  ;  mo 
lars  |cf,  rooted,  tuberculate,  with  projecting 
transverse  stria?  enamelled  continuously,  the 
anterior  upper  one  the  smallest  and  sometimes 
deciduous.  The  food  is  chiefly  vegetable, 
though  some  American  species  are  known  to 
suck  eggs  and  destroy  young  birds.  The  family 
is  very  abundant  in  North  America,  nearly  one 
third  of  all  the  species  being  found  here  ;  the 
prairie  dogs  and  prairie  squirrels  are  peculiar 
to  this  continent,  as  well  as  most  of  the  fly 
ing  squirrels.  (See  PRAIRIE  DOG,  and  PRAIRIE 
SQUIRREL.) — The  genus  sciurvs  (Linn.)  is  the 
type  of  those  of  the  family  which  live  in  trees ; 
the  species  of  the  United  States  are  hard  to 
determine  from  the  tendency  to  variation  in 
color  (red,  gray,  and  black  being  the  predomi 
nating  tints),  and  the  diminution  in  size  in  the 
southern  states.  Baird  gives  it  as  a  general 
rule  that,  when  a  squirrel  has  the  fur  of  the 
throat  or  belly  annulated,  it  is  a  variety  of  some 
species  which  normally  has  the  under  parts 
uniformly  white  or  reddish  to  the  roots,  or  the 
latter  plumbeous.  The  bones  of  the  red-bellied 
squirrels  are  generally  red,  and  of  the  white- 
bellied  white.  The  largest  of  the  North  Amer 


ican  species  is  the  fox  squirrel  of  the  southern 
states  (iS.  tulpinus,  Gmel.),  about  2J  ft.  long, 
of  which  the  tail  is  15  in. ;  the  head  is  rather 
slender  and  pointed,  and  the  tail  rather  cylin 
drical  ;  the  upper  molars  are  permanently  four. 
The  color  varies  from  a  gray  above  and  white 
below,  through  various  shades  of  rusty,  to  uni 
form  shining  black ;  the  fur  is  coarse  and  harsh, 
and  the  ears  short ;  the  ears  and  nose  are  white 
in  all  its  varieties.  It  is  found  from  North 
Carolina  through'  the  S.  Atlantic  and  gulf 
states  to  Brazos  river  in  Texas.  The  gray  vari 
ety  is  the  8.  capistratus  (Bosc),  and  the  black 
the  8.  niger  (Linn.)  and  the  black  squirrel  of 
Catesby.  It  prefers  elevated  and  open  pine 
ridges  where  there  are  occasional  oak,  hickory, 
and  other  nut  trees;  the  nest  for  the  winter  and 
breeding  seasons  is  made  in  a  hollow  tree,  and 
in  summer  in  the  forks  between  the  branches. 
The  young  are  born  in  March  and  April,  and 
fed  by  the  parents  for  four  or  five  weeks.  The 
food  consists  of  acorns,  nuts,  fruit  of  the  pine 
cones,  green  corn  in  summer,  buds  and  roots 
in  spring,  and  whatever  it  can  get  in  winter,  as 
it  does  not  appear  to  lay  up  any  winter  stores, 
or  to  resort  to  any  hoards  previously  buried. 
When  alarmed,  it  makes  for  a  hollow  tree  ;  it 
is  a  swift  runner,  defends  itself  boldly,  and 
is  very  tenacious  of  life ;  it  is  generally  seen 
toward  the  middle  of  the  day ;  it  is  easily  do 
mesticated,  but  is  less  active  in  the  cage  than 
the  smaller  species  ;  its  flesh  is  frequently  eat 
en.  The  cat  squirrel  (S.  cinerevs.  Linn.),  the 
fox  squirrel  of  the  middle  states,  is  25  or  26 
in.  long,  of  which  the  tail  is  about  14  in. ;  the 
head  is  very  broad,  the  muzzle  short  and  cat 
like,  the  body  thick  and  heavy,  and  the  tail 
large  and  flattened  ;  the  color  varies  from  light 
gray  tinged  with  rusty  above  and  white  below, 
to  grizzly  above  and  black  below  ;  it  is  never 
pure  black ;  the  ears  are  low  and  broad,  and 
never  white ;  the  hair  is  less  coarse  and  stiff 
than  in  the  preceding  species.  It  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  middle  states,  rarely  in  southern 
New  England ;  it  is  rather  a  slow  climber,  and 
of  inactive  habits  ;  it  becomes  very  fat  in  au 
tumn,  when  its  flesh  is  excellent.  The  species 
called  fox  squirrel  in  the  western  and  south 
western  states  (/S.  Lodovieianus,  Ilarlan)  has  a 
very  full  and  broad  tail ;  it  is  rusty  gray  above 
and  ferruginous  below.  The  common  gray 
squirrel  (S.  Carolinensis,  Gmel.,  and  S.  migra- 
torius,  And.  and  Bach.)  is  about  22  in.  long, 
of  which  the  tail  is  12  in. ;  the  upper  molars 
are  permanently  five.  The  general  color  is 
gray  above  and  white  below,  with  a  yellowish 
brown  wash  on  the  back  and  sides ;  the  region 
behind  the  ears  has  usually  a  white  woolly 
tuft ;  there  is  a  black  variety,  the  /S.  niger  of 
Godman.  The  ears  are  very  high,  narrow, 
and  acute,  the  tail  flattened,  feet  large,  claws 
strong,  thumb  a  rudimentary  callosity ;  the 
palms  naked,  and  soles  mostly  so  in  summer ; 
whiskers  longer  than  the  head.  It  is  found 
extensively  over  the  United  States,  being  much 
the  smallest  at  the  south.  The  young  are  four 


298 


SQUIRREL 


STADE 


to  six,  born  in  May  or  June.  They  are  easily 
domesticated  and  gentle  in  confinement,  and 
are  often  kept  as  pets  in  wheel  cages ;  they  do 
not  lay  up  any  great  amount  of  winter  stores, 
being  partially  torpid  at  this  season  and  re 
quiring  but  little  food ;  they  are  very  fond  of 
nuts,  and  of  green  corn  and  young  wheat,  on 
which  last  account  wars  of  extermination  are 
often  waged  against  them,  whole  villages  turn 
ing  out  to  hunt  them.  At  irregular  periods 
they  sometimes  collect  in  large  troops  in  the 
northwest,  migrating  eastward,  crossing  rivers 
and  mountains,  and  committing  great  destruc 
tion  in  the  fields  in  their  course.  Many  of  this 
species  have  been  domesticated  in  the  public 
parks  of  northern  cities,  where  they  drive 


Common  Gray  Squirrel  (Sciurus  Carolinensis). 

away  the  birds  by  destroying  their  eggs  and 
young.  The  California  gray  squirrel  (S.  fossor, 
Peale)  is  as  large  as  the  fox  squirrel,  but  more 
slender;  it  is  grizzled  bluish  gray  and  black 
above,  and  white  below;  tail  black,  white  on 
the  exterior,  and  finely  grizzled  below ;  back 
of  ears  chestnut.  It  represents  on  the  west 
coast  the  gray  squirrel  of  the  east.  It  runs 
very  swiftly  on  the  ground,  not  readily  taking 
to  trees  when  pursued ;  like  the  other  squir 
rels,  it  has  a  kind  of  bark ;  the  food  consists 
principally  of  nuts,  which  it  sticks  in  holes  of 
pine  trees  bored  by  woodpeckers,  resembling 
pegs  placed  in  the  wood.  The  red  or  Hudson 
bay  squirrel  (S.  Hudsonius,  Pall.)  has  been  de 
scribed  under  CIIICKAKEE. — The  common  Eu 
ropean  squirrel  (S.  vulgaris,  Linn.)  is  about  14 
in.  long,  of  which  the  tail  is  about  one  half ; 
the  color  is  reddish,  chestnut  brown  on  the 
back,  white  below,  becoming  gray  in  winter  in 
the  north,  and  yielding  then  the  much  prized 
fur  called  minever ;  the  ears  are  tufted,  and 
the  hair  on  the  tail  is  directed  to  the  two  sides. 
It  is  found  throughout  Europe  and  N".  Asia; 
it  feeds  in  summer  on  buds  and  shoots,  espe 
cially  the  young  cones  of  the  pine,  and  in  win 
ter  on  a  supply  of  nuts  which  it  gathers  in 
autumn  and  hides  in  some  hollow  tree.  It  is 


an  excellent  climber,  and  makes  a  nest  of  moss, 
leaves,  and  fibres  very  neatly  interwoven,  in  a 
hole  or  fork  of  a  tree,  and  well  concealed ;  a 


Common  European  Squirrel  (Sciurus  vulgaris). 

pair  live  together,  frequenting  the  same  tree 
for  many  years ;  the  young  are  born  in  June, 
and  remain  with  their  parents  till  the  follow 
ing  spring ;  they  are  torpid  in  the  very  coldest 
days.  The  largest  of  the  squirrels  is  the  Mala 
bar  squirrel  (S.  maximus,  Schreb.),  33  in.  long, 
as  large  as  a  cat ;  it  is  black  above,  the  sides 
and  top  of  head  chestnut,  and  lower  parts 
pale  yellow  ;  it  lives  in  palm  trees,  feeding  on 
the  cocoanut. — The  ground  squirrels  (tamias, 
lllig.)  have  been  described  under  CHIPMUNK. 

SQUIRREL,  Flying.     See  FLYING  SQUIEEEL. 

SQUIRREL  CORN.     See  DIOENTEA. 

STAAL,  Marguerite  Jeaune  Cordier  cle  Lannay  de, 
baroness,  a  French  writer,  born  in  Paris  about 
1090,  died  at  Gennevilliers,  near  Paris,  June 
16,  1750.  She  was  a  daughter  of  a  poor 
painter  named  Cordier,  was  educated  in  an 
abbey  at  Evreux  till  1710,  was  afterward  an 
inmate  of  the  priory  of  St.  Louis  at  Rouen, 
and  finally  became  a  maid'  to  the  duchess  du 
Maine.  With  her  she  was  implicated  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Prince  Cellamare,  the  Spanish 
ambassador  at  Paris,  against  the  duke  of  Or 
leans,  and  for  giving  the  regency  to  the  king 
of  Spain.  After  being  confined  in  the  Bastile 
from  December,  1718,  to  1720,  she  resumed 
her  former  post  in  the  duchess's  petty  court 
at  Sceaux,  and  retained  it  even  after  her  mar 
riage  in  1735  with  the  aged  baron  de  Staal. 
Her  memoirs  (3  vols.,  1755)  passed  through 
many  editions,  and  with  her  correspondence 
are  included  in  her  complete  works  (2  vols., 
1821).  An  extract  from  the  memoirs,  enti 
tled  Deux  annees  a  la  Bastile,  appeared  in 
1853. — See  Sainte-Beuve's  Derniers  portraits 
litteraires  (1852). 

STADE,  a  town  of  Prussia,  capital  of  a  district 
in  the  province  of  Hanover,  on  the  Schwinge, 
4  m.  above  its  confluence  with  the  Elbe,  and 


STADIUM 


STAEL-HOLSTEIN 


299 


20  m.  W.  of  Hamburg;  pop.  in  1871,  8,693. 
It  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  was  ruled  by  local 
counts  until  the  close  of  the  12th  century,  when 
the  last  count  became  archbishop  of  Bremen. 
The  Elbe  dues  raised  at  Stade  caused  the  Han- 
sa  in  1267  to  enter  upon  hostile  proceedings. 
The  dues  were  restored  in  1688  under  Swe 
dish  domination,  and  increased  by  George  I., 
as  elector  of  Hanover,  after  the  annexation  of 
the  town  in  1719,  together  with  the  duchy  of 
Bremen,  to  his  dominions ;  and  they  were  not 
finally  abolished  till  1861,  when  Hanover  re 
ceived  a  compensation  for  them  of  3,100,000 
thalers,  Great  Britain  and  Hamburg  respec 
tively  contributing  one  third,  and  other  mari 
time  nations  the  remainder.  The  fortress  was 
captured  by  the  Prussians,  June  18,  1866. 

STADIUM  (Gr.  crMiov),  originally  a  Grecian 
course  for  foot  races  at  the  places  where  games 
were  celebrated,  and  sometimes  in  the  gym 
nasia  of  cities  where  there  were  no  games. 
The  most  celebrated  stadia  were  those  at  Olym- 
pia,  Delphi,  Thebes,  Epidaurus,  and  the  Pan- 
athenaic  at  Athens.  The  stadium  was  an  ob 
long  area  terminated  at  one  end  by  a  straight 
line,  and  at  the  other  by  a  semicircle,  with 
ranges  of  seats  rising  above  one  another  in 
steps  around  the  circumference.  The  length 
of  the  stadium  at  Olympia  was  600  Grecian 
ft.,  equal  to  606  ft.  9  in.  English ;  and  from 
continual  reference  to  it  as  a  comparison,  this 
length  became  used  throughout  Greece  as  the 
standard  of  measurement  for  itinerary  dis 
tances,  and  was  subsequently  adopted  by  the 
Romans,  chiefly  for  nautical  and  astronomical 
measurement.  The  stadium  at  Ephesus  was 
685  ft.  long  and  200  ft.  wide,  and  it  was  used 
not  only  as  the  arena  for  foot  races,  wrestling, 
and  pugilistic  combats,  but  also  for  combats 
with  wild  beasts. 

ST1DTHOLDER  (Dutch,  stacUwuder,  city  hold 
er  or  governor),  the  title  given  by  certain  of 
the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands  to 
William  of  Orange,  who  thereupon  became  the 
chief  magistrate  or  president  of  those  prov 
inces  and  commander-m-cliief  of  their  forces. 
In  1587  Maurice,  his  son,  was  appointed  stadt- 
holder  of  the  United  Provinces,  and  the  dignity 
continued  in  the  house  of  Orange,  with  occa 
sional  intermissions  during  which  the  states 
general  governed  without  a  stadtholdcr,  till 
1747,  when  "William  IV.,  of  a  collateral  branch 
of  the  Orange  family,  was  declared  heredi 
tary  stadtholder.  After  the  restoration  of  the 
Orange  family  in  1814,  the  title  was  exchanged 
for  that  of  king. 

STAEL-HOLSTEffl,  Anne  Lonisc  Germame  Xecker 
de,  baroness,  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris, 
April  22,  1766,  died  there,  July  14,  1817. 
She  Avas  the  only  child  of  the  finance  min- 
.ister  Neckcr  (originally  of  Geneva),  whom  she 
idolized,  and  whose  fondness  mitigated  the 
excessive  austerity  which  her  mother  brought 
to  bear  upon  her  education.  She  early  dis 
played  her  literary  genius  and  brilliant  con 
versational  power,  which  was  much  stimulated 


by  her  precocious  discussions  with  the  many 
learned  friends  of  the  family.  She  became  es 
pecially  interested  in  the  celebrated  Matthieu 
de  Montmorency;  but  her  mother  arranged 
for  her  a  conventional  marriage  with  the 
Swedish  ambassador,  Baron  de  Stael-Holstein, 
which  at  the  age  of  20  made  her  the  centre 
and,  owing  to  her  commanding  presence  and 
intellect,  the  oracle  of  a  distinguished  soci 
ety.  She  hailed  with  delight  the  revolution  of 
1789,  but  deplored  its  excesses  ;  and  after  de 
vising  a  plan  for  the  safety  of  the  royal  family, 
which  was  not  acted  upon,  she  saved  Mont 
morency  and  other  friends  from  the  guillotine, 
though  barely  escaping  herself.  After  joining 
her  parents  at  Coppet,  she  went  to  London, 
where  she  at  once  (1793)  published  an  appeal 
in  behalf  of  Marie  Antoinette.  Here  she  met 
Talleyrand,  whom  she  afterward  helped  to 
return  to  France  and  to  enter  the  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs.  Under  the  directory  she  was 
conspicuous  in  Paris  as  a  leader  of  the  consti 
tutional  party  in  conjunction  with  Benjamin 
Constant,  and  her  influence  was  so  great  that 
Joseph  Bonaparte  offered  to  obtain  for  her 
2,000,000  francs  due  to  her  father  from  the 
treasury,  in  the  hope  of  overcoming  her  preju 
dices  against  his  brother  Napoleon;  but  she 
resisted,  though  she  subsequently  accepted  the 
money  from  Louis  XVIII.  She  was  not  per 
mitted  to  remain  in  Paris,  and  took  refuge 
with  Mine.  Recamier.  When  she  returned  to 
the  more  immediate  vicinity  of  the  capital,  a 
work  published  by  her  father  (1802)  served  as 
a  pretext  for  her  banishment  40  leagues  from 
Paris,  and  she  went  to  Germany.  At  Weimar 
she  became  acquainted  with  Goethe,  Schiller, 
the  brothers  Schlegel,  and  others,  and  at  Ber 
lin  with  the  royal  family  of  Prussia.  In  the 
spring  of  1804  she  hastened  home  to  attend 
her  father  in  his  last  illness,  but  when  she 
reached  Coppet  he  was  dead.  Broken-hearted 
and  out  of  health,  she  sought  relief  in  her 
memorable  journey  to  Italy.  In  the  summer 
of  1805  she  returned  to  Switzerland  in  com 
pany  with  August  Wilhelm  von  Schlegel,  her 
mentor  in  regard  to  Germany,  and  the  instruc 
tor  of  her  children.  She  now  alternately  resi 
ded  at  Geneva  and  Coppet,  her  chateau  in  the 
latter  place  (now  belonging  to  Baron  Roth 
schild)  being  a  resort  of  her  friends,  and  espe- 
|  cially  for  some  time  of  Mine.  Recamier.  For 
I  a  time  she  was  tolerated  in  France,  but  having 
l  in  1807  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  Paris  to 
c*onfer  with  her  publishers  about  Corinne  and 
secretly  visited  the  capital,  she  was  ordered 
back  to  Coppet.  In  1810  she  made  an  equally 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  bring  out  her  book  on 
Germany,  taking  up  her  residence  in  the  coun 
try  house  of  her  friend  Montmorency.  She 
was  ruthlessly  expelled,  and  although  thou 
sands  of  copies  had  been  issued  with  the  sanc 
tion  of  the  censorship,  the  work  was  confis 
cated,  no  motive  being  assigned  excepting  that 
"it  was  not  French,"  probably  referring  to 
its  excessive  appreciation  of  German  thought. 


300 


STAEL-HOLSTEIN 


STAFFA 


On  the  birth  of  the  emperor's  son  (1811)  it 
was  intimated  to  her  that  she  might  soften 
him  by  commemorating  the  occasion ;  she  re 
plied  that  she  wished  the  child  to  receive  the 
care  of  a  competent  nurse ;  and  this  and  other 
remarks  of  hers  becoming  known  to  Napo 
leon,  he  actually  converted  her  residence  at 
Coppet  into  a  prison.  Schlegcl  was  not  per 
mitted  to  remain ;  Mme.  Recamier,  Montmo- 
rency,  and  the  duke  de  Broglie  were  not  tol 
erated  in  Paris  for  having  visited  her;  and 
she  was  forbidden  to  go  beyond  two  miles 
from  her  house.  Her  position  became  intol 
erable,  and  as  the  seaports  were  closed  to  her, 
she  could  only  escape,  in  the  spring  of  1812, 
by  pretending  to  take  a  little  walk  from  which 
she  never  returned.  She  went  across  the  Swiss 
and  Tyrolese  mountains,  and  finally  reached 
Vienna.  As  Napoleon's  emissaries  beset  her 
even  here,  she  made  a  tedious  journey  through 
Galicia  and  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  to  Moscow, 
and  thence  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  the  impe 
rial  family  received  her  with  open  arms  ;  but 
she  vindicated  her  patriotism  at  a  banquet, 
when  on  a  toast  being  proposed  for  the  vic 
tory  of  Russia  over  France,  she  exclaimed  : 
"  Not  over  France,  only  over  her  oppressor." 
During  her  visit  at  Stockholm  her  youngest 
son  Albert  fell  in  a  duel  (1813),  shortly  before 
her  departure  for  London,  where  she  attended 
to  the  publication  of  her  work  on  Germany. 
She  returned  to  Paris  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
in  1814,  but  left  it  on  his  return  from  Elba. 
In  1810  she  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
restore  her  health  by  another  journey  to  Italy. 
Schlegel  was  with  her  to  the  last,  and  Chateau 
briand  first  met  Mme.  Re"camier  at  the  death 
bed  of  Mine,  de  Stael.  Her  remains  were  re 
moved  to  the  family  vault  at  Coppet. — Of  her 
three  children  by  her  first  husband  (from  whom 
she  was  separated  for  several  years,  though 
she  rejoined  him  in  his  last  illness,  and  who 
died  on  May  9,  1802),  Auguste  (author  of  Let- 
trcs  sur  VAn.yleterre,  1820,  and  other  writings) 
survived  her 'till  Nov.  11,  1827,  and  Albertine, 
wife  of  the  duke  Achille  de  Broglie,  till  Septem 
ber,  1838.  She  had  one  child  by  her  second 
husband,  Albert  Jean  de  Rocca,  a  French  offi 
cer  and  military  writer,  who  died  in  January, 
1818,  in  his  31st  year.  It  seems  that  on  meet 
ing  him  at  Geneva,  whither  he  had  retired  after 
being  severely  wounded  in  the  peninsular  war, 
she  became  interested  in  him,  and  in  1811  she 
married  him  secretly,  in  order,  as  she  said  in 
her  will,  which  first  disclosed  the  fact,  to  re 
tain  the  name  identified  with  her  fame. — Mine. 
de  Stael's  versatility  was  remarkable.  She  ex 
celled  in  every  branch  of  prose  composition, 
us  a  linguist,  in  a  measure  as  a  vocalist  and 
dramatist,  and  in  private  theatricals ;  and  she 
was^  especially  celebrated  for  bold  and  sug 
gestive  generalizations,  a  masculine  grasp  of 
thought,  an  irrepressible  flow  of  ideas  and 
language,  and  for  a  love  of  humanity  and  con 
stitutional  liberty  after  the  model  of  England. 
Her  best  known  works  are  :  Delpliinc,  a  novel 


in  which  she  idealizes  herself  (4  vols.,  Gene 
va,  1802)  ;  Corinne,  ou  V Italic  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1807);  and  De  VAllemagne  (3  vols.,  London, 
1813),  which  first  fully  revealed  to  the  French 
the  achievements  of  modern  German  litera 
ture.  These  works  have  passed  through  many 
editions  and  translations,  as  well  as  most  of 
her  other  writings,  which  include  Lcttres  sur 
les  ecrits  et  le  caractere  de  J.  J.  JRousseau 
(1788) ;  Reflexions  sur  la  paix  (1794) ;  De  Vin- 
fluence  des  passions  sur  le  fionheur  des  indi- 
vidus  et  des  nations  (1796) ;  De  la  litterature 
consideree  dans  ses  rapports  avec  les  institutions 
sociales  (1800)  ;  Considerations  sur  les  princi- 
paux  evenements  de  la  revolution  francaise  (3 
vols.,  1818;  new  ed.,  2  vols.,  1801);  and  Dix 
annees  d'exil  (1821 ;  new  ed.,  1801).  Her  com 
plete  works  were  edited  by  her  son  Auguste 
(17  vols.,  1820-'21),  with  a  notice  by  Mme. 
Neckcr  de  Saussure ;  and  her  daughter  threw 
additional  light  upon  her  mother's  life  in  her 
notes  accompanying  an  edition  of  her  broth 
er's  CEiiTres  diverses  (5  vols.,  1828-'9).  Mme. 
de  Stael's  correspondence  with  the  grand  duch 
ess  Louisa  of  Saxe-Weiinar  from  1800  to  1817 
appeared  in  London  in  1802,  and  other  letters 
of  hers  were  published  by  Saint-Rene  Taillan- 
dier  (1SG3).— Sec  Sainte-Beuve's  Portraits  de 
femmes  (1844),  Baudrillart's  filoge  de  Mme.  de 
Stael  (1850),  and  "  Life  and  Times  of  Mme.  do 
Stael,"  by  Norris  (London,  1853). 

STAFJIPFLI,  or  Stanipfli,  Jakob,  a  Swiss  states 
man,  born  at  Schiipfen,  canton  of  Bern,  in 
1820.  He  is  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  acted  as 
a  servant  in  France  in  order  to  acquire  the  lan 
guage.  Subsequently  he  studied  law  in  Bern, 
and  became  an  advocate  and  an  ultra-radical 
journalist.  In  1840  he  and  Ochsenbein  were 
the  chief  promoters  of  the  revision  of  the 
constitution,  and  in  the  same  year  he  presided 
over  the  financial  department  in  the  council  of 
state.  In  1847,  as  representative  of  the  can 
ton  of  Bern  in  the  diet,  he  was  prominent  in 
pushing  on  the  war  with  the  seven  Catholic 
cantons  which  had  formed  the  Sonderbund, 
and  in  insisting  upon  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits.  In  1848  he  failed  of  election  to  the 
national  council,  on  account  of  his  objections 
to  the  new  constitution.  In  1849,  1851,  1859, 
and  1862  he  was  president  of  the  republic, 
and  in  the  intervals  he  was  vice  president  and 
minister  of  war;  and  he  resumed  the  latter 
office  in  1803.  In  1865  he  retired,  and  in  1872 
he  was  one  of  the  arbitrators  at  Geneva  under 
the  treaty  of  Washington. 

STAFFA,  a  small  uninhabited  island  of  Scot 
land,  one  of  the  inner  Hebrides,  Argyleshire, 
about  8  m.  W.  of  Mull.  It  is  irregularly  ellip 
tical,  about  1^  m.  in  circumference.  Its  sur 
face  is  an  uneven  plateau,  elevated  from  50  to 
144  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  is  covered  with  a- 
rich  soil  and  luxuriant  grass,  and  is  pastured 
by  black  cattle.  The  upper  rock  is  composed 
of  a  shapeless  basaltic  mass,  with  occasional 
small  columns,  resting  upon  a  columnar  basalt, 
hard,  grayish  black,  compact,  and  of  perfectly 


STAFFOED 


STAG 


301 


regular  forms,  which  has  for  its  foundation  a 
conglomerate  trap  or  tufa.  This  columnar  ba 
salt,  strongly  resembling  architectural  designs, 
is  indented  with  numerous  caves,  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  is  that  known  as  Fingal's 
cave.  (See  FIXGAL'S  CAVE.)  The  other  prin 
cipal  caves  are  the  Boat  cave,  the  Cormorant 
cave,  so  called  from  the  number  of  these  birds 
which  visit  it,  and  the  Clam  Shell  cave,  which 
derives  its  name  from  the  peculiar  form  in 
which  the  basaltic  columns  are  inclined,  giv 
ing  it  the  appearance  of  a  shell  of  the  genus 
pecten;  it  is  30  ft.  high,  16  to  18  ft.  broad, 
and  130  ft.  long.  Buachaille  or  the  Herds 
man  is  a  conical  pile  of  columns  rising  30  ft. 
above  the  water,  and  resting  on  a  bed  of  hori 
zontal  columns  over  which  the  high  tide  rises. 
Between  the  Herdsman  and  Fingal's  cave 
stretches  the  Great  Causeway,  formed  by  the 
ends  of  hexagonal  upright  columns. 

STAFFORD.  I.  An  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bordering  on  the  Potomac,  bounded  S.  "VV.  by 
the  Rappahannock,  and  drained  by  Aquia  and 
other  creeks;  area,  335  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,420,  of  whom  1,485  were  colored.  The  sur 
face  is  hilly,  and  the  soil  along  the  Potomac  is 
moderately  fertile.  Gold  has  been  discovered, 
and  excellent  granite  and  freestone  are  found. 
The  Richmond,  Fredericksburg,  and  Potomac 
railroad  intersects  the  county.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  30,763  bushels  of  wheat, 
99,057  of  Indian  corn,  39,586  of  oats,  1,070 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  3,174  of  wool.  There 
were  942  horses,  1,408  milch  cows,  1,893  oth 
er  cattle,  1,428  sheep,  and  3,393  swine.  Capi 
tal,  Stafford  Court  House.  II.  A  TV.  central 
county  of  Kansas,  intersected  in  the  N.  TV.  by 
the  Arkansas  river;  area,  900  sq.  m.  It  is 
not  included  in  the  census  of  1870.  The  sur 
face  consists  chiefly  of  undulating  prairies. 

STAFFORD,  the  county  town  of  Staffordshire, 
England,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sow,  125  in. 
N.  TV.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  14,437.  The 
town  is  situated  on  low  ground,  and  is  mainly 
well  built  of  stone  or  brick.  A  Norman  castle, 
several  times  demolished  and  rebuilt,  once  oc 
cupied  a  commanding  position  not  far  distant. 
Since  1810  a  massive  castellated  structure  has 
occupied  its  place.  Among  the  prominent 
public  buildings  are  the  county  hall,  a  jail,  in 
firmary,  lunatic  asylum,  library,  and  mechanics' 
institute.  A  free  grammar  school  was  estab 
lished  in  1556.  The  church  of  St.  Mary  is  the 
most  costly  and  conspicuous.  The  Trent  Val 
ley  railway  and  a  canal  are  near.  There  are 
extensive  manufactures  of  leather,  boots  and 
shoes,  and  cutlery.  Public  markets  are  held 
for  the  sale  of  cattle,  horses,  wool,  and  cheese. 

STAFFORD,  Henry,  duke  of  Buckingham.  See 
BUCKINGHAM,  EARLS  AND  DUKES  OF. 

STAFFORD,  William  Howard,  viscount,  an  Eng 
lish  statesman,  born  Nov.  30,  1612,  executed 
on  Tower  hill,  Dec.  29,  1680.  lie  was  the 
second  son  of  Thomas,  earl  of  Arundel,  and  in 
right  of  his  wife,  as  successor  of  her  brother, 
was  created  Baron  Stafford,  and  in  November, 


1640,  Viscount  Stafford.  He  was  brought  up 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  adhered  du 
ring  the  civil  war  to  the  royal  cause ;  but  after 
the  restoration  he  was  frequently  in  opposi 
tion  to  the  court.  He  was  singled  out  by  Ti 
tus  Gates,  the  contriver  of  the  "  popish  plot," 
as  one  of  his  chief  victims.  Gates  deposed 
before  the  house  of  commons  that  upon  the 
subversion  of  the  kingdom  by  the  Jesuits  Lord 
Stafford  was  to  be  paymaster  of  the  army ; 
and  the  accused  nobleman  was  committed  to 
the  tower,  Oct.  30,  1678,  with  several  other 
Catholic  peers.  After  two  years  his  trial  for 
alleged  high  treason  began,  Nov.  30,  1680, 
lasting  a  week.  He  defended  himself  with 
ability,  shaking  confidence  in  Oates's  evidence; 
but  Dugdale  and  Tuberville  swore  so  positive 
ly  that  Stafford  had  incited  them  to  assassi 
nate  the  king,  that  a  verdict  of  guilty  was  pro 
nounced  by  a  vote  of  55  to  31.  lie  was  exe 
cuted  three  weeks  afterward ;  but  the  popular 
feeling  so  changed  after  his  trial  that  when  he 
protested  his  innocence  on  the  scaffold  the 
spectators  cried:  "We  believe  you,  my  lord. 
God  bless  you,  my  lord."  His  eldest  son  was 
created  earl  of  Stafford. 

STAFFORDSHIRE,  an  inland  and  nearly  cen 
tral  county  of  England,  bordering  on  the  coun 
ties  of  Chester,  Derby,  Leicester,  "Warwick, 
Worcester,  and  Salop  ;  area,  1,138  sq.  in. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  858,326.  The  river  Trent  traverses  it 
in  a  S.  E.  direction,  and  has  several  consider 
able  tributaries.  Much  of  the  surface  consists 
of  moorlands,  elevated  in  some  places  1,000  ft. 
above  the  sea.  Staffordshire  is  an  important 
manufacturing  county,  and  coal,  iron,  copper, 
and  lead  mines  are  worked  extensively.  The 
leading  manufactures  are  iron,  hardware,  and 
earthenware,  of  which  last  it  is  the  chief  seat  in 
England,  and  which  gives  name  to  a  division  of 
the  county  called  the  Potteries.  The  pottery 
works  established  by  Josiah  Wedgwood  are 
in  this  county.  The  ale  breweries  of  Burton- 
upon-Trent  are  very  extensive  and  celebrated, 
and  there  are  cotton  mills,  glass  works,  and 
tanneries.  The  county  has  a  network  of  roads, 
canals,  and  railways.  The  principal  towns  are 
Stafford,  the  capital,  Lichfield,  Burton-npon- 
Trent,  Wolverhampton,  Dudley,  Tamworth, 
Walsall,  Uttoxeter,  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Hanley, 
Burslem,  and  Newcastle-under-Lyme. 

STAG,  the  common  name  of  the  red  deer  of 
Europe  (cervus  elaplius,  Linn.)  and  its  conge 
ners.  It  is  about  4  ft.  high  at  the  shoulders, 
and  of  a  general  reddish  brown  color,  tinged 
with  grayish  in  the  winter ;  on  the  rump  is 
a  pale  spot  extending  a  little  above  the  tail ; 
there  is  a  blackish  dorsal  line,  and  on  each  side 
often  a  row  of  pale  fulvous  spots;  the  hair 
is  brittle,  and  in  old  animals  forms  a  kind  of 
mane  on  the  neck ;  the  tail  is  moderate,  the  tear 
bag  well  developed,  suborbital  pit  large,  and 
the  hoofs  narrow,  triangular,  and  compressed. 
The  antlers  are  large  and  rounded,  with  an  an 
terior  basal  and  a  median  anterior  sriag,  and 
the  apex  divided  into  two  or  more  branches 


302 


STAG  BEETLE 


STAGIBA 


according  to  ago;  they  are  peculiar  to  the 
males,  shed  in  the  spring,  and  reproduced, 
sometimes  to  a  weight  of  24  Ibs.,  by  August. 
(For  family  characters  see  DEER.)  It  is  strong, 


Stag  (Cervus  elaphus). 

swift,  and  vigilant,  with  a  very  acute  sense  of 
smell ;  it  was  formerly  found  in  herds  in  the 
forests  of  the  mountainous  regions  of  tem 
perate  Europe,  hut  is  now  rare  except  in  the 
least  inhabited  parts,  like  the  highlands  of 
Scotland,  whore  stag  hunting  is  still  a  favorite 
sport  with  the  privileged  few.  This  in  old  times 
constituted  the  noble  art  of  venerie,  as  distin 
guished  from  the  more  plebeian  chase  of  the 
fallow  deer  and  other  species  which  resort  to 
the  plains  more  than  the  woods.  Gestation 
continues  eight  months  ;  the  young  or  calf  is 
dropped  in  May,  and  is  yellowish  with  white 
spots ;  the  male  is  called  a  stag  or  hart,  and 
the  female  a  hind.  The  venison  is  coarser  than 
that  of  the  fallow  deer.  It  has  been  found  fos 
sil,  with  bones  of  the  elephant  and  other  un 
gulates,  in  the  Kirkdale  cavern,  the  peat  bogs 
of  Ireland,  and  similar  recent  formations.  It 
is  represented  in  Xorth  America  by  the  larger 
wapiti.  (See  WAPITI.)  Other  stags  are  found 
in  India,  N.  Africa,  and  Japan. 

STAG  BEETLE,  the  common  name  of  the  fam 
ily  liicanidas,  of  the  lamellicorn  pentamcrous 
coleoptera,  of  which  the  type  is  the  genus  lu- 
canns  (Linn.).  Many  of  the  species  are  of  con 
siderable  size,  and  have  received  their  name 
from  the  large  and  powerful  mandibles  with 
which  the  males  are  furnished.  The  stag 
beetle  of  Europe  (L.  cervus,  Linn.)  is  2  in.  long, 
exclusive  of  the  mandibles,  and  is  the  largest 
and  most  formidable  of  the  British  beetles; 
the  color  is  black,  with  brown  elytra  ;  the  head 
is  wider  than  the  body ;  the  mandibles  corne 
ous,  arched,  with  three  large  and  several  small 


er  teeth,  and  used  as  instruments  of  offence ; 
antennas  bent,  pectinated,  and  10-jointed,  tibiaa 
dentated  along  outer  edge,  and  the  tarsi  end 
ing  in  two  hooks.  They  live  in  the  trunks  of 
trees  by  day,  flying  abroad  at  night,  often  into 
houses ;  the  females  are  smaller,  with  narrow 
er  head  and  much  shorter  mandibles.  They 
are  also  called  horn  beetles  and  flying  bulls. 
According  to  De  Geer,  they  feed  principally 
on  the  sweet  juice  spread  over  the  leaves  of 
the  oak  and  exuding  on  the  bark,  which  they 
obtain  by  means  of  the  brushes  of  the  under 
jaws ;  they  are  said  to  seize  caterpillars  and 
soft-bodied  insects,  and  to  suck  their  juices; 
they  are  very  strong,  and  can  pinch  the  finger 
pretty  hard,  but  do  not  use  their  mandibles  in 
this  way  unless  provoked,  and  their  punctures 
are  not  poisonous ;  they  live  only  a  short  time 
in  the  perfect  state,  perishing  soon  after  laying 
their  eggs  in  the  crevices  of  bark  near  the 
roots  of  frees.  The  larva)  are  large  and  fleshy 
grubs  with  very  thick  body,  arched,  with  13 
rings,  and  having  a  brown  scaly  head  armed 
with  two  strong  jaws  with  which  they  gnaw 
wood,  reducing  it  to  a  coarse  powder,  and  often 
doing  much  damage  by  boring  into  the  trunks 
and  roots  of  oaks  and  beeches;  there  are  six 
scaly  feet,  attached  to  the  first  three  rings; 
they  are  said  to  be  six  years  in  coming  to  their 
growth,  and  by  some  are  regarded  as  the  cos- 
sus  of  the  Romans,  a  worm-like  grub,  according 
to  Pliny,  obtained  from  the  oak  and  considered 


European  Stag  Beetle  (Lucanus  cervus). 

delicious  food.  The  largest  of  the  Xcw  Eng 
land  species  is  the  L.  capreolus  (Linn.),  usu 
ally  called  horn  bug ;  it  is  about  1 J  in.  long, 
without  the  mandibles,  the  latter  being  sickle- 
shaped  and  toothed  ;  the  body  mahogany 
brown,  smooth  and  polished.  They  appear  in 
July  and  August.  The  larva}  are  3  in.  long 
when  full  grown,  straw-colored,  with  yellow 
head,  brown  jaws,  and  nine  stigmata;  they 
live  in  the  trunks  and  roots  of  apple  trees, 
willows,  and  oaks,  and  are  sometimes  injurious. 

STAG  HOOD.     See  HOUXD. 

STAGIRA,  previously  Stagims,  an  ancient  town 
of  Macedonia,  in  Chalcidice,  on  the  Str}rmonic 
gulf.  It  was  founded  by  a  colony  from  An- 
dros  in  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  B.  0., 
and  was  originally  named  Orthagoria.  It  was 
destroyed  and  rebuilt  by  Philip,  the  father  of 
Alexander.  It  is  chiefly  known  as  the  birth 
place  of  Aristotle. 


STAHL 


STAMMERING 


303 


STAHL,  Friedrich  Julius  a  German  jurist,  born 
in  Munich,  Jan.  16,  1802,  died  at  Brtickenau, 
near  Kissingen,  Aug.  10,  1861.  lie  was  of  a 
Jewish  family  named  Schlesinger,  but  adopted 
the  name  Stahl  in  1819  on  becoming  a  Chris 
tian.  He  was  professor  of  law  at  Erlangen 
and  Wiirzburg,  and  from  1840  at  Berlin.  In 
1848  he  founded  with  Bethmann-IIollweg  the 
German  church  diet,  of  which  he  was  vice 
president  till  1859,  and  was  a  leader  of  the 
high  Lutheran  party.  As  a  member  of  the 
Prussian  chamber  of  deputies  (1849),  of  the 
Erfurt  parliament  (1850),  and  from  1854  of 
the  upper  house  of  the  Prussian  legislature, 
he  advocated  feudal  principles.  His  most  im 
portant  work  is  Philosophic  ties  Rcchts  (2  vols., 
Heidelberg,  1830-'37),  in  which  he  develops  his 
famous  theory  of  a  "Christian  state,"  which 
is  to  aid  the  church  by  the  secular  arm  in  ex 
tending  Christianity.  In  Die  JLirchenverfas- 
aung,  &c.  (Erlangen,  1840),  he  declared  him 
self  in  favor  of  an  episcopal  form  of  church 
government.  In  1855  he  had  a  controversy 
with  Chevalier  Bunsen,  which  attracted  gen 
eral  attention  in  literary  circles.  His  last 
great  work  was  Die  lutherische  Kirche  und 
die  Union  (Berlin,  1859). 

STAHL,  Ceorg  Ernst,  a  German  chemist,  born 
in  Anspach,  Oct.  21,  1660,  died  in  Berlin,  May 
14,  1734.  He  took  his  degree  at  Jena  in  1684, 
and  after  giving  private  lectures  there,  he  was 
physician  to  the  duke  of  Weimar  from  1687 
to  1694,  and  subsequently  professor  at  Halle 
till  1716,  when  he  settled  in  Berlin  with  the 
title  of  royal  physician.  He  was  among  the 
first  to  raise  chemistry  to  an  equality  with  the 
other  natural  sciences.  In  his  Theoria  Nedi- 
ca  Vera  (Halle,  1707;  new  ed.  by  Choulant,  3 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1831-'3 ;  translated  into  Ger 
man  by  Ideler,  3  vols.,  Berlin,  1832-'3)  he 
supposed  the  existence  of  an  anima  or  im 
material  principle  resident  in  the  body,  crea 
ting  its  organization,  and  governing  all  its  pro 
cesses  with  reference  to  the  final  purpose  of 
preserving  life.  Every  corporeal  movement, 
he  said,  is  the  product  of  a  spiritual  order. 
He  elaborated  also  the  phlogistic  theory  which 
prevailed  till  the  time  of  Lavoisier,  and  gave 
it  its  name,  although  its  principles  had  been 
previously  broached  by  Becher  (see  HEAT,  vol. 
viii.,  p.  567),  in  development  and  defence  of 
which  he  published  Zymotechnia  Fundamen- 
talis  (1697),  and  Experimental  et  Observationes 
ChemiccB  (1731).  His  works  have  been  trans 
lated  into  French,  with  commentary  by  T. 
Blondin  ((Euvres  medico-philosophiques  et  pra 
tiques,  Paris,  1858  et  seq.}. — See  Le  ritalisme  et 
V animalisme  de  Stahl,  by  A.  Lemoine  (1864), 
and  CHEMISTRY,  vol.  iv.,  p.  360. 

STAHR,  Adolf  Wilheiin  Theodor,  a  German  au 
thor,  born  in  Prenzlau,  Prussia,  Oct.  22,  1805. 
He  completed  his  studies  at  Halle,  and  in 
1826  became  a  teacher  there,  and  subsequent 
ly  taught  in  the  gymnasium  in  Oldenburg  till 
1852,  when  he  settled  in  Berlin.  In  1855  he 
married  the  authoress  Fanny  Lewald.  His 
VOL.  XY. — 20 


works  include  Aristotelia  (2  vols.,  1830-'32); 
Ein  Jahr  in  Italien  (3  vols.,  1847-'50) ;  Die 
preussische  Revolution  (1850;  2d  ed.,  1852); 
Torso,  oder  Kunst,  Kanstler  und  Kunsticerke 
der  Alien  (2  vols.,  1854-:5  ;  English  transla 
tion  in  the  "  Crayon,"  New  York,  1858-'9)  ; 
G.  E.  Leasing,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke  (2 
vols.,  1859;  6th  ed.,  1869;  English  translation, 
Boston,  1866) ;  Herbstmonate  in  Oberitalien 
(1859;  2d  ed.,  1871);  Bilder  am  dem  Alter- 
thum  (4  vols.,  1863-''6) ;  with  his  wife,  Ein  Win 
ter  in  Rom  (1869;  2d  ed.,  1871);  Lebenserin- 
nerungen  (1870  et  seq.} ;  Tacitus?  Gescliichte 
der  Regierung  des  Kaisers  Tiberius  ubersetzt 
und  erkldrt  (1871) ;  Goethe"1  s  FT  auengesl  alien 
(for  Kaulbach's  Goethe- Gallerie  ;  4th  ed.,  2 
vols.,  1872);  and  Tiberius'.  Leben,  Regierung 
und  Character  (1874).  A  collective  edition  of 
his  works  was  commenced  at  Berlin  in  1871. 

STAIR,  Lord.     See  DALEYMPLE. 

STAMFORD,  a  town  and  borough  of  Fairfield 
co.,  Connecticut,  on  Long  Island  sound  and  the 
New  York  and  New  Haven  and  New  Canaan 
and  Stamford  railroads,  34  m.  N.  E.  of  New 
York  ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,714.  The  town  extends 
from  the  sound  N.  W.  to  the  New  York  state 
line,  a  distance  of  10  m.,  in  which  there  is  a 
series  of  elevations  running  N.  E.  and  S.  AY., 
affording  sites  for  four  villages,  High  Ridge, 
Long  Ridge,  Hunting  Ridge,  and  North  Stam 
ford.  The  greater  part  of  the  population  re 
sides  in  the  borough  of  Stamford,  which  has 
a  small  harbor,  made  accessible  to  steamboats 
by  a  canal.  The  borough  is  supplied  with  wa 
ter  brought  10  in.,  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  has 
paved  sidewalks.  The  nearness  to  New  York, 
attractive  scenery,  and  wholesome  air  have 
made  the  town  the  residence  of  many  business 
men  from  that  city.  The  chief  factories  are 
the  Stamford  manufacturing  company,  produ 
cing  extract  of  logwood,  liquorice,  &c. ;  a  lock 
factory,  a  billiard  table  factory,  a  woollen  mill, 
a  stove  foundery,  a  carriage  factory,  rolling 
mills,  camphor  refineries,  and  manufactories  of 
shoes,  fire  brick,  edge  tools,  wire,  &c.  The 
town  contains  two  national  banks,  two  savings 
banks,  16  public  schools,  including  a  high  school, 
two  weekly  newspapers,  and  14  churches. 

STAMMERING,  a  term  generally  applied  to  all 
kinds  of  defective  utterance,  but  more  correct 
ly  restricted  to  the  organic  or  symptomatic 
defects,  in  distinction  from  stuttering,  which 
is  properly  an  idiopathic  or  functional  diffi 
culty.  Both  stammering  and  stuttering  may 
nevertheless  be  treated  under  the  common 
title.  The  causes  which  lead  to  stammering 
are  usually,  though  not  always,  organic;  hare 
lip,  cleft  palate,  elongation  of  the  uvula,  en 
largement  of  the  tonsils,  a  deficiency  or  un 
usual  position  of  the  teeth,  tumors  of  the 
tongue  or  cavity  of  the  mouth,  and  inflamma 
tion  or  ulceration  of  the  parotid  glands,  are 
the  most  frequent  of  these  causes.  Where 
the  defect  results  from  functional  disturbance, 
its  principal  causes  are  general  debility,  pa 
ralysis  either  local  or  general,  tetanic  or  other 


304: 


STAMMERING 


STANFIELD 


spasms ;  a  rheumatic  or  neuralgic  affection  of 
the  muscles  of  the  face,  jaw,  tongue,  lips,  &c., 
or  of  the  vocal  cords;  a  condition  of  intoxica 
tion  ;  chorea;  or  in  some  cases  a  habitual  imi 
tation  of  stammering.  Occasional  stammering 
may  be  produced  by  a  temporary  confusion 
of  mind,  without  any  anatomical  defect  of  the 
vocal  organs.  Stuttering  is  seldom  or  never 
organic.  The  stutterer  is  often  in  perfect 
health,  and  the  vocal  organs  are  not  in  any 
way  diseased  or  deformed.  His  difficulty  con 
sists  in  the  momentary  inability  to  pronounce 
certain  words  or  syllables.  The  stoppage  of 
sound  usually  takes  place  at  the  first  syllable, 
though  occasionally  at  the  second  or  third. 
Words  beginning  with  &,  £,  y,  rf,  7),  ft,  or  m 
usually  give  the  stutterer  the  most  trouble, 
because  they  require  the  closing  of  the  lips  or 
the  pressing  of  the  tongue  against  the  roof  of 
the  mouth  for  their  enunciation,  and  an  im 
mediate  reopening  for  the  vowel  which  fol 
lows  ;  while  he  keeps  the  lips  closed,  and  com 
presses  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  in  the  attempt 
to  force  out  the  sound.  Most  stutterers  can 
.sing  without  difficulty,  the  action  of  the  vocal 
organs  being  much  less  frequently  interrupted 
in  singing  than  in  speaking.  Stutterers  may 
be  classed  under  two  heads,  mental  or  psychi 
cal  and  physical.  Under  the  stimulus  of  pleas 
ant  or  joyful  emotions,  the  first  class  experi 
ence  little  difficulty  in  conversation;  under 
depressing  infiuences,  their  utterance  is  seri 
ously  disturbed.  The  physical  stutterer  is 
rendered  worse  by  unpleasant  weather,  great 
fatigue,  vicious  indulgence,  and  the  excessive 
use  of  tobacco  or  alcoholic  drinks.  The  num 
ber  of  bad  stammerers  is  estimated  by  Coloin- 
bat  at  1  in  5,000  ;  but  the  number  having  some 
degree  of  impediment  is  not  probably  less 
than  1  in  500.  Only  about  one  tenth  of  these 
are  females. — The  proper  treatment  of  either 
stuttering  or  stammering  is  indicated  by  the 
cause  which  induces  it.  In  the  case  of  the 
stammerer  there  should  be  a  thorough  investi 
gation  for  an  organic  cause.  The  clipping  of 
the  uvula,  the  removal  of  a  portion  of  the  ton 
sils,  or  the  excision  of  a  wedge-shaped  piece 
from  a  tongue  too  large  for  the  mouth,  the  use 
of  electrical  or  other  remedies  for  the  cure  of 
paralysis,  the  cauterization  of  ulcers  in  the 
mouth,  the  removal  of  irregular  or  the  inser 
tion  of  false  teeth,  and  the  administration  of 
tonics  for  debility,  have  each  resulted  in  the 
cure  of  cases  of  stammering ;  but  no  one  of 
these  will  answer  for  all  or  perhaps  a  majority 
of  cases.  In  stuttering  also,  the  cause  will 
indicate  to  some  extent  the  method  of  cure. 
The  muscles  must  be  educated  to  uniform 
obedience  to  the  will,  and  the  will  trained  to 
steady  and  intelligent  control  over  the  muscles 
and  nerves.  A  course  of  lessons  in  enuncia 
tion,  by  a  capable  teacher,  will  often  effect  a 
complete  cure.  Dr.  J.  M.  Warren  of  Boston 
lays  down  the  rules  that  treatment  for  impedi 
ments  of  speech  should  be  commenced  between 
the  ages  of  8  and  12  ;  and  that  "little  perma 


nent  advantage  will  be  gained,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  unless  the  treatment  be  resolutely 
persevered  in  for  one  or  two  years." 

STAMP  ACTS,  laws  for  the  raising  of  revenue 
by  requiring  the  use  of  government  stamps  on 
the  paper  or  parchment  by  means  of  which 
business  is  transacted  or  privileges  conferred, 
or  upon  packages  of  goods  put  up  for  sale,  &c. 
Such  laws  were  introduced  into  England,  in 
the  reign  of  William  and  Mary,  from  Holland, 
and  from  that  time  to  the  present  have  been 
a  favorite  mode  of  raising  revenue.  Each 
stamp  represents  a  tax  of  a  certain  sum  which 
must  be  paid  to  obtain  it,  and  its  payment  is 
enforced  by  imposing  penalties  on  those  who 
undertake  to  evade  the  tax,  and  by  declaring 
the  transaction  in  which  it  should  have  been 
made  use  of  invalid  if  the  stamp  is  not  ob 
tained  and  used.  The  name  of  stamp  act  was 
made  odious  in  America  by  the  attempt  in 
1765  to  tax  the  colonies  in  this  form  ;  but 
after  the  Union  was  perfected  by  means  of  the 
constitution  a  few  stamp  duties  were  for  a 
time  laid.  During  the  civil  war  of  1861-'5 
stamp  taxes  were  laid  on  almost  every  form 
of  legal  instrument,  bank  drafts  and  checks, 
conveyances  of  land,  &c.,  and  on  the  packages 
of  a  great  variety  of  manufactured  goods. 
Many  of  these  have  since  been  taken  off,  but 
the  stamp  taxes  on  manufactures  are  generally 
retained.  (See  TAXES.) 

STAMHIO.     See  Cos. 

STANDISII,  Miles,  a  soldier  of  New  England, 
born  in  Lancashire,  England,  about  1584,  died 
in  Duxbury,  Mass.,  Oct.  3,  1056.  He  had 
served  in  the  Netherlands,  and  on  coming  to 
Plymouth  with  the  first  company  in  1620  he 
was  chosen  captain  by  the  pilgrims,  though 
not  a  member  of  their  church.  He  had  great 
courage,  energy,  and  determination,  with  a 
fiery  temper,  and  rendered  important  services 
to  the  early  settlers.  He  commanded  frequent 
expeditions  against  the  savages  who  annoyed 
the  settlements,  and  by  the  boldness  and  skill 
of  his  attacks  inspired  them  with  great  awe  of 
his  military  prowess.  He  visited  England  in 
1625  as  an  agent  for  the  colony,  and  brought 
supplies  in  1626.  He  then  settled  at  Duxbury, 
and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  held  the  office 
of  magistrate  or  assistant  for  that  town.  In 
1649  he  took  part  in  the  settlement  of  Bridge- 
water.  The  corner  stone  of  a  monument  to 
his  memory  was  laid  on  Captain's  Hill,  Dux- 
bury,  Oct.  7,  1872.  The  singular  circum 
stances  of  his  marriage  are  the  subject  of  a 
celebrated  poem  by  Longfellow,  "  The  Court 
ship  of  Miles  Standish." 

STANFIELD,  Clarkson,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  Sunderland  about  1798,  died  at  Hampstead, 
May  18,  1867.  He  followed  the  sea  in  early 
life,  and  was  afterward  distinguished  as  a  the 
atrical  scene  painter.  In  1827  he  exhibited  at 
the  British  institution  his  first  large  picture, 
"Wreckers  off  Fort  Rouge;"  in  1832  he  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  royal  academy,  and 
in  1835  an  academician.  He  painted  nearly 


STANFORD 


STANHOPE 


305 


every  kind  of  landscape,  but  as  a  painter  of 
sea  pieces  he  enjoyed  a  unique  reputation. 
His  works  include  u  Wreck  of  a  Dutch  East 
Indiaman  on  the  Coast  of  Holland;"  "The 
Victory,  bearing  the  Body  of  Nelson,  towed 
into  Gibraltar;"  ''The  Abandoned;"  "The 
Battle  of  Trafalgar;"  "The  French  Troops 
fording  theMagra;"  "The  Battle  of  Rovere- 
do ;"  "The  Pyrenees;"  and  "St.  Sebastian 
during  the  Siege  under  the  Duke  of  Welling 
ton."  Among  his  latest  works  were  "  The 
Worm's  Head"  (1864),  and  "The  Bass  Rock" 
(1865).  lie  was  a  prolific  designer  for  illus 
trated  works,  and  published  a-  series  of  litho 
graphic  copies  of  his  sketches,  "  The  Moselle, 
the  Rhine,  and  the  Meuse  "  (fol.,  1838). 

STMFORD,  John,  an  American  clergyman, 
bom  at  Wandsworth,  England,  Oct.  20,  1754, 
died  in  New  York,  Jan.  14,  1834.  He  was 
brought  up  in  the  church  of  England,  but 
united  with  the  Baptist  church,  and  in  1786 
emigrated  to  the  United  States,  spent  a  few 
months  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  then  opened  an 
academy  in  New  York.  In  1787  he  became 
pastor  of  the  first  Baptist  church,  Providence, 
R.  I.,  and  while  there  wrote  a  history  of  that 
church.  He  resumed  teaching  in  New  York  in 
1 789,  and  a  Baptist  church  having  been  formed 
through  his  exertions  in  1794,  he  served  as  its 
pastor  till  about  1800,  continuing  his  school 
till  1813.  He  published  "  The  Domestic  Chap 
lain"  (1806);  "Description  of  New  York  City" 
(1814) ;  and  "  The  Aged  Christian's  Compan 
ion"  (1829). 

STMHOPE.  I.  James,  earl,  a  British  states 
man,  born  in  1673,  died  in  London,  Feb.  5, 
1721.  He  was  the  son  of  Alexander  Stan 
hope,  a  brother  of  the  second  earl  of  Chester 
field.  Entering  the  military  service  at  an  early 
age,  he  was  in  1694  commissioned  a  captain 
in  the  foot  guards.  After  serving  in  Flanders 
till  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  he  participated  in 
the  disastrous  expeditions  of  1702  and  1704 
to  the  Spanish  peninsula;  and  in  1705,  being 
then  a  brigadier  general,  he  shared  in  the  earl 
of  Peterborough's  brilliant  Spanish  campaign. 
In  1706  he  was  sent  by  Queen  Anne  as  envoy 
extraordinary  to  the  king  of  Spain  (the  arch 
duke  Charles).  In  1707  he  was  made  major 
general,  and  in  1708  commander-in-chief  of 
the  British  forces  in  Spain,  and  reduced  Minor 
ca  and  captured  Port  Mahon.  After  gaining 
further  important  successes  in  Spain,  he  was 
surprised  by  the  duke  of  Vendome  at  Brihuega 
on  Dec.  8,  1710,  and  forced  to  surrender  next 
day  with  about  4,000  men.  Returning  to  Eng 
land,  he  took  his  seat  as  a  whig  in  parliament, 
to  which  he  had  been  regularly  returned  since 
1 702.  George  I.  on  his  accession  appointed  him 
one  of  his  principal  secretaries  of  state,  Vis 
count  Townshend  being  the  other.  In  April, 
1717,  he  was  made  first  lord  of  the  treasury, 
and  a  few  months  afterward  raised  to  the 
peerage  as -Baron  Stanhope  of  Elvaston  and 
Viscount  Stanhope  of  Mahon.  In  1718  he 
resumed  his  office  of  secretary,  Sunderland 


becoming  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  and  was 
created  Earl  Stanhope.  He  went  to  Paris  and 
Madrid  to  avert  hostilities  with  Spain,  but 
without  success;  and  he  was  afterward  em 
ployed  in  similar  missions.  On  Feb.  4,  1721, 
while  replying  with  much  heat  to  an  attack 
upon  the  ministry  by  the  duke  of  Wharton, 
he  burst  a  blood  vessel.  II.  Charles,  third  earl, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  in  August, 
1753,  died  in  December,  1816.  Succeeding  to 
his  family  honors  in  1786,  he  became  noted 
for  his  radical  opinions,  and  in  his  discussions 
carried  the  principles  of  the  whigs  so  far  that 
none  of  them  dared  follow  him ;  and  in  the 
latter  years  of  his  life  he  used  to  be  called 
"the  minority  of  one."  He  invented  the  print 
ing  press  which  bears  his  name,  suggested  im 
provements  in  canal  locks,  and  contrived  two 
calculating  machines.  He  also  studied  elec 
tricity,  and  in  1779  published  his  theory  of 
what  is  called  the  return  stroke.  His  princi 
pal  works  are  a  reply  to  Burke's  "Reflections 
on  the  French  Revolution,"  and  an  "Essay 
on  Juries."  III.  Philip  Henry,  fifth  earl,  an 
English  author,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Walmer,  Kent,  Jan.  31,  1805,  died 
at  Bournemouth,  Hampshire,  Dec.  24,  1875. 
He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1827,  and  from 
1830  to  1852  was  a  member  of  parliament 
under  his  courtesy  title  of  Lord  Mahon.  He- 
held  office  during  brief  periods  in  the  cabinets 
of  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
and  he  introduced  and  carried  the  copyright 
act  of  1842.  He  has  published  "Life  of  Beli- 
sarius"  (8vo,  1829);  "History  of  the  War  of 
Succession  in  Spain"  (Svo,  1832);  "History 
of  England  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the 
Peace  of  Versailles,  1713-'83"  (7  vols.,  1836- 
'54);  "Spain  under  Charles  II."  (Svo,  1840); 
"  Life  of  Louis,  Prince  of  Conde  "  (18nio,  1845) ; 
"  Historical  Essays  contributed  to  the  Quarterly 
Review  "  (Svo,  1849) ;  a  "  Life  of  Joan  of  Arc  " 
(1853) ;  a  "Life  of  William  Pitt"  (4  vols.  Svo, 
1861-'2);  and  "History  of  England,  compri 
sing  the  Reign  of  Anne,  until  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht"  (1870).  He  has  edited  "The  Let 
ters  of  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,  Earl  of  Ches 
terfield  "  (1845;  2d  ed.,  5  vols.  Svo,  1S53), 
in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Cardwell,  and  "Me 
moirs  by  the  Right  Hon.  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
Bart,"  (2  vols.,  1856-'7).  Lord  Stanhope  suc 
ceeded  to  his  title  in  1S55.  Since  1846  he 
has  been  president  of  the  society  of  antiqua 
ries.  In  1858  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of 
the  university  of  Aberdeen,  and  in  1872  one 
of  the  six  foreign  members  of  the  academy  of 
moral  and  political  sciences  at  Paris,  in  place 
of  Mr.  Grote, 

STANHOPE,  Lady  Hester  Lucy,  an  eccentric 
English  woman,  born  in  London,  March  12, 
1776,  died  at  Jun,  in  the  Lebanon,  June  23, 
1839.  She  was  the  eldest  child  of  Charles, 
third  Earl  Stanhope,  by  Hester,  daughter  of 
the  great  earl  of  Chatham.  When  about  20 
years  of  age  she  entered  the  family  of  her 
uncle  William  Pitt,  with  whom  she  lived  until 


306 


STANHOPE 


his  death  in  1806,  acting  as  his  private  secre 
tary  and  sharing  his  confidences.  Pitt  having 
recommended  his  niece  to  the  care  of  the  na 
tion,  she  received  a  pension  of  £1,200,  which 
proving  inadequate  to  support  her  according 
to  her  former  rank  and  style,  she  retired  to 
solitude  in  Wales.  Indulging  in  dreams  of_a 
great  destiny  in  the  Orient,  she  repaired  in 
1810  to  Syria,  and  visited  Jerusalem,  Damas 
cus,  Baalbec,  and  Palmyra.  The  Arabs,  who 
were  struck  by  her  powers  and  display  of 
wealth,  treated  her  as  a  queen,  and  she  skil 
fully  acted  the  part  of  a  modern  Zenobia. 
She  established  herself  in  1813  at  the  de 
serted  convent  of  Mar  Elias,  beside  the  little 
village  of  Jan,  and  within  eight  miles  of  Sidon. 
Here,  wearing  the  dress  of  an  emir,  weapons, 
pipe,  and  all,  she  ruled  her  Albanian  guards 
and  her  servants  with  absolute  authority.  The 
old  convent,  perched  upon  an  isolated  eminence 
among  the  wildest  scenery  of  the  Lebanon, 
was  soon  converted  into  a  fortress,  garrisoned 
by  Albanians,  and  became  a  refuge  to  all  the 
persecuted  and  distressed  who  sought  her  as 
sistance.  So  powerful  was  the  influence  which 
she  wielded  in  the  surrounding  country,  that 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  when  about  to  invade  Syria  in 
1832,  was  constrained  to  solicit  her  neutrality. 
After  the  siege  of  Aero  in  the  same  year,  she 
is  said  to  have  sheltered  several  hundred  refu 
gees.  She  practised  astrology  and  other  se 
cret  arts,  and  promulgated  some  peculiar  reli 
gious  sentiments  which  she  held  to  the  last, 
that  her  mind  was  diseased  on  certain  points 
is  clear  from  the  fact  that  she  kept  in  a  mag 
nificent  stable  two  mares,  on  which  she  fancied 
she  was  to  ride  into  Jerusalem  with  the  Mes 
siah  at  his  next  coming.  During  the  latter 
years  of  her  life  she  was  constantly  harassed 
by  debts,  and  she  died  with  no  European  near 
her,  and  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  native 
servants,  who  plundered  the  house  almost  be 
fore  life  had  left  her  body.  She  was  buried 
in  the  garden  adjoining  her  residence.  Her 
"  Memoirs  as  related  by  Herself  "  (3  vols.  8vo), 
and  " Travels"  (3  vols.  Svo)  by  Dr.  Meryon, 
who  had  been  her  physician  for  several  years, 
were  published  soon  after  her  death. 

STANHOPE,  Philip  Dormer.  See  CHESTER 
FIELD. 

STANISLAS  I.  LESZCZYNSKI,  king  of  Poland, 
born  in  Lemberg,  Galicia,  Oct.  20,  1077,  died 
in  Luneville,  France,  Feb.  23,  1766.  He  was 
palatine  of  Posen,  and  had  held  an  office  at 
the  Polish  court,  where  he  won  the  friend 
ship  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  who  in  1705, 
after  defeating  Augustus  II.,  procured  his  elec 
tion  to  the  throne  of  Poland;  but  he  lost  the 
crown  by  Charles's  defeat  at  Poltava  in  1700, 
when  Augustus  was  restored.  While  attempt 
ing  to  join  Charles  at  Bender,  Stanislas  was  in 
1713  taken  prisoner  by  the  hospodar  of  Mol 
davia  and  delivered  to  the  Turks ;  released  in 
1714,  he  served  as  governor  of  Zweibriicken  till 
the  death  of  Charles  XII.  in  December,  1718. 
The  regent  Philip  of  Orleans  now  granted  him 


STANLEY 

a  pension  and  permission  to  reside  at  Weissen- 
burg,  Alsace.  His  prospects  improved  in  1725 
through  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Maria 
with  Louis  XV.,  who  initiated,  after  the  death 
of  Augustus  II.  in  1733,  a  war  for  the  Polish 
succession ;  but  Augustus  III.  retained  the 
throne  through  Russian  intervention,  although 
Stanislas  had  been  reflected  as  king.  The  lat 
ter  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Dantzic,  where  he 
was  besieged  by  a  Russian  army,  and  after  a 
bold  resistance  of  several  months  escaped  in 
June,  1734.  In  accordance  with  the  prelimi 
nary  peace  of  1735  he  resigned  his  claims 
to  the  Polish  throne,  but  retained  his  royal 
title,  recovered  his  estates,  and  received  Lor 
raine  and  Bar,  which  after  his  death  were  to 
be  united  to  France;  and  in  the  interval  he 
received  a  pension  of  2,000,000  francs  for 
relinquishing  the  revenues  of  those  duchies. 
His  brilliant  court  at  Luneville  and  Nancy 
became  celebrated  through  his  munificent  pa 
tronage  of  public  and  charitable  works,  of 
letters  and  art,  and  through  his  associations 
with  Voltaire  and  other  eminent  personages. 
Nancy  is  indebted  to  him  for  her  finest  mon 
uments,  and  he  was  styled  le  bienfaisant.  His 
death  was  caused  by  his  garments  taking  fire 
while  he  was  reading.  His  essays  on  philoso 
phy,  politics,  and  morals  have  been  printed 
under  the  title  of  (Eurres  da  pTiilosophe  l>ien- 
faisant  (4  vols.  8vo  and  4  vols.  12mo,  1765). 

STANISLAS  AIGISTIS,  king  of  Poland.  See 
PONIATOWSKI,  and  POLAXD,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  647. 

STANISLAUS,  a  central  county  of  California, 
bounded  N.  in  part  by  the  Stanislaus  river, 
and  intersected  by  the  San  Joaquin  and  Tuo- 
lumne;  area,  1,350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,41)1), 
of  whom  306  were  Chinese.  It  is  for  the  most 
part  level,  but  the  E.  portion  is  undulating, 
while  a  strip  a  few  miles  wide  on  the  W.  bor 
der  rises  into  the  Coast  range,  Avhich  here  has 
a  general  altitude  of  about  2,000  ft.  There 
is  little  timber.  The  soil  is  very  productive. 
Gold  mining  is  carried  on  to  some  extent  in 
the  E.  part."  It  is  traversed  by  the  Visalia  di 
vision  of  the  Central  Pacific  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  1,650,725  bush 
els  of  wheat,  15,700  of  Indian  corn,  632,950 
of  barley,  749,263  Ibs.  of  wool,  52,625  of  but 
ter,  and  15,191  tons  of  hay.  There  were  10,- 
137  horses,  1,139  mules  and  asses,  2,271  milch 
cows,  4,316  other  cattle,  118,460  sheep,  and 
14,593  swine.  Capital,  Modesto. 

STANRO.     See  Cos. 

STANLEY.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  bounded  E.  by  the  Yadkin  and  S.  by 
Rocky  river;  area,  about  300  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  8,315,  of  whom  1,289  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  mountainous  and  the  soil  generally 
fertile.  Gold  and  silver  have  been  found  in 
considerable  quantities.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  63,575  bushels  of  wheat,  118,788 
of  Indian  corn,  42.037  of  oats,  10.435  of  sweet 
and  5,294  of  Irish  potatoes,  12,459  Ibs.  of  to 
bacco,  8,294  of  wool,  20,164  of  honey,  and 
11,515  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 


STANLEY- 


SOT 


were  1,333  horses,  332  mules  and  asses,  1,725 
milch  cows,  2,963  other  cattle,  5,705  sheep, 
and  9,349  swine.  Capital,  Albemarle.  II.  A 
S.  TV.  county  of  Dakota,  recently  formed  and 
not  included  in  the  census  of  1870 ;  area, 
about  1,450  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  N.  E.  by 
the  Missouri  river,  and  is  intersected  by  the 
Big  Cheyenne  and  Titon  rivers,  tributaries  of 
the  Missouri.  The  surface  is  rolling. 

STANLEY,  Arthur  Penrhyn,  an  English  clergy 
man,  born  in  Alderley,  Cheshire,  Dec.  13, 
1815.  His  father  was  Dr.  Edward  Stanley 
(1779-1849),  rector  of  Alderley  for  32  years, 
bishop  of  Norwich  from  1837,  and  author  of 
"Familiar  History  of  Birds"  (2  vols.,  1835), 
&c.  The  son  was  educated  at  Rugby,  and  in 
1838  graduated  at  University  college,  Oxford, 
where  he  subsequently  resided  for  12  years  as 
tutor.  In  1851  he  was  appointed  canon  of 
Canterbury,  and  he  was  regius  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  at  Oxford  from  1856  to 
1864,  when  he  was  made  dean  of  Westminster. 
He  is  a  leader  of  the  "Broad  Church"  party. 
He  has  published  "  Life  and  Correspondence 
of  Thomas  Arnold,  D.  D."  (2  vols.  8vo,  1844), 
which  has  passed  through  numerous  editions, 
and  been  translated  into  several  foreign  lan 
guages;  "Sermons  and  Essays  on  the  Apos 
tolical  Age "  (1847) ;  "  The  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul  to  the  Corinthians,  with  Critical  Notes 
and  Dissertations"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1855  ;  4th  ed., 
1874);  "Historical  Memorials  of  Canterbury 
Cathedral "  (Svo,  1855  ;  5th  ed.,  1869) ;  "  Sinai 
and  Palestine,  in  Connection  with  their  His 
tory "  (Svo,  1856  ;  20th  ed.,  1874) ;  "Lectures 
on  the  History  of  the  Eastern  Church "  (8vo,  j 
1861)  ;  "Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Jew 
ish  Church"  (part  i.,  Abraham  to  Samuel, 
1862;  part  ii.,  Samuel  to  the  Captivity,  1865; 
part  iii.,  1S7C) ;  "The  Bible,  its  Form  and 
Substance"  (1862);  "Scripture  Portraits,  and 
other  Miscellanies  "  (1867) ;  "  Historical  Memo 
rials  of  Westminster  Abbey  "(1867;  4th  ed., 
1874) ;  "  The  Three  Irish  Churches,"  a  histori 
cal  address  (1869);  "Essays  on  Church  and 
State  "  (1870)  ;  "  The  Athanasian  Creed  " 
(1871);  and  "Lectures  on  the  History  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  "  (1872).  In  November, 
1874,  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the  univer 
sity  of  St.  Andrews. 

STMLEY,  Edward  Heiiry  Smith,  lord.  See 
DERBY,  earl. 

STANLEY,  Henry  M.,  an  American  traveller, 
born  near  Denbigh,  Wales,  in  1840.  His  ori 
ginal  name  was  John  Eowlands.  At  the  age 
of  three  he  was  sent  to  the  poorhouse  at  St. 
Asaph,  where  he  remained  till  he  was  13,  re 
ceiving  there  a  good  education.  For  a  year 
he  was  a  teacher  at  Mold,  Flintshire,  and  then 
shipped  at  Liverpool  as  a  cabin  boy  on  a  ves 
sel  bound  to  New  Orleans.  There  he  found 
employment  with  a  merchant  named  Stanley, 
who  subsequently  adopted  him  and  gave  him 
his  name.  His  benefactor  died  intestate,  and 
young  Stanley  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
enlisted  in  the  confederate  army,  was  taken 


prisoner,  volunteered  in  the  United  States 
navy,  and  subsequently  became  an  acting  en 
sign  in  the  iron-clad  Ticonderoga.  After  the 
close  of  the  war  he  travelled  in  Turkey  and 
Asia  Minor,  and  in  1866  visited  Wales.  He 
gave  a  dinner  to  the  children  in  St.  Asaph 
poorhouse,  telling  them  in  a  speech  that  what 
ever  success  he  had  attained,  or  would  attain 
in  the  future,  he  owed  to  the  education  ho  re 
ceived  there.  In  the  spring  of  1867  he  re 
turned  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1868  ac 
companied  the  British  expedition  to  Abys 
sinia  as  correspondent  of  the  "  New  York  Her 
ald."  In  1869  he  was  sent  to  Spain  in  the 
same  capacity,  and  on  Oct.  17  of  that  year  was 
commissioned  by  the  proprietor  of  the  "  Her 
ald  "  to  find  Dr.  Livingstone.  After  attending 
the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal,  he  visited  Con 
stantinople,  Palestine,  the  Crimea,  the  valley 
of  the  Euphrates,  Persia,  and  India,  and  sailed 
from  Bombay  Oct.  12,  1870.  He  arrived  at 
Zanzibar  Jan.  6,  1871,  and  set  out  for  the  in 
terior  of  Africa  on  March  21,  with  192  fol 
lowers.  He  found  Dr.  Livingstone  at  Ujiji 
on  Lake  Tanganyika,  Nov.  10,  explored  with 
him  the  northern  portion  of  the  lake,  and  be 
gan  his  return  voyage  on  March  14,  1872.  He 
arrived  in  England  late  in  July,  and  gave  an 
account  of  his  expedition  before  the  British 
association  at  Brighton,  Aug.  16.  On  Aug.  27 
the  queen  sent  him  a  gold  snuff  box  set  with 
diamonds,  and  on  Oct.  21  he  was  banqueted 
by  the  royal  geographical  society.  In  Novem 
ber  he  published  "How  I  found  Livingstone" 
(London  and  New  York).  In  1873  he  received 
the  patron's  medal  of  the  royal  geographical 
society.  After  the  death  of  Livingstone,  Mr. 
Stanley  was  commissioned  by  the  proprietors 
of  the  "New  York  Herald"  and  the  London 
"Telegraph"  to  explore  the  lake  region  of 
equatorial  Africa.  As  reported  in  his  letters 
to  those  journals,  he  left  the  coast  in  Novem 
ber,  1874,  at  the  head  of  300  men,  diverged 
from  the  usual  road  at  Upwapwa,  reached  the 
western  frontier  of  Ugongo  on  Dec.  31,  struck 
direct  across  an  almost  level  plain,  and  at  Tchi- 
wyu,  in  the  Urimi  country,  about  the  latitude 
of  Ujiji,  he  found  the  waters  flowing  north 
ward.  Thence  he  followed  the  course  of  the 
river  Shemeeyu  for  350  m.,  and  reached  Kage- 
hyi,  on  the  Victoria  N'yanza  lake,  Feb.  27, 
1875,  having  lost  194  men  by  death  and  deser 
tion.  He  launched  a  boat  conveyed  in  pieces 
from  the  coast,  and  circumnavigated  the  lake, 
assisted  by  30  canoes  lent  him  by  Mtesa,  king 
of  Uganda.  His  circumnavigation  covered 
about  1,000  m. ;  he  minutely  explored  the 
inlets,  and  found  that  the  opinion  of  Burton 
and  Livingstone,  based  on  native  reports,  that 
N'yanza  is  a  collection  of  lagoons,  is  wrong, 
and  that  Speke  and  Grant  were  right  in  de 
claring  it  to  be  one  large  lake,  .containing  many 
islands.  On  April  17  he  started  to  complete 
his  exploration  of  the  W.  side  of  the  Victoria 
N'yanza.  He  proposed  next  to  cross  the  inter 
vening  country  and  explore  the  Albert  N'yanza. 


303 


STANLEY 


STAR 


STANLEY,  Thorns,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Hertfordshire  in  1025,  died  in  London,  April 
12,  1678.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
resided  for  several  years  in  the  Middle  Tem 
ple.  He  published  "  Poems  and  Translations  " 
(1649);  "History  of  Philosophy,  containing 
the  Lives,  Opinions,  Actions,  and  Discourses 
of  the  Philosophers  of  every  Sect"  (3  vols. 
fol.,  1655-'62;  Latin  translation  by  Olearius, 
Leipsic,  1711) ;  and  an  edition  of  /Eschylus 
with  a  commentary  and  a  Latin  version  (1663  ; 
new  ed.  by  Dr.  Butler,  4  vols.  4to,  Cambridge, 
1809).  In  1814-'15  appeared  an  edition  of 
his  poems  with  a  biographical  memoir  by  Sir 
Egerton  Brydges. 

STAJVSTEAD,  a  S.  county  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
bordering  on  Vermont ;  area,  407  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  13.138,  of  whom  5,763  were  of  Eng 
lish,  3,212  of  French,  2,599  of  Irish,  1,016  of 
Scotch,  and  408  of  German  origin  or  descent. 
It  contains  Lake  Massawippi  and  a  part  of 
Lake  Memphremagog,  and  is  traversed  by  the 
Stanstead,  Shefford,  and  Chambly,  the  Massa- 
wippi  Valley,  and  the  Grand  Trunk  railways. 
Capital,  Stanstead. 

STANTON.  I.  A  X.  E.  county  of  Nebraska, 
intersected  by  Elkhorn  river ;  area,  432  sq.  in. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  636  ;  in  1875,  1,157.  The  surface 
consists  chiefly  of  rolling  prairies.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  15,640  bushels  of 
wheat,  9,255  of  Indian  corn,  6,548  of  oats, 
3,630  of  potatoes,  8,645  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
943  tons  of  hay;  value  of  live  stock,  $27,521. 
Capital,  Stanton.  II.  An  unorganized  S.  W. 
county  of  Kansas,  bordering  on  Colorado  ; 
area,  720  sq.  m.  It  is  drained  by  tributaries 
of  the  Arkansas  river.  The  surface  is  rolling. 

STANTON,  Edwin  McMastors,  an  American  states 
man,  born  in  Steuhenville,  Ohio,  Dec.  19,  1814, 
died  in  Washington,  I).  C.,  De.-.  24,  1869.  Ik- 
was  a  student  in  Kenyon  college  from  1831 
to  1833,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836,  be 
gan  practice  in  Cadiz,  Harrison  co.,  Ohio,  and 
soon  afterward  was  elected  prosecuting  attor 
ney  for  the  county.  After  acquiring  a  large 
circuit  practice  he  removed  to  Steubenvilie. 
From  1842  to  1845  he  was  reporter  of  the  de 
cisions  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state,  and 
prepared  vols.  xi.,  xii.,  and  xiii.  of  the  Ohio 
reports.  In  1845  he  successfully  defended 
Caleb  J.  McNulty,  clerk  of  the  house  of  repre 
sentatives,  tried  in  the  criminal  court  of  Wash 
ington  for  embezzlement.  In  1847  he  removed 
to  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  but  for  nine  years  after 
ward  retained  also  an  office  in  Steubenvilie. 
His  first  appearance  before  the  supreme  court 
of  the  United  States  was  as  counsel  for  Penn 
sylvania  in  the  case  of  the  state  against  the 
Wheeling  and  Belmont  bridge  company,  and 
thereafter  his  practice  in  that  court  increased 
so  much  that  in  1856  he  removed  to  Washing 
ton.  In  1858  he. went  to  California  as  counsel 
for  the  government  in  certain  land  cases,  and 
his  services  were  specially  important  in  the 
examination  of  Spanish  and  Mexican  archives 
in  their  bearing  upon  titles.  He  was  also  en 


gaged  in  several  leading  patent  cases.  In  1859 
he  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  Daniel  E.  Sickles, 
tried  for  the  murder  of  Philip  Barton  Key. 
In  December,  1860,  he  was  nominated  attorney 
general  of  the  United  States,  and  served  to  the 
close  of  President  Buchanan's  administration, 
when  he  resumed  the  practice  of  his  profession. 
In  January,  1862,  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  war.  His  labors  in  this  department  were 
indefatigable,  and  many  of  the  most  important 
and  successful  movements  of  the  war  were 
originated  by  him.  He  continued  as  secretary 
after  the  succession  of  Andrew  Johnson ;  but 
his  support  of  congressional  measures  which 
were  vetoed  and  repassed,  and  his  opposition  to 
Johnson's  plan  of  reconstruction,  led  the  presi 
dent  (from  whom  the  power  of  removal  had 
been  taken  by  the  tenure  of  office  act),  on  Aug. 
5,  1867,  to  request  his  resignation.  He  refused 
to  resign,  but  on  Aug.  12  he  gave  way  under 
protest  to  Gen.  Grant  as  secretary  ad  interim. 
On  Jan.  13,  1868,  the  senate  reinstated  him. 
On  Feb.  21  the  president  appointed  Gen.  Lo 
renzo  Thomas  secretary  of  war  ad  interim,  and 
Mr.  Stanton  refusing  to  vacate,  the  impeach 
ment  of  the  president  followed.  (See  JOHN- 
SOX,  ANDREW.)  LTpon  the  president's  acquittal, 
May  26,  Mr.  Stanton  resigned.  The  senate  in 
confirming  his  successor  adopted  a  resolution 
that  Mr.  Stanton  was  not  legally  removed,  but 
relinquished  his  office ;  and  subsequently  con 
gress  passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  him  for  the 
great  ability,  purity,  and  fidelity  with  which 
he  had  discharged  his  duties.  Although  his 
health  was  much  shattered  by  his  arduous 
labors  in  the  war  department,  his  circum 
stances  compelled  him  to  resume  the  practice 
of  the  law,  and  he  argued  several  important 
cases.  On  Dec.  20,  1869,  he  was  nominated 
by  President  Grant  as  an  associate  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  and 
was  immediately  confirmed  by  the  senate ;  but 
he  died  after  a  brief  illness  from  dropsy,  be 
fore  his  commission  was  made  out. 

STAR  (Gr.  aa-vp,  aarpov),  a  luminous  body 
beyond  the  solar  system,  not  nebulous.  The 
study  of  the  stars  includes  two  chief  divisions : 
1,  the  determination  of  the  exact  position  and 
changes  of  position  of  individual  stars  ;  2,  the 
inquiry  into  the  laws  according  to  which  the 
stars  are  distributed  throughout  space,  or  rath 
er  throughout  that  portion  of  space  within 
which,  by  means  of  the  telescope,  astronomers 
are  able  to  carry  on  their  researches.  In  the  in 
fancy  of  astronomy  the  stars  were  divided  into 
constellations,  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  conve 
nient  reference,  though  partly  also,  as  we  learn 
from  Aratus,  Manilius,  and  others,  because  of 
fanciful  ideas  connected  with  mythological 
and  astrological  superstitions.  Unfortunately, 
this  rough  and  imperfect  method  of  distribu 
ting  the  star  groups  has  continued  to  our  own 
time,  but  with  a  modification  of  the  method 
of  indicating  particular  stars.  Originally  the 
brighter  stars  received  different  names;  but 
Bayer  introduced  the  plan  of  assigning  to  the 


STAR 


309 


stars  of  each  constellation,  in  the  order  of  their 
brightness,  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alpha 
bet.  Since  his  day  cataloguers  of  stars  have 
introduced  several  new  methods,  more  or  less 
incongruous.  For  instance,  Flamsteed  num 
bered  the  stars  in  each  constellation  according 
to  their  right  ascension  in  his  time;  Piazzi 
numbered  stars  in  hours  of  right  ascension, 
the  first  in  each  hour  being  called  1,  the  next 
2,  and  so  on ;  W.  Struve  numbered  all  the  stars 
he  dealt  with  (in  forming  a  catalogue  of  double 
stars),  from  Oh.  Om.  Os.  onward,  till  the  com 
plete  circuit  of  the  sphere  had  been  made  in 
right  ascension ;  variable  stars  have  received 
the  letters  R,  S,  T,  &c.,  for  each  constellation, 
in  order  of  discovery,  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  &c., 
from  the  other  end  of  the  alphabet,  having 
been  already  employed  in  continuation  of  Bay 
er's  system  ;  and  still  other  methods  have 
been  introduced,  to  the  confusion  of  learners. 
Moreover,  the  regions  occupied  by  the  differ 
ent  constellations  have  not  been  definitely  as 
signed;  some  astronomers  include  the  new 
constellations  added  by  Bode  and  others,  while 
many  only  allow  the  constellations  of  Ptolemy, 
Hevelius,  and  Halley  (in  the  southern  hemi 
sphere)  to  appear  in  the  maps,  omitting  gen 
erally  the  constellations  Antinous,  Cerberus, 
and  Scutum  Sobieskii  from  Hevelius's  list,  and 
Robur  Carolinum  from  Halley's.  Similar  con 
fusion  exists  as  respects  the  method  of  indi 
cating  the  brightness  of  stars.  Astronomers 
agree  in  dividing  the  stars  visible  to  the  naked 
eye  into  six  orders  of  brightness  called  magni 
tudes,  from  the  first  magnitude  or  brightness 
to  the  sixth,  the  faintest  which  ordinary  eye 
sight  can  perceive  in  dark  and  clear  nights 
without  telescopic  aid;  but  for  the  fainter 
or  telescopic  stars  four  different  methods  of 
classification  have  been  employed  by  Sir  J. 
Her.schel  and  Admiral  Smyth  in  England,  and 
by  "W.  Struve  and  Argelander  on  the  continent. 
The  relation  between  the  magnitudes  of  these 
different  systems  is  indicated  in  the  followin 


haps  Argelander's  is  on  the  whole  the  best. 
Herschel's  and  Smyth's  systems  err  in  re 
quiring  that  nicer  distinctions  should  be  drawn 
among  very  faint  stars  than  ordinary  observers 
can  be  expected  to  recognize.  Struve's  sys 
tem  appears  to  err  in  the  opposite  direction, 
by  allowing  too  many  stars  to  be  included  in 
the  different  orders  of  very  faint  stars. — The 
word  u  magnitude  "  as  used  in  connection  with 
stars  refers  only  to  apparent  brightness ;  for 
the  true  magnitudes  or  volumes  of  stars  are 
unknown.  To  determine  a  star's  real  magni 
tude,  its  distance  must  be  determined  and  also 
its  apparent  diameter.  But  it  is  only  in  a  few 
instances  that  the  annual  parallax  of  a  star 
has  been  determined ;  and  not  a  single  star, 
however  highly  magnified,  shows  a  true  disk. 
Hence  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  volume 
of  any  star.  In  the  few  cases  Avhere  the  dis 
tance  has  been  determined,  it  becomes  possible 
to  infer  from  the  star's  apparent  brightness 
the  total  quantity  of  light  emitted  by  it ;  and 
if  we  assume  that  equal  portions  of  the  star's 
surface  and  of  our  sun's  emit  equal  amounts 
of  light,  we  can  compare  the  surface  of  such  a 
star  with  our  sun's  surface,  and  so  deduce  its 
diameter  and  volume;  but  the  assumption  is 
not  by  any  means  safe.  Very  few  stars  have 
a  measurable  annual  parallax.  The  following 
table  includes  all  hitherto  dealt  with  : 


Herschel. 
6-4 


8-2 
8-3 
9  •  5 
10-1 
10-4 
11-8 
11-7 
12-5 

13-; 

14-5 

15-9 


8 

8-5 

y 

9-5 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
l."> 
16 


6-3 
0-5 

6-9 

7-4 

7".) 

8'3 

8'9 

9-3 

lOM) 

Kt'4 

10-7 

10-9 

ID-!) 

10-9 


It  will  be  perceived  that  while  the  systems  of 
Sir  J.  Herschel  and  Smyth  are  nearly  enou 
alike   to   be  practically  interchangeable,    the 
systems  of  Struve  and  Argelander  are  unlike 
for  the  fainter  orders,  and  both  differ  markedly 
from  the  English  system  of  in< 
nitudes.     Unfortunately  no  system  has  been 
adopted  uniformly  by  astronomers,  or  even  by 
the  astronomers  of  any  given  nation. 


•onomers 
he  naked 
d  magni- 

rightness 

STARS. 

tr  «"-• 

Latest 
measures. 

a  Centauri  

fil  Cvgni 

t        0:976" 
6         0'34;> 
8         

OMil" 

0-55 

0-26 

Lalamle,  21  258  

lary  eye- 

Oeltzcn,  17415-0  

9 

0-25 

n*  nights 

O.  IjVI'cl-1 

1          .  .  .  '.  '.'. 

0-16 

3   fainter 

Sirius  

1        0-150 

0-27 

70  Ophinolii 

5         

0-16 

thods  of 

1  Ursa?  Majoris  

3         

0-13 

'V  iSir  fJ 

A  returns 

1         

0'13 

-i        -i 

Polaris                       

2        0-OG7 

o-ii 

land,  and 

Capella 

1         

0-05 

ontinent. 

Procyon  

1 

OT2 

of  these 
blowing  : 

Of  the  above  measures,  we  owe  the  earliest, 

that  of  61  Cygni,  to  Bessel 

but  it  will  be  per- 

Argelander. 
5'9 

ceived  that  later  measures 

differ  appreciably 

6-4 

from  his.     Henderson  gave  the  earliest  mea 

6-8 

sures  of  a  Centauri  and  Sirius,  the  corrected  es 

7-5 

8-0 

timate  for  Sirius  having  been  obtained 

by  Mr. 

8-6 

Cleveland  Abbe,  formerly  of  the  observatory 

9'0 

9-4 

of  Pulkova,  now  of  Washington  ;  most 

of  the 

9-4 

remaining  measures  are  due  to  the  labors  of 

10-0 

Kriiger  and  Peters.     When  we  observe  that 

1  0  *  h 
11-2 

only  a  Centauri  has  given 

consistent  results, 

11-8 

we  may  well  doubt  whether  as  yet  astrono 

12  '4 
13  '0 

mers  possess  instruments  competent  to  mea 

sure  small  parts  of  a  second  of  arc.     The  dis 

^sterns  of 

tance  of  this  star   corresponds  to  the 

space 

y  enough 

traversed  by  light  in  about 

3J  years,  the  dis- 

ible,    the 

tances  of  the  other  stars  being  greater  accord 

re  unlike 

ing  as  the  parallax  is  less  ;  so  that,  for  instance, 

markedly 

if  the  parallax  of  Capella  in 

the  above  list  were 

ing  mag- 

strictly  exact,  Capella  would  be  19^  times  fur 

has  been 

ther  away  than  a  Centauri,  and  light 

would 

•  even  by 

not  reach  us  from  it  in  less 

than  63^  years.    It 

n.     Per- 

would  be  a  fair  inference 

that  the  light  of 

310 


STAR 


many  telescopic  stars  reaches  us  now  only  af 
ter  the  lapse  of  many  thousands  of  years.  To 
apply  to  a  Centauri  the  method  for  inferring 
a  star's  volume,  indicated  above,  we  proceed 
as  follows:  The  star's  distance  exceeds  the 
sun's  230,000  times,  so  that  the  sun  removed 
to  that  star's  distance  would  shine  with  only 
oj.woAoo.ooo  P^  of  his  observed  lustre.  But 
it  has  been  found  by  Zollner  that  a  Centauri 
shines  with  about  TT-inro,W,Tnnr  part  of  the 
sun's  brightness.  Hence  the  star  emits  three 
times  as  much  light  as  the  sun,  or  (if  our  as 
sumption  as  to  equal  intrinsic  surface  bright 
ness  be  correct)  a  Centauri  has  a  surface  three 
times,  a  diameter  ^/3  times,  and  a  volume  3^/3 
times  (i.  e.,  more  than  five  times)  greater  than 
the  sun's.  If  we  dealt  with  Sirius  in  like  man 
ner,  we  should  deduce  a  volume  exceeding  the 
sun's  about  2,700  times  (taking  the  mean  of 
the  values  above  given  for  his  annual  paral 
lax).  But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
real  volume  of  Sirius,  though  far  exceeding  the 
sun's,  is  much  less  than  that  we  have  thus 
deduced;  whence  it  is  to  be  inferred  that  the 
larger  stars  shine  with  a  greater  intrinsic  lus 
tre  than  our  sun,  or  in  other  words  that  a 
square  mile  of  the  surface  of  a  large  star  like 
Sirius  gives  out  much  more  light  than  a  square 
mile  of  the  sun's  surface.  It  is  not  improba 
ble  that  we  may  find  hereafter  in  such  consid 
erations  the  means  of  distinguishing  between 
the  various  orders  of  real  star  magnitudes,  since 
stars  of  different  intrinsic  brightness  might  be 
expected  to  give  different  results  under  spec- 
troscopic  analysis.  We  have  shown  under 
SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS  that  such  differences  un 
questionably  exist  in  stellar  spectra;  but  as 
yet  it  has  not  been  found  possible  to  associate 
them  satisfactorily  with  difference's  in  the  sizes 
of  stars.  In  fact,  when  we  observe  that  Ca- 
pella,  though  a  star  not  only  of  the  leading 
order  of  apparent  magnitude,  but  also,  judging 
from  its  minute  annual  parallax,  one  of  the 
largest  in  real  volume,  yet  belongs  to  the  sec 
ond  spectral  class,  that  is,  the  class  of  stars  re 
sembling  our  sun,  we  can  scarcely  place  much 
reliance  on  this  method  of  discriminating  large 
from  small  stars. — Closely  connected  with  the 
question  of  the  various  orders  of  stars  is  the 
circumstance  that  many  stars  are  colored.  Of 
stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  only  the  bright 
est  show  recognizable  color,  at  least  as  so 
viewed.  Antares,  Betelgeuse,  and  Aldebaran 
are  ruddy ;  Arcturus,  Pollux,  and  Procyon  yel 
low  ;  Vega  and  Altair  bluish ;  Oapella,  Sirius, 
Canopus,  and  many  others,  brilliantly  white. 
But  among  telescopic  stars  more  marked  in 
stances  of  color  occur,  some  stars  being  blood- 
red,  garnet-colored,  rich  orange,  golden  yel 
low,  and  so  on.  It  is  noteworthy  that  few 
single  stars  show  such  colors  as  blue,  green, 
violet,  or  indigo ;  but  among  double  and  mul 
tiple  star  systems  not  only  are  these  colors 
recognized,  but  such  colors  as  lilac,  olive,  gray, 
russet,  and  so  on.  A  beautiful  feature  in  maiiy 
double  stars  remains  to  be  noticed:  it  is  often 


|  found  that  the  components  exhibit  complemen- 
|  tary  colors.  This  is  oftener  seen  among  un- 
j  equal  doubles ;  and  then  the  larger  component 
shows  a  color  from  the  red  end  of  the  spec 
trum,  as  red,  orange,  or  yellow,  while  the 
smaller  shows  the  corresponding  color  from 
the  blue  end,  as  green,  blue,  or  purple.  The 
colors  are  real,  not  merely  the  effect  of  con 
trast,  for  when  the  larger  star  is  concealed  the 
color  of  the  smaller  remains  (in  most  cases) 
unchanged.  Spectrum  analysis  shows  that  the 
colors  of  many  double  stars  are  due  to  absorp 
tive  vapors  cutting  off  certain  portions  of  the 
light. — The  existence  of  double  and  multiple 
star  systems  is  itself  remarkable,  and  the  the 
ory  of  a  real  physical  connection  between  the 
members  of  such  systems  was  long  opposed 
because  of  the  strangeness  of  a  conception 
which  in  our  own  day  has  become  familiar  to 
us.  Of  course,  many  stars  apparently  double 
are  in  reality  far  apart,  and  merely  brought 
into  accidental  association  because  both  lie 
nearly  on  the  same  visual  line.  But  not  only 
is  the  number  of  such  pairs  far  greater  than  it 
should  be  to  be  thus  explained,  but  also  many 
pairs  have  been  watched  during  long  periods, 
and  it  has  been  found  that  the  components  are 
circling  around  each  other,  or  rather  around 
their  common  centre  of  gravity.  Among  the 
most  remarkable  instances  of  this  kind  are  the 
double  star  70  Ophiuchi,  which  completes  a 
revolution  in  about  80  years ;  the  stars  of  the 
pair  f  Ursre  Majoris,  which  complete  the  cir 
cuit  around  their  common  centre  of  gravity  in 
about  60  years;  Castor,  y  Virginia,  £  Bootis, 
C  Cancri,  and  other  doubles,  which  exhibit 
equally  noteworthy  motions.  Many  catalogues 
of  double  stars  have  been  formed  by  astrono 
mers  since  Sir  W.  Uerschel  first  paid  special 
attention  to  the  work,  lie  observed  2,400; 
W.  Struve  of  Dorpat  observed  3,003 ;  Dem- 
bowski,  Secchi,  Webb,  and  others  in  Europe 
have  observed  many  double  stars,  carefully 
measuring  the  distance  between  the  compo 
nents,  the  angle  of  position,  color,  and  so  on, 
thus  forming  a  fund  of  materials  from  which 
future  astronomers  can  determine  what  changes 
are  taking  place  in  these  interesting  systems. 
Among  such  catalogues,  those  recently  formed 
by  Mr.  Burnham  of  Chicago  will  hold  a  dis 
tinguished  place  because  of  the  "difficulty"  of 
the  double  stars  he  has  observed,  arising  chief 
ly  from  the  nearness  of  the  components,  or 
from  the  smallness  of  one  or  both.  It  is  re 
markable  that  though  every  region  of  the  heav 
ens  contains  double  stars,  they  are  more  abun 
dant  by  far  in  some  regions  than  in  others; 
while  again  some  regions  of  the  heavens  con 
tain  double  stars  of  particular  orders  only  or 
chiefly.  This  leads  us  to  notice  the  circum 
stance  that  aggregations  of  stars  of  greater  and 
greater,  extent  are  recognized  as  we  extend  our 
survey  of  the  heavens.  Of  all  such  aggrega 
tions  the  most  complex  is  the  galaxy  or  milky 
!  way  (see  GALAXY),  in  which  millions  of  stars 
i  shine  with  lustre  so  blended,  and  softened  by 


STAR 


311 


distance  as  to  present  a  milky  luminosity. —  [ 
Many  stars  are  variable  in  brilliancy.     These  ! 
may  be  divided  into  periodic  variables,  irreg-  ! 
ular  variables,'  and  temporary  stars.     Periodic  i 
variable   stars   are   those  which   undergo   in-  ! 
crease  and  diminution  of  light  at  regular  in 
tervals.     Thus  the  star  Mira  or  o  Ceti  varies  j 
in  lustre,  in  a  period  of  331^  days,  from  the  ; 
second  magnitude  to  a  faintness  such  that  the  ! 
star  can  only  be  seen  with  a  powerful  tele-  ! 
scope,   and  thence  to  the  second  magnitude 
again.     It  shines  for  about  a  fortnight  as  a  | 
star  of  the  second  magnitude,   and  then  re-  ! 
mains  invisible  for  five  months,  the  decrease  j 
of  lustre  occupying  about  three  months,  the 
increase  about  seven  weeks.      "  Such,"  says 
Sir  J.  Herschel,  "  is  the  general  course  of  its 
phases.     It  does  not  always,  however,  return 
to  the  same  degree  of  brightness,  nor  increase  j 
and  diminish   by  the  same   gradations;    nei-  j 
ther  are  the  successive  intervals  of  its  maxi-  ' 
ma  equal.     From  recent  observations  and  in-  i 
quiries   into   its   history   by   Argelander,    the  ; 
mean  period  would  appear  to  be  subject  to  a  j 
cyclical  fluctuation,  embracing  88  such   peri 
ods,  and  having  the  effect  of  gradually  length 
ening  and  shortening  alternately  those  inter 
vals  to  the  extent  of  25  days  one  way  and  the 
other.      The  irregularities   in   the   degree   of 
brightness  attained  at  the  maximum  are  prob 
ably  also  periodical."     These  irregularities  are 
considerable.     Thus  between   October,    1672, 
and  December,  1676,  Mira  was  never  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  while  on  Oct.  5,   1839,   it 
was  half  a  magnitude  above  its  usual  bright 
ness,  outshining  a  Ceti  and  /3  Auriga?,  which 
usually  are  brighter  than  Mira  at  its   maxi 
mum.     It  suggests  a  probable  explanation  of 
these  changes  of  brightness,  that  when   the 
star  is   near  its  minimum  its   color   changes 
from  white  to  a  full  red,  which,  from  what 
we  know  of  the  spectra  of  colored  stars  (see 
SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS),  seems  to  indicate   that 
the  loss  of  brightness  is  due   to  the  forma 
tion  of  many  spots  over  the  surface  of  this 
distant  sun.     Algol  (or  the  Demon)  is  anoth 
er  remarkable  variable,  passing  however  much 
more   rapidly  through  all  its  changes.     It  is 
ordinarily  a  second  magnitude  star,  but  during 
about  seven  hours  in  each  period  of  69  hours 
its  lustre  first  diminishes  until  the  star  is  re 
duced  to  the  fourth  magnitude,  and  after  it  | 
has  remained  20  minutes  at  its  minimum,  its  i 
lustre  is  gradually  restored.     Thus  Algol  re-  i 
mains  a  second  magnitude  star  for  about  62  j 
hours   in  each   period    of    69   hours.      These 
changes  seem  to  correspond  to  what  might  be 
expected    if   a  large   opaque   orb   is   circling 
around  this  distant  sun  in  a  period  of  69  hours, 
transiting  its  disk  at  regular  intervals.     The 
star  fi  Lyras  has  a  full  period  of  12d.  22h.,  di 
vided  into  two  periods  of  6d.  llh.,  in  each  of 
which  the  star  has  a  maximum  brightness  of 
about  the  3|-  magnitude,  but  in  one  period  the 
minimum  is  about  the  4-J-  magnitude,  while  in 
the  other  it  is  about  the  4     manitude.     This 


peculiarity  points  to  an  opaque  orb  with  a  sat 
ellite,  the  satellite  being  occulted  by  the  pri 
mary  in  the  alternate  transits,  and  therefore 
the  total  loss  of  light  less.  The  star  6  Cephei 
varies  in  a  period  of  5d.  8h.  48m.  from  the 
fifth  to  the  3'5  magnitude,  taking  Id.  14h.  in 
passing  from  minimum  to  maximum  of  bright 
ness,  while  it  occupies  3d.  19h.  in  passing 
from  maximum  to  minimum.  Two  or  three 
hundred  variable  stars  are  already  known. 
Among  irregular  variables  the  most  remarka 
ble  is  the  star  TJ  Argus.  In  1677  Halley  cata 
logued  it  as  of  the  fourth  magnitude;  in  1751 
Lacaille  estimated  it  as  of  the  second.  Be 
tween  1811  and  1815  the  star  was  of  the  fourth 
magnitude,  and  from  1822  to  1826  of  the  sec 
ond  ;  on  Feb.  1,  1827,  it  had  increased  to  the 
first  magnitude;  it  fell  again  to  the  second 
magnitude,  and  remained  so  till  1837;  in  1838 
it  increased  in  brightness,  till  it  nearly  equalled 
a  Centauri ;  and  it  diminished  again  till  1843, 
when,  however,  it  was  still  of  the  first  magni 
tude.  In  April,  1843,  it  rapidly  increased  "  until 
it  nearly  equalled  Sirius  in  splendor."  At  pres 
ent  it  is  barely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and 
though  it  has  lately  been  slightly  increasing  in 
brightness,  it  is  still  only  of  the  sixth  magni 
tude.  The  star  a  Orionis  is  another  remarka 
bly  irregular  variable,  but  amid  all  its  changes 
it  never  descends  below  the  first  magnitude. 
— Temporary  stars  include  the  so-called  new 
stars,  as  well  as  those  which  were  formerly 
recorded  in  the  catalogues  of  astronomers,  but 
can  no  longer  be  seen,  or  have  at  least  so 
changed  in  brightness  as  not  to  be  recognized. 
The  most  remarkable  instance  of  a  new  star  is 
that  which  appeared  in  1572  and  was  observed 
by  Tycho  Brahe.  "It  suddenly  shone  forth  in 
the  constellation  Cassiopeia  with  a  splendor 
exceeding  that  of  stars  of  the  first  magnitude,  or 
even  Jupiter  and  Venus  at  their  brightest,  and 
could  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  on  the  me 
ridian  in  full  day.  Its  brilliancy  gradually  di 
minished  from  the  time  of  its  first  appearance, 
and  at  the  end  of  16  months  it  entirely  disap 
peared,  and  has  never  been  seen  since.  Du 
ring  the  whole  time  of  its  apparition,  its  place 
in  the  heavens  remained  unaltered,  and  it  had 
no  annual  parallax ;  so  that  its  distance  was 
of  the  same  order  as  that  of  the  fixed  stars. 
Its  color,  however,  underwent  considerable 
variations.  Tycho  described  it  as  having  been 
at  first  of  a  bright  white  ;  afterward  of  a  red 
dish  yellow,  like  Mars  or  Aldebaran ;  and 
lastly  of  a  leaden  white,  like  Saturn."  A 
somewhat  similar  instance  occurred  in  1604, 
when  a  first  magnitude  star  suddenly  appeared 
in  the  right  foot  of  Ophiuchus.  It  presented 
appearances  resembling  those  shown  by  the 
former,  and  disappeared  after  a  few  months. 
In  1866  a  star  appeared  in  the  Northern  Crown, 
the  observations  of  which  threw  great  light  on 
the  subject  of  so-called  new  stars.  In  the  first 
place,  it  was  found  that  where  this  new  star 
appeared  there  had  been  a  tenth  magnitude 
star ;  the  new  star  then  was  in  reality  a  star 


312 


STAR 


long  known  which  had  suddenly  acquired  new 
brilliancy.  When  first  observed  by  astrono 
mers  with  this  abnormal  lustre  it  was  shining 
as  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude.  Examined 
by  Huggins  and  Miller  with  the  spectroscope, 
its  light  revealed  a  startling  state  of  things  in 
those  remote  depths  of  space.  The  usual  stel 
lar  spectrum,  rainbow-tinted  and  crossed  by 
dark  lines,  was  seen  to  be  crossed  also  by  four 
exceedingly  bright  lines,  the  spectrum  of  glow 
ing  hydrogen.  Either  the  star  was  actually 
"in  flames"  at  the  time,  that  is,  surrounded 
by  burning  hydrogen,  or  else  some  cause  had 
raised  the  hydrogen  around  the  star  to  a  state 
of  intense  heat,  but  without  actual  combustion. 
The  greater  part  of  the  star's  light  manifestly 
came  from  this  glowing  hydrogen,  though  it 
can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  the  rest  of  the 
spectrum  was  brighter  than  before  the  out 
burst,  the  materials  of  the  star  being  raised  to 
an  intense  heat.  The  maximum  brightness  of 
the  star  exceeded  that  of  a  tenth  magnitude 
star  nearly  800  times.  After  shining  for  a  short 
time  as  a  second  magnitude  star,  T  Corona)  (as 
the  star  was  called  thenceforth)  diminished 
rapidly  in  lustre,  and  it  is  now  between  the 
ninth  and  tenth  magnitudes. — The  stars  are 
not  absolutely  at  rest,  though  many  years  pass 
before  the  motion  of  any  star  can  be  detected, 
llalley,  comparing  the  observed  places  of  Arc- 
turus,  Aldebaran,  and  Sirius  with  the  places 
assigned  by  the  Alexandrian  astronomers,  found 
reason  to  believe  that  these  three  stars  are  ap 
proaching  the  ecliptic.  This  surmise  was  con 
firmed  by  the  elder  Cassini,  who  observed  that 
Arcturns  had  shifted  southward  5'  in  latitude 
since  the  time  of  Tyclio  Brahe.  Bradley  made 
observations  to  give  means  for  detecting  stellar 
motions,  and  before  long  astronomers  began 
to  recognize  many  instances  of  measurable  mo 
tion.  In  1783  Sir  W.  Ilerschel  took  up  the 
idea  that  the  stellar  motions  are  in  part  due  to 
a  proper  motion  of  the  sun  himself.  Tobias 
Mayer  had  suggested  this  idea  in  1771,  but 
comparing .  RGmer's  observations  with  his  own 
could  find  no  evidence  in  its  favor.  Ilerschel 
was  more  successful.  From  the  motions  of 
seven  stars,  as  estimated  by  Maskelyne,  he  de 
duced  the  inference  that  the  sun  is  moving 
toward  a  point  in  the  constellation  Hercules  in 
right  ascension  257°.  From  a  more  exact  in 
quiry,  using  Mayer's  list  of  proper  motions,  he 
was  led  to  place  the  point  toward  which  the 
sun  is  moving  (or,  as  it  is  called,  the  "  apex  of 
the  solar  way  ")  near  the  star  Hercules.  In 
1805,  using  Maskelyne's  catalogue  of  the  prop 
er  motions  of  3G  stars  (published  in  1790), 'he 
set  the  apex  in  right  ascension  245°  52'  30" 
and  1ST.  declination  49°  38'.  Bessel  in  1818 
expressed  his  agreement  with  Tobias  Mayer, 
in  regarding  the  evidence  as  insufficient  for 
determining  the  direction  of  the  sun's  motion ; 
but  since  then  Madler,  Argelander,  O.  Struve, 
and  Sir  G.  B.  Airy  have  dealt  with  the  prob 
lem,  with  results  confirming  the  views  of  Sir 
W.  Ilerschel  in  a  very  remarkable  way,  con 


sidering  the  imperfect  evidence  available  in 
Herschel's  time.  Nevertheless  it  is  notewor 
thy  that,  although  the  balance  of  the  stellar 
motions  indicates  the  real  existence  of  a  proper 
motion  of  our  sun  toward  Hercules,  yet  on  any 
of  the  usually  accepted  theories  of  stellar  dis 
tribution,  the  stellar  motions  accounted  for  by 
the  sun's  motion  do  not  form  nearly  so  large 
a  proportion  of  the  observed  stellar  motions  as 
they  should  do.  The  present  writer  has  shown 
by  a  simple  geometrical  method  that  they 
should  constitute  one  half  of  the  total ;  or 
rather,  that  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  ob 
served  displacements  should  be  reduced  one 
half  on  making  the  proper  correction  for  the 
effects  due  to  the  sun's  motion.  The  real  re 
duction,  instead  of  being  one  half,  is  between 
^5-  and  T^.  This  does  not  throw  any  doubt  on 
the  fact  of  the  sun's  motion,  but  it  renders 
altogether  untenable  the  commonly  accepted 
theories  as  to  stellar  distribution. — The  mo 
tions  hitherto  mentioned  are  apparent  motions 
of  the  stars  on  the  celestial  sphere.  Motions 
of  recession  or  of  approach  would  of  course 
not  be  indicated  in  this  way  ,•  nor  would  they 
produce  any  appreciable  change  in  a  star's 
brightness.  This  is  easily  perceived  when  we 
consider  that  motions  of  recession  or  of  ap 
proach  would  be  of  the  same  average  order  as 
thwart  motions.  What  thwart  motions  may 
be  in  actual  amount  we  do  not  kno\v,  but  we 
do  know  what  proportion  they  bear  to  the 
distances  of  the  stars  they  respectively  apper 
tain  to.  Thus  if  a  star  were  displaced  10"  in 
a  year  (and  no  star  has  yet  been  observed  to 
have  so  large  a  proper  motion),  the  actual  dis 
tance  traversed  in  one  year  would  be  to  the 
star's  distance  as  sin.  10"  to  1,  or  as  20,620  to 
1.  A  corresponding  motion  of  recession  or 
approach  would  therefore  diminish  or  increase 
a  star's  brightness  in  one  year  by  TT)-^7f  part, 
and  the  brightness  would  be  diminished  or  in 
creased  only  by  TJ-o  part  in  103  years.  Such  a 
change  would  be  quite  inappreciable  even  if 
the  observation  of  irregular  variations  of  stel 
lar  brightness  did  not  prevent  us  from  placing 
any  reliance  on  apparent  changes  of  brightness 
as  indications  of  distance.  It  might  then  ap 
pear  hopeless  to  attempt  to  determine  whether 
the  stars  have  motions  of  recession  or  ap 
proach  ;  but  spectroscopic  analysis  affords  a 
means  of  dealing  with  this  problem  which  has 
been  successfully  applied  by  Huggins  and  Yo- 
gel,  and  may  hereafter  be  widely  extended. 
If  a  star  is  changing  its  distance  from  us,  light 
waves  of  any  given  order  proceeding  from  the 
star  must  reach  the  observer  with  their  length 
increased  if  the  star  is  receding,  and  decreased 
if  the  star  is  approaching.  On  comparing, 
then,  any  known  line  in  a  stellar  spectrum 
with  the  corresponding  line  in  the  spectrum  of 
the  terrestrial  element,  any  shift  of  the  line 
which  can  be  detected  will  indicate  recession 
if  toward  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum,  and 
approach  if  toward  the  indigo  end.  Applying 
this  method,  Huggins  has  recognized  motions 


STAK 


313 


of  recession  and  approach  ranging  from  10m. 
to  nearly  50  m.  a  second. — Some  of  the  stars 
have  proper  motions  in  the  same  direction  and 
at  the  same  apparent  rate.  Miidler,  noticing 
this  peculiarity  in  the  constellation  Taurus, 
was  led  to  surmise  that  the  centre  round  which 
all  the  stars  are  moving  lies  in  that  constella 
tion,  and  he  assigned  Alcyone,  the  principal 
star  of  the  Pleiades,  as  the  centre  in  question. 
Beyond  the  observed  community  of  motion  in 
Taurus  there  was  not  any  direct  evidence  for 
this  theory ;  and  this  observed  phenomenon 
was  held  by  astronomers  to  afford  but  weak 
evidence  for  a  theory  of  importance.  Yet  Mad- 
ler's  views  were  described  in  every  text  book 
of  astronomy,  in  terms  which  would  have  been 
scarcely  justified  if  there  had  been  an  over 
whelming  mass  of  evidence  in  their  favor,  and 
if  astronomers  had  been  practically  unanimous 
in  accepting  them.  In  point  of  fact,  even  the 
one  piece  of  direct  evidence  which  seemed  to 
support  Madler's  theory  is  found  on  examina 
tion  to  have  no  weight  whatever.  It  is  true 
that  if  there  is  a  centre  around  which  all  the 
stars  are  moving,  the  stars  lying  toward  that 
centre  should  exhibit  a  community  of  proper 
motions,  and  the  stars  in  Taurus  do  exhibit  the 
peculiarity  ;  but  unfortunately  for  the  theory, 
the  same  feature  exists  in  other  parts  of  the 
heavens.  A  map  constructed  by  the  present 
writer,  showing  all  the  stellar  proper  motions 
as  yet  satisfactorily  determined,  exhibits  many 
such  cases,  and  some  of  them  are  more  remark 
able  than  the  case  of  the  stars  in  Taurus.  One 
singular  instance  of  this  "star  drift"  is  ob 
served  in-  the  constellation  Ursa  Major,  in 
which  the  stars  /3,  y,  J,  e,  and  £  are  all  travel 
ling  in  the  same  direction  and  at  the  same  rate. 
As  these  are  bright  stars,  it  appeared  to  the 
writer  that  they  would  afford  an  instructive 
test  of  the  theory  of  star  drift,  if  their  motions 
of  recession  or  approach  could  be  determined. 
This  was  effected  by  Huggins  a  year  after  the 
theory  of  star  drift  had  been  enunciated,  and 
it  was  found  that,  as  the  theory  required,  the 
five  stars  had  a  common  motion  in  the  direc 
tion  of  the  line  of  sight,  and  that  they  are  all 
receding  at  the  rate  of  about  17m.  a  second 
from  the  solar  system.  The  inference  fairly 
deducible  from  this  fact,  that  these  stars  form 
a  single  system  or  family  travelling  together 
through  space,  is  interestingly  confirmed  by 
the  fact  that  all  five  belong  to  the  same  order. 
(See  SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS.) — Although  many 
speculations  were  broached  respecting  the  con 
stitution  of  the  sidereal  heavens  from  the  ear 
liest  ages  of  astronomy,  the  first  to  enter  on 
the  systematic  study  of  the  subject,  combining 
observation  with  theory,  was  Sir  "W.  Herschel. 
Mitch  el,  it  is  true,  had  theorized  carefully  and 
soundly,  but  his  labors  were  not  extended 
beyond  a  few  points  of  detail;  and  though 
"Wright  of  Durham  made  some  observations 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  structure 
of  the  milky  way,  yet  the  telescope  he  used 
(only  one  foot  in  focal  length)  was  far  too 


small  to  give  any  really  satisfactory  results. 
At  the  beginning  of  his  labors  Sir  W.  Herschel 
took  as  the  basis  of  his  conceptions  the  belief 
that  our  sun  is  a  member  of  a  system  of  suns, 
scattered  with  a  certain  general  uniformity 
throughout  a  region  of  space  having  a  defined 
figure,  possibly  determinable  if  only  a  telescope 
could  be  constructed  powerful  enough  to  reach 
the  limits  of  the  system  in  all  directions.  To 
effect  this,  he  devised  his  system  of  "  star  gau 
ging  by  counting."  It  is  clear  that  the  further 
the  sidereal  system  extends  in  any  given  direc 
tion,  the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  stars 
lying  toward  that  direction,  since  the  distribu 
tion  is  supposed  (in  a  general  sense)  uniform  ; 
and  therefore,  if  the  same  telescope,  with  un 
changed  power,  were  directed  toward  every 
part  of  the  heavens  in  turn,  then  by  counting 
the  number  of  stars  brought  into  view  in  these 
different  directions  the  relative  extension  of 
the  system  along  those  visual  lines  could  be 
determined — in  other  words,  the  shape  of  the 
star  system.  Let  it  be  noticed  that  this  plan 
of  star  gauging  required  that  one  and  the  same 
telescope  should  bo  applied  to  different  parts 
of  the  heavens ;  it  assumed  a  general  uniformi 
ty  of  distribution  within  the  limits  of  the  sys 
tem  ;  and  it  required  that  the  telescope  should 
penetrate  to  those  limits.  Recognizing  these 
points,  we  shall  not  fall  into  the  mistake  made 
by  many  (including  Arago  and  the  French 
astronomers  generally,  Smyth,  and  others,  and 
repeated  in  almost  all  the  text  books)  of  con 
founding  this  method  of  star  gauging  with  the 
method  devised  by  Sir  W.  Herschel  when  a 
long  experience  had  convinced  him  that  the 
assumptions  on  which  he  had  based  the  for 
mer  method  were  unsound.  While  he  still 
supposed  these  assumptions  sound,  however, 
he  deduced  as  the  result  of  applying  his  first 
method  the  inference  that  the  sidereal  sys 
tem  is  shaped  like  a  cloven  flat  disk.  (See 
GALAXY.)  But  gradually  his  observations 
showed  him  that  special  laws  of  aggregation 
exist  within  the  star  depths.  He  saw,  first, 
that  the  milky  way  is  not  produced  by  the 
combined  lustre  of  stars  scattered  like  those 
around  us,  but  extending  to  enormous  dis 
tances.  Next  he  perceived  that  the  stars  form 
ing  the  richer  parts  of  the  milky  way  are  not 
arrayed  along  great  ranges  in  distance,  but 
really  spread  more  richly  within  limited  and 
roughly  globular  regions.  In  the  same  paper 
(all  the  passages  we  quote  are  from  the  "Phil 
osophical  Transactions")  he  wrote  as  follows: 
"  On  a  very  slight  examination  it  will  appear 
that  this  immense  starry  aggregation  [the  milky 
way]  is  by  no  means  uniform.  .  .  .  By  refer 
ring  to  some  one  of  these  clustering  aggre 
gations  in  the  heavens,  what  will  be  said  of 
them  will  be  much  better  understood  than  if 
we  were  to  treat  of  them  in  a  general  way." 
He  selects  the  great  double  clustering  aggrega 
tions  in  Cygnus,  which  form  such  conspicuous 
star  clouds  on  clear  summer  nights.  Here,  he 
says,  "  the  stars  are  clustering  with  a  kind  of 


314: 


STAR 


division  between  them,  so  that  we  may  sup 
pose  them  to  be  clustering  toward  two  differ 
ent  regions.  By  a  computation  founded  on 
observations  which  ascertain  the  number  of 
stars  in  different  fields  of  view,  it  appears  that 
our  space  [i.  e.,  our  selected  region]  in  Cyg- 
nus,  taking  an  average  breadth  of  ab'out  five 
degrees  of  it,  contains  more  than  331,000 
stars;  and  admitting  them  to  be  clustering 
two  different  ways,  we  have  165,000  stars  for 
each  clustering  collection.  Now  the  above 
mentioned  milky  appearances  deserve  the  name 
of  clustering  collections,  as  they  are  certainly 
much  brighter  about  the  middle,  and  fainter 
near  their  undefined  borders.  .  .  .  We  may 
indeed  partly  ascribe  the  increase  both  of 
brightness  and  of  apparent  compression  to  a 
greater  depth  of  the  space  which  contains  the 
stars,  but  this  will  equally  tend  to  show  their 
clustering  condition ;  for  since  the  increase  of 
brightness  is  gradual,  the  space  containing  the 
clustering  stars  must  tend  to  a  spherical  form 
if  the  gradual  increase  of  brightness  is  to  be 
explained  by  the  situation  of  the  stars."  That 
is  to  say,  whether  we  consider  the  greater 
richness  in  the  centre  to  be  due  to  the  cluster 
ing  of  stars  toward  the  middle  of  these  aggre 
gations,  or  to  the  shape  of  the  groups  them 
selves,  or  partly  take  both  causes  of  central 
richness  into  account,  wo  are  alike  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  groups  are  roughly  spherical 
in  shape.  This  conclusion,  it  need  hardly  be 
said,  is  utterly  opposed  to  Ilerschel's  old  belief 
in  a  star  system  generally  uniform  throughout 
its  whole  extent;  for  here,  and  in  all  similar 
cases,  wo  see  rounded  clouds  of  stars  as  dis 
tinct  from  the  stars  scattered  around  us  as 
rounded  clouds  in  the  sky  are  distinct  from  a 
thin  low-lying  fog  through  which  their  shapes 
are  seen.  Accordingly,  before  long  Sir  W. 
Herschel  saw  the  necessity  of  devising  a  new 
method  of  star  gauging,  based,  not  on  the 
numerical  richness  of  star  fields,  but  on  the 
telescopic  power  necessary  to  effect  the  reso 
lution  of  the  milky  light  of  clustering  aggre 
gations  into  discrete  stars.  By  this  process 
he  hoped  to  determine  the  relative  distances 
of  star  groups.  Supposing  that  a  particular 
aggregation  began  to  be  resolved  into  discrete 
stars  with  a  certain  telescopic  power,  and  was 
entirely  resolved  when  a  certain  higher  power 
was  employed,  there  would  be  prima  facie 
evidence  as  to  the  distance  of  the  aggregation, 
if  the  stars  forming  different  aggregations  are 
similarly  distributed.  For,  given  a  group  of 
stars  of  certain  sizes  and  set  at  certain  dis 
tances  from  each  other,  it  is  clear  that  the 
further  away  the  group  is  placed,  the  higher 
will  be  the  telescopic  powers  required  (1)  to 
begin  and  (2)  to  complete  the  resolution  of 
that  group  into  separate  stars.  How  perfectly 
unlike  this  method  was,  at  once  in  principle 
and  in  practical  details,  to  the  former,  will  be 
seen  from  a  comparison  of  the  earlier  method, 
above,  with  the  following  summary  of  the 
qualities  of  the  later  method.  In  the  new 


method,  the  same  part  of  the  heavens  was  to 
be  examined  successively  with  different  tele 
scopes;  the  observer  was  not  to  count  stars, 
but  to  note  the  extent  to  which  resolution  was 
effected ;  it  was  assumed  that  th%  stars  within 
the  clustering  aggregations  were  distributed 
far  more  richly  than  elsewhere;  and  the  tele 
scope  was  required  to  effect  resolution  within 
a  particular  region  of  space,  not  to  merely  ex 
tend  vision  to  particular  distances.  It  is  mani 
fest  that  the  new  method  and  the  assumptions 
on  which  it  is  based  are  open  to  exception. 
Herschel  had  found  that  the  stars  are  not  spread 
uniformly  through  the  star  system,  as  he  had 
before  surmised ;  and  one  would  have  supposed 
that  having  thus  been  misled  by  one  assump 
tion,  he  could  not  adopt  others  differing  from 
it  in  degree  only,  not  in  kind.  Yet  his  second 
method  of  star  gauging  could  only  give  him,  as 
he  hoped,  the  means  of  "  ascertaining  a  scale 
whereby  the  extent  of  the  universe,  so  far  as 
it  is  possible  for  us  to  penetrate  into  space, 
may  be  fathomed,"  if,  first,  the  stars  were 
spread  uniformly  within  each  clustering  aggre 
gation,  and  secondly,  if  different  clustering 
aggregations  were  similarly  constituted.  For 
clearly,  if  one  and  the  same  aggregation  in 
cluded  several  orders  of  stars,  each  order  dis 
tributed  with  a  degree  of  richness  peculiar  to 
itself,  and  still  more  if  there  were  not  even 
any  law  of  distribution  for  the  several  orders, 
then  no  reliance  could  be  placed  on  the  method ; 
for  a  telescope  might  effect  resolution  with 
respect  to  some  particular  order  of  stars  within 
the  aggregation  which  would  leave  orders  of 
smaller  or  more  closely  set  stars  within  it  quite 
unresolved.  .  Xor  again  could  any  comparison 
be  instituted  between  the  distances  of  two  ag 
gregations  resolved  by  particular  telescopes, 
even  though  there  were  reason  to  believe  that 
within  each  there  was  a  general  uniformity  of 
distribution,  unless  we  were  certain  that  they 
were  alike  in  constitution.  If  the  more  remote 
of  two  aggregations  consisted  of  large  stars 
sparsely  strewn,  and  the  nearer  consisted  of 
small  stars  closely  set,  the  two  aggregations 
might  require  exactly  the  same  power  for  their 
resolution,  notwithstanding  the  difference  of 
distance.  On  the  latter  point  Herschel's  ob 
servations  by  the  new  method  could  throw 
little  light,  since  there  is  no  telescopic  means 
of  discriminating  really  large  from  really  small 
stars.  But  on  the  former  point  he  obtained  evi 
dence  which  should  have  been  decisive  against 
the  new  method  of  gauging,  or  rather  against 
the  assumptions  on  which  it  was  based.  For 
he  observed  several  clusters  which  began  to  be 
resolved  with  very  low  telescopic  powers,  but 
were  not  entirely  resolved  even  with  the  larg 
est  telescopes  and  highest  powers  Herschel  em 
ployed.  As  these  clusters  were  of  small  extent 
and  round  in  figure,  it  followed  that  if  the 
stars  were  spread  uniformly  within  them,  the 
extension  of  these  clusters  in  the  direction  of 
the  line  of  sight  must  enormously  exceed  their 
'  thwart  diameter;  in  other  words,  that  they 


STAR 


315 


were  all  of  them  shaped  like  gigantic  cylinders, 
of  length  vastly  exceeding  their  breadth.  This 
supposition  being  altogether  untenable,  it  is 
certain  that  these  clustering  aggregations  con 
tain  stars  of  many  orders  of  real  magnitude, 
distributed  according  to  various  laws  of  rich 
ness.  In  fact  the  range  of  magnitude  and  of 
richness  of  distribution  must  be  as  great  as  in 
the  case  of  the  solar  system,  from  the  giant 
bulk  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  to  the  minute  and 
(relatively)  closely  aggregated  asteroids.  And 
here  in  passing  we  may  note  that  this  legitimate 
inference  from  the  observations  of  Sir  W.  Her- 
schel  is  abundantly  confirmed  by  Sir  John  Her- 
schel's  examination  of  the  Magellanic  clouds, 
in  which  all  varieties  of  stellar  magnitude  and 
aggregation,  from  sparsely  strewn  stars  of  the 
eighth  and  ninth  magnitudes  to  a  nebulosity 
irresolvable  by  his  18-inch  mirror  (besides  all 
orders  of  nebulas),  coexist  within  limits  of 
distance  not  differing  in  proportion  more  than 
as  10  to  9.  According  to  the  assumptions 
on  which  Sir  W.  Herschel's  second  method  of 
star  gauging  was  based,  the  limits  of  distance 
to  include  such  varieties  of  stellar  distribution 
should  differ  in  proportion  more  than  as  300 
to  1.  Passing  over  the  work  of  Sir  J.  Ilerschel, 
who,  so  far  as  stellar  distribution  is  concerned, 
contented  himself  by  extending  his  father's 
first  method  of  star  gauging  to  the  southern 
heavens,  we  come  to  the  work  of  TV7.  Struve, 
whose  researches  are  distinguished  by  a  further 
extension  of  the  theory  of  non-uniformity  in 
stellar  distribution.  He,  first  of  all  astronomers 
since  Herschel's  papers  were  written,  perceived 
their  real  purport,  and  the  incorrectness  of  the 
description  given  by  Arago,  at  least  partially. 
He  does  not  seem  to  have  sufficiently  weighed 
the  significance  of  Herschel's  remarks  re 
specting  the  rounded  figures  of  many  cluster 
ing  aggregations,  and  he  quite  misunderstood 
Herschel's  observation  that  "  when  he  could  not 
resolve  rich  stellar  regions,  it  was  because  they 
were  unfathomable."  (He  appears  to  have 
read  the  word  "when,"  in  this  sentence,  as 
equivalent  to  the  German  wenn,  since  it  is  ren 
dered  by  si  in  Struve's  Etudes  d"1  astronomie 
stellaire.)  But  he  clearly  perceived  that  Her 
schel  had  given  up  as  early  as  1802,  if  not 
earlier,  the  theory  of  a  general  uniformity  of 
stellar  distribution.  Having  found,  indeed,  that 
the  stars  down  to  the  eighth  magnitude  are 
more  richly  spread  over  the  milky  way  than 
elsewhere  (whereas  if  stars  were  uniformly 
distributed  within  the  system,  these  brighter 
orders,  lying  all  far  within  even  the  nearer 
limits  of  the  galaxy,  should  appear  uniformly 
distributed  over  the  heavens),  he  at  first  sup 
posed  that  he  had  obtained  a  result  opposed  to 
the  views  of  Sir  "W".  Herschel;  but  having  re- 
examined  the  whole  series  of  Herschel's  papers, 
he  found  that  the  result  was  quite  accordant 
with  Herschel's  later  views,  and  opposed  only 
to  views  which  Herschel  had  abandoned  early 
in  his  career  as  an  observer.  But  now  Struve, 
having  thus  obtained  evidence  of  a  want  of 


uniformity  in  the  distribution  of  the  stars,  and 
having  found  that  Sir  "W.  Herschel  had  recog 
nized  an  even  wider  range  of  irregularity, 
nevertheless  proceeded  (as  Herschel  had  done, 
but  in  other  directions)  to  assume  laws  of  uni 
formity  which,  to  say  the  least,  should  have 
been  demonstrated  before  they  were  adopted 
as  the  basis  of  stellar  theories.  He  assumed 
that  stars  gather  more  richly  toward  the  medial 
plane  of  the  galaxy,  but  that  at  equal  distances 
from  that  plane  the  distribution  is  equally  rich 
(on  the  average  for  that  distance),  and  that 
stars  in  different  regions  have  equal  average 
dimensions.  He  counted  all  the  stars  down  to 
the  ninth  magnitude  in  each  hour  of  right  as 
cension  between  15°  N".  and  15°  S.  of  the  equator 
(or  rather  he  took  the  numbers  from  Weisse's 
catalogue),  and  supposed  them  gathered  on  the 
equator,  toward  each  "  hour "  of  the  equator 
its  proper  number,  spread  uniformly.  Then 
he  supposed  the  equatorial  ring  of  stars  thus 
formed  spread  over  an  equatorial  disk,  in  horary 
sectors,  and  uniformly  over  each  segment  of 
such  sectors  limited  by  radii  corresponding  to 
star  magnitudes.  Thus,  suppose  E  E7  to  be  a 
horary  arc  of  the  equator,  and  therefore  15°  in 
length,  A  ED,  B  E' C  parts  of  hour  circles, 
AB,  DO  parts  of  parallels  having  15°  1ST.  and 
S.  declination,  S  the  sun  ;  and  let  S  5,  S  c  rep- 


resent  the  greater  limit,  and  S  a,  S  d  the  lesser 
limit  of  stars  of  the  seventh  magnitude.  Then 
Struve,  having  counted  the  stars  of  all  magni 
tudes  down  to  the  ninth  in  the  space  A  B  C  D, 
conceived  them  first  distributed  uniformly  along 
the  equatorial  arc  E  E',  and  next  spread  them 
over  the  sectorial  area  S  E  E',  distributing  all 
of  the  seventh  magnitude  uniformly  over  the 
plane  surface  altcd.  Thus  he  obtained  his 
equatorial  section  of  the  galaxy ;  and  he  per 
suaded  himself  that  this  artificial  method  of 
distributing  the  stars  was  based  entirely  upon 
observation,  without  any  arbitrary  hypothesis 
whatever.  Prof.  Forbes  said  justly,  speaking 
of  Struve's  method :  "I  am  persuaded  that  the 
popular  writers  and  reviewers  who  have  given 
additional  publicity  to  the  most  striking  and 
positive  of  M.  Struve's  conclusions,  have  (very 
naturally)  done  so  on  the  strength  of  the  au 
thor's  well  deserved  reputation  as  an  observer, 
and  without  attempting  to  analyze  his  reason 
ing,  which  it  must  be  owned  is  sometimes  ob 
scure.  My  objections,"  he  proceeds,  "to  M. 
Struve's  argument  were  put  in  writing  several 
years  ago  (1850),  but  not  published  except  in 
my  lectures.  It  was  only  in  1855  that  I  saw  for 
the  first  time  a  memoir  by  Prof.  Encke  in  the 


316 


STAR 


AstronomiscJie  NacJiricliten,  vol.  xxvi.,  No.  622 
(published  in  1848),  maintaining  the  same  view 
of  the  invalidity  of  M.  Struve's  reasoning,  and 
questioning  the  hypotheses  (of  which  M.  Encke 
reckons  live)  tacitly  assumed  by  him."  The 
present  writer,  led  independently  to  the  same 
general  views  respecting  Herschel's  labors 
which  Struvo  had  formed,  and  afterward  to 
the  same  general  views  respecting  Struve's  la 
bors  which  Forbes  and  Encke  formed,  adopted 
the  following  as  the  principle  on  which  fresh 
researches  should  be  based:  That  as  regards 
the  laws  of  stellar  distribution,  the  range  of 
stellar  magnitude,  intrinsic  brilliancy,  and  so 
on,  we  must  assume  nothing,  all  assumptions 
having  been  proved  by  the  clearest  possible 
evidence 'to  be  untrustworthy.  We  must  be 
guided  by  the  facts  alone.  Nor  are  we  thus 
compelled  to  abandon  as  hopeless  the  great 
problem  of  the  star  depths.  Even  where  Her- 
schers  methods  seemed  to  fail,  they  afford  ex 
cellent  promise  of  success.  His  first  method, 
for  example,  had  to  be  abandoned,  so  far  as  his 
original  purpo.se  was  concerned,  because  he 
found  reason  to  believe  that  the  great  rich 
regions  of  the  milky  way  are  situated  like 
mighty  clouds  of  stars  in  space,  and  are  not 
mere  ranges  of  stars  extending  continuously 
from  our  o\vrn  neighborhood.  J>ut  it  was  the 
method  itself  which  taught  this,  which  in  fact 
effected  this  capital  discovery.  The  second 
method,  again,  cannot  be  interpreted  as  Iler- 
schel  hoped;  it  cannot  tell  us  how  far  off,  rel 
atively,  arc  different  star  groups.  But  this 
application  of  the  method  has  to  be  abandoned 
simply  because  the  use  of  the  method  itself  has 
taught  us  that  the  architecture  of  the  heavens 
is  far  too  complex  to  be  interpreted  in  so  sim 
ple  a  manner.  Here  then  is  another  great  dis 
covery  effected  by  a  method  of  star  gauging 
which,  so  far  as  its  original  purpose  was  con 
cerned,  has  had  to  be  rejected.  Hut  so  soon 
as  wo  recognize  these  facts,  a  method  of  re 
search  is  suggested  which  combines  the  trust 
worthy  qualities  of  both  methods,  and  is  free 
from  the  faults  of  either.  We  must  employ 
Herschel's  first  method  of  star  gauging,  count 
ing  the  stars  in  equal  fields  with  the  same  tele 
scope;  but  we  must  not  limit  ourselves  to  tho 
study  of  a  star  field  here  and  there.  The  whole 
heavens  must  be  surveyed,  and  this  not  with 
one  telescopic  power  only,  but  with  many, 
from  the  lowest  powers  to  the  highest  avail 
able.  The  results  obtained  with  each  power 
must  be  .compared  together,  after  being  care 
fully  indicated  in  suitable  charts;  a  method 
altogether  more  satisfactory  than  any  pro 
cesses  of  statistical  enumeration.  Differential 
charts,  showing  by  how  much  each  increase  of 
power  increases  in  each  region  the  number  of 
stars  brought  into  view,  ought  also  to  be  con 
structed.  No  preconceived  opinions  should  be 
suffered  to  mar  tho  teachings  thus  obtained ; 
but  the  architecture  of  the  heavens  must  be 
viewed  precisely  as  it  is  presented  to  us  by 
these  results.  Principles  of  interpretation, 


however,  may  legitimately  be  applied  to  the 
evidence,  so  long  as  they  are  founded  on  just 
considerations.  It  appears  to  the  writer  that 
the  following  principles  are  not  open  to  ques 
tion  in  this  respect:  1.  Where  two  surveys 
made  with  different  telescopic  powers  indicate 
concordant  laws  of  distribution  over  the  heav 
ens,  tho  rich  regions  thus  indicated  are  regions 
where  the  orders  of  objects  dealt  with  by  the 
two  telescopes  are  intermingled.  2.  Where 
instead  of  such  accordance  a  law  of  contrast 
is  indicated,  regions  rich  in  one  order  of  ob 
jects  being  poor  in  another  and  vice  versa,  the 
two  orders  still  belong  to  one  system,  but  some 
peculiarity  in  the  laws  according  to  which  they 
were  formed  causes  them  to  occupy  different 
parts  of  the  system,  segregating  as  it  were 
from  each  other.  3.  Where  no  connection 
whatever  either  of  agreement  or  contrast  can 
be  recognized,  it  is  probable,  and  in  general 
presumable,  that  the  two  orders  are  altogether 
distinct  and  lie  at  different  distances  from  each 
other.  4.  Where  partial  or  local  agreement 
or  contrast  is  indicated,  the  inference  is  that 
the  true  arrangement  of  tho  objects  in  space  is 
affected  both  by  laws  of  aggregation  or  segre 
gation  and  by  diversities  of  distance,  and  by 
one  cause  or  the  other  to  a  degree  correspond 
ing  to  tho  extent  of  such  agreement  or  con 
trast.  What  is  here  said  of  objects  brought 
into  view  by  different  telescopic  powers  is  true 
of  different  orders  of  objects,  as  nebula),  dou 
ble  stars,  colored  stars,  variables,  and  so  on. 
These  principles  have  been  applied  by  the 
writer  already  to  stars  visible  to  the  naked 
eye  in  both  hemispheres,  to  stars  down  to  the 
tenth  magnitude  of  Argelander  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  only,  and  to  the  known  nebula? 
(5,500  in  number)  in  both  hemispheres.  As 
an  illustration  of  the  fertility  of  the  process, 
the  following  results  may  be  indicated :  First, 
tho  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  are  not  dis 
tributed  uniformly  through  surrounding  space, 
but  are  gathered  markedly  in  two  rich  regions, 
one  northern,  the  other  (larger)  southern,  and 
are  particularly  rich  in  tho  region  of  the 
milky  way ;  but  the  leading  orders  of  these 
stars  are  gathered  zonewise  in  a  region  some 
what  inclined  to  the  milky  way;  a  circum 
stance  first  noted  by  Sir  J.  Ilerschel,  but  inde 
pendently  by  the  present  writer  and  also  by 
Prof.  B.  A.  Gould.  The  northern  stars,  down 
to  the  tenth  magnitude  inclusive,  are  gathered 
in  the  most  marked  manner  in  the  galactic 
zone,  not  increasing  gradually  in  richness  of 
distribution  as  they  approach  it,  but  being 
gathered  richly  in  the  nodules,  clustering  ag 
gregations,  streams,  and  whorls  of  stars  of 
which  the  galaxy  consists.  This  circumstance 
proves  that  the  milky  way  is  not  only  appar 
ently  but  really  so  formed  ;  and  since  ITer- 
schel's  gauges  show  that  wherever  the  milky 
way  appears  bright  to  the  naked  eye,  there 
the  fainter  orders  of  stars,  down  to  the  least 
brought  into  view  by  his  great  telescope,  are 
most  richly  strewn,  it  follows  that  these  fainter 


STAR 


STARCH 


317 


orders  and  the  brighter  stars  of  the  first  ten 
magnitudes  are  really  intermingled  in  space, 
whence  the  fainter  must  be  very  much  smaller 
than  the  brighter  in  these  regions ;  though  of 
course  this  does  not  prevent  us  from  believing 
that  a  certain  proportion  of  the  fainter  stars 
are  really  far  more  remote  than  the  brighter 
stars.  The  nebula?  are  found  to  be  strewn  in 
such  a  way  that  the  second  of  the  above  laws 
is  directly  applicable  to  the  relation  between 
them  and  the  fixed  stars.  For  along  the  zone 
of  the  milky  way  few  nebulas  are  found,  and 
those  belonging  only  to  two  orders,  the  irregu 
lar  (gaseous)  nebulas  and  star  clusters.  The 
further  we  proceed  from  the  galactic  zone,  the 
more  richly  do  we  find  the  nebulas  scattered. 
This  relation  was  first  noticed  by  Sir  W.  Her- 
schel,  but  not  thoroughly  established  until  Sir 
J.  Herschel  had  completed  the  survey  of  the 
southern  heavens.  Mr.  Cleveland  Abbe  made 
a  more  exact  analysis,  in  which  he  dealt  with 
all  the  nebulas  in  Sir  J.  Herschel's  latest  list, 
classifying  them  according  to  their  resolvability, 
and  showing  that  the  density  of  nebular  dis 
tribution  increased  with  the  distance  from  the 
galactic  zone  for  the  irresolvable  nebulas,  but 
diminished  with  that  distance  for  the  clusters. 
These  researches  were  statistical.  The  present 
writer  has  employed  Mr.  Abbe's  tables  in  the 
construction  of  an  equal  surface  chart  of  the 
nebulas,  showing  the  law  of  their  distribution 
to  the  eye.  It  is  thus  seen  that  there  is  not  a 
gradual  condensation  of  nebulas  toward  two 
opposite  regions,  near  the  poles  of  the  galactic 
zone,  but  that  the  nebulas  are  gathered  into 
streams,  nodules,  and  irregular  aggregations 
such  as  we  find  in  the  grouping  of  stars.  We 
,  have  said  that  law  2  characterizes  the  relation 
between  stars  and  nebulas ;  in  other  words,  that 
their  arrangement  follows  the  law  of  contrast. 
There  are  two  remarkable  exceptions  to  this 
law,  the  Magellanic  clouds.  In  these,  where 
stars  of  all  orders,  from  the  ninth  magnitude 
to  irresolvable  stellar  aggregations,  are  as  richly 
gathered  as  on  the  galactic  zone,  nebulas  of  all 
orders  are  also  gathered  richly,  even  more  so 
than  anywhere  else  over  the  whole  heavens. — 
It  will  be  evident  from  what  has  here  been 
shown,  that  the  sidereal  system  is  not  the  sim 
ple  scheme  imagined  by  the  earlier  astronomers 
and  still  described  in  most  of  the  text  books  of 
astronomy.  No  law  of  uniformity  of  distribu 
tion  can  now  be  accepted,  for  one  law  after 
another  has  been  disproved  by  the  clearest 
possible  evidence.  Accidental  numerical  cor 
respondences,  found  in  the  distribution  of  stars 
of  various  orders  spread  over  large  regions, 
cannot  be  admitted  as  evidence  of  uniform 
distribution  of  stars  throughout  surrounding 
space,  or  of  any  law  of  uniform  condensation, 
when  we  find  on  analysis  that  these  relations 
have  to  be  otherwise  interpreted.  We  know, 
for  example,  that  the  excess  of  stars  of  the 
fainter  orders  is  not  brought  about  by  the 
mere  extension  of  telescopic  range,  as  Struve 
and  Littrow  have  surmised,  but  has  to  be  partly 


explained  by  the  actually  observed  gathering 
of  such  stars  in  certain  streams,  clouds,  sprays, 
and  nodules  of  milky  light.  We  must  not 
allow  any  statistical  rules  (arbitrarily  laid  down 
in  the  first  instance)  to  blind  us  to  the  facts 
thus  disclosed.  The  future  study  of  the  sidereal 
system  must  in  fine  be  based  more  exclusively 
on  observation  than  heretofore ;  though  even 
more  laborious  processes  of  deductive  reason 
ing  will  have  to  be  applied,  since  this,  like  all 
the  greater  problems  of  science,  lies  far  be 
yond  the  range  of  the  purely  inductive  method. 
STARCH  (also  called  amylaceous  matter  and 
fecula),  a  proximate  vegetable  principle  exist 
ing  at  certain  periods  of  vegetable  life  in  every 
plant  that  has  been  examined  for  it.  It  occurs 
especially  in  the  seeds  of  cereals  and  other 
plants,  in  the  tubers  of  potatoes,  in  tap  roots, 
such  as  carrots  and  parsnips,  in  the  pith  of 
stems,  as  the  sago  palm,  and  sometimes  in  the 
bark.  It  is  white,  glistening,  and  pulverulent, 
composed  of  microscopic  spheroids  or  gran 
ules  of  a  firm  consistency,  varying  according 
to  their  origin  from  ^fa  to  FoVo  °f  an  mcn  m 
diameter,  and  contained  in  the  cells  of  the  cel 
lular  tissue  of  the  plant,  several  being  enclosed 
in  one  cell.  (See  fig.  1.)  According  to  Pay  en, 
starch  is  found  only  when  the  nutriment  is  in 
excess,  being  consumed  at  the  later  stage  of 
the  vegetative  process,  when  the  nutriment 
becomes  deficient.  The  young  granules  are 
exceedingly  small,  spherical,  and  homogeneous ; 
but  in  developing  they  become  ovoid,  lenticu 
lar,  or  polygonal.  They  have  a  characteristic 


FIG.  1.— Bean  Starch  lying1  in 
Cellular  Tissue,  magnified 
200  diameters. 


FIG.  2.— Starch  Granules  of 
tout  lea  mois,  magnified 
150  diameters. 


form  and  structure,  being  composed  of  a  series 
of  layers  presenting  the  appearance  of  con 
centric  markings,  which,  in  connection  with 
the  size,  are  characteristic  of  the  plant  to  which 
they  belong.  Each  granule  is  marked  by  a 
peculiar  spot  called  the  Jiilum,  at  which  point 
it  is  attached  to  the  cell  wall  in  its  early  state. 
When  viewed  by  polarized  light,  each  granule 
is  seen  to  be  marked  by  a  dark  cross  having 
its  point  of  intersection  at  the  hilum,  as  in 
fig.  2,  representing  the  granules  of  tons  les 
mois,  a  starch  obtained  from  the  tubers  of  the 
canna  edulis,  a  plant  belonging  to  the  order 
marantacece,  which  includes  also  the  maranta 
arundinacea  or  West  India  arrow  root,  fig.  3. 
When  a  plate  of  mica  or  selenite  is  interposed, 
to  produce  interference  of  light,  the  cross  be 
comes  gorgeously  colored.  (See  LIGHT,  vol. 


318 


STARCH 


x.,  p.  448.)  The  size  of  the  granules  in  each 
plant  is  not  uniform,  but  there  is  an  average 
which  is  generally  not  much  departed  from, 
although  sometimes,  as  in  the  potato,  the  dif- 


Brazilian  Arrowroot,  mag 
nified  '225  diameters. 


FKJ.  8. — Starch  Granules  of 
JIaranta     a 
or  West  India  Arrowroot, 
magnified  200  diameters. 

ference  is  great  (see  fig.  5),  but  then  it  is 
characteristic.  It  is  now  believed  that  each 
granule  consists  of  two  substances  intimately 
mingled,  which  are  alike  in  chemical  composi 
tion,  having  the  same  proportion  of  elements 
as  the  cellulose  (C6IIioO5)  which  forms  the 
cellular  structure  of  plants.  These  two  sub 
stances  are  called  granulose  and  cellulose,  the 
former  being  soluble,  the  latter  insoluble  in 
boiling  water.  Starch  is  insoluble  in  cold  wa 
ter,  and  in  alcohol  and  other  liquids  which 
do  not  decompose  it;  but  when  treated  with 
about  20  parts  of  boiling  water  its  granules 
swell,  become  gelatinous,  and  fuse  into  a  thick 
opaline  liquid  ;  this  on  cooling  solidifies  into  a 
homogeneous  paste,  or  hydrated  starch,  which 
when  dried  becomes  a  hard  horny  substance 
like  gum.  If  the  starch  is  treated  with  H>0 
or  150  parts  of  boiling  water,  it  forms  an  opa 
line  liquid,  which  does  not  gelatinize,  but  on 
standing  allows  the  cellulose  constituent  to 
form  a  turbid  deposit,  while  the  granulose,  or 
soluble  starch,  remains  in  the  transparent  so 
lution.  Starch  may  be  converted  into  dextrine 
and  grape  sugar  by  the  action  of  diastase,  or  by 
boiling  in  a  dilute  acid.  (See  DEXTKIXE,  DIAS 
TASE,  and  FERMENTATION.)  It  may  be  readily 
distinguished  in  the  laboratory  by  the  deep 
indigo-blue  compound  which  it  forms  with 
iodine.  The  test  is  one  of  exceeding  delicacy, 
but  the  iodine  must  be  in  a  free  state,  for  if  it 
is  combined  with  almost  any  other  substance 
the  affinity  of  the  starch  is  not  sufficient  to 
abstract  it.  Starch  may  be  obtained  by  rasp 
ing,  bruising,  or  grinding  the  vegetable*  struc 
ture  to  pulp,  and  washing  the  mass  upon  a 
sieve,  which  retains  the  torn  cellular  tissue,  or 
the  gluten,  while  the  starch  passes  through 
with  the  dissolved  sugar  and  is  precipitated, 
when  it  may  be  collected  by  decantation  or 
elutriation,  and  washed  and 'dried.  The  fol 
lowing  table  shows  the  percentage  of  starch 
in  various  kinds  of  food,  according  to  Payen : 

Wheat... 

Eye 

Oats  . . 

Barley \\\ 

Indian  corn 

Rice  . . . 


The  size  and  appearance  of  the  Several  differ 
ent  kinds  of  starch  granules  when  examined 
by  the  microscope  are  given  in  the  engravings. 
— Starch  is  extracted  from  grain  by  two  prin 
cipal  processes,  the  old  or  fermenting,  and  the 
new  or  non-fermenting  process.  In  employing 
the  fermenting  process  the  grain  is  steeped  in 
water  till  it  becomes  soft  enough  to  mash  easily 
between  the  fingers.  It  is  then  passed  through 
a  malt  mill  or  between  rollers,  and  again  mixed 
with  water.  Fermentation  sets  in,  and  lactic 
and  acetic  acids  are  formed,  which  disintegrate 
the  cellular  structure  and  liberate  the  starch 
granules.  These  are  collected  by  repeated 
washings  and  precipitations,  the  process  being 
continued  for  several  days.  The  gluten  under 
goes  putrefaction,  emitting  a  most  noisome 
odor.  The  sugar  and  a  portion  of  the  starch 
are  converted  into  alcohol,  and  a  part  of  this 
into  lactic  and  acetic  acids,  which  dissolve  the 
gluten  that  has  escaped  putrefaction.  Thor 
ough  washing  and  draining  remove  the  soluble 
matters,  and  the  starch  left  behind  is  next  dried 
in  blocks  about  G  in.  square  ;  as  the  water  es 
capes  from  them,  the  masses  break  up  into  the 
columnar  fragments  peculiar  to  starch.  The 
other  method,  introduced  by  M.  £mile  Martin 


Fir;.  5.— Potato  Starch, 
magnified'  225  diameters. 


Fie.  f>.— Kiee  Starcli. 
magnified  800  diameters. 


64 -65 

60-59 
66-43 

»M  '  -V) 

.  SvG5 


Potatoes 20-00 

Sweet  potatoes 16 -05 

Peas 37-30 

Beans 33-00 

Flaxseed 23-40 

Cacao 11  '00 


of  Yervins,  France,  consists  in  kneading  the 
llour  into  dough  with, water,  and  then  washing 
on  a  sieve  of  No.  120  wire  in  a  stream  of  wa 
ter,  as  long  as  the  water  passes  through  milky. 
The  starch  in  suspension  and  the  sugary  por 
tion  in  solution  are  caught  below  the  sieve,  and 
the  gluten  nearly  all  remains  behind  in  a  sticky 
mass.  "What  passes  through  is  left  to  ferment 
24  hours  in  an  oven  at  08°  F.,  and  a  little  leaven 
is  added,  or  the  skimmings  of  a  former  oper 
ation,  to  hasten  the  process.  The  portion  of 
gluten  carried  through  with  the  starch  is  thus 
separated  and  removed  by  skimming.  The 
starch  is  then  treated  like  that  otherwise  ob 
tained.  The  product  by  this  method  is  about 
50  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  flour,  while 
by  the  other  process  it  is  only  from  35  to  40 
per  cent.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  gluten  also 
is  saved  in  a  condition  suitable  for  food,  either 
by  mixing  it  with  flour  and  making  of  it  maca 
roni  and  similar  pastes,  or  with  boiled  potatoes, 
and  thus  making  a  cheap  and  nutritious  bread, 
by  adding  to  the  potatoes  a  nutritive  element 
in  whicli  they  are  deficient.  Potato  starch  is 
made  from  rasped  or  grated  potatoes,  by  a 
process  similar  to  that  just  described.  This 


STARCH 


STAR   CHAMBER 


319 


variety  does  not  assume  the  columnar  form  in 
drying,  and  is  also  peculiar  in  retaining  a  large 
amount  of  moisture,  generally  20  per  cent.,  or 
when  saturated  23  per  cent. — Rice  is  treated 
by  a  process  patented  in  1840  by  Orlando 


Fm.  7.— Wheat  Starch, 
magnified  225  diameters. 


FIG.  8.— Corn  Starch, 
magnified  400  diameters. 


Jones,  which  is  also  quite  as  applicable  to  the 
other  grains.  It  is  macerated  in  a  weak  alka 
line  solution,  a  gallon  of  water  to  every  2  Ibs. 
of  rice,  and  about  200  grains  of  caustic  soda 
or  potash  to  the  gallon,  which  dissolves  the 
gluten  but  leaves  the  starch.  After  standing 
about  24  hours,  the  alkaline  liquid  is  drawn 
off,  and  the  rice  after  being  well  washed  is 
drained,  and  is  then  ground  into  flour.  A 
fresh  quantity  of  lye  is  added  to  it,  and  it  is 
again  digested  for  24  hours,  with  frequent  stir 
ring.  It  is  now  left  for  70  hours,  in  which 
time  the  dissolved  gluten  rises  and  is  all  found 
in  a  turbid,  yellowish  stratum  at  the  top. 
This  portion  is  carefully  drawn  off,  leaving 
the  fibrous  portion  of  the  grain  at  the  bottom 
intermixed  and  covered  with  starch.  The  de 
posit  is  then  stirred  up  and  washed  with  abun 
dance  of  cold  water,  and  the  mixture  being 
left  to  repose,  the  fibrous  portion  is  deposited 
with  very  little  starch,  and  the  remainder  is 
drawn  off  by  a  siphon  through  a  fine  sieve  into 
a  cistern,  when  it  is  further  washed  and  pu 
rified.  The  gluten  is  recovered  by  neutralizing 
its  solution  with  sulphuric  acid,  by  which  means 
it  is  precipitated.  The  water  is  then  drawn 
off  and  the  gluten  collected,  dried,  ground, 
and  mixed  with  other  flour.  A  patent  was 
granted  to  James  Colman  of  England  in  1842 
for  making  starch  from  maize  and  other  grains 
by  a  process  similar  to  that  of  Jones ;  but  an 
application  for  a  renewal  of  the  patent  of  the 
latter  in  1854  was  refused  because  a  similar 
one  had  been  granted  to  Thomas  Wickham  in 
1824.  The  manufacture  of  starch  from  Indian 
corn  by  an  alkaline  process  was  introduced  in 
this  country  by  Thomas  Kingsford  in  1842-'3, 
while  foreman  in  the  starch  factory  of  William 
Colgate  and  co.,  in  New  Jersey.  The  two 
largest  starch  manufactories  in  the  world  are 
in  the  United  States:  one  at  Oswego,  N".  Y., 
established  in  1848  by  Thomas  Kingsford  and 
son,  producing  21,500,000  Ibs.  annually;  the 
other  at  Glen  Cove,  Long  Island,  established 
in  1858  by  Jthe  Messrs.  Duryea,  and  producing 
19,000,000  Ibs.  annually.  Their  products,  both 
laundry  and  edible  corn  starch,  are  largely  sent 
YOL.  xv. — 21 


to  European  and  other  foreign  markets,  and 
have  taken  the  first  prizes  at  international  in 
dustrial  exhibitions.  Each  establishment  em 
ploys  its  own  processes,  and  the  recovery  of 
the  gluten  is  not  practised,  but  this,  with  other 
parts  of  the  grain  separated  from  the  starch,  is 
sold  as  food  for  domestic  animals. — The  part 
taken  by  starch  as  a  constituent  of  food  is  the 
most  important  of  its  numerous  uses,  being  the 
principal  element  in  the  food  of  graminivorous 
and  herbivorous  animals,  and  an  important  one 
in  that  of  man.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  dextrine  or  British  gum,  for  stiffening  linen 
and  cotton  goods,  and  for  making  size  for  paper 
and  various  other  articles.  It  is  employed  in 
medicine  for  diluting  and  otherwise  modifying 
the  form  of  various  articles  of  the  materia 
medica;  in  surgery  for  preparing  splints  and 
bandages ;  and  in  the  chemical  laboratory  for 
the  detection  of  iodine. — Animal  starch,  called 
glycogen  because  it  has  the  property  of  being 
transformed  into  glucose  or  starch  sugar,  exists 
in  the  livers  of  all  healthy  vertebrate  animals, 
and  in  some  of  the  tissues  of  other  animals. 
It  resembles  vegetable  starch,  but  yields  a  vio 
let  red  instead  of  a  violet  blue  color  with  iodine. 
(See  LIVER.) 

STAR  CHAMBER,  Court  of  the  (curia  camera 
stellatce,  so  called  from  the  gilded  stars  on  the 
ceiling  of  the  old  council  chamber  of  the  pal 
ace  of  Westminster,  in  wrhich  it  sat),  a  tribunal 
famous  in  the  political  history  of  England, 
and  mentioned  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.  It  appears  to  have  been  then,  and  for 
upward  of  a  century  and  a  half  afterward, 
identical  with  the  ancient  concilium  regis,  or 
king's  ordinary  council,  which  alone  exercised 
jurisdiction,  the  concilium  secretum,  or  privy 
council,  being  a  deliberative  body ;  and  at  the 
accession  of  Henry  VII.  its  powers  had  become 
so  greatly  abridged  by  restraining  statutes  as 
to  render  it  almost  inoperative  as  a  court  of 
justice.  The  statute  of  3  Henry  VII.  (1488) 
placed  the  jurisdiction  on  a  permanent  basis 
by  establishing  a  court  composed  of  three  high 
officers  of  state,  to  whom  a  fourth  was  subse 
quently  added,  a  bishop  and  temporal  lord  of 
the  council,  and  two  justices  of  the  courts  of 
Westminster,  which  took  cognizance  of  riots, 
perjury,  the  misbehavior  of  sheriffs,  and  other 
offences  against  the  administration  of  justice, 
without  the  assistance  of  a  jury.  This  tribu 
nal  was  distinct  from  the  council  itself,  of 
which  it  may  be  considered  a  committee  hav 
ing  delegated  powers.  It  received  an  augmen 
tation  of  its  powers  by  act  of  31  Henry  VIII. ; 
but  during  the  minority  of  Edward  VI.  it  was 
merged  in  the  general  body  of  the  council, 
which  thenceforth,  as  in  earlier  times,  con 
stituted  the  real  court  of  the  star  chamber. 
The  latter  continued  under  the  Tudors  and 
their  successors,  in  spite  of  numerous  restrain 
ing  statutes,  to  exercise  a  jurisdiction,  par 
ticularly  in  criminal  matters,  unauthorized  by 
the  act  of  Henry  VII.  erecting  a  new  court, 
and  which  gradually  rendered  it  one  of  the 


320 


STAR  FISH 


most  odious  instruments  in  overthrowing  the 
liberties  of  the  people.  Every  misdemeanor, 
and  especially  those  of  public  importance  for 
which  the  law  had  provided  no  sufficient  pun 
ishment,  seems  to  have  come  within  the  scope 
of  its  inquiry.  Among  these  were  corruption, 
breach  of  trust,  and  malfeasance  in  public 
affairs,  attempts  to  commit  felony,  or  breach 
of  proclamations ;  and  to  such  an  extent  was 
its  authority  stretched  under  the  Stuarts,  that, 
according  to  Clarendon,  "any  disrespect  to 
any  acts  of  state,  or  to  the  persons  of  states 
men,  was  in  no  time  more  penal,  and  the  foun 
dations  of  right  never  more  in  danger  to  be 
destroyed."  The  mode  of  process  was  gen 
erally  by  information  filed  at  the  suit  of  the 
attorney  general,  or,  in  certain  cases,  of  a  pri 
vate  relator,  and  in  other  respects  resembled 
that  familiar  to  the  court  of  chancery.  Although 
the  court  was  held  incompetent  to  pronounce 
sentence  of  death,  fines,  imprisonment,  the 
pillory,  whipping,  branding,  and  various  spe 
cies  of  maiming  were  freely  resorted  to.  After 
flourishing  with  constantly  increasing  power 
•for  upward  of  a  century,  as  thus  constituted, 
the  court  of  the  star  chamber  was  finally  abol 
ished  by  act  of  parliament  in  1041. 

STAR  FISH,  the  popular  name  of  the  radiated 
animals  of  the  class  of  echinoderms  and  the 
order  asterioids,  well  exemplified  by  the  com 
mon  species  of  the  New  England  coasts,  the 
five-fingered  Jack  of  the  sailors.  The  quinary 
arrangement  prevails  to  a  remarkable  extent 
in  the  star  fishes.  The  body  is  depressed,  and 
divided  into  rays  like  a  star ;  the  upper  surface 
is  studded  with  rough  knobs,  varying  in  color 
with  the  species,  but  generally  reddish  or  yel 
lowish,  between  which  are  the  openings  of 
many  very  minute  tubes  for  the  passage  of  wa 
ter  in  and  out  of  the  body ;  the  skin  is  coria 
ceous,  and  contains  the  above  named  corpus 
cles,  beneath  which  is  a  cutaneous  skeleton  of 
porous  calcareous  pieces,  movably  articulated, 
and  extending  on  the  lower  surface  from  the 
mouth  in  the  centre  to  the  end  of  the  rays.  In 
the  lacunte  between  these  pieces  are  the  am- 
bulacral  pores,  along  the  centre  of  the  lower 
surface  of  each  ray,  through  which  are  pro 
truded  the  ambulacral  tubes;  these  are  the 
principal  organs  of  locomotion,  are  arranged 
in  a  double  or  quadrangular  row,  and  are  pro 
vided  with  contractile  sacs  or  vesicles  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  envelope ;  the  tubes  are 
constantly  in  motion,  each  ending  in  a  sucto 
rial  disk,  and  pull  the  animal  along  as  by  the 
successive  action  of  so  many  little  anchors. 
On  the  external  edges  of  the  rays  are  series  of 
stiff  spines,  probably  serving  for  protection, 
and  at  the  end  of  each  ray  is  a  small  reddish 
eye  speck;  there  are  also  scattered  over  the 
upper  surface  small  processes  ending  in  cal 
careous  hooks  or  pincers.  The  mouth  opens 
into  the  stomachal  cavity,  from  which  branch 
ing  cffical  tubes  extend  to  the  extremity  of 
each  arm ;  they  have  no  long  tentacles  like  the 
sea  anemone  (actinia),  but  the  stomach  can  be 


everted  over  their  food  and  then  be  turned 
back  again;  the  mouth  is  very  dilatable,  and 
will  admit  large  mollusks  with  the  shell,  the 
hard  parts  being  ejected  after  the  soft  portions 
are  digested.  There  is  great  variety  in  the 
spreading,  division,  and  subdivision  of  the 
arms,  and  in  the  relative  size  of  the  central 
disk,  but  all  are  arranged  after  the  radiated 
plan ;  the  rays  can  be  bent  in  any  direction, 
according  to  the  will  of  the  animal,  by  the 
contractile  skin  and  muscles.  The  slender 
ophiurans  progress  by  the  undulatory  move 
ments  of  the  rays,  which,  when  very  slender, 
long,  and  branching,  have  no  eyes  at  the  tips ; 
there  is  generally  no  anal  aperture,  and  if  any 
it  is  on  the  dorsal  surface.  By  the  action  of 
cilia  water  flows  through  the  body,  through 
the  aquiferous  system,  distending  arid  pro 
truding  the  ambulacral  feet,  filling  the  circular 
vessel  around  the  mouth,  and  serving  for  res 
piration,  which,  according  to  Siebold,  is  per 
formed  partly  by  the  vesicular  appendages 
attached  to  the  central  ring ;  all  the  viscera  are 
bathed  in  water,  and  respiration  is  also  effect 
ed  through  the  delicate  blood  vessels  there 
on  distributed.  The  vascular  system  is  very 
simple;  the  nervous  ganglia  are  five,  arranged 
around  the  mouth,  each  sending  filaments  to 
the  arm  at  whose  base  it  lies;  the  sense  of 
touch  is  very  acute.  According  to  Sars,  Steen- 
strup,  and  Liitken,  there  is  not  only  in  this 
class  a  great  power  of  regeneration  of  lost 
parts,  but  a  spontaneous  division  of  the  disk 
itself,  with  regeneration  of  the  necessary  por 
tions,  several  times  repeated  up  to  a  certain 
age,  for  the  multiplication  of  the  individual. 
While  this  may  sometimes  be  a  simple  divi 
sion,  in  many  it  is  the  normal  mode  of  multi 
plication  instead  of  gemmation.  Tins  form  of 
agamic  multiplication  in  ophiuroids  and  aste- 
rioids  has  been  called  schizogeny.  On  the 
upper  surface,  to  one  side  of  the  centre  and 
between  two  of  the  arms,  is  a  round  bright- 
colored  spot,  the  madreporic  plate  or  body, 
communicating  with  a  canal  leading  to  the 
water  vessel  around  the  mouth — a  supposed 
filter  for  water  passing  into  the  aquiferous 
system  and  through  the  body.  They  propa 
gate  usually  by  eggs,  and  the  sexes  are  in  sep 
arate  individuals ;  the  larvffl  are  at  first  oval, 
ciliated  bodies,  from  which  the  radiated  perfect 
animal  is  developed,  at  various  stages  of  its 
growth,  by  a  process  of  internal  gemmation. 
The  crinoid  comatula,  or  feather  star,  free 
when  adult,  has  its  young  attached  on  a  long 
slender  stem;  Sars  has  traced  the  growth  of 
echinaster  from  a  spheroidal  free-moving  mass 
to  the  perfect  star  fish.  Some  species  secrete 
a  reddish  fluid  on  the  surface,  probably  the  col 
oring  matter,  often  irritating  to  the  skin  of 
persons  handling  them  ;  according  to  Deslong- 
champs,  they  can  inject  a  fluid  into  the  shells  of 
their  victims,  which  stupefies  and  renders  them 
an  easy  prey.  Rymer  Jones  says  star  fishes 
may  be  considered  as  mere  walking  stomachs, 
their  office  in  the  economy  of  nature  being  to 


STARGARD 


STARK 


321 


devour  all  kinds  of  garbage  which  would  other 
wise  accumulate  on  the  shores ;  they  eat  also 
living  crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  even  small 
fish,  and  are  believed  to  be  very  destructive  to 
oysters ;  they  are  not  used  as  food  by  man, 
but  are  in  many  places  highly  esteemed  as  ma 
nure. — For  a  popular  account  of  the  British 
species,  see  "History  of  British  Starfishes," 
by  Edward  Forbes  (London,  1841).  For  the 
New  England  species,  see  the  recently  pub 
lished  works  of  Agassiz.  The  common  star 
fish  of  the  North  American  coast  (asterias 
rubens,  Lam.),  generally  considered  the  same 
as  the  European  species,  is  too  well  known  to 
need  description ;  the  colors  vary  from  red 
dish  to  yellowish,  and  the  diameter  from  an 


the  large  pectorals  and  on  the  throat ;  anus 
very  far  forward ;  air  bladder  absent.  In  some 
of  the  family  the  dorsal  and  opercular  spines 
are  capable  of  inflicting  painful  wounds  ;  they 


Common  Star  Fish  (Asterias  rubens). 

inch  to  more  than  a  foot. — The  star  fishes  are 
found  from  the  Trenton  limestone  of  the  low 
er  Silurian  epoch  down  to  the  present  time. 

STARGARD.  I.  A  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Pomerania,  on  the  Ihna,  navigable 
by  ships,  21  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Stettin ;  pop.  in  1871, 
17,280.  It  has  a  Protestant  Gothic  church, 
built  in  the  14th  century.  It  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  Further  Pomerania.  II.  Prens- 
sisch  Star^ard,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Prus 
sia,  on  the  Ferse,  25  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Dantzic ; 
pop.  in  1871,  5,822.  It  is  surrounded  by  wails 
and  towers,  and  was  frequently  taken  by  the 
Poles  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  and  in 
1655  by  the  Swedes. 

STARGAZER,  a  •  spiny-rayed  percoid  fish  of 
the  family  trachinidce  or  weevers,  and  genus 
uranoscopus  (Linn.),  so  called  from  the  position 
of  the  eyes,  which  look  directly  upward.  The 
body  is  elongated,  covered  with  smooth  cycloid 
scales ;  head  depressed,  large  and  wide,  bony 
and  rough,  with  the  gape  ascending  or  verti 
cally  cleft,  the  upper  jaw  the  shorter,  and  the 
teeth  small  and  crowded  on  the  jaws,  palate, 
and  vomer ;  branchiostegal  rays  six ;  dorsals 
two,  of  which  the  first  is  small  and  spinous,  the 
second  and  the  anal  long ;  ventrals  in  front  of 


Mediterranean  Stargazer  (Uranoscopus  vulgaris). 

have  the  power  of  raising  the  eyeballs  from  and 
retracting  them  within  their  sockets.  There 
are  more  than  a  dozen  species  of  the  genus, 
mostly  East  Indian,  of  which  the  best  known 
is  the  U.  vulgar  is  of  the  Mediterranean,  about 
a  foot  long,  grayish  brown  above,  with  irregu 
lar  series  of  whitish  spots  and  grayish  white 
below ;  ugly  as  it  is,  some  people  eat  it.  This 
was  well  known  to  the.  ancients,  and  Aristotle 
correctly  describes  the  gall  bladder  as  larger 
than  in  most  other  fishes ;  it  is  also  called 
callionymus  by  the  old  authors,  and  is  pro 
verbially  referred  to  by  dramatic  writers  as 
the  emblem  of  an  angry  man.  On  the  coast 
of  South  Carolina  has  been  found  the  U.  ano- 
plos  (Cuv.),  about  2  in.  long,  greenish  above 
with  minute  black  dots,  and  silvery  below; 
the  cheeks  are  unarmed.  These  fishes  live 
on  the  bottom  in  deep  water,  burying  all  but 
the  head  in  the  sand  or  mud,  and  there  lying 
in  wait  for  prey ;  they  are  voracious,  and  like 
other  ground  fish  some  have  sensitive  barbels 
about  the  mouth  ;  though  the  gills  are  widely 
open,  they  live  a  long  time  out  of  water; 
some  have  a  slender  fleshy  filament  in  front 
of  the  tongue,  which  can  be  protruded. 

STARK.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Ohio,  drained 
by  the  Tuscarawas  river  and  its  branches,  and 
traversed  by  the  Ohio  canal  and  several  rail 
roads;  area,  570  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  52,508,. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  a  rich 
sandy  loam.  Coal  and  limestone  are  abundant. 
The  chief  productions  in  1873  were  686,418 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,044,317  of  Indian  corn, 
732,897  of  oats,  42,376  of  barley,  116,597  of 
potatoes,  44,507  tons  of  hay,  287,750  Ibs.  of 
flax,  246,893  of  wool,  932,779  of  butter,  and 
88,705  of  cheese.  Large  quantities  of  coal  and 
iron  are  produced.  In  1874  there  were  13,595 
horses,  29,219  cattle,  69,387  sheep,  and  25,421 
hogs.  In  1870  there  were  22  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  12  of  brick,  22  of  car 
riages  and  wagons,  12  of  furniture,  1  of  forged 
and  rolled  iron,  3  of  pig  iron,  20  of  iron  cast- 


322 


STAEK 


ings,  18  of  tanned  and  7  of  curried  leather,  4 
of  engines  and  boilers,  21  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  5  of  woollen  goods,  11  brew 
eries,  19  flour  mills,  30  saw  mills,  and  3 
planing  mills.  Capital,  Canton.  II.  A  N.  W. 
county  of  Illinois,  intersected  by  Spoon  river; 
area,  about  325  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,751. 
The  surface  is  partly  prairie,  and  the  soil  is  fer 
tile.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Peoria  and  Rock 
Island  railroad  and  a  branch  of  the  Chicago, 
Burlington,  and  Quincy.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  124,639  bushels  of  wheat, 
30,534  of  rye,  1,149,878  of  Indian  corn,  316,- 
726  of  oats,  19,993  tons  of  hay,  20,789  Ibs.  of 
wool,  295,683  of  butter,  and  17,674  of  honey. 
There  were  7,080  horses,  11,558  cattle,  4,226 
sheep,  and  26,515  swine;  7  manufactories  of 
carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  woollen  goods,  and 
6  flour  mills.  Capital,  Toulon. 

STARR,  Jolia,  an  American  soldier,  born  at 
Londonderry,  N.  II.,  Aug.  28,  1728,  died  at 
Manchester,  N.  II.,  May  8,  1822.  In  1752, 
while  on  a  hunting  expedition,  he  was  captured 
by  the  St.  Francis  Indians,  and  remained  with 
them  several  weeks  until  ransomed.  In  1754 
he  joined  the  rangers  under  Major  Rogers  in 
the  war  against  the  French  and  Indians,  and 
in  1757  was  made  a  captain,  lie  rendered 
efficient  services  in  bringing  off  the  troops 
after  the  expedition  to  Ticonderoga  in  1758, 
and  was  actively  employed  in  the  subsequent 
campaign.  In  1775,  after  the  battle  of  Lex 
ington,  he  received  a  colonel's  commission, 
and  enlisted  a  regiment  which  formed  the  left 
of  the  American  line  at  Bunker  Hill.  lie  was 
in  the  expedition  against  Canada,  and  remon 
strated  against  Gen.  Schuyler's  retreat  to  Ticon 
deroga.  In  December,  1776,  he  inarched  with 
his  regiment  under  Gen.  Gates  to  reenforce 
Gen.  Washington.  He  led  the  van  in  the  at 
tack  upon  Trenton,  and  was  in  the  battle  at 
Princeton.  In  1777,  the  time  of  his  regiment 
having  expired,  he  returned  to  New  Hamp 
shire  and  raised  a  new  one ;  but  considering 
himself  unjustly  neglected  by  congress  in  the 
list  of  promotions,  he  retired  from  its  ser 
vice.  He  received  a  vote  of  thanks  from  the 
New  Hampshire  legislature,  and  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  troops  raised  there  to  oppose 
the  British  advance  from  Canada.  Acting 
upon  the  authority  of  the  state  and  his  own 
judgment,  lie  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of 
Gen.  Lincoln  to  march  to  the  west  of  the 
Hudson,  leaving  Burgoyne's  rear  unmolested ; 
and  on  Aug.  16,  1777,  he  fought  the  battle  of 
Bennington,  for  which  congress  passed  a  vote 
of  thanks  to  him  and  made  him  a  brigadier 
general,  notwithstanding  they  had  just  before 
censured  him  for  his  disobedience  of  the  or 
ders  of  Gen.  Lincoln.  He  joined  Gen.  Gates 
at  Bemis's  heights,  but  the  term  of  his  militia 
having  expired,  he  returned  to  New  Hampshire 
and  recruited  a  new  force,  with  which  he  cut 
off  Burgoyne's  retreat  from  Saratoga.  In  1778 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  northern 
department;  in  1779  and  1780  he  served  in 


STARLING 

Rhode  Island  and  New  Jersey,  and  at  West 
Point,  and  was  a  member  of  the  court  mar 
tial  which  condemned  Andre  ;  and  in  1781  he 
again  had  command  of  the  northern  depart 
ment,  with  his  headquarters  at  Saratoga.  He 
lived  in  retirement  after  the  war,  of  which 
he  was  the  last  surviving  general  except  Suin- 
ter.— See  "  Life  of  John  Stark,"  by  Edward 
Everett,  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography," 
1st  series,  vol.  i.,  and  "Memoirs  and  Official 
Correspondence  of  General  John  Stark,"  by 
Caleb  Stark  (8vo,  Concord,  1860). 

STARRE,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Indiana,  drained 
by  the  Yellow  and  Ivankakee  rivers,  and  trav 
ersed  by  several  railroads ;  area,  432  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,888.  The  surface  is  level  and 
in  many  places  marshy,  with  several  small 
lakes,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  12,449  bushels  of  wheat, 
4,516  of  rye,  26,104  of  Indian  corn,  and  4,436 
Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were  1,017  milch  cows, 
2,403  other  cattle,  1,482  sheep,  and  2,187 
Swine.  Capital,  Knox. 

STARLLNG,  or  Stare,  the  common  name  of  the 
conirostral  birds  of  the  family  sturnidce,  and 
subfamily  aturnincp^  of  which  the  genus  stur- 
niis  (Linn.)  is  the  type ;  the  family  also  includes 
the  straight-billed  birds  like  the  grakles,  ox- 
pecker,  Baltimore  bird,  red-winged  blackbird, 
and  satin  bower  bird,  separately  described.  In 
sturnus  the  bill  is  long,  straight,  and  sharp, 
with  flattened  culmen  and  tip;  wings  long  and 
pointed,  first  quill  spurious  and  second  and 
third  nearly  equal ;  tail  short  and  nearly  even ; 
tarsi  strong  ami  broadly  scaled  ;  toes  long,  in 
cluding  the  hind  one,  the  outer  united  at  the 
base  ;  claws  long,  curved,  and  sharp.  In  hab 
its  the  starlings  resemble  the  smaller  species 
of  the  crow  family,  and  the  food  consists  of 
worms,  snails,  insects,  seeds,  and  fruits ;  they 
are  docile  in  captivity,  and  may  be  taught  to 
repeat  a  fcwr  words  and  to  whistle  short  tunes. 
They  are  confined  to  the  old  world,  migrating 
in  large  flocks,  preferring  swampy  places  ;  the 
flight  is  rapid  and  even,  accompanied  toward 


Common  Starling  (Sturuus  vnlgaris). 

evening  by  singular  circular  evolutions;  the 
note  is  a  shrill  whistle,  with  an  occasional 
chatter  or  imitation  of  the  cry  of  other  birds 
and  of  animals ;  the  nest  is  made  of  dried  grass, 


STAR  OF  BETHLEHEM 


STATES  GENERAL 


323 


in  holes  of  trees  or  old  buildings,  and  the  eggs 
are  four  to  six.  The  best  known  species  is  the 
common  starling  (-6'.  vulgaris.  Linn.),  about  8 
in.  long,  black,  with  purple  and  greenish  re 
flections,  and  spotted  with  buff ;  the  female  is 
much  less  brilliant,  and  the  young  males  are 
brownish  gray.  This  bird  is  found  from  N. 
Europe  to  S.  Africa,  and  in  E.  Asia,  occurring 
in  as  large  flocks  as  the  allied  grakles  (quisca- 
lus)  in  North  America ;  in  England  it  often 
migrates  south  in  October,  returning  in  March ; 
it  is  frequently  kept  in  cages ;  the  eggs  are 
pale  blue. — The  American  starling  (sturnella 
magna,  Swains.)  has  been  described  under 
MEADOW  LAEK.  In  the  genus  pastor  (Temm.) 
the  bill  is  shorter  and  more  curved ;  it  contains 
about  a  dozen  species  in  the  old  world. 

STAR  OF  BETHLEHEM,  a  name  for  the  plant 
ornithogalum  uinbellatum,  which  is  also  called 
''eleven-o'clock-lady  "  (Fr.  dame dlonze, heures), 
as  its  flowers  open  about  11  o'clock;  and  as 
they  close  at  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  it  is  in 


Star  of  Bethlehem  (Ornithogalum  umbellatum). 

some  localities  known  as  "  Johnny-go-to-bed." 
It  belongs  to  the  lily  family,  and  has  a  small 
bulb,  from  which  arise  narrow,  grass  -  like 
leaves,  with  a  white  line  in  the  middle,  and 
a  scape  6  to  8  in.  high,  bearing  a  corymb  of 
a  few  bright  white  flowers,  consisting  of  six 
sepals,  which  are  green  in  the  middle  on  the 
outside.  A  native  of  southern  and  central 
Europe,  this  was  formerly  a  common  garden 
plant,  and  has  escaped  and  become  naturalized 
in  the  older  states.  The  genus  ornitliogalum 
(Gr.  6pvie,  a  bird,  and  ydAa,  milk,  a  whimsical 
name)  includes  several  larger  and  more  showy 
species,  cultivated  as  hardy  garden  bulbs. 

STARR,  a  S.  county  of  Texas,  bounded  S.  "W. 
by  the  Rio  Grande,  which  separates  it  from 
Mexico ;  area,  2,100  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
4,154,  including  18  colored  persons  and  many 
Mexicans.  There  is  considerable  rich  land  in 
the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  producing  corn, 
sugar  cane,  &c.  The  rest  of  the  county  suf 
fers  from  lack  of  water,  and  is  suitable  only 


for  stock  raising,  which  is  the  principal  occu 
pation.  There  are  large  herds  of  horses,  mules, 
sheep,  and  cattle.  Capital,  Rio  Grande  City. 

STARVATION.     See  ABSTINENCE. 

STASSFIRT,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov 
ince  of  Saxony,  on  the  Bode,  20  m.  S.  S.  "W. 
of  Magdeburg;  pop.  in  1871,  10,327.  It  has 
one  of  the  largest  salt  mines  in  the  world,  dis 
covered  about  1837,  and  worked  with  steam 
engines  since  1856,  and  extensive  manufacto 
ries  of  chemicals.  The  salt  works  have  been 
described  by  Bischof  (Halle,  1864),  and  by 
Rheinwarth  (Dresden,  1871). 

STATEN  ISLAND,  an  island  of  New  York,  con 
stituting  with  several  adjacent  islets  the  county 
of  Richmond,  5  m.  S.  W.  of  New  York  city, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  New  York  bay ; 
length  N.  E.  and'S.  "W.  13  m.,  greatest  breadth 
8  m. ;  area,  58£  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  33,029 ; 
in  1875,  35,241.  It  is  separated  from  Long 
Island  on  the  northeast  by  the  Narrows,  from 
New  Jersey  on  the  west  by  Staten  Island  sound, 
about  |-  m.  wide,  and  from  the  same  state  on 
the  north  by  Newark  bay  and  the  Kill  Yon 
Kull,  and  is  bounded  S.  E.  and  S.  by  the  lower 
bay  and  Raritan  bay.  It  is  divided  into  five 
towns,  viz. :  Castleton,  Middletown,  Northfield, 
Southfield,  and  AVestfield.  New  Brighton  (pop. 
7,495  in  1870),  Port  Richmond  (3,028),  and  Tot- 
ten  ville  (1,571)  are  incorporated  villages.  The 
surface  is  mostly  level  or  gently  undulating. 
A  broad  range  of  hills,  reaching  a  maximum 
height  of  310  ft.,  extends  E.  and  W.  across  the 
N.  portion.  Iron  ore  is  found.  The  island  is 
the  residence  of  a  large  number  of  persons 
engaged  in  business  in  New  York,  with  which 
city  it  is  connected  by  steam  ferries.  The 
Staten  Island  railroad  extends  from  Clifton  at 
the  N.  E.  to  Tottenville  at  the  S.  W.  extremity. 
Fort  Tompkins  and  Fort  Wadsworth,  with 
several  batteries,  command  the  Narrows.  The 
New  York  quarantine  establishment  is  situated 
on  artificial  islands  off  the  E.  shore.  Staten 
Island  is  the  seat  of  the  "  Sailors'  Snug  Harbor," 
a  retreat  for  superannuated  seamen,  and  of  a 
hospital  for  seamen  and  an  asylum  for  desti 
tute,  sick,  and  infirm  families  of  seamen,  sup 
ported  by  the  "  Seamen's  Fund  and  Retreat." 
(See  RICHMOND,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  319.) 

STATES  GENERAL.  I.  An  assembly  of  the 
nation  which  existed  in  France  previous  to  the 
revolution,  and  consisted  of  the  representa 
tives  of  the  clergy,  the  nobility,  and  the  third 
estate  (tiers  etat).  Before  the  reign  of  Philip 
the  Fair,  the  people  or  unprivileged  class  had 
no  voice  in  the  general  administration  of  the 
kingdom ;  but  that  monarch,  being  involved  in 
his  great  struggle  with  the  papacy,  and  de 
sirous  to  have  the  whole  nation  on  his  side, 
determined  to  convene  an  assembly  in  which, 
in  addition  to  the  clergy  and  nobility,  the 
principal  inhabitants  of  the  towns,  or  bour 
geoisie,  forming  a  third  estate,  should  be  rep 
resented.  The  mass  of  the  people,  how 
ever,  never  had  a  voice  in  these  assemblies. 
The  three  orders  forming  the  states  general 


324: 


STATES   GENERAL 


met  in  Paris  in  1302,  and  by  their  support 
induced  the  king  to  reassemble  them  in  1303 
and  again  in  1308,  when  they  voted  for  the 
condemnation  of  the  knights  templars.  The 
example  of  Philip  was  imitated  by  his  suc 
cessors.  During  the  wars  with  Edward  III. 
of  England  the  states  general  acted  with  such 
authority  in  the  affairs  of  the  revenue  as  to 
make  the  court  dependent  on  their  decisions. 
The  disasters  which  befell  the  nobility  at  Crecy 
and  Poitiers  enabled  the  third  estate  to  play 
an  unusual  part  at  this  time.  The  people  of 
Paris  acquired  an  undue  influence,  while  the 
provinces  were  imperfectly  represented.  In 
1357  an  ordinance  of  the  dauphin  Charles  left 
the  raising  and  disposition  of  the  revenues  to 
the  states  general,  and  declared  the  members 
inviolable.  During  the  next  80  years  they  met 
frequently;  but  in  1439,  by  voting  a  fixed  sum 
for  the  support  of  a  standing  army,  they  re 
moved  one  of  the  principal  reasons  for  their 
convocation.  Henceforward  they  met  at  long 
intervals.  A  resolution  to  meet  biennially, 
passed  on  the  accession  of  Charles  VIII.  and 
approved  by  the  court,  remained  without  ef 
fect  ;  and  finally  the  kings  came  to  feel  that 
they  could  rule  without  the  nation.  The  last 
meeting  before  the  revolution,  that  of  1614— '15, 
was  marked  by  disputes  between  the  orders, 
in  which  the  third  estate  was  humiliated.  In 
all,  the  body  had  assembled  about  35  times  in 
three  centuries.  In  place  of  the  states  general 
the  kings  at  times  convened  an  assembly  of  the 
notables,  or  prominent  men  of  all  ranks,  who, 
being  nominated  by  the  sovereign  or  the  privy 
council,  more  readily  complied  with  the  royal 
demands.  The -notables  assembled  in.  1620  for 
the  last  time  previous  to  the  reign  of  Louis 
XVI.,  when  they  were  again  convoked  in  1787 
and  1788.  These  assemblies  having  shown 
their  inefficiency,  the  disorders  of  the  king 
dom  induced  Louis  XVI.  to  revive  the  states 
general;  and  on  May  5,  1789,  their  sessions 
were  opened  at  Versailles.  Under  the  old 
kings  the  states  general  were  the  only  assem 
bly  in  France  which  may  be  said  in  a  measure 
to  have  formed  a  national  legislature.  Their 
sessions,  however,  were  very  brief,  occasion 
ally  lasting  only  a  few  days,  and  they  were 
generally  called  together  to  vote  subsidies  or 
deliberate  on  the  measures  of  the  court,  not  to 
devise  laws  for  the  state,  though  they  were 
expected  to  present  their  lists  of  grievances 
(cahiers  de  doleance)  to  the  sovereign.  The  as 
sembly  voted  by  orders,  which  made  it  easy  for 
the  clergy  and  nobles  to  thwart  the  measures 
of  the  third  estate.  Against  this  division  the 
third  estate  rose  in  1789.  They  insisted  on  a 
vote  by  members,  and  carried  through  their 
demand  by  constituting  themselves  the  nation 
al  assembly.  (See  CONSTITUTIONAL  CONVEN 
TION,  and  FRANCE,  vol.  vii.,  p.  385.)— Several 
of  the  provinces  not  originally  included  in  the 
French  crown,  as  Brittany,  Burgundy,  Na 
varre,  Languedoc,  and  others,  possessed  special 
assemblies  called  etats  provinciaux,  to  whose 


STATISTICS 

approval  the  demands  of  the  sovereign  were 
submitted.  The  third  estate  early  obtained  a' 
place  in  these  bodies,  and  in  the  states  of 
Languedoc  they  had  a  vote  equal  to  that  of 
the  other  orders  combined.  These  assemblies 
gradually  lost  their  importance,  and  disap 
peared  with  the  revolution.  II.  The  national 
assembly  of  the  Dutch  republic,  consisting  of 
the  deputies  of  the  provinces,  who  were  chosen 
by  the  provincial  assemblies  or  states.  The 
deputies  of  each  province  had  one  collective 
vote.  The  term  continues  to  be  the  official 
designation  of  the  Dutch  legislature. 

STATICS.     See  MECHANICS. 

STATISTICS,  the  systematic  collection  and 
classification  of  facts  relating  to  the  social  and 
industrial  conditions  of  the  people.  One  of 
the  first  to  systematize  statistics  and  give  to 
them  a  scientific  character  was  Gottfried 
Achenwall,  who  lectured  on  that  subject  in 
the  university  of  Gottingen  about  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century,  and  gave  the  name  (Ger. 
Staat,  state)  to  the  science.  A.  L.  von  SchlO- 
zer  (died  1809),  a  pupil  of  Achenwall,  devel 
oped  the  science  more  fully.  During  the  pres 
ent  century  marked  progress  has  been  made  in 
statistical  science.  The  chief  countries  of  Eu 
rope  have  organized  statistical  bureaus,  de 
partments,  or  commissions,  which  collect  and 
publish  periodically  facts  relating  to  the  con 
dition  of  the  people  in  every  phase  of  life. 
France,  Belgium,  Sweden,  Prussia,  and  Italy 
rank  specially  high  in  this  respect.  In  Lon 
don,  Paris,  and  other  European  cities  are  sta 
tistical  societies  which  publish  periodicals. 
In  1862  a  statistical  seminary,  for  affording 
instruction  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  the 
science,  was  established  in  Berlin,  through  the 
efforts  of  Dr.  Engel,  and  a  professorship  of 
statistics  was  established  in  the  university  of 
that  city  in  1874.  In  England  statistical  re 
ports  on  the  various  interests  of  the  United 
Kingdom  are  published  annually  by  parlia 
ment.  In  the  United  States  statistics  of  com 
merce  and  navigation  are  published  monthly 
and  annually  by  the  bureau  of  statistics ;  those 
relating  to  education  ar£  published  annually 
by  the  commissioner  of  education,  and  those 
relating  to  agriculture  by  the  bureau  of  agri 
culture. — Great  importance  is  attached  in  all 
countries  to  the  thorough  and  frequent  col 
lection  of  vital  statistics,  which  are  of  the 
highest  value  in  determining  questions  of 
health,  duration  of  life,  movement  of  popula 
tion,  &c.  As  early  as  1686  the  clergy  in  Swe 
den  were  required  to  keep  registers  of  mar 
riages,  births,  and  deaths.  In  most  if  not  all 
of  the  countries  of  Europe  these  statistics  are 
carefully  collected  and  published  periodically. 
In  England  they  are  under  the  charge  of  the 
registrar  general,  who  publishes  an  annual  re 
port.*  No  provision  has  been  made  by  the 
United  States  for  the  collection  of  vital  statis 
tics  except  when  the  decennial  censuses  are  ta 
ken.  In  many  of  the  states,  however,  records 
of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths  are  required 


STATIUS 


STAUNTON 


325 


to  be  kept  and  published  at  intervals. — The 
first  international  statistical  congress  met  in 
Brussels  in  1853 ;  sessions  have  since  been  held 
at  Paris,  1855;  Vienna,  1857;  London,  1860; 
Berlin,  1863  ;  Florence,  1867;  the  Hague,  1869  ; 
and  St.  Petersburg,  1872.  (See  CENSUS.) 

STATIUS,  Caecilins.     See  C.ECILIUS  STATIUS. 

STATUS,  Pnblins  Papinins,  a  Roman  poet,  born 
probably  in  A.  B.  61,  died  probably  in  96. 
His  father  was  a  preceptor  of  the  emperor  Do- 
mitian,  by  whom  the  son  was  patronized.  In 
the  Alban  contests  he  three  times  gained  the 
victory.  It  has  been  said  that  he  was  a  Chris 
tian,  and  that  the  emperor  stabbed  him  with  a 
stilus  in  a  moment  of  anger.  Some  details 
about  his  life  and  character  have  been  com 
piled  by  Occioni  (Padua,  1869).  His  extant 
works  are  :  Silvarum  Libri  F.,  a  collection  of 
32  poems  on  passing  events,  divided  into  five 
books ;  Thebaidos  Libri  XII.,  an  epic  founded 
upon  the  legendary  account  of  the  expedition 
of  the  seven  against  Thebes,  of  which  the  first 
book  was  translated  into  English  by  Pope ; 
and  AcJiilleidos  Libri  II.,  an  epic  never  fin 
ished.  The  best  edition  is  Maryland's  (1728), 
revised  by  Queck  (1854).  A  new  critical  edi 
tion  has  been  published  by  O.  Mtiller  (1870). 
Five  books  of  the  "  Thebaid  "  have  been  trans 
lated  into  English  by  Thomas  Stephens  (8vo, 
London,  1 648),  and  the  entire  poem  by  W.  L. 
Lewis  (2  vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1767  and  1778). 
The  "Achilleid"  has  been  translated  by  How 
ard  (8vo,  London,  1660).  There  is  a  German 
translation  by  Bindewald  (1868). 

STATUARY.     See  SCULPTURE. 

STATUTE  OF  FRAUDS.  See  FBAUDS,  STATUTE 
OF. 

STATUTES  OF  IMITATION.  See  LIMITATION, 
STATUTES  OF. 

STAUDEVMAIER,  FraDZ  Antou,  a  German  the 
ologian,  born  at  Danzdorf,  TVurtemberg,  Sept. 
11,  1800,  died  in  Freiburg,  Baden,  Jan.  19, 
1856.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  was  ordained 
a  Roman  Catholic  priest  in  1827,  became  pro 
fessor  of  theology  at  Giessen  in  1830  and  at 
Freiburg  in  1837,  and  a  canon  in  1843,  and  in 
1851  was  elected  a  member  of  the  first  chamber 
of  the  legislature  of  Baden.  His  chief  works 
are :  Gescnichte  der  Bischofswahlen  (Tubingen, 
1830);  EncyTclopadie  der  theologischen  Wissen- 
schaften (Mentz,  1834;  2ded.,  1840);  Der  Geist 
des  Ghristcnthums  (Mentz,  1835),  many  times 
reprinted  and  translated ;  and  Die  christlicJie 
Dogmatik  (4  vols.,  1844-'52,  not  complete),  in 
which  he  attempts  to  harmonize  the  results  of 
modern  philosophy  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
Catholic  church.  His  other  works  include  Sco- 
tus  Erigena  und  die  Wissenschaft  seiner  Zeit 
(vol.  i.,  Frankfort,  1840,  unfinished) ;  Die  Phi- 
losophiedes  Christen tJiums  (vol.  i.,  Mentz,  1840, 
unfinished) ;  Darstellung  und  Kritik  des  He 
gel*  schen  Systems  (Mentz,  1844)  ;  and  Der 
Protestantismus  in  seinem  Wesen  und  seiner 
Entwicfcelung  (Freiburg,  1846). 

STAUDLIN,  Karl  Friedrich,  a  German  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Stuttgart,  July  25,  1761,  died  in 


Gottingen,  July  5,  1826.  He  studied  at  Tubin 
gen,  and  in  1790  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Gottingen.  At  first  he  was  a  rationalist, 
but  he  gradually  inclined  to  supernaturalism. 
His  works  extend  over  nearly  every  depart 
ment  of  theology;  but  those  on  church  his 
tory  are  the  most  valued,  and  include  Kirch- 
liche  Geographie  und  Statistics  (2  vols.,  Tubin 
gen,  1804),  the  first  scientific  work  on  this 
subject,  and  Geschichte  der  tlieologischen  Wis- 
senschaften  (2  vols.,  Gottingen,  1810-'!  1). 

STAUNTON,  a  river  in  the  S.  part  of  Virginia, 
which  rises  in  Montgomery  co.,  among  the  Al- 
leghany  mountains,  flows  E.  and  S.  E.  through 
a  pass  in  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  with  Dan  river 
forms  the  Roanoke  at  Clarksville,  Mecklen 
burg  co.  It  is  200  m.  long,  and  in  the  first  20 
m.  of  its  course  has  a  fall  of  1,000  ft. 

STAUNTON,  a  city,  county  seat  of  Augusta  co., 
Virginia,  on  Lewis  creek,  a  tributary  of  the 
Shenandoah  river,  and  on  the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  railroad  at  the  junction  of  a  branch  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  line,  100  m.  direct  and 
136  m.  by  rail  TV.  N.  TV.  of  Richmond  ;  pop.  in 
1870,  5,120,  of  whom  1,535  were  colored;  in 
1875,  about  7,000.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  highly 
productive  country,  abounding  in  fine  scenery. 
Stages  run  to  TVeyer's  and  Madison's  caves,  18 
m.,  and  to  the  Augusta  springs,  12  m.  distant. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  western  state  lunatic  asylum 
and  of  the  state  institution  for  the  education  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the  blind,  each  having 
fine  buildings  and  grounds.  The  principal  man 
ufactories  are  two  iron  founderies,  two  tobacco 
factories,  and  two  flour  mills.  There  are  three 
banks,  with  a  capital  of  $500,000 ;  free  public 
schools,  with  an  attendance  of  more  than  600 
white  and  300  colored  children ;  a  Roman  Cath 
olic  seminary ;  Lutheran,  Methodist,  and  Pres 
byterian  female  seminaries,  having  more  than 
600  pupils ;  three  weekly  newspapers  ;  and 
nine  churches,  viz. :  2  Baptist  (1  colored),  1 
Episcopal,  1  Lutheran,  3  Methodist  (2  colored), 
1  Presbyterian,  and  1  Roman  Catholic. 

STAUNTON,  Sir  George  Thomas,  an  English  au 
thor,  born  in  Salisbury,  May  26,  1781,  died  in 
London,  Aug.  10,  1859.  He  was  the  son  of 
Sir  George  Leonard  Staunton  (1737-1801), 
confidential  secretary  of  Lord  Macartney  at 
Madras,  and  a  member  of  his  embassy  to  China, 
of  which  he  wrote  an  account  (2  vols.  4to, 
1797).  George  Thomas  accompanied  his  father 
to  China  in  1792,  afterward  studied  at  Cam 
bridge,  and  in  1799  went  to  Canton  as  secre 
tary  of  the  East  India  company's  factory  there, 
of  -which  he  afterward  became  president.  In 
1816  he  was  attached  to  Lord  Amherst's  em 
bassy  to  China,  and  from  1818  to  1852,  with  a 
few  intermissions,  was  a  member  of  parlia 
ment.  His  principal  works  are :  "  The  Penal 
Code  of  the  Chinese  Empire "  (4to,  London, 
1810);  "Narrative  of  the  Chinese  Embassy  to 
the  Tartar  Khan  Tourgouth  during  the 'Years 
1812-'15  "  (1821) ;  and  "  Miscellaneous  Notices 
relative  to  China  and  the  British  Commercial 
Intercourse  with  that  Country  "  (1822). 


326 


STAUNTON 


STEAM 


STAMTOtf,  Howard,  an  English  author,  born 
in  1810,  died  in  London,  June  26,  1874.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  but  left  without  taking 
a  degree,  and  went  to  London.  In  1843  he 
won  a  match  in  Paris  over  St.  Amand,  the 
chess  champion,  and  subsequently  conducted 
the  chess  column  in  the  "Illustrated  London 
News,"  and  published  "The  Chess  Player's 
Hand  Book  "  (London,  1847 ;  with  supplement, 
"  Chess  Praxis,"  1860) ;  "  Chess  Player's  Com 
panion"  and  "Chess  Player's  Text  Book" 
(1849);  and  "Chess  Tournament"  (1852). 
From  1857  to  1860  he  was  engaged  in  editing 
an  edition  of  Shakespeare;  in  1864 he  brought 
out  a  facsimile  of  the  folio  of  1623,  and  pub 
lished  "Memorials  of  Shakespeare;"  and  in 
1872  he  contributed  to  the  "Athenamm"  a 
series  of  papers  on  the  "  Unsuspected  Corrup 
tions  of  Shakespeare's  Text."  He  also  wrote 
"Great  Schools  of  England"  (8vo,  1865). 

STAUPITZ,  Johann  von,  a  German  theologian, 
born  in  Meissen,  died  in  Salzburg,  Dec.  28, 
1524.  lie  was  an  Augustinian  monk,  obtained 
from  the  pope  in  1501  general  privileges  for 
the  newly  established  university  at  Wittenberg, 
of  which  he  was  made  dean  on  its  opening  in 
1502,  and  in  1508  caused  Luther  to  become  a 
professor  there.  He  approved  of  the  theses  of 
Luther  against  papal  indulgences,  but  not  pub 
licly.  In  1518  he  demanded  at  Augsburg  that 
Luther  should  not  be  condemned  unheard  and 
untried.  He  became  court  preacher  at  Salz 
burg,  and  in  1522  abbot  of  a  Benedictine  con 
vent.  He  is  the  author  of  De  Amore  Dei 
(Leipsic,  1518),  and  several  other  writings  of 
a  mystical  character. 

STAVANGER,  a  town  of  Norway,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name,  in  the  province  of 
Christiansand,  on  the  Bukkefiord,  100  m.  S.  of 
Bergen;  pop.  in  1870,  17,058.  It  has  three 
suburbs,  a  cathedral  dating  from  the  llth  cen 
tury,  a  good  harbor,  about  500  registered  ves 
sels,  and  extensive  fisheries.  The  population 
in  1801  was  barely  2,500. 

^TAVROPOL.  I.  A  government  of  Russia,  in 
Ciscaucasia,  bounded  N.  by  the  country  of  the 
Don  Cossacks  and  Astrakhan,  E.  and  S.  by  the 
Terek  territory,  and  W.  by  the  Kuban  territo 
ry ;  area,  26,634  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  437,118, 
embracing  Russians,  Cossacks,  Nogai  Tartars, 
Calmucks,  Turkomans,  Armenians,  and  others. 
The  government  is  mostly  level  and  unproduc 
tive,  contains- a  number  of  shallow  lakes  and 
swamps,  and  is  watered  by  the  Kuma,  Kalauz, 
and  other  rivers.  II.  A  town,  capital  of  the 
government,  on  the  Atchla,  185  m.  S.  E.  of 
Azov;  pop.  in  1871,  20,927.  It  is  strongly 
fortified,  has  several  churches  and  schools,  a 
fine  bazaar,  manufactories  of  soap  and  leather, 
and  an  increasing  trade  with  the  Asiatic  prov 
inces  of  the  empire.  The  neighboring  warm 
sulphur  springs  are  much  frequented. 

STEAM,  the  vapor  of  water.  Water,  and 
even  ice,  at  all  temperatures,  when  not  con 
fined  within  impermeable  walls,  continually 
give  off  vapor,  the  surface  particles  assuming 


the  gaseous  state  with  a  rapidity  determined 
by  the  temperature  of  the  mass  and  the  nature 
and  density  of  the  superincumbent  atmosphere. 
When  confined,  this  gasification  goes  on  with 
out  regard  to  the  character  or  density  of  the 
atmosphere  present  until  the  vapor  produced, 
by  gradual  accumulation,  acquires  the  maximum 
density  and  pressure  attainable  at  that  tem 
perature  ;  then  the  formation  of  vapor  ceases. 
The  minimum  temperature  at  which  the  sub 
stance  can  exist  as  vapor  under  a  given  pres 
sure,  and  the  maximum  at  which  the  water  can 
retain  its  liquid  form  under  that  pressure,  are 
the  same.  This  temperature  is  called  the  tem 
perature  of  saturation  under  the  given  pres 
sure.  When  the  process  just  described  is  car 
ried  on  in  a  vessel  open  to  the  atmosphere, 
the  issuing  vapor  mingles  with  the  molecules 
of  that  atmosphere  as  rapidly  as  formed,  and 
separates  only  at  the  surface,  until  the  boiling 
point  is  reached,  at  which  temperature  the 
pressure  of  the  vapor  becomes  equal  to  that 
of  the  atmosphere ;  the  formation  of  vapor 
(heat  being  supplied  in  sufficient  quantity)  be 
comes  rapid,  and  takes  place  within  the  mass 
as  well  as  at  the  surface ;  ebullition  or  boiling 
begins,  the  atmosphere  is  forced  aside,  and  the 
ascending  steam  passes  off  en  masse.  (See 
BOILING  POINT.)  The  temperature  of  the  boil 
ing  point  varies  with  the  tension  of  the  atmos 
phere.  Its  mean  temperature  in  open  air  at 
the  sea  level  is  212°  F.,  100°  on  the  centigrade 
scale,  80°  on  the  Reaumur  scale,  and  673 -2°  on 
the  absolute  scale.  The  temperature  of  both 
water  and  steam  in  a  steam  boiler  is  the  boil 
ing  point  due  to  the  pressure  of  steam  carried. 
A  table  of  such  temperature^  and  pressures  is 
given  below.  Superheated  steam  is  that  which 
has  a  temperature  higher  than  that  of  satura 
tion  at  the  same  pressure.  If  equal  quantities 
of  heat  be  supplied  in  equal  times,  an  interval 
will  elapse  after  the  temperature  has  risen  to 
the  boiling  point  before  the  water  will  have 
become  vaporized,  which  interval  will  be  about 
o£  times  that  required  to  heat  the  liquid  from 
the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point.  Careful  ex 
periment  has  shown  that,  in  the  transition  from 
the  liquid  to  the  gaseous  condition,  5^-  times 
as  much  heat  is  required  as  to  heat  the  same 
weight  of  water  from  32°  to  212°.  The  exact 
ratio  is  as  180  to  966-6 ;  it  being  necessary 
to  supply  180  units  of  heat  to  each  pound  of 
water  to  raise  it  in  temperature  from  the  freez 
ing  to  the  boiling  point,  and  966*6  British  ther 
mal  units  to  change  it  into  steam.  As  no  rise 
of  temperature  was  perceived  during  this  last 
change  of  state,  this  heat  was  called  by  Dr. 
Black  latent  heat,  which  name  is  still  retained, 
although  it  is  now  well  known  that  it  is  this 
heat  which  performs  the  work  of  vaporization. 
The  quantity  of  heat  required  to  change  water 
at  the  boiling  point  to  steam  at  the  same  tem 
perature  varies  with  the  pressure.  Under  at 
mospheric  pressure,  Dr.  Black  and  James  Watt 
found  its  amount  approximately,  and  Regnault, 
who  discovered  its  variation  with  chancre  of 


STEAM 


327 


pressure,  determined  it  with  great  accuracy  for 
a  wide  range  of  temperatures  and  pressures. 
At  212°  it  is  966-6  British  thermal  units  per 
pound.  At  any  other  temperature  it  is  1091-7— 
0-695  (T°-32°)-0-00000013  (T— 39'1°)3  (Ran- 
kine),  or  nearly  1113-94— 0-695  T.  The  total 
amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound 
of  water  from  any  given  temperature  to  the 
temperature  of  evaporation,  and  to  evaporate 
it  at  the  latter  temperature,  or  the  total  heat 
of  evaporation,  is  often  called  the  total  heat  of 
steam.  This  varies  at  different  temperatures, 
and  is  equal  to  1091-7  +  0-305  (T-32°)-c2(T2— 
32°),  or  1081-94  +  0-305  T,  from  32°.  It  is 
nearly  1113-94 +  0-305  T  where  the  initial  tem 
perature  is  hypothetically  0°.  In  these  ex 
pressions,  T  is  the  temperature  of  vaporization, » 
02  the  mean  specific  heat  of  water  hetween  the 
freezing  point  and  the  temperature  of  the  feed 
water,  and  T2  the  latter  temperature.  Reck 
oning  from  212°,  the  values  of  latent  and  to 
tal  heat  become  Z=966'6— 0-695(1—212°),  and 
with  a  given  temperature  t  of  feed  water,  7i'= 
1178-6— i  +  0-305(T— 212°),  the  total  heat  in 
the  latter  case  being  measured  from  the  initial 
temperature  of  the  feed  water  t  to  that  of  the 
steam  forming  at  T°  F.  For  the  centigrade 
scale,  these  values  become  Z=606-5— 0-695  T°, 
andA'=606-5  —  £  +  0'305  (T°  — 100°).  The  to 
tal  heat  of  steam,  expressed  in  foot  pounds  of 
energy,  is  II— 835,000  +  235 -5T.  A  pound  of 
good  coal,  used  under  a  good  steam  boiler, 
will  evaporate  8£  Ibs.  of  water  at  a  tempera 
ture  of  320°  F.,  and  a  pressure  of  75  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  above  the  atmosphere,  the  tem 
perature  of  the  water  when  entering  the  boil 
er  being  40°.  Here  the  total  heat  per  pound 
of  water  is  (1178-6— 40)  +  0-305(320— 212)  = 
1171-54  ;  the  heat  per  pound  of  fuel  is  11 71 '54 
x  8'5  =  9958'1  ;  and  the  equivalent  evaporation 
from  and  at  212°  is  9958-1 -r-996-6  =  9-999  Ibs. 
of  water  per  pound  of  coal.  The  specific  heat 
of  steam  under  constant  pressure  is  0"480. 
At  constant  volume  it  is  0*346 ;  i.  e.,  the 
quantity  of  heat  per  pound  required  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  steam,  where  its  expansion 
is  just  sufficient  to  keep  its  pressure  constant, 
is  0'480  British  thermal  units ;  and,  when  con 
fined  within  an  unchanging  space,  its  pressure 
rising  with  its  increase  of  temperature,  the 
heat  required  per  degree  is  0*346  units.  The 
thermal  unit  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water 
one  degree  at  the  temperature  of  maximum 
density.  The  value  at  other  temperatures  is 
practically  the  same. — Steam,  when  perfectly 
free  from  particles  of  water,  is  dry,  invisible, 
and  in  its  physical  properties  similar  to  other 
gases.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0-622.  In  chang 
ing  in  temperature  one  degree  under  constant 
pressure,  it  absorbs  heat  equal  to  85 '77  foot 
pounds  of  work.  The  work  of  the  evapora 
tion  of  a  cubic  inch  of  water  at  212°  is  near 
ly  equal  to  that  of  raising  a  ton  one  foot.  Its 
coefficient  of  expansion  becomes  equal  to  that 
of  perfect  gases  at  about  18°  above  the  tem 


perature  due  to  its  pressure,  according  to  Fair- 
bairn  and  Tate.  Steam  expanding  while  doing 
work,  as  in  the  steam  cylinder  of  an  engine, 
becomes  partially  condensed.  When  expand 
ing  without  doing  work  it  superheats,  the  dif 
ference  of  total  heats  at  the  temperatures  of 
the  extremes  of  pressure  becoming  observa 
ble  as  sensible  heat  in  the  production  of  this 
superheating.  The  elastic  force  of  saturated 
steam  being  dependent  only  upon  its  tempera 
ture,  the  relation  may  be  expressed  by*a  math 
ematical  formula.  Many  such  formulas  have 
been  proposed,  none  of  which  are  exact.  The 
simplest  is  Tredgold's,  £=175  $/  A—  75,  in  which 
t  is  the  temperature  F.  and  A  the  number  of 
atmospheres  of  pressure.  This  is  correct, 
within  two  degrees,  from  one  up  to  above  25 
atmospheres  of  pressure,  and  is  much  more 
nearly  accurate  at  the  extremes  of  that  range. 
In  Southern's  formula,  which  has  been  much 

used  by  engineers,  P=(^^)B'15+0'15  in  which 

P  is  the  pressure  in  inches  of  mercury.  These 
formulas  are  now  seldom  employed,  as  every 
work  upon  this  subject,  contains  a  table  of 
pressures,  temperatures,  and  volumes.  Where 
great  accuracy  is  required,  and  no  table  is  at 

T>  r\ 

hand,  Rankine's  formulas,  log.  P=A  ----  ^ 


and  -=V^?^  +**-*,  may  be   used.     In 

T  C          4(J2      20 

these  formulas,  P  is  the  pressure,  t  absolute 
temperature  (461-2  +  T°  F.),  and  A,  B,  and  0 
are  constants  :  A=S'259;  log.  B=3-436  ;  log. 

T>  ~\\1 

0=5-599;  ^=0-00344  ;  ^=0-00001184.    The 

pressure  increases  with  the  temperature  at  a 
rate  which  itself  also  rapidly  increases  with 
rise  of  temperature.  The  relative  volumes  of 
steam  and  water  can  be  calculated  by  Pole's 

94°50  24°50 

formulas:  V=-^-  +  65;  P=^—  ^.;  an(1  sti11 
more  accurately  by  those  of  Fairbairn  and 
Tate:  V- 


The  relative  volume  or  density  of  steam  under 
varying  pressure  can  be  computed  by  the  use 

of  Rankine's  formula,  -^7=^)™,  in  which  V 

and  P  are  the  volumes  in  cubic  feet,  and 
the  pressure  reckoned  above  a  vacuum,  in 
pounds  per  square  inch,  of  one  pound  of  steam 
at  the  given  pressure,  and  V  is  the  volume 
(26-36  cubic  feet)  of  one  pound  of  steam  at  P', 
the  atmospheric  pressure.  A  cubic  inch  of 
water  makes  about  a  cubic  foot  of  dry  steam. 
Steam  expanding  in  the  cylinder  of  a  steam 
engine  does  not  follow  the  law  of  expansion 
of  permanent  gases,  nor  does  the  variation  of 
the  ratio  of  pressure  to  volume  follow  any  law 
which  has  yet  been  exactly  expressed  mathe 
matically.  Rankine  considers  that  pressure 
varies  inversely  as  the  Y  power  of  the  volume, 
where  the  steam  neither  gains  nor  loses  heat, 
and  as  the  reciprocal  of  the  \%  power  where 
kept  dry  by  a  steam  jacket.  More  exactly, 


328 


STEAM 


PaV-1'0646,  and  log.  V=2'516-0'939  log.  P. 
In  the  following  table  constant  multipliers  are 
given,  the  product  of  which  into  the  initial 
pressure  will  give  the  mean  or  the  terminal 
pressure  for  the  grade  of  expansion  selected : 


MEAN    AND 


TERMINAL    PRESSURES    (SALTER). 


POINT 
OF 
CUT-OFF. 

CONSTANT. 

DRY  AND 
SATURATED. 

CONDENSING 
BY   WORKING. 

.Mean. 

Terminal. 

Mean. 

Terminal. 

Meau. 

Terminal. 

f  

0-385 

0-465 
0-522 
0-597 
0-743 

0-847 
0-9C6 

0-125 
0-107 
0-200 
0-25D 
0-875 
0-500 
0-750 

0-3G9 
0-449 
0-500 
0-532 
0-732 
0-839 
0-964 

o-ito 

0-149 
0-181 

0-229 
0-353 
0-479 
0-737 

0-357 
0-437 
0-495 
0-571 
0-723 
0-833 
0-962 

0-099 
0-137 
0'167 
0-214 
0-336 
0-408 
0'726 

i 

t  

!  ::::::: 

— A  mixture  of  steam  and  other  gas  has  a  ten 
sion  which  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  tensions 
of  the  two  components.  Thus,  if  a  cubic  foot 
of  air  at  atmospheric  pressure  be  enclosed  in  a 
vessel  of  that  capacity,  and  if  a  cubic  foot  of 
steam  of  the  same  tension  be  introduced  with 
it,  the  pressure  upon  the  walls  of  the  vessel 
will  be  two  atmospheres,  the  temperature  of 
both  gases  being  the  same.  Steam  formed 
from  sea  water  is  liberated  at  a  higher  temper 
ature  than  when  formed  from  pure  water. 
The  boiling  point  of  water  is  raised  about  0-0-4° 
F.  for  each  increment  of  1  per  cent,  of  its  own 
weight  of  salt.  Sea  water,  containing  -^  of  its 
weight  of  salt,  boils  at  2 13 '2 °  under  atmos 
pheric  pressure.  The  maximum  proportion  of 
salt  permitted  in  marine  steam  boilers  is  usu 
ally  /.j,  the  boiling  point  being  raised  2'4°  F. 
Steam,  as  worked  in  the  steam  engine,  if  not 
dried  by  superheaters,  is  wet;  i,  e.,  it  carries 
in  suspension  line  particles  of  water.  The 
amount  of  water  so  suspended  has  been  found 
by  Prof.  Thurston  to  be  from  0-03  to  0-20  of 
the  weight  of  the  mixture.  Ten  per  cent,  is 
a  usual  proportion  with  good  boilers.  The 
amount  was  determined  by  condensing  in  a 
calorimeter  a  determinable  weight  of  the  mix 
ture,  by  the  use  of  a  known  weight  of  water, 
and  noting  the  rise  in  temperature  of  the  lat 
ter.  Knowing  the  temperature  due  to  the 
steam  pressure,  the  weights  of  steam  and  wa 
ter  can  be  determined.  The  principal  advan 
tage  of  superheating  is  an  increase  of  economy 
due  to  the  thorough  expulsion  of  water  from 
the  vapor,  and  consequent  reduction  of  loss  by 
condensation  and  revaporization  in  the  steam 
engine  cylinder.  A  less  degree  of  improve 
ment  is  due  to  the  simple  increase  of  tem 
perature,  and  to  the  consequent  widening  of 
the  range  of  temperature  within  which  it  is 
worked.  The  most  elaborate  and  most  accu 
rate  experimental  determination  of  the  coin 
cident  temperatures,  pressures,  and  volumes 
of  saturated  steam  were  made  by  Regnault,  at 
the  expense  of  the  French  government,  and 
under  the  auspices  of  the  academy  of  sciences, 
and  published  in  the  Memo  ires  de  Vacademie  for 
1847.  The  following  table  gives  a  summary  of 
the  properties  of  steam  based  upon  Eegnault's 


determinations.  Pressures  are  given  in  pounds 
per  square  inch  above  a  vacuum,  and  in  inches 
of  mercury  measuring  from  the  same  point. 
Volumes  are  relative  to  water  at  its  greatest 
density.  Weights  are  given  in  pounds,  and 
specific  gravity  is  referred  to  air  as  unity  at 
a  temperature  of  32°  F.  The  distribution  of 
heat  in  each  pound  of  steam  evaporated  at 
212°  F.  is  given  as  follows: 

Units  Mechanical 

of  equivalent, 

heat.  in  foot  pounds. 
A.  The  sensible  heat: 

1.  To  heat  the  water  from  32%  or 

through  lt>0° 180-9°  =  139,655 


B.  The  latent  heat : 

2.  To  convert  the  water  to  vapor,  ir 
respective  of  pressure  on  surface    892-9°  =  689,242 

3.  To  advance  against  and  remove 
the  incumbent  atmosphere,  whe 
ther  air  or  previously  generated 
steam,  its  pressure  being  2.116-8 

Ibs.  per  square  foot  of  surface. ...       72-3°  =     55,815 


Total  latent  heat 965-2°  =  745,057 


Total  heat  of  steam 1,146-1°  =  -884,712 

It  is  evident  that  the  total  latent  heat  of  steam 
cannot  be  taken  as  in  any  way  the  measure  of 
the  energy  or  work  in,  or  that  can  practically 
be  obtained  from,  the  steam.  Much  the  larger 
part  of  such  heat  is  expended  in  merely  over 
coming  the  cohesion  of  the  liquid ;  and  at 
all  temperatures  but  a  small  fraction  of  the 
latent  heat  can  be  made  available  in  perform 
ing  work.  Of  the  total,  seven  tenths  is  lost 
through  the  existence  of  natural  conditions 
over  which  man  can  probably  never  expect  to 
obtain  control,  two  tenths  through  imperfec 
tions  of  mechanism,  and  but  one  tenth  is  .util 
ized  in  even  good  engines. 

PROPERTIES    OF    SATURATED    STKAM. 


PRESSURE. 

Temperature  j 
in  degrees,  i 

Latent  heat 
in  rtefrrecg. 

ii 

i* 

H 

11 

fcfj 

'£  ~  J 
** 

=s£ 

11 

u.  & 

E  = 

J-i  ** 

li 

1  a 

1 

2-0 

102-0    1,043-0 

1,145-0    20.620 

0-0080  Ib.  0-037 

5 

10-2 

1I52-3    1,01)0-7 

1.163-4  ;  4.535 

0-0137        0-170 

10          2IC4 

193-2       979-0 

1.172-9   !  2,360 

0-0264 

0-327 

14-7     30-0 

212-0       966-6 

1,178-6     1.703 

0-0369 

0-456 

15        80-5 

213-0  '    965-0 

1.17R-9      1.612 

0-0387 

0-480 

20 

40-7 

227-9      954-4 

1,1^3-5      1.22H 

0-0511 

0-633 

25 

50-9 

240-0       945-8 

1.1*7-1 

985 

0-0684 

0-786 

30 

61-1 

250-2       938-9 

1,190-3 

827 

0-0755 

0-935 

35 

71-3 

259-2       5»:$2"J 

1.193-0 

713 

0-0875 

1-085 

40 

81-4 

26T-1 

926-5 

l.l!:5-4 

628 

0-0994 

1-232 

45 

91-6 

274-3 

921-3 

1,197-6 

562 

0-1111 

1-377 

50 

101-8 

2S0.9 

916-6 

1,199-6 

508 

0-1227 

1-521 

55 

112-0 

2869 

912-3 

1.201-4 

465 

0-1343        1-664 

CO 

122-2 

292-5 

9082 

1.203-2 

428 

0-1457 

1-805 

65 

132-3 

297-8 

904-5 

1.204-8 

898 

0-1570 

1-946 

70 

142-5 

302-7 

900-9 

1.206-3 

371 

0-1  C82 

2-084 

To 

152-7 

307-4 

897-5 

1.207-7 

348 

0-1792 

2-221 

80 

162-9 

811-8      894-3 

1,209-0 

828 

0-1901 

2-357 

85 

173-1 

316.0 

891-3 

1,210-3 

810 

0-2010 

2-492 

90 

185-2 

320-0  I    8SS-4 

1.211-6 

2!  '5 

0-2118 

2-625 

95 

193-4 

323-9       885-6 

1.212-7 

281 

0-2225 

2-757 

100 

203-6 

327-6 

882-9 

1.213-8 

268 

0-2880 

2-887 

105 

213-8 

331-1 

830-8 

1.214-9 

256 

0-2434 

3-016 

111) 

224-0 

334-5 

877-9 

1.216-0 

246 

0-2588 

3-1443 

115 

234-1 

337.8 

875-5 

1.217-0         >l:\\\ 

0-2640 

3-2718 

120 

244-3 

841-0 

873-1 

1.218-0         22S 

0-2743 

3-3988 

125 

254-5 

3441 

870-9 

1.218-9 

220 

0-2843 

3-5226 

150 

305-4 

358-2       860-6 

1.223-2 

187 

0-8840 

4-1388 

200 

407-2 

3S1-6      843-4 

1,230-3 

147 

0-4250 

5-2C62 

STEAM  BOILER 


329 


— See  King,  "Lessons  and  Practical  Notes  on 
Steam,"  &c.  (New  York,  1860 ;  19th  ed.,  1873) ; 
Fairbairn,  "Useful  Information  for  Engineers  " 
(3  series,  London,  1864-' 6);  Salter,  "Economy 
in  the  Use  of  Steam  "  (London,  1874)  ;  Perry, 
"An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Steam"  (Lon 
don,  1874) ;  Relation  des  experiences  de  M.  V. 
Regnault  (Paris) ;  and  Porter,  "  Steam  Engine 
Indicator,"  containing  a  valuable  steam  table 
(New  York,  1875). 

STEAM  BOILER.  The  use  of  steam  boilers 
dates  from  antiquity.  Hero,  who  lived  in  the 
3d  century  before  the  Christian  era,  described 
several  forms  of  boilers  which  were  used  in 
generating  steam  for  what  seem  to  have  been 
a  variety  of  philosophical  toys,  one  of  which 
is  generally  referred  to  as  the  earliest  known 
example  of  the  steam  engine.  When  steam 
began  to  be  usefully  applied,  and  considera 
ble  pressures  became  necessary,  the  forms 
given  to  boilers  were  approximately  spherical, 
ellipsoidal,  or  cylindrical.  Thus  the  boilers  of 
De  Caus  (1615)  and  of  the  marquis  of  Wor 
cester  (1663)  were  spherical ;  those  of  Savery 
(1698)  were  ellipsoidal  and  cylindrical.  After 
the  invention  of  the  steam  engine  of  Newco- 
men,  the  pressures  adopted  were  again  very 
low,  and  steam  boilers  received  irregular  forms 
until,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
they  were  again  of  necessity  gi\ten  stronger 
shapes.  The  material  was  at  first  frequently 
copper;  it  is  now  usually  wrought  iron,  and 
sometimes  steel. — The  present  forms  of  steam 
boilers  may  be  classified  as  plain,  flue,  and 
tubular  boilers.  The  plain  cylindrical  or  com 
mon  cylinder  boiler  is  the  only  representative 
of  the  first  class  in  common  use.  It  is  per 
fectly  cylindrical,  with  heads  either  flat  or 
hemispherical.  There  is  usually  attached  to 
the  boiler  a  "steam  drum"  (a  smaller  cylindri 
cal  vessel),  from  which  the  steam  is  taken  by 
the  steam  pipe.  This  enlargement  of  the  steam 
space  permits  the  mist,  held  in  suspension  by 
the  steam  when  it  first  rises  from  the  surface 
of  the  water,  to  separate  more  or  less  com- 
pletel}*  before  the  steam  is  taken  from  the 
boiler. — Flue  boilers  are  frequently  cylindri 
cal,  and  contain  one  or  more  cylindrical  flues 
which  pass  through  from  end  to  end,  beneath 
the  water  line,  conducting  the  furnace  gases, 
and  affording  a  greater  area  of  heating  sur 
face  than  can  be  obtained  in  the  plain  boil 
er.  A  cylindrical  boiler,  having  one  flue  trav 
ersing  it  longitudinally,  is  called  a  Cornish 
boiler,  as  it  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  first  used  in  Cornwall.  It  was  proba 
bly  first  invented  by  Oliver  Evans  in  the  Uni 
ted  States,  previous  to  1786,  at  which  time 
he  had  it  in  use.  The  flue  has  usually  a  diam 
eter  0*5  or  0*6  the  diameter  of  the  boiler.  A 
boiler  containing  two  longitudinal  flues  is 
called  the  Lancashire  boiler.  This  form  was 
also  introduced  by  Oliver  Evans.  The  flues 
have  one  third  the  diameter  of  the  boiler.  Sev 
eral  flues  of  smaller  diameter  are  often  used, 
and  when  a  still  greater  proportional  area  of 


heating  surface  is  required,  tubes  of  from  1J 
in.  to  4  or  5  in.  in  diameter  are  substituted 
for  flues.  The  flues  are  usually  constructed  by 
riveting  sheets  together  as  in  making  the  shell 
or  outer  portion.  They  are  sometimes  welded 
by  British  manufacturers,  but  rarely  if  ever  in 
the  United  States.  Tubes  are  always  "lap- 
welded  "  in  the  process  of  rolling  them.  Small 
tubes  were  first  used  in  the  United  States, 
about  1785.  In  portable,  locomotive,  and  ma 
rine  steam  boilers,  the  fire  must  be  built  with 
in  the  boiler  itself,  instead  of  (as  in  the  above 
described  stationary  boilers)  in  a  furnace  of 
brickwork  exterior  to  the  boiler.  The  flame 
and  gases  from  the  furnace  or  fire  box  in  these 
kin'ds  of  boiler  are  never  led  through  brick  pas 
sages  en  route  to  the  chimney,  as  often  in  the 
preceding  case,  but  are  invariably  conducted 
through  flues  or  tubes,  or  both,  to  the  smoke 
stack.  These  boilers  are  also  sometimes  used 
as  stationary  boilers.  Fig.  1  represents  a  steam 
fire  engine  boiler  in  section,  as  usually  exhibit 
ed  in  working  drawings.  F  is  the  furnace,  W 
the  water  space,  and  S  the  steam  space.  This 
is  the  form  of  boil 
er  adopted  for  the 
steam  fire  engine 
described  in  the  ar 
ticle  FIEE  ENGINE. 
In  these  boilers  the 
fire  is  usually  urged 
by  the  blast  pro 
duced  by  the  ex 
haust  from  the  en 
gine  cylinder,  and  is 
thus  rendered  very 
intense.  The  tubes 
are  frequently  made 
of  brass  or  of  cop 
per,  to  secure  rap 
id  transmission  of 
heat  to  the  water, 
and  thus  to  permit 
the  use  of  a  small 
er  area  of  heat 
ing  surface  and  a 
smaller  boiler.  The 
steam  space  is  made 
as  large  as  possi 
ble,  to  secure  immunity  from  "priming"  or 
the  "  entrainment "  of  water  with  the  steam. 
This  type  of  steam  boiler  was  the  earliest  of 
the  tubular  boilers.  It  was  invented  by  Na 
than  Read  of  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1791,  and  pat 
ented  in  April  of  that  year.  In  the  locomo 
tive  boiler,  fig.  2,  as  in  the  preceding,  the 
characteristics  are  a  fire  box  at  one  end  of 
the  shell  and  a  set  of  tubes  through  which 
the  gases  pass  directly  to  the  smoke  stack. 
Strength,  compactness,  great  steaming  capaci 
ty,  fair  economy,  moderate  cost,  and  conve 
nience  of  combination  with  the  running  parts 
are  secured  by  the  adoption  of  this  form.  It 
is  frequently  used  also  for  portable  and  sta 
tionary  engines.  It  was  invented  in  France 
by  M.  Seguin,  and  in  England  by  Booth,  and 


s 

1 

P 

| 

0 

f1 

. 

it 

III 

a- 

F        | 

FIG.  1.— Steam  Fire  Engine 
Boiler. 


330 


STEAM  BOILER 


used  by  George  Stephenson  contemporaneous-    chimney  is  omitted,  as  it  is  there  necessary  to 

keep  all  parts  of  the  boiler  as  far  below  the 
water  line  as  possible.     Steam  is  taken  from 
the  boiler  by  pipes  which  are  carried  from  end 
to  end  of  the  steam  space,  near  the  top  of  the 
boiler,  the  steam  entering  these  pipes  through 
small  holes  drilled  on  the  upper  side.     Steam 
is  thus  taken  from  the  boiler  "wet,"  but  no 
large  quantity  of  water  can  usually  be  "en 
trained"  by  the  steam.     A  marine  boiler  has 
been  quite  extensively  introduced  into  the  Uni 
ted    States    navy,    in 
which  the    gases  are 
led  from  the  back  con 
nection  through  a  tube 
box  around  and  among 
a  set  of  upright  water 
tubes,  which  are  filled 
with   water,    circula- 


ly,  in  1828  or  1829.     Fig.  3  is  a  common  form 
of  marine  steam  boiler.    It  is  used  very  exten 
sively  in  the  United  States 
when  the  steam  pressure 
does  not  exceed  40  or  45 
Ibs.  to   the   square    inch. 
The  gases,  leaving  the  fur 
nace  F,  pass  to  the  "  back 
connection  "  through  large 
flues;    there    turning,    as 


FIG.  2. — Locomotive  Boiler. 


tion  taking  place  free 
ly  from  the  water 
space  immediately 
above  the  crown  sheet 
of  the  furnace  up 
through  these  tubes 
into  the  water  space 
above  them.  These 
boilers  have  a  slight  advan- 
over  tiie  lt  tire-tubular "  boilers  already 
described  in  compactness,  in  steaming  capaci 
ty,  and  in  economical  efficiency.  They  have 
a  very  marked  advantage  in  the  facility  with 
which  the  tubes  may  be  scraped,  or  freed 
from  the  deposit  when  a  scale  of  sulphate  of 


"  water-tubular 

tage  over  the  "  fire-tubular 


shown  by  the  arrow,  they  return  to  the  front 
through  the  tubes,  and  from  the  "front  con 
nection  "  rise  into  the  chimney.  Large  steam 
space  is  secured  in  this  boiler  by  a  steam  drum, 
as  in  the  locomotive  boiler;  but  here  the 
chimney  passes  through  the  steam  drum,  and 
thus  this  "  steam  chimney,"  as  it  is  called,  is 
made  more  useful  in  drying  the  steam  and 
in  economizing  heat.  The  circular  shell,  the 
well  stayed  surfaces  of  the  fire  box  and  the 
ends,  the  convenient  distribution  of  parts,  and 
their  excellent  relative  proportions,  make  this 
one  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  types  of 
boilers  which  are  suitable  for  moderate  pres 
sure.  Fig.  4  is  a  type  of  marine  tubular 
boiler  which  is  in  most  extensive  use  in  sea 
going  steamers  for  moderate  pressure,  and 
particularly  for  naval  vessels.  Here  the  gases 
pass  directly  into  the  back  connection  from 


FIG.  4.— Marine  Fire-tubular  Boiler. 

lime  or  other  salt  has  formed  within  them  by 
precipitation  from  the  water.  The  fire-tubu 
lar  boiler  excels  in  convenience  of  access  for 
plugging  up  leaking  tubes,  and  is  much  less 
costly  than  the  water-tubular.  The  water-tube 
class  of  boilers  still  remain  in  extensive  use 
in  the  United  States  naval  steamers.  They 
have  never  been  much  used  in  the  merchant 
service,  although  introduced  by  Montgomery 

FIG.  3.— Marine  Flue  and  Tube  Boiler.  in  the  United  States  and  by  Lord  Dundonald 

in  Great  Britain  twenty  years  ago.  Opinion 
the  ^  fire,  and  thence  forward  again,  through  I  still  remains  divided  among  engineers  in  re- 
horizontal  tubes,  to  the  front  connection  and  \  gard  to  their  relative  value.  They  are  grad- 
up  the  chimney.  In  naval  vessels  the  steam  j  ually  reassuming  prominence  by  their  intro- 


STEAM  BOILER 


331 


duction  in  the  modified  form  of  sectional  boil-  | 
ers.  The  earliest  water-tubular  boilers  were 
those  of  Voight,  Kumsey,  and  Fitch,  and  were 
invented  and  known  as  "  pipe  boilers"  as  ear 
ly  as  1785.  One  of  these,  consisting  of  a  "  col 
lection  of  long  pipes  bent  so  as  to  cross  each 


Longitudinal  Section.  Cross  Section. 

FIGS.  5  and  6.— Marine  High-Pressure  Boiler. 

other  like  the  worm  of  a  still,"  was  used  in  one 
of  John  Fitch's  boats  in  1788;  another  form 
was  adopted  in  the  Babcock,  built  by  John 
Babcock  and  R.  L.  Thurston  in  1825.  (See 
"American  Journal  of  Science,"  March,  1827.) 
Where  steam  pressure  exceeds  about  30  Ibs. 
to  the  square  inch  in  marine  boilers,  they  are 
now  usually  given  the  form  shown  in  sec 
tion  in  figs.  5  and  6.  This  form  of  boiler  is 
adopted  where  steam  pressures  of  60  Ibs.  and 
upward  are  carried,  as  in  steam  vessels  sup 
plied  with  compound  engines,  cylindrical  forms 
being  considered  the  best  with  high  pressures. 
The  large  cylindrical  flues,  therefore,  form 
the  furnaces  as  shown  in  the  transverse  sec 
tional  view.  The  gases  rise,  as  shown  in  the 
longitudinal  section,  through  the  connection, 
and  pass  back  to  the  end  of  the  boiler  through 
the  tubes,  and  thence,  instead  of  entering  a 
steam  chimney,  they  are  conducted  by  a  smoke 
connection,  not  shown  in  the  sketch,  to  the 
smoke  funnel  or  stack.  In  merchant  steamers, 
a  steam  drum  is  often  mounted  horizontally 
above  the  boiler.  In  other  cases  a  separator  j 
is  attached  to  the  steam  pipe  between  boilers 
and  engines.  This  usually  consists  of  an  iron 
tank,  divided  by  a  vertical  partition  extend 
ing  from  the  top  nearly  to  the  bottom.  The 
steam,  entering  the 
top  at  one  side  of  this 
partition,  passes  un 
derneath  it,  and  up 
to  the  top  on  the  op 
posite  side,  where  it 
issues  into  a  steam 
pipe  leading  directly 
to  the  engine.  The 
sudden  reversal  of  its 
course  at  the  bottom 
causes  it  to  leave  the  suspended  water  in  the 
bottom 'of  the  separator,  whence  it  is  drained 
off  by  pipes. — Sectional  steam  boilers  are  a 
class  of  tubular  boilers  which  differ  from  or 
dinary  forms  in  their  peculiar  arrangement  of 
water  and  steam  space.  These  spaces  are  di 


vided  into  a  large  number  of  small  compart 
ments,  and  it  becomes  thus  comparatively  easy 
to  secure  a  large  "factor  of  safety,"  the  tubes 
of  which  such  boilers  are  usually  composed 
being  capable  of  sustaining  many  times  the 
pressure  proposed  to  be  carried  within  them. 
The  boilers  are  composed  either  of  a 
series  of  water  tubes,  of  such  tubes  at 
tached  to  larger  reservoirs  containing 
water  or  steam  or  both,  or  of  a  collec 
tion  of  spherical  vessels.  The  earliest 
real  sectional  steam  boilers  were  proba 
bly  that  used  by  Col.  John  Stevens  of 
Iloboken,  on  the  Hudson  river,  in  1804, 
and  another  which  was  patented  in  Great 
Britain  in  June,  1805,  by  his  son  John 
Cox  Stevens.  The  first  boiler  is  shown 
in  fig.  7.  The  inventor  says  in  his  speci 
fications:  "The  principle  of  this  inven 
tion  consists  of  forming  a  boiler  by  means 
of  a  system  or  combination  of  small 
vessels,  instead  of  using,  as  is  the  common 
mode,  one  large  one ;  the  relative  strength  of 
the  materials  of  which  these  vessels  are  com 
posed  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  diminu 
tion  of  capacity."  The  steamboat  boiler  of 
1804  was  built  to  bear  a  working  pressure  of 
over  50  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  at  a  time  when 
the  usual  pressures  were  from  4  to  7  Ibs.  It 
consists  of  two  sets  of  tubes,  closed  at  one  end 
by  solid  plugs,  and  at  their  opposite  extremi 
ties  screwed  into  a  stayed  water  and  steam 
reservoir,  which  was  strengthened  by  hoops. 
The  whole  of  the  lower  portion  was  enclosed 
in  a  jacket  of  iron  lined  with  non-conducting 
material.  The  fire  was  built  at  one  end,  in  a 
furnace  enclosed  in  this  jacket.  The  furnace 


,  , .  •"* 


Fia.  7. — John  Stevens's  Sectional  Boiler,  1S04. 


gases  passed  among  the  tubes,  down  under  the 
body  of  the  boiler,  up  among  the  opposite  set 
of  tubes,  and  thence  to  the  smoke  pipe.  In 
the  second  form,  as  applied  to  a  locomotive  in 
1825,  the  tubes  were  set  vertically  in  a  double 
circle  surrounding  the  fire.  These  boilers  are 


332 


STEAM  BOILER 


preserved  in  the  collections  of  the  Stevens  in 
stitute  of  technology,  Hob  ok  en.  Walter  Han 
cock  constructed  boilers  for  his  steam  carriage 
of  flat  plates  connected  by  stay  bolts,  several 
such  sections  composing  the  boiler ;  and  about 
the  same  time  (1828)  Sir  Goldworthy  Gurney 
constructed  for  a  similar  purpose  boilers  con 
sisting  of  a  steam  and  a  water  reservoir,  placed 
one  above  the  other,  and  connected  by  trian 
gular  water  tubes  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the 
furnace  gases.  Jacob  Perkins  made  many  ex 
periments  looking  to  the  employment  of  very 
high  steam  pressures,  and  in  1831  patented  a 
boiler  of  this  class,  in  which  the  heating  sur 
faces  nearest  the  fire  were  composed  of  iron 
tubes,  which  tubes  also  served  as  grate  bars. 
The  steam  and  water  space  was  principally 
comprised  within  a  comparatively  large  cham 
ber,  of  which  the  walls  were  secured  by  close 
ly  distributed  stay  bolts.  For  extremely  high 
pressures  boilers  composed  only  of  tubes  were 
used.  Dr.  Ernest  Alban  about  1843  repro 
duced  the  boiler  described  in  the  patent  of 
John  Stevens  (1805),  and  published  a  work  on 
"  The  High-Pressure  Steam  Engine,"  in  which 
he  described  its  construction  and  operation,  and 
declared  that  he  had  experimented  with  pres 
sures  as  high  as  1,000  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch 
(which  pressure  Perkins  also  attained),  at  which 
point  the  temperature  of  the  steam  was  suf 
ficiently  high  to  char  slightly  the  hemp  pack 
ing  of  his  engine.  The  Harrison  steam  boiler, 
which  has  been  many  years  in  use  in  the  Uni 
ted  States,  consists  of  several  sections,  each  of 
which  is  made  up  of  hollow  globes  of  cast  iron 
communicating  with  each  other  by  necks  cast 
upon  the  spheres,  and  fitted  together  with  faced 
joints.  Long  bolts,  extending  from  end  to  end 
of  each  row,  bind  the  spheres  together.  (See 
fig.  8.)  An  example  of  another  modern  type 


FIG.  8.— Harrison's  Sectional  Boiler. 

in  extensive  use  is  given  in  fig.  9,  which  con 
sists  of  a  series  of  inclined  wrought-iron  tubes, 
connected  by  T  heads,  which  form  the  vertical 
water  channels,  at  each  end.  These  tubes  are 
"  staggered,"  one  row  being  placed  immediate 
ly  above  the  space  between  two  rows  below  it. 


The  joints  are  faced  by  milling  them,  and  then 
ground  so  perfectly  tight  that  a  pressure  of 
500  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch  is  insufficient  to 
produce  leakage.  No  packing  is  used.  The 
fire  is  made  under  the  front  and  higher  end  of 
the  tubes,  and  the  products  of  combustion  pass 


FIG.  9. — Babcock  and  Wilcox^  Sectional  Boiler. 

up  between  the  tubes  into  a  combustion  cham 
ber  under  the  steam  and  water  drum ;  hence 
they  pass  down  between  the  tubes,  then  once 
more  up  through  the  space  between  the  tubes, 
and  off  to  the  chimney.  The  steam  is  taken 
out  at  the  top  of  the  steam  drum  near  the  back 
end  of  the  boiler.  The  rapid  circulation  pre 
vents  to  some  extent  the  formation  of  depos 
its  or  incrustations  upon  the  heating  surfaces, 
sweeping  them  away  and  depositing  them  in  the 
mud  drum,  whence  they  are  blown  out.  Rap 
id  circulation  of  water,  as  has  been  shown  by 
Prof.  Trowbridge,  also  assists  in  the  extraction 
of  the  heat  from  the  gases,  by  the  presentation 
of  fresh  water  continually  as  well  as  by  the 
prevention  of  incrustation.  A  sectional  steam 
boiler  like  that  illustrated  in  fig.  8  is  one  of  the 
best  examples  of  this  class  of  steam  generator. 
It  is  immensely  stronger,  is  fairly  economical 
of  fuel,  and  is  durable  when  properly  managed. 
The  sudden  introduction  of  a  large  volume  of 
cold  water,  which  is  liable  to  produce  leaks 
from  some  of  its  numerous  joints,  is  the  most 
serious  injury  to  be  apprehended.  It  is  almost 
absolutely  safe  from  explosion,  and  should  a 
globe  explode,  the  danger  to  its  surroundings 
is  comparatively  slight.  The  disadvantages  of 
this  type  are  the  small  amount  of  water  and 
of  steam  room,  which  causes  a  difficulty  in  se 
curing  regularity  of  steam  supply,  and  makes 
necessary  very  careful  and  skilful  management. 
In  the  boiler  illustrated  in  fig.  9  the  last  objec 
tion  is  avoided  by  the  use  of  the  large  steam 
and  water  drum.  Some  additional  risk  is 
thus  incurred ;  but,  as  the  flames  are  inter 
rupted  by  the  numerous  tubes  interposed  be 
tween  the  drum  and  the  fire,  the  liability 
of  injury  to  the  drum  is  too  slight  to  be  con 
sidered.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  adapt 
sectional  boilers  to  marine  engines ;  but  very 
little  progress  has  yet  been  made  in  their  in 
troduction.  The  Root  sectional  boiler,  an 
American  design,  which  is  in  extensive  use  in 
the  United  States  and  Europe,  has  been  exper 
imentally  placed  in  service  on  shipboard.  Its 


,,,uMTY   OF 


STEAM  BOILER 


333 


heating  surfaces  consist  wholly  of  tubes.  They 
are  connected  by  a  peculiarly  formed  series  of 
chambered  caps,  and  the  ends  are  made  tight 
by  packing  with  India-rubber  grummets. — The 
proportions  of  steam  boilers  vary  with  the 
type,  and  are  to  some  extent  determined  by 
special  considerations.  Efficiency  is  aifected 
by  the  proportions  of  area  of  heating  surface 
to  fuel  consumed,  of  area  of  grate  surface  to 
the  same  quantity,  and  by  general  arrangement 
of  parts.  The  method  of  producing  draught 
and  the  intensity  of  combustion  are  also  influ 
ential  in  a  great  degree  in  determining  efficien 
cy.  The  efficiency  of  the  boiler  is  to  be  studied 
in  two  parts :  the  efficiency  of  the  furnace 
proper,  or  of  the  heat-generating  apparatus, 
and  that  of  the  boiler  proper,  or  of  the  heat- 
absorbing  apparatus.  In  securing  efficiency, 
the  engineer  first  seeks  to  obtain  the  highest 
possible  temperature  of  furnace  by  thorough 
combustion  of  the  fuel  with  a  minimum  quan 
tity  of  air.  An  excess  of  air,  by  diluting  the 
products  of  combustion,  diminishes  the  tem 
perature  of  the  furnace  gases.  As  shown  by 
Prof.  Thurston,  the  abstract  efficiency  of  the 
furnace  in  any  ordinary  case  is  represented  by 

m   rp 

the  formula,  E=— — ?=— — -,  where  E  repre- 

Ti — Ts      M — T3 

sents  the  efficiency  and  n  and  r2  are  the  abso 
lute  temperatures  at  which  the  heat  is  gener 
ated,  and  at  which  wasted  heat  is  discharged, 
and  r3  that  of  the  external  air.  Ti,  T2,  T3  are 
temperatures  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale.  Sup 
pose,  in  two  instances,  the  temperatures  of 
furnace  gases,  including  excess  of  air,  were 
2118°  F.  and  919°  F.  respectively,  and  that  the 
corresponding  temperatures  of  chimney  were 
544°  and  452°,  while  the  temperature  of  exter 
nal  air  was  74°  and  86'5°.  In  these  cases  E= 

21180  —  544°  9K)o  _  452o 

— O'TT:    and    E= —  —  =0*o6: 

2118° —   74^  919°  —  86-5° 

and  the  first  is  nearly  40  per  cent,  higher  than 
the  second.  By  increasing  the  temperature  of 
the  furnace  in  the  first  case  to  2644°,  which  is 
not  an  unusual  figure,  the  available  heat  be 
comes  E=^44°~544°=0-81  of  the  whole  amount 

2664°—  74° 

generated.  The  remaining  19  per  cent,  passes 
up  the  chimney,  producing  or  assisting  in  the 
production  of  draught.  Where  fuel  is  wet,  a 
portion  of  the  lost  heat  disappears  in  vapor 
izing  the  water  contained  in  the  fuel.  The 
highest  temperature  attainable  without  dilution 
of  gases  by  an  excess  of  air  is  given  by  Prof. 
Eankine  at  4580°  F.  with  pure  carbon,  and 
5050°  with  olefiant  gas.  "With  the  more  usual 
case,  in  which  the  air  supplied  is  double  that 
theoretically  demanded,  these  temperatures  are 
reduced  to  2440°  and  2710°.  The  rate  of  com 
bustion  of  good  coal,  per  square  foot  of  grate 
per  hour,  depends  upon  the  height  of  the 
chimney.  This  rate  is  stated  by  Prof.  Thurston 
as  equal  to  one  pound  less  than  twice  the  square 
root  of  the  height  of  the  chimney  in  feet ;  i.  e., 
"W=  yTL — 1.  Rankine  determines  the  height 


of  chimney  by  the  formula,  H=A-f-(of96^  —  l), 

in  which  H  is  the  height  of  chimney,  h  the 
"  head  "  required  to  produce  the  draught,  as  ob 
tained  from  Peclet's  formula,  &=]p(l  3  +  -~], 

and  t\  and  f2  the  absolute  temperatures  of  the 
chimney  and  of  the  air.  In  Peclet's  formula, 
V  is  the  velocity  of  flow,  I  is  the  length  of 
chimney  and  flue,  and  m  is  its  ''hydraulic 
mean  depth."  For  ordinary  practice,  Isher- 
wood  found  the  proportion  of  chimney  cross 
section  to  area  of  grate  to  be  about  one  eighth. 
Probably  a  good  rule  for  general  practice  would 
be :  Make  the  area  for  draught  one  seventh  at 
the  bridge  wall,  one  eighth  through  the  flues, 
and  one  ninth  in  the  chimney,  of  the  area  of 
grate.  The  area  of  heating  surface  determines 
the  efficiency  of  the  steam  boiler  as  a  heat- 
absorbing  apparatus  and  reservoir.  Rankine 
has  given  a  formula  ("  Steam  Engines  and 
Prime  Movers,"  p.  292,  §  iv.)  for  determining 
the  efficiency  of  fuel  in  ordinary  steam-boiler 
practice,  where  the  ratio  of  the  area  of  heating 
surface,  and  of  fuel  burned  per  hour,  to  the 

square  foot  of  grate  surface,  is  known :  —  = 

B  S  E' 

S  +  AF,  in  which  —  is  the  quantity  called  above 

E,  A  and  B  are  constants,  and  F  and  S  are  the 
ratio  of  fuel  burned  per  hour  to  the  square 
foot  of  grate,  and  the  ratio  of  area  of  heating 
surface  of  grate  area.  The  effect  of  exception 
ally  low  temperature  of  furnace  is  to  equalize 
the  value  of  heating  surface ;  and  the  consider 
able  velocity  of  the  gaseous  current,  which  is 
a  consequence  of  the  unusually  great  volume 
of  air  passing  through  the  furnace,  increases 
this  effect.  The  nearer  surface  is  inefficient, 
and  the  most  distant  portions  of  the  heating 
surface  are  therefore  proportionally  much  more 
efficient  than  in  the  preceding  case.  ("Trans 
actions  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engi 
neers,"  1874-'5,  pp.  290,  303.)  With  high  tem 
perature  and  slow  movement  of  gases,  a  lower 
relative  amount  of  heating  surface  is  efficient ; 
and  with  lower  temperature  of  furnace  and 
rapid  movement  of  gases,  the  heating  surface 
must  be  extended  beyond  the  proportions  upon 
which  this  estimate  is  based.  The  constants  A 
and  B  have  values  varying  from  1  and  0'5  re 
spectively,  in  the  best  designed  boilers,  to  0'9 
and  0*5  in  ordinary  cases,  both  having  chimney 
draught,  and  to  0'95  and  0'3  for  cases  of  ordi 
nary  practice  with  forced  draught.  These  val 
ues  are  changed  very  slightly  by  wide  ranges  of 
proportions  of  heating  and  grate  surfaces,  or 

F 

of  the  value  of  -g.     The  value  of  F  has  already 

been  given.  The  value  of  S  is  variable  with 
the  style  of  boiler  used,  and  with  the  value  of 
j  fuel.  The  ratio  S  of  area  of  heating  surface  to 
grate  area,  in  ordinary  good  practice,  and  un 
der  ordinary  conditions,  may  be  taken  at  15 
with  plain  cylindrical  boilers,  20  with  Cornish, 
25  with  flue,  28  with  fire-tubular,  and  30  with 


334 


STEAM  BOILER 


water-tubular  boilers  having  moderate  draught. 
In  locomotive  and  other  boilers  Avith  forced 
draught,  the  ratio  of  heating  to  grate  surface 
rises  to  from  50  to  100  to  1.  For  the  sizes  of 
the  parts  of  steam  boilers  exposed  to  strain, 
see  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. — Burned  in  the 
furnace  of  good  steam  boilers,  a  cord  of  dry 
yellow  pine,  in  the  experiments  of  Prof.  Wal 
ter  R.  Johnson,  evaporated  12,618-3  Ibs.  of 
water.  A  cord  of  dry  yellow  pine  is  approxi 
mately  equal  in  heating  power  to  O'G  of  a  ton 
of  coal,  and  a  ton  of  good  coal  is  equal  in  cal 
orific  power  to  1-66  cord  of  soft  wood.  As  an 
average,  a  pound  of  dry  wood  is  theoretically 
capable  of  evaporating  6*66  Ibs.  of  water  from 
and  at  212°  F.  Similarly,  a  pound  of  good 
anthracite  should  evaporate  13§5  Ibs.  of  water. 
(See  FUEL.)  Incomplete  combustion  is  caused 
by  an  insufficient  supply  of  air,  by  imperfect 
intermixture  of  air  and  combustible  gases  from 
the  fuel,  and  by  the  falling  of  fuel  through  the 
grate  into  the  ash  pit.  These  losses  are  usually 
largely  due  to  unskilful  management,  and  they 
amount  frequently  to  15  per  cent.  They  are 
sometimes  due  to  defects  of  design.  Loss  of 
efficiency  is  also  produced,  as  already  shown, 
by  excessive  air  supply,  which,  while  insuring 
complete  combustion,  lowers  the  temperature 
of  the  furnace.  Losses  occur  by  conduction 
and  radiation  of  heat  from  the  boiler,  the  fur 
nace,  or  the  flues.  This  can  usually  be  reduced 
to  a  very  small  amount  by  properly  protecting 
the  apparatus  by  non-conducting  covering. 
Loss  may  occur  by  the  passage  of  the  gases  to 
the  chimney  before  their  temperature  has  been 
reduced  to  that  required  for  draught.  This  can 
be  prevented  by  providing  a  sufficient  extent 
of  heating  surface. — Incrustation  and  depos 
its  are  produced  by  the  precipitation  upon  the 
interior  of  the  boiler  of  substances  held  in 
solution  or  in  suspension  by  the  water.  Sea 
water  precipitates  sulphate  of  lime,  and,  pass 
ing  a  concentration  of  ^-f,  or  when  it  contains 
36-37  per  cent,  of  salt,  it  precipitates  the  ex 
cess.  River  waters  produce  scales  composed 
of  lime  carbonates  and  sulphates  and  various 
other  mineral  salts. — The  horse  power  of  a 
steam  boiler  is  an  indefinite  and  inappropriate 
term.  It  was  formerly  assumed  that  the  evap 
oration  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  would  yield 
sufficient  steam  to  drive  an  engine  of  one  horse 
power  one  hour.  A  moderately  good  modern 
engine  should  not  use  more  than  half  this 
amount,  and  a  good  boiler  should  evaporate 
half  a  cubic  foot  an  hour  for  each  12  sq.  ft.  of 
heating  surface.  A  good  engine  of  100  horse 
power  would  therefore  be  supplied  with  steam 
by  a  good  boiler  of.  1,200  sq.  ft.  area  of  tieat- 
ing  surface.  The  most  economical  engines 
recently  built  use  only  about  one  fourth  of  a 
cubic  foot  or  16  Ibs.  of  water  per  horse  pow 
er  per  hour. — Steam  boiler  explosions  occur 
as  a  consequence  of  ignorance  or  carelessness 
in  design,  in  construction,  jor  in  management. 
Experimental  explosions  in  Great  Britain,  and 
notably  in  the  United  States,  have  shown  that 


even  low  pressures  are  sufficient  to  produce 
very  violent  explosions.  The  explosion  experi 
ments  of  Francis  B.  Stevens,  in  November, 
1871  (reported  by  R.  H.  Thurston  in  "Journal 
of  the  Franklin  Institute,"  1872),  were  consid 
ered  to  indicate :  1,  that  a  most  violent  explo 
sion  may  occur  in  a  boiler  well  supplied  with 
water;  2,  that  what  is  generally  considered  a 
moderate  steam  pressure  may  produce  a  very 
violent  explosion  of  a  weak  boiler  containing 
a  large  body  of  water,  and  having  all  its  flues 
well  covered.  The  same  writer  estimated  that 
one  of  the  boilers  exploded  by  Mr.  Stevens 
contained  40,000  Ibs.  of  water;  and  that  when 
the  steam  pressure  was,  as  at  the  time  of  ex 
plosion,  53  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  the  heat 
stored  in  the  boiler  amounted  to  2,674,080 
British  thermal  units,  equivalent  in  mechani 
cal  energy  to  about  2,064,389,760  foot  pounds, 
or,  if  wholly  so  expended,  sufficient  to  raise 
the  whole  boiler,  weighing  70,000  Ibs.,  to  a 
height  of  29,491  ft.,  or  more  than  five  miles. 
The  conclusion  reached  was:  "  That  it  is  very 
certain  that  the  energy  of  this  explosion,  and 
all  of  its  tremendous  effects,  were  principally 
due  to  the  simple  expansion  of  a  mass  of  steam 
suddenly  liberated  at  a  moderate  pressure,  by 
the  general  disrupture  of  a  steam  boiler  of  very 
uniform  but  feeble  strength."  "When  steam 
boilers  are  locally  weak,  explosion  rarely  oc 
curs.  The  steam  pressure  produces  rupture  at 
the  weakest  point,  and,  the  strength  of  sur 
rounding  parts  being  sufficient  to  prevent  ex 
tension  of  the  break,  no  explosion  occurs. 
Where  the  weakest  portions  of  the  boiler  are 
more  extended  and  more  uniformly  weak,  the 
extent  of  the  rupture  which  finally  occurs  be 
comes  greater,  and  the  accident  is  attended 
with  greater  violence  of  disruption,  and  more 
serious  results  follow.  Where  considerable 
portions  of  the  boiler  are  weak,  or  long  lines 
of  weakness  exist  uninterrupted  by  points 
much  more  defective,  disastrous  explosions  aro 
very  likely  to  take  place  with  old  boilers  and 
at  moderate  pressures.  The  most  terrible  ex 
plosions  occur  with  good  and  uniformly  strong 
boilers,  in  which,  by  accident  or  mismanage 
ment,  steam  has  been  allowed  to  accumulate 
until  a  fatally  high  pressure  produces  rupture 
and  drives  the  fragments  of  the  boiler  in  all 
directions.  It  has  been  shown  by  compiling 
the  statistics  of  explosions,  that  the  gradual  ac 
cumulation  of  steam  until  a  pressure  is  reached 
under  which  the  weakest  portion  of  the  boiler 
gives  way,  is  by  far  the  most  usual  cause. 
Prof.  Trowbridge  has  shown  that  the  time  of 
accumulation  may  be  calculated  by  a  formula, 

T=^p9  in  which  T  is  the  time  of  accu 
mulation,  in  minutes,  from  the  pressure  corre 
sponding  to  the  temperature  t  to  that  of  the 
temperature  tt  F. ;  W  is  the  weight  of  water 
in  the  boiler,  and  Q  the  quantity  of  heat  in 
British  units  transferred  to  the  boiler  per  min 
ute.  He  shows  that  T=9'l  minutes  in  a  large 
marine  boiler,  containing  79,000  Ibs.  of  water, 


STEAM  BOILER 


STEAM   CARRIAGE 


335 


and  with  the  pressure  rising  from  2|  to  4  at 
mospheres.  In  a  locomotive  boiler,  he  esti 
mates  the  time  required  to  raise  the  pressure 
from  90  Ibs.,  the  working  point,  to  175  Ibs., 
the  assumed  exploding  point,  at  3^  minutes. 
A  safety  valve,  of  sufficient  size  and  of  good 
design,  is  the  safeguard  against  such  accidents, 
being  so  weighted  that  it  will  never  allow  the 
steam  to  rise  above  a  pressure  at  which  a 
proper  ''factor  of  safety"  is  given.  Steam 
boilers  should  be  designed  with  a  factor  of  safe 
ty  of  at  least  6  or  8,  but  they  are  frequently, 
even  when  new,  capable  of  sustaining  with 
out  rupture  no  more  than  four  times  the  reg 
ular  working  pressure.  As  they  deteriorate 
with  age,  the  factor  of  safety  is  too  generally 
allowed  to  decrease,  until  it  becomes  as  small 
as  legal  requirements  permit.  This  has  usu 
ally  been  far  too  low  in  the  United  States, 
and  frequently  boilers  are  legally  passed  by 
the  inspectors  when  their  factors  of  safety  are 
less  than  1-J.  The  accumulation  of  steam  to  an 
excessively  high  pressure  is  found  to  be  most 
commonly  due  to  defective  pressure  gauges,  to 
entire  deficiency  of  pressure  indicators,  and 
to  the  absence  of  or  defects  in  safety  valves. 
Boilers  fail  in  consequence  of  deficiency  of 
water,  which,  causing  exposure  of  heating  sur 
faces  to  the  heated  gases  without  protection, 
permits  them  to  become  overheated  and  weak 
ened.  Braces  and  straps  are  weakened  by  cor 
rosion,  and  even  entirely  severed.  Plates  are 
cracked  by  changes  of  temperature  and  irregu 
lar  expansion  and  contraction,  or  even  burned 
as  just  described,  and  are  blistered  in  conse 
quence  of  defective  manufacture.  Deposits 
cover  the  heating  surfaces,  and,  interposing  a 
non-conducting  coating,  between  the  metal  and 
the  water,  permit  overheating  to  take  place 
even  when  the  boiler  is  amply  supplied  with 
water.  Corrosion  produces  extended  and  uni 
form  weakening  of  sheets,  or,  forming  grooves 
along  the  lines  of  junction  of  the  plates,  creates 
long  lines  of  weakness.  The  sudden  evolution 
of  steam,  in  such  volumes  that  the  pressure  is 
increased  too  rapidly  to  be  effectively  relieved 
by  the  safety  valve  or  by  the  supply  pipe  lead 
ing  to  the  engine,  is  considered  by  many  au 
thorities  to  be  an  occasional  cause  of  explo 
sion.  This  may  be  caused  by  the  overheating 
of  a  portion  of  heating  surface  not  in  contact 
with  the  water  (as  when  a  deficiency  of  water 
occurs,  or  when  the  surface  is  heavily  coated 
with  scale),  and  a  subsequent  sudden  return 
of  the  water  into  contact  with  the  metal.  The 
occurrence  of  the  "spheroidal  state"  may,  it 
is  supposed,  sometimes  produce  this  effect 
when  the  liquid  is  restored  to  contact  with  the 
plate.  (See  BOILING  POINT.)  A  committee  of 
the  Franklin  institute  in  1833-'6  experimented 
upon  the  first  of  the  above  named  conditions, 
and  found  that  very  considerable  accessions 
of  pressure  might  be  caused  by  the  sudden 
return  of  the  water  upon  overheated  surfaces. 
The  superheating  of  the  water,  as  in  experi 
ments  of  Donny,  Dufour,  and  others,  is  also 
VOL.  xv.— 22 


supposed  to  be  a  possible  cause  of  explosions. 
The  United  States  government  has  appointed 
a  commission  to  investigate  this  subject.  They 
have  produced  many  explosions  by  over  pres 
sure,  by  injecting  feed  water  upon  overheated 
iron  in  boilers,  but  have  not  yet  (1876)  made 
their  report.  It  is  generally  supposed  by  en 
gineers  that  good  design,  good  materials  and 
workmanship,  and  skilful  and  intelligent  man 
agement,  will  almost  invariably  insure  perfect 
immunity  from  danger  of  explosion;  but  the 
phenomena  of  sudden  evolution  of  steam  in 
steam  boilers  have  not  yet  been  fully  inves 
tigated  by  any  thoroughly  scientific  series  of 
experimental  researches.  Steam  boilers  are 
usually  tested  at  regular  intervals.  Careful  and 
skilful  inspection  will  almost  invariably  detect 
all  serious  defects.  Every  sheet  should  be  exam 
ined  to  discover  blisters,  lamination,  fracture,  or 
corrosion.  The  use  of  a  light  hammer,  tapping 
its  surface  and  following  the  seams,  will  gen 
erally  in  practised  hands  reveal  such  defects 
and  indicate  their  extent.  All  stays  and  braces 
should  be  carefully  examined,  and  the  boiler 
fittings,  valves,  and  gauges  should  be  inspected, 
and  the  last  should  be  tested.  After  such  an 
inspection  and  the  repair  of  injured  parts,  it 
is  considered  by  many  engineers  to  be  advisa 
ble  to  subject  the  boiler  to  a  hydrostatic  test. 
This  consists  in  filling  it  with  water,  and  rais 
ing  the  pressure  to  a  point  exceeding  by  one 
half  or  more  the  regular  working  pressure. 
This  form  of  test  is  prescribed  by  the  laws  of 
the  United  States  regulating  steam-boiler  man 
agement  on  steam  vessels.  (See  BOILING  POINT, 
EVAPORATION,  HEAT,  and  VAPORIZATION.) — See 
N.  Burgh,  "  Steam  Boilers  "  (London,  1871) ; 
E.  B.  Martin,  "Steam  Boiler  Explosions" 
(London.  1871);  L.  Delvordre,  Traite  pratique 
sn r  les  chaudieres  d  vapeur  (Paris,  1872); 
Trowbridge,  "Heat  as  a  Source  of  Power" 
(New  York,  1874);  R.  Wilson,  "Treatise  on 
Steam  Boilers  "  (London,  1874) ;  and  J.  Lau 
rent,  Chaudieres  d  vapeur  (Paris,  1875). 

STEAM  CARRIAGE.  Road  locomotives  and 
traction  engines  have  been  frequently  con 
structed  for  the  transportation  of  both  freight 
and  passengers,  and  for  hauling  wagons  carry 
ing  heavy  loads.  The  latter  application  only 
has  been  permanently  successful,  although  re 
peated  attempts  have  been  made  to  perfect 
steam  carriages  of  'high  speed.  As  early  as 
1759  Dr.  Robinson  called  the  attention  of 
Watt  to  the  possibility  of  constructing  a  car 
riage  to  be  driven  by  a  steam  engine.  The 
first  actual  experiment  was  made,  as  is  sup 
posed,  by  a  French  army  officer,  Nicolas  Jo 
seph  Cngnot,  in  1709.  Encouraged  by  the 
partial  success  of  the  first  locomotive,  he  con 
structed  a  second  in  1770,  which  is  still  pre 
served  in  the  conservatoire  des  arts  et  metiers, 
Paris.  Watt  patented  a  road  engine  in  1784. 
About  the  same  time  his  assistant,  Murdoch, 
completed  and  made  a  trial  of  a  model  locomo 
tive,  driven  by  a  "grasshopper  engine,"  hav 
ing  a  steam  cylinder  -|  in.  in  diameter  and  2  in. 


336 


STEAM  CARRIAGE 


stroke.  It  is  said  to  have  run  6  to  8  m.  an 
hour.  In  1786-'7  Oliver  Evans  obtained  from 
the  Pennsylvania  legislature  the  monopoly 
of  his  method  of  applying  the  steam  engine 
in  driving  flour  mills,  and  from  Maryland  a 
similar  privilege  in  regard  to  propelling  wag- 


FIG.  1.— Cugnot's  Steam  Carriage,  1770. 

ons.  In  the  same  or  the  following  year  Wil 
liam  Symington  constructed  a  working  model 
of  a  steam  carriage,  which  is  now  in  the  patent 
museum  at  South  Kensington,  London.  In 
1804  Oliver  Evans  completed  a  flat-bottomed 
boat  to  be  used  in  dredging  at  the  Philadel 
phia  docks,  and,  mounting  it  on  wheels,  drove 
it  by  its  own  steam  engine  to  the  river  bank. 
Launching  the  craft,  he  propelled  it  down  the 
river,  using  its  engine  to  drive  its  paddle 
wheels.  Evans's  "  Oruktor  Amphibolos,"  as 
he  named  the  machine,  was  the  first  road  loco 
motive  that  we  find  described  after  Cugnot's 
time.  In  1821  Julius  Griffiths  of  London  made 
a  steam  carriage  to  carry  passengers  on  com 
mon  roads,  which  was  probably  the  first  ever 
constructed  for  that  purpose  only.  During  the 
succeeding  10  or  15  years,  Messrs.  Burstall  and 
Hill  and  Eramah  of  London  and  Edinburgh, 
Sir  Goldworthy  Gurney,  the  Messrs.  Seaward, 
Sir  Charles  Dance,  W.  II.  James,  Walter  Han 
cock,  Ogle  and  Summers,  and  others  in  Great 
Britain,  and  Harrison  Dyar,  Joseph  Dixon, 
Rufus  Porter,  and  Mr.  James  in  the  United 
States,  attacked  this  problem  with  varying 
success.  Sir  Charles  Dance  made  several  hun 
dred  trips  between  London  and  Cheltenham 
in  1831.  Hancock  ran  between  London  and 
Stratford,  and  Scott  Russell  from  Glasgow  to 
Paisley.  From  May  to  October,  1836,  Han- 


FIG.  2. — Hancock's  Steam  Carriage. 

cock  ran  several  carriages  on  the  Paddington 
road.  The  general  introduction  of  railroads, 
which  took  place  immediately  after  the  estab 
lishment  of  steam  locomotion  on  the  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  railway  in  1829,  put  an  end  to 
what  had  promised  to  become  an  important 


and  successful  method  of  transportation  of 
passengers  and  light  merchandise.  In  Decem 
ber,  1833,  more  than  20  steam  carriages  were 
in  use  or  under  contract  in  and  near  London. 
It  was  proposed  to  substitute  steam  carriages, 
capable  of  travelling  12  or  15  m.  an  hour,  for 
coaches  drawn  by  horses  on  all  mail  routes. 
Hostile  legislation  procured  by  opposing  inter 
ests,  and  the  rapid  progress  of  steam  locomo 
tion  on  railroads,  caused  an  interruption  of  ex 
periment,  and  almost  nothing  was  done  during 
the  succeeding  quarter  of  a  century.  It  is  only 
within  a  few  years  that  any  business  has  been 
founded  upon  the  construction  of  road  loco 
motives,  although  the  scheme  seems  to  have 
been  at  no  time  entirely  given  up.  J.  Scott 
Russell,  Boydell,  and  a  few  others  in  England, 
and  Messrs.  Roper,  Dudgeon,  Fawkes,  Latta, 
and  J.  K.  Fisher,  in  the  United  States,  have 
all  labored  in  this  direction.  The  last  named 
engin'eer  designed  his  first  steam  carriage  in 
1840,  and  was  at  work  upon  the  problem  till 
his  death  in  1873.  A  few  firms  have  succeed 
ed  within  a  few  years  in  making  a  business 
of  constructing  road  locomotives  for  hauling 
heavy  loads,  and  in  building  steam  road  roll- 


FIG.  3. — Fisher's  Steam  Carriage. 

ers ;  but  steam  carriages  of  high  speed,  adapt 
ed  to  the  transportation  of  passengers,  have  not 
yet  been  successfully  introduced.  The  great 
est  impediments  seem  to  be  the  roughness  and 
bad  construction  of  the  ordinary  highway,  the 
frightening  of  horses,  the  engineering  difficul 
ties  of  construction,  and  the  limited  power  of 
the  machine  as  it  has  usually  been  built.  The 
capabilities  of  the  road  locomotive  are  readily 
determined  by  experiment,  and  the  following 
is  an  abstract  of  the  results  of  several  series 
of  trials.  A  trial  of  a  road  engine  wns  made 
by  the  well  known  French  engineer  II.  Tresca, 
in  presence  of  Prof.  Fleemirg  Jenkin,  and  the 
report  was  submitted  on  Jan.  15,  1868.  The 
results  were  as  follows:  1.  The  coefficient  of 
traction  was  about  0%25  on  a  good  road  with 
easy  grades.  2.  The  consumption  of  coal  was 
4'4  Ibs.  per  horse  power  per  hour.  3.  The  con 
sumption  of  water  was  132*2  gallons  an  hour 
with  the  ten-horse  engine.  4.  The  coefficient 
of  adherence,  or  of  friction  between  the  wheels 
and  the  soil,  was  0*3.  5.  A  speed  of  7  m.  an 
hour  caused  no  special  difficulty  in  managing 
either  the  locomotive  or  its  load.  About  this 


STEAM  CARRIAGE 


same  time  M.  Servel  conducted  a  series  of  ex 
periments  with  a  similar  machine  upon  paved 
and  upon  macadamized  roads,  during  what  lie 
described  as  the  most  trying  of  winter  weath 
er.  He  reports  the  following  distribution  of 
weight  per  cent. : 


Weight  of  locomotive. . 

of  wagons 

"        of  paying  load . 


Total... 


...  41-4 

...  1S-2 

. .  .  40-4 

.  100 


The  average  total  weight  of  three  loaded 
wagons,  which  was  the  usual  load,  was  22,575 
kilogrammes,  or  about  22  tons.  The  experi 
ment  was  made  in  1867-'8  of  applying  these 
engines  to  the  towage  of  boats  on  the  French 
canals,  with  very  encouraging  results.  In  1871 
several  traction  engines  were  exhibited  before 
the  royal  agricultural  society  of  England  at 
Wolverhampton,  and  the  judges  made  a  se 
ries  of  careful  tests,  reported  in  its  "Jour 
nal  "  for  that  year.  The  coal  used  on  special 
trial  amounted  to  3*2  Ibs.  per  indicated  horse 
power  per  hour,  and  the  evaporation  of  water 
was  7'62  Ibs.  per  pound  of  coal  consumed,  the 
average  temperature  of  feed  being  175°  F. 
The  load  drawn  up  the  -maximum  grade  of 
264  ft.  to  the  mile  on  Tottenham  hill,  which  is 
1,900  ft.  from  top  to  bottom,  was  20  tons, 
and  including  weight  of  engine  38  tons,  giving 
a  coefficient  of  traction  of  0*35.  On  a  country 
road  16  m.  long  it  drew  15  tons  at  an  average 
rate  of  3^  m.  an  hour,  using  2*85  Ibs.  of  coal 
and  1-9-4  gallon  of  water  per  ton  of  useful 
load  per  mile.  In  October,  1871,  Prof.  R.  H. 
Thurston  conducted  a  public  trial  of  road  en 
gines  and  steam  road  rollers,  on  a  well  mac 
adamized  road  at  South  Orange,  N.  J.  Two 
road  steamers  or  traction  engines  and  a  steam 
road  roller  were  tried.  The  following  are  the 
principal  dimensions  :  weight  of  engine  com 
plete,  5  tons4cwt.  (11,648  Ibs.);  diameter  of 
steam  cylinder,  7|  in.  ;  stroke  of  piston,  10 
in. ;  revolutions  of  crank  to  one  of  driving 
wheel,  17;  diameter  of  driving  wheels,  60  in.; 
length  of  boiler  over  all,  8  ft. ;  diameter  of 
boiler  shell,  30  in.  ;  load  on  driving  wheels,  4 
tons  10  cwt.  (10,080  Ibs.).  The  boiler  was  of 
the  ordinary  locomotive  type,  and  the  engine 
was  mounted  upon  it,  as  is  usual  with  portable 
engines.  A  representation  of  the  engine  is 
given  in  the  article  PLOUGH  (fig.  10).  The  en 
gine  valve  gear  consisted  of  a  three-ported  valve 
and  Stephenson  link,  with  reversing  lever,  as 
generally  used  on  locomotives.  The  connection 
between  the  gearing  and  the  driving  wheels 
was  effected  by  the  device  called  by  builders 
of  cotton  machinery  a  Jack-in-the-box  gear, 
or  differential  gear.  By  this  combination,  the 
effort  exerted  by  the  engine  is  made  equal  at 
both  wheels  at  all  times,  even  when  the  engine 
is  turning  a  corner.  The  weight  of  the  steam 
road  roller  was  15  tons.  The  engine  and  boiler 
were  of  the  same  general  dimensions  as  in  the 
road  locomotives  already  described.  The  whole 
machine  was  carried  on  four  large  wheels, 


with  broad  tread,  covering  a  total  width  of  6 
ft.  Its  weight  exerts  a  compressive  force  of 
5,600  Ibs.  on  each  foot  of  width,  or  467  Ibs.  on 
each  inch.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  the 
conclusions  deduced  from  the  trial,  and  pub 
lished  in  the  "  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Insti 
tute  :  "  A  traction  engine  may  be  so  construct 
ed  as  to  be  easily  and  rapidly  manoeuvred 
on  the  common  road ;  and  an  engine  weigh 
ing  over  5  tons  may  be  turned  continuously 
without  difficulty  on  a  circle  of  18  ft.  radius, 
or  even  on  a  road  but  little  wider  than  the 
length  of  the  engine.  A  locomotive  of  5  tons 
4  cwt.  has  been  constructed,  capable  of  draw 
ing  on  a  good  road  23,000  Ibs.  up  a  grade  of 
533  ft.  to  the  mile,  at  the  rate  of  4  m.  an  hour  ; 
and  one  might  be  constructed  to  draw  more 
than  63,000  Ibs.  up  a  grade  of  225  ft,  to  the 
mile,  at  the  rate  of  2  m.  an  hour.  It  was  fur 
ther  shown  that  the  coefficient  of  traction  with 
heavily  laden  wagons  on  a  good  macadamized 
road  is  not  far  from  j-*-^;  the  traction  power 
of  this  engine  is  equal  to  that  of  20  horses; 
the -weight,  exclusive  of  the  weight  of  the  en 
gine,  that  could  be  drawn  on  a  level  road, 
was  163,452  Ibs.;  and  the  amount  of  fuel  re 
quired  is  estimated  at  500  Ibs.  a  day.  The  ad 
vantages  claimed  for  the  traction  engine  over 
horse  power  are :  no  necessity  for  a  limita 
tion  of  working  hours;  a  difference  in  first 
cost  in  favor  of  steam ;  and  in  heavy  work  on 
a  common  road  the  expense  by  steam  is  less 
than  25  per  cent,  of  the  average  cost  of  horse 
power,  a  traction  engine  capable  of  doing  the 
work  of  25  horses  being  worked  at  as  little  ex 
pense  as  six  or  eight  horses. — Railroad  Loco 
motives.  Steam  carriages  for  use  on  railroads, 
or  locomotives,  came  into  public  notice  subse 
quently  to  the  introduction  of  steam  carriages 
on  the  common  road,  but  they  soon  displaced 
the  latter,  and  have  now  become  the  most 
usual  means  of  transportation.  In  1802  Trevi- 
thick,  a  Cornish  miner,  patented  a  high-pres 
sure  locomotive  with  a  fly  wheel  on  the  crank 
shaft.  Draught  was  secured  by  means  of  bel 
lows.  This  little  engine  was  so  powerful  that 
the  inventor  found  the  adhesion  of  the  driving 
wheels  to  the  rails  insufficient,  and  proposed 
the  use  of  gearing  which  should  engage  a  rack 
laid  down  between  the  rails.  Blenkinsop  pur 
sued  Trevithick's  plans,  and  made  a  locomotive 
which  ran  10  m.  an  hour.  Blackett  in  1812 
made  a  better  distribution  of  weight,  and  ob 
tained  ample  adhesion.  John  Stevens  of  Ho- 
boken,  N.  J.,  in  1812  memorialized  the  legis 
lature  of  the  state  of  Xew  York,  urging  the 
building  of  railways,  and  showing  their  advan 
tages.  He  published  a  pamphlet  in  which  he 
predicted  that  trains  of  carriages  would  be 
drawn  on  railways  at  20  or  30  m.  an  hour,  and 
that  they  might  attain  40  or  50  m.  an  hour ; 
and  he  further  says:  "I  can  see  nothing  to 
hinder  a  steam  carriage  from  moving  on  these 
ways  (rails)  with  a  velocity  of  100  m.  an  hour." 
Subsequently  Stevens  applied  his  steam  boiler, 
j  patented  in  1805,  to  a  locomotive,  which  was 


338 


STEAM  CARRIAGE 


used  however  only  experimentally.  George 
Stephenson  in  1814  introduced  the  locomotive 
in  Great  Britain.  The  steam  blast  of  Hack- 
worth,  the  tubular  boiler  of  Seguin,  and  the 
link  motion  of  Stephenson  constitute  the  es 
sential  features  of  the  modern  locomotive. 
(See  RAILEOAD.)  Locomotives  have  gradually 
and  steadily  increased  in  size  and  power  from 
the  date  of  their  introduction.  The  Rocket, 
which  first  proved  conclusively  in  1829  the 
value  of  steam  locomotion,  weighed  4J  tons. 
In  1835  Robert  Stephenson,  who  had  con 
structed  it  with  his  father,  writing  to  Robert 
L.  Stevens,  said  that  he  was  making  his  en 
gines  heavier  and  heavier,  and  that  the  en 
gine  of  which  he  enclosed  a  sketch  weighed 
nine  tons  and  could  draw  ;'  100  tons  at  the 
rate  of  16  m.  an  hour,  on  a  level."  Loco 
motives  are  now  built  weighing  70  tons,  and 
powerful  enough  to  draw  more  than  2,000  tons 
at  a  speed  of  20  m.  an  hour.  The  modern  lo 
comotive  consists  of  a  boiler  of  the  form  shown 
in  the  article  STEAM  BOILEE,  mounted  upon 
a  strong  light  frame  of  forged  iron,  by  which 
it  is  connected  with  the  wheels.  The  largest 


FIG.  4.— British  Express  Engine. 

engine  yet  constructed  in  the  United  States  is 
said  to  be  one  in  use  on  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  railroad,  having  a  weight  of  about 
100,000  Ibs.,  which  is  carried  on  12  driving 
wheels.  A  locomotive  has  two  steam  cylin 
ders,  either  side  by  side  within  the  frame,  and 
immediately  beneath  the  forward  end  of  the 
boiler,  or  on  each  side  and  exterior  to  the 
frame.  The  engines  are  non-condensing  and 
of  the  simplest  possible  construction.  The 
whole  machine  is  carried  upon  strong  but 
flexible  steel  springs.  The  steam  pressure  is 
usually  more  than  100  Ibs.  The  pulling  power 
is  generally  about  one  fifth  the  weight  under 
most  favorable  conditions,  and  becomes  as  low 
as  one  tenth  on  wet  rails.  The  fuel  employed 
is  wood  in  new  countries,  coke  in  bituminous 
coal  districts,  and  anthracite  coal  in  the  east 
ern  part  of  the  United  States.  The  general  ar 
rangement  and  the  proportions  of  locomotives 
differ  somewhat  in  different  localities.  In  fig. 
4,  a  British  express  engine,  0  is  the  boiler,  N 
the  fire  box,  Xthe  grate,  G  the  smoke  box,  and 
P  the  chimney.  S  is  a  spring  and  R  a  lever 
safety  valve,  T  is  the  whistle,  L  the  throttle 


or  regulator  valve,  E  the  steam  cylinder,  and 
W  the  driving  wheel.  The  force  pump,  B  0, 
is  driven  from  the  cross  head,  D.  The  frame 
is  the  base  of  the  whole  system,  and  all  other 
parts  are  firmly  secured  to  it.  The  boiler  is 
made  fast  at  one  end,  and  provision  is  made 
for  its  expansion  when  heated.  Adhesion  is 
secured  by  throwing  a  proper  proportion  of 
the  weight  upon  the  driving  wheel  W.  This 
is  from  about  6,000  Ibs.  on  standard  freight 
engines,  having  several  pairs  of  drivers,  to  10,- 
000  Ibs.  on  passenger  engines,  per  axle.  The 
peculiarities  of  the  American  type  are  the  truck 
or  bogie  supporting  the  forward  part  of  the 
engine,  the  system  of  equalizers,  or  beams 
which  distribute  the  weight  of  the  machine 
equally  over  the  several  axles,  and  minor  dif 
ferences  of  detail.  The  cab  or  house  protect 
ing  the  engine  driver  and  fireman  is  an  Ameri 
can  device,  which  is  gradually  coming  into  use 
abroad  also.  The  American  locomotive  is  dis 
tinguished  by  its  flexibility  and  ease  of  action 
upon  even  roughly  laid  roads.  The  cost  of 
passenger  locomotives  of  ordinary  size  is  about 
$12,000  ;  heavier  engines  sometimes  cost  $20,- 
000.  The  locomotive  is  usually  furnished  with 
a  tender,  which  carries  its  fuel  and  water.  The 
standard  passenger  engine  on  the  Pennsylva 
nia  railroad  has  four  driving  wheels,  5^  ft.  di 
ameter  ;  steam  cylinders,  17  in.  diameter  and 
2  ft.  stroke ;  grate  surface  15^  sq.  ft.,  and  heat 
ing  surface  1,058  sq.  ft.  It  weighs  63,100  Ibs., 
of  which  39,000  Ibs.  are  on  the  drivers  and 
24,100  on  the  truck.  The  shell  of  the  boiler  is 
49J  in.  diameter  and  20  ft.  2|-  in.  long.  The 
fire  box  is  of  steel,  6  ft.  2  in.  long  outside,  3^ 
ft.  wide,  and  5  ft.  4  in.  high.  The  tubes  are  of 
iron,  142  in  number,  2J  in.  diameter,  and  11  ft. 
7  in.  long.  The  steam  dome  is  30  in.  outside 
diameter,  the  smoke  stack  14^  in.  The  feed 
water  is  supplied  by  one  pump  of  2  in.  diame 
ter  and  2  ft.  stroke,  and  by  a  No.  8  Giffard  in 
jector.  The  valves  are  16^  in.  wide  by  8^  in. 
long,  and  have  5  in.  travel.  The  steam  ports  are 
15|J  in.  wide  and  1J  in.  long,  and  the  exhaust 
port  15^-f  by  2^  in.  The  lap  of  the  valve  is, 
outside  f  in.,  inside  ^  in.  The  eccentrics  have 
a  throw  of  4£  in.  The  freight  engine  has  six 
driving  wheels,  54f  in.  in  diameter.  The  steam 
cylinders  are  18  in.  in  diameter,  stroke  22  in., 
grate  surface  14.8  sq.  ft.,  heating  surface  1,096 
ft.  It  weighs  68,500  Ibs.,  of  which  48,000  are 
on  the  drivers  and  20,500  on  the  truck.  The 
boiler  is  nearly  of  the  same  dimensions  as  that 
of  the  passenger  engine,  but  the  tubes  are  2^- 
in.  in  diameter,  12  ft.  9T\  in.  long,  and  119  in 
number.  The  stack  is  18  in.  in  diameter.  The 
pump  is  2J  in.  in  diameter,  and  has  a  stroke  of 
22  in.  The  valve  has  f  in.  inside  lap,  TV  in. 
outside.  The  former  takes  a  train  of  five  cars 
up  an  average  grade  of  90  ft.  to  the  mile.  The 
latter  is  attached  to  a  train  of  11  cars.  On  a 
grade  of  50  ft.  to  the  mile,  the  former  takes  7 
and  the  latter  17  cars.  Tank  engines  for  very 
heavy  work,  such  as  on  grades  of  320  ft.  to  the 
mile,  which  are  found  on  some  of  the  moun- 


STEAM  ENGINE 


339 


tain  lines  of  road,  are  made  with  five  pairs  of 
driving  wheels,  and  with  no  truck.  The  steam 
cylinders  are  20i  in.  in  diameter,  2  ft.  stroke ; 
grate  area,  15f  ft. ;  heating  surface,  1,380  ft.; 
weight  with  tank  full,  and  full  supply  of  wood, 
112,000  Ibs.;  average  weight,  108,000  Ibs.  Such 
an  engine  has  hauled  110  tons  up  this  grade  at 
the  speed  of  5  m.  an  hour,  the  steam  pressure 
being  145  Ibs.  The  adhesion  was  about  23  per 
cent,  of  the  weight.  In  checking  a  train  in 
motion,  the  inertia  of  the  engine  itself  absorbs 
a  seriously  large  portion  of  the  work  of  the 
brakes.  This  is  sometimes  reduced  by  revers 
ing  the  engine  and  allowing  the  steam  pressure 
to  act  in  aid  of  the  brakes.  To  avoid  injury 
by  abrasion  of  the  surfaces  of  piston,  cylinder, 
and  the  valves  and  valve  seats,  M.  Le  Chatelier 
introduces  a  jet  of  steam  into  the  exhaust  pas 
sages  when  reversing,  and  thus  prevents  the 
ingress  of  dust-laden  air  and  the  drying  of  the 
rubbing  surfaces.  The  valve  motion  consists 
of  the  simplest  forms  of  three-ported  valve, 
moved  by  two  eccentrics  attached  to  a  Ste- 
phenson  link.  In  drawing  a  train  weighing 
150  tons  at  the  rate  of  60  in.  an  hour,  about 
800  effective  horse  power  is  required.  A  speed 
of  80  m.  an  hour  has  been  attained  several 
times.  The  locomotive  engine  has  a  maximum 
life  which  may  be  stated  at  about  30  years. 
The  annual  cost  of  repairs  is  from  10  to  15  per 
cent,  of  its  first  cost.  On  moderately  level 
roads,  the  engine  requires  a  pint  of  oil  to  each 
25  m.,  and  a  ton  of  coal  to  each  40  or  50  m. 
run.  (See RAILROAD.) — SeeHolley,  "American 
and  European  Railway  Practice  "  (New  York, 
1861);  Weissenborn,  "American  Locomotive 
Engineering"  (26  nos.  4to,  plates  2  vols.  fol., 
New  York,  1861) ;  Vose,  "  Manual  for  Railroad 
Engineers  "  (Boston,  1872)  ;  and  Forney,  "  Cat 
echism  of  the  Locomotive  "  (New  York,  1874). 
STEAM  ENGINE.  Hero  of  Alexandria  (about 
250  B.  0.)  described,  in  his  Spiritalia  or 
Pneumatica,  several  insignificant  contrivances 
illustrating  the  power  of  steam.  The  first 
modern  reference  to  its  actual  or  possible  use 
is  not  definitely 
known.  Blasco  de 
Garay  is  believed 
by  Spanish  writers 
to  have  applied 
steam  to  the  pro 
pulsion  of  a  ship  at 
Barcelona,  A.  D. 
1543.  Giambattista 
della  Porta,  in  his 
Spiritalia  (1601), 
described  his  ap 
paratus  for  raising 
water  by  filling  a 
vertical  tube  by 
condensing  steam  within  it  and  then  forcing 
the  water  upward  by  pressure.  Salomon  de 
Cans,  engineer  and  architect  to  Louis  XIII.,  in 
Les  raisons  des  forces  mouvantes,  avec  diverges 
machines  tant  utiles  que  plaisantes  (1615), 
says  that  "  water  will,  by  the  aid  of  fire, 


FIG.  1. — Hero's  Steam  Engine. 


mount  higher  than  its  level,"  and  describes  a 
globe  filled  with  water,  and  an  attached  ver 
tical  pipe  through  which  the  water  was  ele 
vated  by  the  expansion  of  steam  generated 
by  heating  the  vessel.  Giovanni  Branca  pub 
lished  at  Rome  in  1629  an  account  of  a  me 
chanical  application  of  a  steam  jet  to  the  im 
pulsion  of  a  wheel  against  the  vanes  of  which 
the  jet  impinged,  and  proposed  its  application 
to  m'a%ny  useful  purposes.  The  marquis  of  Wor 
cester,  in  his  "  Century  of  Inventions"  (1663), 
described  an  apparatus  consisting  of  steam 
boilers  worked  alternately  and  of  pipes  con 
veying  steam  from  them  to  a  vessel  in  which 
its  pressure  operated  to  force  water  upward  as 
suggested  by  De  Cans.  This  was  set  up  at 
Vauxhall,  near  London,  and  was  the  first  in 
stance  of  the  application  of  steam  to  practical 
use.  The  separate  boiler  was  the  essential 
feature  of  this  invention,  and  this  is  the  basis 
of  the  claim  that  Worcester  was  one  of  the  in 
ventors  of  the  steam  engine.  Sir  Samuel  Mor- 
land  in  1683  constructed  these  engines  com 
mercially,  and  with  an  intelligent  understand 
ing  of  their  principles  and  of  the  more  im 
portant  properties  of  steam.  Denis  Papin,  of 
Blois,  about  1690  invented  an  engine  having 
a  piston  which  separated  the  steam  from  the 
water  in  the  cylinder,  receiving  steam  from 
the  boiler  in  Worcester's  combination.  He 
also  invented  the  lever  safety  valve.  Thomas 
Savery  patented,  July  25,  1698,  a  machine  con 
sisting  of  a  duplicate  set  of  boilers,  steam  res 
ervoirs,  and  forcing  tubes,  which  were  worked 
alternately,  and  applied  it  extensively  to  the 
drainage  of  mines,  and  occasionally  to  raising 
water  to  turn  mill  wheels.  Savery  recharged 
his  reservoirs  by  the  use  of  surface  condensa 
tion,  and  his  apparatus  was  capable  of  working 
an  indefinite  period  without  stopping.  Desa- 
guliers  in  1716  improved  upon  it  by  applying 
the  Papin  safety  valve,  and  by  using  jet  instead 
of  surface  condensation.  This  engine  elevated 
5,000,000  Ibs.  of  water  one  foot  with  each 
hundred  weight  of  coal  consumed;  it  gave  a 
"  duty  "  therefore  of  5,000,000.  Thomas  New- 
comen,  John  Cawley,  and  Savery  patented  in 
1705  the  first  steam  engine  really  deserving  the 
name.  It  consisted  of  a  cylinder  containing  a 
piston  driven  upward  by  steam  from  a  separate 
boiler,  and  forced  downward  by  atmospheric 
pressure  when  the  steam  below  the  piston  was 
removed  by  condensation.  The  engine  was 
used  only  for  pumping,  the  pump  rod  and  pis 
ton  rods  being  attached  to  opposite  ends  of  a 
beam,  as  in  modern  engines.  Steam  was  first 
condensed  by  the  application  of  cold  water  to 
the  exterior,  as  in  the  original  Savery  engine, 
but  soon  after  a  jet  within  the  cylinder  was 
used.  The  boiler  was  supplied  with  gauge 
cocks  to  indicate  the  height  of  water,  and  a 
safety  valve.  Humphrey  Potter,  an  ingenious 
boy  mechanic,  in  1713  made  the  valve  gear 
automatic  by  leading  cords  from  the  beam. 
Henry  Beighton  in  1718  substituted  for  the 
latter  the  plug  rod  and  more  substantial  ap- 


340 


STEAM  ENGINE 


paratus  still  known  to  engineers.  The  im 
proved  Newcomen  engine  came  into  use  du 
ring  the  18th  century  throughout  Europe. 
Brindley  and  John  Smeaton  devised  some 
improvements  in  detail  and  proportion,  and 
the  latter  built  large  engines  of  this  type, 
attaining  a  duty  of  9,500,000.  Smeaton  says 
that  he  had  seen  engines  with  cylinders  75  in. 
in  diameter.  His  largest  was  72  in.,  and  its 
power  that  of  150  horses  "  acting  together." 
James  Watt,  an  instrument  maker  at  the  uni 
versity  of  Glasgow,  when  repairing  a  model 
IsTewcomen  engine  (fig.  2)  in  1703,  began  a 
series  of  improvements  which  finally  rendered 
the  steam  engine  universally  applicable.  To 
avoid  losses  of  heat  in  the  steam  cylinder, 
which  he  estimated  to  amount  to  three  fourths 
of  all  supplied,  he  attached  (1765)  the  sepa 
rate  condenser,  thus  saving  also  three  fourths 
of  the  injection  water  needed  in  the  Newco- 
men  engine.  lie  first  tried  surface  condensa- 


FIG.  2.— Newcomen  Engine  Model. 

tion,  but  soon  adopted  the  jet  condenser  and 
air  pump.  The  piston  had  previously  been 
kept  from  leaking  by  flooding  it  from  above 
with  water.  Watt  substituted  oil  and  tallow. 
lie  closed  the  top  with  a  cylinder  head,  pass 
ing  the  piston  rod  through  a  "  stuffing  box  "  to 
prevent  leakage  about  it,  and  admitting  steam 
above  the  piston,  instead  of  air,  during  the  down 
stroke,  thus  avoiding  the  cooling  effect  of  the 
atmosphere.  lie  then  protected  the  cylinder 
by  non-conducting  coverings  to  intercept  the 
heat  previously  lost  by  radiation  from  its  ex 
terior,  and  applied  the  "steam  jacket,"  intro 
ducing  a  space  intermediate  between  the  cyl 
inder  and  the  external  covering,  in  which  space 
steam  was  retained.  He  thus  converted  the 
atmospheric  steam  engine  of  Newcomen  into 
the  type  known  as  the  engine  of  Watt.  The 
firm  of  Boulton  and  Watt  began  building  these 
engines  at  Soho,  near  Birmingham,  in  1773. 


Watt  proposed  to  secure  economy  of  steam  by 
its  expansion  in  1769,  and  in  1776  he  adopted 
a  form  of  cut-off  which  was  patented  in  1782. 
His  later  pumping  engines  attained  a  duty  of 
20,000,000.  The  crank  and  fly  wheel  were 
patented  by  Wasborough  in  1781,  and  AVatt 
adopted  the  "sun  and  planet  wheels"  as  the 
next  best  expedient  for  obtaining  rotary  mo 
tion,  and  applied  them  in  his  double-acting 
engine  patented  July  4,  1782.  This  engine  is 
shown  in  fig.  3,  with  the  parallel  motion,  gov 
ernor,  and  other  details  patented  in  178-4.  Ad 
mitting  steam  and  condensing  on  both  sides 
of  the  piston,  the  power  of  the  engine  was 
doubled.  Jonathan  Hornblower  in  1781  pat 
ented  a  compound  or  double  cylinder  engine, 
in  Avhich  the  steam  used  at  high  pressure  in 
one  cylinder  was  exhausted  into  a  second, 
whence,  after  acting  expansively  and  with  re 
duced  pressure,  it  was  discharged.  Woolf  in 
1804  patented  the  combination  of  this  engine 
with  the  Watt  condenser,  and  a  few  such  en 
gines  were  built.  Oliver  Evans  devised  in  1779 
the  high-pressure  non-condensing  steam  en 
gine.  He  introduced  it  into  saw  and  grain 
mills,  and  applied  it  to  the  propulsion  of  vessels 
and  locomotives.  It  still  remains  the  most  com 
monly  used  of  all  forms  of  the  steam  engine. 
Trevithick  and  Vivian  introduced  engines  built 
on  Evans's  plan  into  Great  Britain  in  1802, 
which  carried  occasionally  60  to  80  Ibs.  of  steam 
pressure.  Col.  John  Stevens  of  Hoboken,  N.  J., 
built  the  direct-acting,  high-pressure,  and  con 
densing  engine,  with  a  sectional  steam  boiler, 
in  1804.  Joseph  Dixon  coupled  two  engines 
with  cranks  at  right  angles  in  1823.  The  de 
tachable,  adjustable,  or  drop  cut-off  valve  gear 
was  patented  by  Frederick  E.  Sickels  of  New 
York  in  1842,  and  the  application  of  the  gov 
ernor  to  determine  the  point  of  cut-off  was  made 
by  Zachariah  Allen  and  George  II.  Corliss  of 
Rhode  Island,  and  patented  by  the  latter  in 
1849.  This  completed  the  growth  in  general 
design  of  the  now  distinctive  American  expan 
sive  steam  engine.  Eecently  the  revival  of 
the  double  cylinder  engine,  with  high  steam, 
considerable  expansion,  and  rapid  motion  of 
piston,  Avhich  have  proved  economically  suc 
cessful,  has  been  the  only  marked  feature  of 
this  branch  of  engineering  progress.  It  is  es 
timated  that  the  total  steam  power  of  the  world 
is  about  15,000,000  horse  power,  and  that  were 
horses  actually  employed  to  do  the  work  which 
these  engines  would  be  capable  of  doing  were 
they  kept  constantly  in  operation,  the  numbei* 
required  would  exceed  60,000,000. — Form  of 
the  Steam  Engine.  In  all  engines  the  principal 
organs  of  the  machine  are  present,  but  their 
forms  and  proportions,  and  their  arrangement, 
differ  greatly  in  different  classes.  In  general, 
the  piston,  P,  fig.  3,  is  accurately  fitted  into  a 
steam  cylinder,  C,  within  which  it  moves  from 
end  to  end  with  slight  friction,  and  without 
permitting  the  escape  of  steam  past  its  edges. 
The  piston  rod  is  attached  at  one  end  to  this 
piston,  and,  passing  through  the  cylinder  head, 


STEAM  ENGINE 


341 


is  attached  at  the  other  extremity  to  a  cross 
head,  which  is  so  guided  that  it  is  compelled 
to  move  in  a  vertical  line,  and  thus  a  side  strain 
upon  the  rod  which  would  produce  friction  and 
leakage,  even  were  it  not  to  cause  actual  bend 
ing  and  fracture,  is  prevented.  In  fig.  3  the 


FIG.  3.— Watt's  Engine,  1784. 

cross  head  is  guided  hy  a  parallel  motion  p  m, 
an  arrangement  of  rods  of  which  one  set  vi 
brate  about  centres,  thus  displacing  the  centres 
of  vibration  of  the  other  set  just  sufficiently 
to  compensate  the  tendency  of  the  latter  to 
throw  the  cross  head  out  of  line  by  their  sweep 
through  their  own  curved  path.  This  com 
pensation  permits  the  head  of  the  piston  rod 
to  be  securely  guided  in  the  vertical  line.  In 
later  practice,  a  more  common  method  of  ob 
taining  a  rectilinear  motion  of  the  cross  head 
is  to  place  guides  at  each  end  of  it,  by  which 
its  extremities  are  kept  in  the  desired  line 
of  motion.  The  sliding  friction  of  the  cross- 
head  gibs  upon  these  guides  is  slight,  and 
is  kept  within  proper  limits  by  lubrication. 
The  cross  head  is  connected  with  the  work 
ing  beam,  B,  by  links  (usually  a  pair),  and 
the  beam,  vibrating  about  the  main  centre, 
transfers  the  motion  by  means  of  the  connect 
ing  rod,  c  r,  to  the  crank  attached  to  the  main 
shaft  or  crank  shaft,  which  carries  the  fly 
wheel  or  balance  wheel,  W.  In  this  figure  the 
crank  is  not  shown,  the  sun  and  planet  wheels 
taking  its  place.  Steam  is  conveyed  to  the 
engine  by  the  steam  pipe,  at  some  convenient 
point  in  which  a  stop  valve  is  usually  placed. 
Sometimes  this  valve  is  omitted,  a  throttle 
valve  alone  being  used,  adapted  to  adjust  the 
supply  of  steam.  The  latter  is  either  a  disk 
valve,  adjusted  by  a  screw  (in  which  form  it  is 
known  aS  a  screw  stop  valve),  or  it  is  some 
variety  of  slide  valve,  opening  and  closing  by 
sliding  transversely  across  the  opening  through 
which  steam  passes.  Where  the  supply  of 


steam  is  determined  automatically,  a  governor, 
G,  is  attached,  which  when  the  speed  of  the 
engine  tends  to  exceed  the  desired  maximum 
closes  the  throttle  valve,  and  when  the  speed 
falls  too  IOAV  opens  it.  In  the  figure,  the  gov 
ernor  consists  of  a  pair  of  suspended  balls 
caused  to  revolve  by  a  belt,  or  by  gearing  con 
necting  the  spindle  with  the  shaft,  which  when 
speed  rises  are  given  a  high  velocity  of  revo 
lution  about  the  spindle  carrying  them,  and, 
separating  under  the  action  of  centrifugal  force, 
move  the  lever  Z,  and  thus  close  the  throttle 
valve.  There  are  many  varieties  of  governors. 
The  "  fly-ball  governor,"  just  described,  is 
most  common,  but,  though  simple  and  quite 
well  adapted  to  general  purposes,  it  is  not  per 
fectly  isochronous;  i.  c.,  it  does  not  compel 
the  engine  to  keep  the  precise  speed  at  which 
it  is  set  to  work.  As  the  governor  and  valve 
are  rigidly  connected,  there  is  but  one  speed 
to  which  the  position  of  the  valve  and  of  the 
governor  can  be  perfectly  adapted  under  any 
one  set  of  conditions  of  steam  pressure  and  of 
load.  The  valve  gear  is  the  system  of  valves 
and  of  actuating  mechanism  which  distribute 
the  steam  as  the  engine  passes  through  its 
cycles  of  motion.  The  steam  valves  admit 
steam  alternately  to  each  end  of  the  steam 
cylinder,  as  the  piston  moves  backward  and 
forward,  and  the  exhaust  valves  alternately 
open  and  close  the  passages  or  ports  through 
which  the  steam  escapes,  after  impelling  the 
piston,  into  the  condenser  c  in  the  condensing 
engine,  or  into  the  open  air  from  a  non-con 
densing  engine.  These  valves  are  moved  au 
tomatically  by  some  part  of  the  engine  itself. 
In  the  kind  of  engine  shown  in  fig.  3,  and  in 
pumping  engines  which  have  no  crank  and 
revolving  shaft,  the  motion  is  obtained  from 
a  rod  depending  from  the  beam,  projections 
on  which  rod  strike  the  tappets  t  as  they 
rise  and  fall.  This  rod  is  called  the  plug  rod. 
In  nearly  all  other  engines,  the  valve  gear 
is  actuated  by  an  eccentric,  or  disk  attached 
to  and  revolving  with  the  crank  shaft.  While 
the  piston  is  moving  upward,  the  steam  valve 
below  and  the  exhaust  valve  above  are  open, 
the  steam  entering  below  to  drive  the  piston 
up,  while  the  steam  which  had  produced  the 
downward  stroke  escapes  through  the  open 
exhaust  valve  at  the  top  into  the  condenser. 
During  the  descent  of  the  piston  these  con 
ditions  are  reversed.  The  condenser  may  be 
either  a  jet  condenser,  as  shown  in  the  fig 
ure,  or  a  surface  condenser.  Its  office  is  to 
condense  the  steam  ejected  from  the  cylinder, 
and  thus  to  create  a  vacuum,  so  removing  the 
resisting  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  from  be 
fore  the  piston.  With  the  jet  condenser,  the 
steam  issuing  from  the  exhaust  pipe  of  the 
engine  is  received  in  a  closed  vessel,  where  it 
I  is  brought  into  contact  with  jets  of  cold  water, 
I  and  thus  instantly  condensed,  and  the  vacuum 
!  so  produced  pervades  the  condenser,  the  ex- 
j  haust  pipe,  and  the  exhausted  end  of  the 
I  cylinder.  The  water  of  condensation,  the  re- 


STEAM  ENGINE 


maining  uncondensed  vapor,  and  any  air  which 
may  enter  the  condenser  with  the  steam,  are 
removed  by  the  air  pump  p,  and  thrown  into 
the  hot  well  above  the  condenser  whence  they 
are  taken  by  the  hot  water  pump  and  dis 
charged.  Water  is  also  taken  from  the  hot  well 
by  the  feed  pump  and  fed  to  the  steam  boiler. 
—  Classification  of  Engines.  Steam  engines 
are  designated  as  condensing  or  non-conden 
sing,  according  as  they  are  furnished  with  a 
condenser  or  as  that  detail  is  omitted.  They 
are  high  pressure  or  low  pressure,  the  former 
term  being  applied  to  engines  supplied  with 
steam  of  50  Ibs.  pressure  to  the  square  inch 
and  upward,  and  the  latter  to  engines  working 
under  40  Ibs.  pressure.  The  latter  are  almost 
invariably  condensing  engines,  and  high-pres 
sure  engines  are  very  generally  non-condensing. 
Reciprocating  engines  have  pistons  moving 
backward  and  forward  in  the  steam  cylinder, 
as  in  Watt's  engine.  When  they  turn  a  shaft, 
they  are  sometimes  called  rotative.  Rotary 
engines  have  a  piston  attached  to  a  shaft  and 
revolving  with  it  within  a  cylinder  of  which 
the  axis  is  parallel  with  the  axis  of  rotation 
of  the  piston  or  vane.  Engines  are  direct-act 
ing  where  the  piston  rod  acts  directly  upon 
the  connecting  rod,  and  through  it  upon  the 
crank,  without  the  intervention  of  a  beam  or 
lever.  In  back-acting  or  return  connecting 
rod  engines,  the  shaft  lies  between  the  cylin 
der  and  the  cross  head,  the  connecting  rod  re 
turning  from  the  cross  head  to  the  crank. 
Beam  engines  have  the  working  beam  al 
ready  described.  Side  lever  engines  have 
two  beams,  one  on  each  side  of  the  steam  cyl 
inder,  and  below  instead  of  above  the  cross 
head.  Oscillating  engines  have  their  piston 
rods  attached  directly  to  the  crank  pin,  and  as 
the  crank  revolves  the  cylinder  oscillates  upon 
trunnions,  one  on  each  side  of  it,  through 
which  the  steam  enters  and  leaves  the  steam 
chest.  The  valves  are  within  the  steam  chest, 
oscillating  with  the  cylinder.  In  these  engines 
the  mechanism  actuating  the  valves  is  seldom 
perfectly  satisfactory  in  its  operation.  In  com 
pound  or  double-cylinder  engines,  the  steam 
enters  first  a  high-pressure  cylinder,  and  there 
usually  expands  from  its  initial  pressure  of 
from  60  to  100  Ibs.  down  to  a  much  lower  den 
sity  ;  it  is  then  exhausted  into  a  second  steam 
cylinder,  in  which  it  expands  still  further  while 
completing  its  work. — Engines  are  also  classi 
fied,  according  to  the  use  for  which  they  are 
intended,  as  stationary,  pumping,  portable,  lo 
comotive,  or  marine  engines.  The  locomotive 
engine  is  the  simplest  form.  In  it  the  con 
denser  and  the  governor  are  dispensed  with, 
and  the  valve  and  its  gearing  are  the  simplest 
possible.  The  portable  engine  is  usually  very 
similar  to  the  locomotive,  and,  like  the  latter, 
is  attached  to  its  steam  boiler.  It  is  sometimes 
provided  with  a  heater  to  warm  the  feed  water 
sent  into  the  boiler,  and  is  frequently  provided 
with  a  governor.  It  is  usually  mounted  on 
wheels.  Both  the  locomotive  and  the  portable 


engine  employ  high  steam  pressure  without 
condensation.  In  both  of  these  forms  of  en 
gine  are  secured  to  the  fullest  extent  lightness 
and  simplicity,  and,  where  properly  construct 
ed,  cheapness,  durability,  compactness,  and  fair 
efficiency.  Draft  is  usually  secured  in  both 
by  the  blast  of  the  exhaust  steam.  Engines 
of  this  class  have  attained  the  remarkable 
economical  result  of  a  horse  power  developed 
with  the  expenditure  of  less  than  three  pounds 
of  coal  per  hour. — The  oldest  form  of  pumping 
engine  still  retained  in  use  is  the  Cornish.  In 
it  the  crank  shaft  and  balance  wheel  are  dis 
pensed  with,  the  end  of  the  pump  rod  being 
attached  directly  to  the  end  of  the  beam  op 
posite  the  steam  cylinder.  Steam  is  first  ad 
mitted  above  the  piston,  driving  it  rapidly 
downward  and  raising  the  pump  rod.  At  an 
early  point  in  the  stroke  the  admission  of  steam 
is  checked  by  the  sudden  closing  of  the  induc 
tion  valve,  and  the  stroke  is  completed  under 
the  action  of  expanding  steam  assisted  by  the 
inertia  of  the  heavy  parts  already  in  motion. 
The  necessary  weight  and  inertia  is  afforded 
!  in  many  cases,  where  the  engine  is  applied  to 
j  the  pumping  of  deep  mines,  by  the  immense 
ly  long  and  heavy  pump  rods.  Where  this 
weight  is  too  great  it  is  counterbalanced,  and 
where  too  small,  weights  are  added.  When  the 
stroke  is  completed,  the  "'equilibrium  valve" 
is  opened,  and  the  steam  passes  from  above  to 
the  space  below  the  piston,  and  an  equilibrium 
of  pressure  being  thus  produced,  the  pump 
rods  descend,  forcing  the  water  from  the  pumps 
and  raising  the  steam  piston.  The  absence  of 
the  crank  or  other  device  which  might  deter 
mine  absolutely  the  length  of  stroke  compels 
a  very  careful  adjustment  of  steam  admission 
to  the  amount  of  load.  Should  the  stroke  be 
allowed  to  exceed  the  proper  length,  and  should 
danger  thus  arise  of  the  piston  striking  the 
cylinder  heads,  the  movement  is  checked  by 
buffer  beams.  The  valve  motion  is  actuated 
by  a  plug  rod,  as  in  Watt's  engine.  The  regu 
lation  is  effected  by  a  "cataract,"  a  kind  of 
hydraulic  governor,  consisting  of  a  plunger 
pump  with  a  reservoir  attached.  The  plunger 
is  raised  by  the  engine,  and  then  automatically 
detached.  It  falls  with  greater  or  less  rapid 
ity,  its  velocity  being  determined  by  the  size 
of  the  eduction  orifice,  which  is  adjustable  by 
hand.  When  the  plunger  reaches  the  bottom 
of  the  pump  barrel,  it  disengages  a  catch,  a 
weight  is  allowed  to  act  upon  the  steam  valve, 
opening  it,  and  the  engine  is  caused  to  make 
a  stroke.  When  the  outlet  of  the  cataract  is 
nearly  closed,  the  engine  stands  still  a  consid 
erable  time  while  the  plunger  is  descending, 
and  the  strokes  succeed  each  other  at  long 
intervals.  When  the  opening  is  greater,  the 
cataract  acts  more  rapidly,  and  the  engine 
works  faster.  This  has  been  regarded  until 
recently  as  the  most  economical  of  pumping 
engines,  and  it  is  still  generally  used  in  freeing 
mines  of  water,  and  in  situations  where  exist 
ing  heavy  pump  rods  may  be  utilized  in  con- 


STEAM  ENGINE 


343 


tinuing  the  motion  of  the  piston  during  that 
portion  of  its  stroke  which  is  performed  after 
expansion  has  begun.  The  direct-acting  steam 
pump  is  sometimes  used  as  a  pumping  engine. 
(See  PUMP.)  The  compound  pumping  engine 
has  been  recently  adopted  with  great  success. 


FIG.  4. — Leavitt's  Pumping  Engine. 

One  of  the  most  efficient  forms  is  that  designed 
by  E.  I).  Leavitt,  jr.,  for  the  Lynn  (Mass.) 
water  works,  and  shown  in  fig.  4.  The  two 
cylinders,  A  and  B,  are  placed  one  on  each  side 
the  centre  of  the  beam  0  D,  and  are  so  inclined 
that  they  may  be  coupled  to  opposite  ends  of 
it,  while  their  lower  ends  are  placed  close  to 
gether.  At  their  upper  ends  a  valve  is  placed 
at  each  end  of  the  connecting  steam  pipe.  At 
their  lower  ends  a  single  valve  serves  as  ex 
haust  valve  to  the  high-pressure  and  as  steam 
valve  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder.  The  pis 
tons  move  in  opposite  directions,  and  steam  is 
exhausted  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder  A 
directly  into  the  nearer  end  of  the  low-pressure 
cylinder  B.  The  pump,  E,  of  the  "  Thames-Dit- 
ton"  or  "bucket  and  plunger"  variety,  takes  a 
full  supply  of  water  on  the  down  stroke,  and 
discharges  half  when  rising  and  half  when  de 
scending  again.  The  duty  of  this  engine  is 
reported  by  a  board  of  engineers  as  103,923,215 
foot  pounds  for  every  100  Ibs.  of  coal  burned. 
The  duty  of  a  moderately  good  engine  is  usual 
ly  considered  to  be  from  60  to  70  millions. 
This  engine  has  steam  cylinders  of  17^  and  36 
in.  diameter  respectively,  with  a  stroke  of  7  ft. 
The  pump  had  a  capacity  of  about  195  gal 
lons,  and  delivered  96  per  cent.  Steam  was 
carried  at  a  pressure  of  75  Ibs.  above  the  at 
mosphere,  and  was  expanded  about  ten  times. 
Plain  horizontal  tubular  boilers  were  used, 
evaporating  8'58  Ibs.  of  water  from  98°  F.  per 
pound  of  coal. — The  stationary  steam  engine 


has  a  great  variety  of  forms.  Since  compact 
ness  and  lightness  are  not  as  essential  as  in 
portable,  locomotive,  and  marine  engines,  the 
parts  are  arranged  with  a  view  simply  to  secu 
ring  efficiency,  and  the  design  is  determined  by 
circumstances.  It  was  formerly  usual  to  adopt 
the  condensing  engine  in  mills  and  wherever  a 
stationary  engine  was  required.  In  Europe 
generally,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  United 
States,  where  a  supply  of  condensing  water  is 
obtainable,  condensing  engines  and  moderate 
steam  pressures  are  still  employed.  But  this 
engine  is  gradually  becoming  superseded  by 
the  high-pressure  condensing  engine,  with  con 
siderable  expansion,  and  with  an  expansion 
gear  in  which  the  point  of  cut-off  is  determined 
by  the  governor.  The  best  known  engine  of 
this  class  is  the 'Corliss  engine,  which  is  very 
extensively  used  in  the  United  States,  and 
which  has  been  copied  very  generally  by  Euro 
pean  builders.  Fig.  5  represents  the  Corliss 
engine  as  built  in  the  United  States  by  Harris. 
The  horizontal  steam  cylinder  is  bolted  firmly 
to  the  end  of  the  frame,  which  is  so  formed  as 
to  transmit  the  strain  to  the  main  journal  with 
the  greatest  directness.  The  frame  carries  the 
guides  for  the  cross  head,  which  are  both  in 
the  same  vertical  plane.  The  valves  are  four 
in  number,  a  steam  and  an  exhaust  valve  be 
ing  placed  at  each  end  of  the  steam  cylinder. 
Short  steam  passages  are  thus  secured,  and 
this  diminution  of  clearance  is  a  source  of 
some  economy.  Both  sets  of  valves  are  driven 
by  an  eccentric  operating  a  disk  or  wrist  plate, 
which  vibrates  on  a  pin  projecting  from  the 
cylinder.  Short  links  reaching  from  this  wrist 
plate  to  the  several  valves  move  them  with  a 
peculiarly  varying  motion,  opening  and  closing 
them  rapidly,  and  moving  them  quite  slowly 
when  the  port  is  either  nearly  open  or  almost 
closed.  This  effect  is  ingeniously  secured  by 
so  placing  the  pins  on  the  wrist  plate  that  their 


FIG.  5.— Corliss  Engine, 

line  of  motion  becomes  nearly  transverse  to 
the  direction  of  the  valve  links  when  the  limit 
of  movement  is  approached.  The  links  con 
necting  the  wrist  plate  with  the  arms  moving 
the  steam  valves  have  catches  at  their  extremi 
ties,  which  are  disengaged  by  coming  in  con- 


344 


STEAM  ENGIXE 


tact,  as  the  arm  swings  around  with  the  valve 
stem,  with  a  cam  adjusted  by  the  governor. 
This  adjustment  permits  the  steam  to  follow 
the  piston  further  when  the  engine  is  caused 
to  "slow  down,"  and  thus  tends  to  restore  the 
proper  speed.  It  disengages  the  steam  valve 
earlier,  and  expands  the  steam  to  a  greater  ex 
tent,  when  the  engine  tends  to  run  above  the 
proper  speed.  When  the  catch  is  thrown  out, 
the  valve  is  closed  by  a  weight  or  a  strong 
spring.  To  prevent  jar  when  the  motion  of 
the  valve  is  checked,  a  "dash  pot"  is  used,  in 
vented  by  F.  E.  Sickels.  It  is  a  vessel  having 
a  nicely  fitted  piston,  which  is  received  by  a 
"cushion"  of  water  or  air  when  the  piston 
suddenly  enters  the  cylinder  at  the  end  of  the 
valve  movement.  In  the  original  water  dash 
pot  of  Sickels,  the  cylinder  is  vertical,  and  the 
plunger  or  piston  descends  upon  a  small  body 
of  water  confined  in  the  base  of  the  dash  pot. 
In  the  Greene  steam  engine,  fig.  0,  the  valves 
are  four  in  number,  as  in  the  Corliss.  The 
cut-off  gear  consists  of  a  bar,  A,  moved  by  the 
steam  eccentric  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the 
centre  line  of  the  cylinder  and  nearly  coinci 
dent  as  to  time  with  the  piston.  On  this  bar 
are  tappets,  0  0,  supported  by  springs  and  ad 
justable  in  height  by  the  governor,  G.  These 


FIG.  C. — Greene  Engine. 

tappets  engage  the  arms  B  B,  on  the  ends  of 
rot-k  shafts  E  E,  which  move  the  steam  valves 
and  remain  in  contact  with  them  a  longer  or 
shorter  time,  and  opening  the  valve  during  a 
greater  or  less  part  of  the  piston  stroke,  as  the 
governor  permits  the  tappets  to  rise  with  di 
minishing  engine  speed,  or  forces  them  down  as 
speed  increases.  The  exhaust  valves  are  moved 
by  an  independent  eccentric  rod,  moved  by 


an  eccentric  set,  as  is  usual  with  the  Corliss 
and  with  other  engines  generally,  at  right 
angles  with  the  crank.  This  engine,  in  con- 
secpaence  of  the  independence  of  the  steam 
eccentric,  and  of  the  contemporary  movement 
of  steam  valve  motion  and  steam  piston,  is 
capable  of  cutting  off  at  any  point  from  begin 
ning  to  nearly  the  end  of  the  stroke.  The 
usual  arrangement,  by  which  steam  and  exhaust 
valves  are  moved  by  the  same  eccentric,  only 
permits  expansion  with  the  range  from  the 
beginning  to  half  stroke.  The  Wright  engine 
has  an  adjustable  expansion  valve  gear  also, 
and  the  point  of  cut-off  is  determined  by  the 
governor.  In  this  machine  the  steam  valves 
are  opened  by  a  cam  of  such  form  that  when 
the  cam  shaft  is  moved  longitudinally,  the 
valve  is  held  open  a  longer  or  a  shorter  time. 
The  position  of  the  cam  shaft  is  adjusted  by 
the  governor.  Its  motion  is  obtained  by  gear 
ing  it  to  the  main  shaft.  The  Babcock  and 
AVilcox  engine  has  a  cut-off  valve  on  the  back 
of  the  main  valve,  which  is  moved  by  a, small 
steam  cylinder.  The  point  of  cut-off  is  deter 
mined  by  the  governor  also,  by  varying  the 
time  of  admission  of  steam  into  the  auxiliary 
cylinder.  This  engine  has  the  same  latitude 
of  expansion  as  the  Greene  engine. — The  char 
acteristics  of  the  American  stationary  engine 
are  high  steam  pressure  without  condensation, 
an  expansion  valve  gear  with  drop  cut-off  ad 
justable  by  the  governor,  high  piston  speed, 
and  lightness  combined  with  strength  of  con 
struction.  In  other  countries  this  engine  is  now 
rapidly  coming  into  general  use,  but  abroad 
the  valve  most  generally  adopted  is  the  form 
usual  in  other  styles  of  engine,  expansion  being 
obtained  by  a  cut-off  valve  on  the  back  of  the 
main  valve,  and  regulation  secured  by  attach 
ing  the  governor  to  a  throttle  valve. —  The 
Marine  Steam  Engine.  Marine  engines  have  a 
great  variety  of  forms,  but  general  practice 
lias  now  indicated  a  few  which  are  preferred. 
They  are  almost  invariably  fitted  with  con 
densers.  Until  recently  they  were  usually 
driven  by  steam  of  moderate  pressure,  but 
within  a  few  years  the  pressure  of  steam, 
which  in  the  time  of  Watt  was  usually  from  5 
to  10  Ibs.  above  the  atmosphere,  has  risen  to 
GO  Ibs.  In  the  earlier  days  of  steam  navigation, 
the  paddle  wheel  was  exclusively  used.  Re 
cently  the  screw  has  become  the  sole  instru 
ment  of  propulsion,  where  deep  water  permits 
its  use.  In  shallow  water  the  paddle  wheel  is 
still  employed.  Marine  engines  are  therefore 
divided  into  paddle  engines  and  screw  engines. 
— The  most  common  forms  of  paddle  engines 
in  the  United  States  are  the  overhead  beam 
engine,  driven  by  steam  of  from  20  to  50  Ibs. 
pressure,  and  fitted  with  a  jet  condenser,  and 
the  high-pressure  and  non-condensing  direct- 
acting  engine,  used  principally  on  the  western 
rivers,  the  latter  is  driven  by  steam  of  from 
100  to  150  Ibs.  pressure,  and  exhausts  its  steam 
into  the  atmosphere.  It  is  the  simplest  pos 
sible  form  of  direct-acting  engine.  The  valves 


STEAM  ENGINE 


345 


are  of  the  disk  or  poppet  variety,  rising  and 
falling  vertically.  They  are  four  in  number, 
two  steam  and  two  exhaust  valves  being  placed 
at  each  end  of  the  steam  cylinder.  The  beam 
engine  is  a  peculiarly  American  type,  seldom 
if  ever  seen  abroad.  Fig.  7  is  an  outline  sketch 
of  this  engine  as  built  for  a  steamer  plying  on 
the  Hudson  river.  This  class  of  engine  is  usu 
ally  adopted  in  vessels  of  great  length,  light 
draught,  and  high  speed.  But  one  steam  cyl 
inder  is  commonly  used.  The  cross  head  is 
coupled  to  one  end  of  the  beam  by  means  of 
a  pair  of  links,  and  the  motion  of  the  oppo 
site  end  of  the  beam  is  transmitted  to  the 
crank  by  a  connecting  rod  of  moderate  length. 
The  beam  has  a  cast-iron  centre  surrounded 
by  a  wrought-iron  strap  of  lozenge  shape,  in 
which  are  forged  the  bosses  for  the  end  centres, 
or  for  the  pins  to  which  the  connecting  rod 
and  the  links  are  attached.  The  main  centre 
of  the  beam  is  supported  by  a  "gallows  frame  " 
of  timbers  so  arranged  as  to  receive  all  stresses 
longitudinally.  The  crank  and  shaft  are  of 
wrought  iron.  The  valve  gear  is  usually  of 


independent  eccentrics,  the  latter  being  set  in 
the  usual  manner,  opening  and  closing  the  ex 
haust  passages  just  before  the  crank  passes  its 
centre.  The  steam  eccentric  is  so  placed  that 
the  steam  valve  is  opened  as  usual,  but  closed 
when  but  about  one  half  the  stroke  has  been 
made.  This  result  is 
accomplished  by  giv 
ing  the  eccentric  a 
greater  throw  than  is 
required  by  the  mo 
tion  of  the  valve,  and 


.j. 


FIG.  7. — Beam  Engine. 

the  form  known  as  the  Stevens  valve  gear,  an 
invention  of  Robert  L.  and  Francis  B.  Stevens. 
The  steam  and  exhaust  valves  are  worked  by 


permitting  it  to  move 
through  a  portion  of 
its  path  without  mov 
ing  the  valve.  Thus 
in  fig.  8,  if  A  B  be  the 
direction  of  motion  of 

the  eccentric  rod,  the  valve  would  ordinarily 
open  the  steam  port  when  the  eccentric  as 
sumes  the  position  O  C,  closing  when  the  ec 
centric  has  passed  around  to  0  T).  "With  the 
Stevens  valve  gear,  the  valve  is  opened  when 
the  eccentric  reaches  O  E,  and  closes  when 
it  arrives  at  O  F.  The  steam 
valve  of  the  opposite  end  of  the 
cylinder  is  open  while  the  ec 
centric  is  moving  from  O  M  to 
O  K.  Between  K  and  E,  and 
between  F  and  M,  both  valves 
are  seated.  H  B  is  proportion 
al  to  the  lift  of  the  valve,  and 
O  II  to  the  motion  of  the  valve 
gear  when  out  of  contact  with 
the  valve  lifters.  While  the 
crank  is  moving  through  an  arc 
E  F,  steam  is  entering  the  cyl 
inder  ;  from  F  to  M  the  steam 
is  expanding..  At  M  the  stroke 
is  completed  and  the  other 
steam  valve  opens.  The  ratio 

—  is  the  ratio  of  expansion. 

The  condenser  is  placed  imme 
diately  beneath  the  steam  cyl 
inder.  The  air  pump  is  placed 
close  beside  it,  and  worked  by 
a  rod  attached  to  the  beam. 
Steam  vessels  on  the  Hudson 
river  have  been  driven  by  such 
engines  at  the  rate  of  23  m.  an 
hour.  This  form  of  engine  is 
remarkable  for  its  smoothness 
of  operation,  its  economy  and 
durability,  its  compactness,  and 
the  latitude  which  it  permits  in 
the  change  of  shape  of  the  long 

flexible  vessels  in  which   it  is 

generally  used,   without  injury 
j~T:~  j  "~r~|         by  "  getting  out  of  line."     For 
^^^,^v^™^s^.,w     pac](]}e  engines  of  large  vessels, 
the  favorite  type  has  been  the 
side  lever  engine,  which  is  now 
rarely  built.     For  smaller  vessels,  the  oscilla 
ting  engine  with  feathering  paddle  wheels  is 
still  largely  employed  in  Europe.     This  style 


STEAM  ENGINE 


of  engine  is  shown  in  fig*.  9.  It  is  very  com 
pact,  light,  and  moderately  economical,  and 
excels  in  simplicity.  The  feathering  paddle 
wheel  is  made  with  floats  or  buckets  variable 
in  position,  and  so  adjusted  by  the  feathering 
mechanism  that  less  power  is  expended  in  ob- 


Fio.  9. — Oscillating  Engine  and  feathering  Paddle  Wheel. 

lique  action,  raising  or  pushing  downward  the 
water  impinged  upon,  than  with  the  ordinary 
radial  wheel,  in  which  the  floats  are  rigidly 
attached  to  the  arms.  The  usual  arrangement 
is  such  that  the  feathering  wheel  has  the  same 
action  upon  the  water  as  a  radial  wheel  of 
double  diameter.  This  reduction  of  the  diam 
eter  of  the  wheel,  while  retaining  maximum 
effectiveness,  permits  a  high  speed  of  engine, 
and  therefore  less  weight,  volume,  and  cost. 
The  smaller  wheel  boxes,  by  offering  less  re 
sistance  to  the  wind,  retard  the  progress  of 
the  vessel  less  than  those  of  radial  wheels. 
The  feathering  of  the  paddle  is  produced  by 
the  use  of  a  rod,  E  D,  tig.  10,  which  connects 
an  eccentric  strap,  E  F, 
secured  to  the  vessel, 
with  the  short  arm  A 
D,  by  which  the  paddle 
is  turned  upon  the  pin 
A.  C  is  the  centre  of 
the  paddle  wheel,  and 
C  B  is  one  of  the 
arms.  Circular  hoops, 
or  bands,  connect  all  of 
the  arms,  each  of  whicl 
carries  a  float.  They 
are  all  thus  tied  togeth 
er,  forming  a  very  firm 
and  powerful  combina 
tion  to  resist  external 
forces.  Inclined  engines 
are  sometimes  used  for 
driving  paddle  wheels.  In  these  the  steam 
cylinder  lies  in  an  inclined  position,  and  its 
connecting  rod  directly  connects  the  crank  with 
the  cross  head.  The  condenser  and  air  pump 
usually  lie  beneath  the  cross-head  guides,  and 
are  worked  by  a  bell  crank  driven  by  links  on 


FIG.  10. 


each  side  the  connecting  rod,  attached  to  the 
cross  head.  Such  engines  are  used  to  some 
extent  in  Europe,  and  they  have  been  adopted 
in  the  United  States  navy  for  side- wheel  gun 
boats.  They  are  also  used  on  the  ferry  boats 
plying  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn. 
Paddle  wheels  should  be  immersed  usually  not 
more  than  one  third  the  radius  of  the  wheel 
for  sea-going  vessels,  and  on  rivers  they  are 
frequently  not  immersed  more  than  one  sixth 
or  one  eighth.  In  the  first  case  the  loss 
by  oblique  action  is  about  5  per  cent.,  in  the 
last  case  about  10  per  cent.  A  loss  of  20 
or  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  power  applied  to 
the  wheel  is  frequently  caused  by  slip. — Many 
forms  of  engines  have  been  used  for  driving 
the  screw,  but  they  are  now  almost  invariably 
of  one  type.  The  ordinary  screw  engine  is 
direct-acting.  Two  engines  are  placed  side 
by  side,  with  cranks  on  the  shaft  at  an  angle 
of  90  degrees  with  each  other.  In  merchant 
steamers  the  steam  cylinders  are  usually  ver 
tical  and  directly  over  the  crank  pins,  to  which 
the  cross  heads  are  coupled.  The  condenser 
is  placed  behind  the  engine  frame,  or,  where  a 
jet  condenser  is  used,  the  frame  itself  is  some 
times  made  hollow  and  serves  as  a  condenser. 
The  air  pump  is  worked  by  a  beam  connected 
by  links  with  the  cross  head.  The  general  ar 
rangement  is  like  that  shown  in  figs.  13  and  14. 
For  naval  purposes  such  a  form  is  objection 
able,  since  its  height  is  so  great  that  it  would 
be  exposed  to  injury  by  shot.  In  naval  engi 
neering  the  cylinder  is  placed  horizontally,  as 
in  fig.  11,  which  is  a  sectional  view,  represent 
ing  a  horizontal,  direct-acting  naval  screw  en 
gine,  with  jet  condenser  and  double-acting  air 
and  circulating  pumps.  A  is  the  steam  cylin 
der,  B  the  piston,  which  is  connected  to  the 
crank  pin  by  the  piston  rod  D  and  connecting 
rod  E.  F  is  the  cross-head  guide.  The  eccen 
trics  G  operate  the  valve,  which  is  of  the 
"  three-ported  variety,"  by  a  Stephenson  link. 


FIG.  11. — Horizontal  direct-acting  Naval  Screw  Engine. 

Eeversing  is  effected  by  the  hand  wheel  C, 
which  by  means  of  a  gear  m  and  a  rack  Tc  ele 
vates  and  depresses  the  link,  arid  thus  reverses 
the  valve.  As  shown  in  the  sketch,  this  valve 
is  so  constructed  that,  when  in  precisely  the 
middle  of  its  path,  it  covers  both  steam  ports 
as  well  as  the  exhaust  port.  When  it  is  moved 
to  the  right,  the  forward  steam  port  is  opened 


STEAM  ENGINE 


347 


and  the  engine  takes  steam  at  the  end  D, 
while  the  steam  from  the  opposite  side  of*  the 
piston,  A,  is  allowed  to  pass  out  under  the  valve 
and  off  through  the  exhaust-  port.  The  valve  ' 
is  shown  in  this  position  in  the  figure.  When 
the  eccentric  has  turned  with  the  shaft,  or 
when  the  link  is  shifted  so  as  to  bring  the  end 
p  iato  action  and  thus  communicate  the  mo 
tion  of  the  other  eccentric  to  the  valve,  steam 
enters  at  the  end  A  and  is  exhausted  from  D. 
Each  eccentric  produces  this  change  in  such  a 
manner  that  when  the  piston  reaches  the  end 
of  its  stroke  this  reversal  occurs,  and  the  steam 
and  exhaust  ports  are  opened  and  closed  in  the 
manner  required  to  produce  the  proper  distri 
bution  of  steam.  One  eccentric  is  adjusted  to 
give  the  correct  distribution  when  the  engine 
is  moving  ahead,  the  other  when  worked  back 
ward.  When  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  limited 
amount  of  expansion  of  steam,  the  exterior 
edges  of  the  face  of  the  valve  are  carried 
further  apart,  and  the  valve  ^yhen  in  mid- 
position  overlaps  the  steam  ports.  The  throw 
of  the  eccentrics  is  then  correspondingly  in 
creased,  and  they  are  moved  upon  the  shaft 
until  they  can  be  secured  in  new  positions  in 
which  they  bring  the  edge  of  the  valve  to  the 
edge  of  the  port  opening  as  before,  admitting 
steam  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke.  By  this 
process,  which  is  termed  giving  lead  to  the 
valve,  the  exhaust  port  is  also  both  opened  and 
closed  earlier  than  before.  To  remedy  this 
fault,  the  edges  of  the  interior  of  the  valve  are 
sometimes  changed  also,  and  they  are  given 
"  lap  "  in  either  position,  as  on  the  steam  side 
or  negative.  In  the  latter  case  they  are  moved 
further  apart.  Zeuner's  valve  diagram,  fig.  12, 
is  a  useful  graphic  representation  of  the  action 
of  this  valve.  Let  A  B  represent  the  path  of 
the  piston,  A  O,  BO  being  the  positions  of  the 
crank  at  each  end  of  the  stroke.  Then  E  O, 
F  O  will  be  the  positions  of  the  crank  when  the 


FIG.  12.— Zeuner's  Valve  Diagram. 

eccentric  and  valve  are  at  their  middle  posi 
tions  on  the  forward  and  the  return  stroke  re 
spectively,  provided  the  valve  has  neither  lap 
nor  lead,  and  the  steam  and  exhaust  ports  will 
be  opened  and  closed  precisely  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  stroke.  If,  however,  it  is  de 


sired  to  open  the  steam  port  when  the  crank 
is  at  C  and  the  piston  at  c,  approaching  A,  and 
if  the  steam  is  to  be  cut  off  and  expansion 
to  begin  when  the  crank  is  at  D  and  the  piston 
at  d,  on  the  forward  stroke,  the  valve  must  be 
at  "  half  throw"  when  the  crank  is  at  E'  mid 
way  between  A  and  D.  E'  O,  F'  O  will  then  be 
the  positions  of  the  crank  when  the  valve,  is  at 
mid  throw  on  the  forward  and  return  stroke 
respectively.  While  the  crank  is  moving  from 
D  to  G  the  valve  must  continually  cover  the 
port  which  has  remained  open  from  A  to  D. 
The  distances  E'  L,  L  O  are  thus  proportional 
to  the  motion  of  the  valve  while  the  port  is 

opened  and  closed  respectively,  and  E/  Q  mea 
sures  the  lap.  H  O  A  is  the  "  angular  ad 
vance,"  or  the  distance  by  which  the  eccen 
tric  must  precede  its  normal  position  E  to 
insure  the  desired  distribution  of  steam.  A 
circle  EZO  being  inscribed,  the  distance  01 
also  measures  the  lap.  Similarly,  if  the  ex 
haust  port  is  to  be  opened  at  I,  it  must  close 
at  J,  and  the  steam  is  confined  and  "  cush 
ioned  "  behind  the  piston  as  the  crank  moves 
from  J  to  A.  O  M  or  O  m  measures  the  "  ex 
haust  lap."  The  figure  N  Q  P  S  R  A  N  is 
the  indicator  diagram  corresponding  to  such 
a  distribution  of  steam,  the  steam  pressure  be 
ing  maintained  from  N  to  Q,  expansion  occur 
ring  from  Q  to  P,  exhaust  taking  place  at  P, 
and  S  R  being  the  line  of  back  pressure  on 
the  return  stroke.  Cushioning  takes  place  at 
R,  and  the  steam  being  admitted  immediately 
afterward,  the  pressure  rises  again  to  its  maxi 
mum  at  N.  This  valve  and  gear  only  permits 
a  very  limited  range  of  expansion  in  conse 
quence  of  the  seriously  objectionable  effect  of 
the  accompanying  alteration  of  the  exhaust. 
A  separate  expansion  valve,  moved  by  an  in 
dependent  eccentric,  is  usually  placed  between 
the  steam  pipe,  S,  fig.  11,  and  the  main  valve. 
The  piston  of  the  air  pump,  P,  and  the  cir 
culating  pump,  where  a  surface  condenser  is 
used,  are  driven  by  a  rod  p  R  from  the 
main  piston.  The  valves  //  admit  the  wa 
ter,  and  c  c  are  the  delivery  valves.  The 
pump  is  represented  as  just  making  a  stroke 
from  left  to  right.  Steam  is  exhausted  from 
the  cylinder  A  through  the  exhaust  pipe  N  N 
to  the  condenser,  and  when  condensed  falls 
to  the  bottom,  whence  the  water  of  conden 
sation  is  raised  by  the  air  pump  and  forced 
overboard  through  a  delivery  pipe  and  valve 
not  shown.  A  portion  of  -the  stern  of  the 
vessel  is  represented  as  torn  away  to  show 
the  screw  J.  A  strong  and  stiff  main  frame, 
X  X,  unites  the  cylinders  with  the  condenser 
and  also  supports  the  main  shaft  journal  at  G. 
The  whole  is  firmly  secured  by  bolts  to  the 
cross  floors  of  the  vessel,  Z  Z,  if  of  iron,  or  to 
engine  keelsons  if  of  wood.  A  spring  water 
valve,  V,  is  placed  on  the  cylinder  head  to 
allow  water  which  may  enter  the  cylinder  with 
the  steam  to  be  forced  out  without  endanger 
ing  the  cylinder  or  the  heads,  as  it  might  were 


348 


STEAM  EXGINE 


it  caught  there  on  the  return  of  the  piston. 
The  trunk  engine,  in  which  the  connecting 
rod  is  attached  directly  to  the  piston  and  .vi 
brates  within  a  trunk  or  cylinder  secured  to 
the  piston,  moving  with  it,  and  extending  out 
side  the  cylinder,  like  an  immense  hollow  piston 
rod,  is  frequently  used  in  the  British  navy.  It 
has  rarely  been  adopted  in  the  United  States. 
— In  nearly  all  steam  vessels  which  have  been 
built  for  the  merchant  service  recently,  and 
in  some  naval  vessels,  the  compound  engine 
has  been  adopted.  Figs.  13  arid  14  represent 
the  usual  form  of  this  engine.  Here  A  A, 
A'  A'  are  the  small  and  the  large,  or  the  high- 
pressure  and  the  low-pressure  cylinders  re 
spectively.  B  B'  are  the  valve  chests.  C  C  0 
is  the  condenser,  which  is  invariably  a  surface 
condenser.  The  condensing  water  is  sometimes 


directed  around  the  tubes  contained  within 
the  easing  COG,  while  the  steam  is  exhausted 
around  them  and  among  them,  and  sometimes 
the  steam  is  condensed  within  the  tubes,  while 
the  injection  water  which  is  sent  into  the  con 
denser  to  produce  condensation  passes  around 
the  exterior  of  the  tubes.  In  either  case,  the 
tubes  are  usually  of  small  diameter,  varying 
from  five  eighths  to  half  an  inch,  and  in  length 
from  four  to  seven  feet.  The  extent  of  heat 
ing  surface  is  usually  from  one  half  to  three 
fourths  that  of  the  heating  surface  of  the 
boilers.  The  air  and  circulating  pumps,  D  D, 
are  placed  on  the  lower  part  of  the  conden 
ser  casting,  and  are  operated  by  a  crank  on 
the  main  shaft  at  E' ;  or  they  are  sometimes 
placed  as  in  the  style  of  engine  last  described, 
and  driven  by  a  beam  worked  by  the  cross 


Side  Elevation. 


Front  Elevation. 


FIGS.  13  aiid  14. — Compound  Marine  Engine. 


head.  The  piston  rods  are  guided  by  the 
cross  heads  X  X  working  in  slipper  guides  T  T, 
and  to  these  cross  heads  are  attached  the  con 
necting  rods  I  I,  driving  the  cranks  Y  Y.  The 
cranks  are  now  usually  set  at  right  angles ;  in 
some  engines  this  angle  is  increased  to  120°, 
or  even  180°.  Where  it  is  arranged  as  hero 
shown,  an  intermediate  reservoir,  R  R,  is 
placed  between  the  two  cylinders  to  prevent 
the  excessive  variations  of  pressure  that  would 
otherwise  accompany  the  varying  relative  mo 
tions  of  the  pistons,  as  the  steam  passes  from 
the  high-pressure  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder. 
Steam  from  the  boilers  enters  the  high-pres 
sure  steam  chest  S,  and  is  admitted  by  the 
steam  valve  alternately  above  and  below  the 
piston  as  usual.  The  exhaust  steam  is  conduct 
ed  through  the  exhaust  passage  around  into  the 
reservoir  R,  whence  it  is  taken  by  the  low-pres 


sure  cylinder,  precisely  as  the  smaller  cylinder 
I  drew  its  steam  from  the  boiler.  From  the  large 
I  or  low-pressure  cylinder  the  steam  is  exhaust 
ed  into  the  condenser.  The  valve  gear  is  usu 
ally  a  Stephenson  link,  L,  the  position  of  which 
is  determined,  and  the  reversal  of  which  is 
accomplished,  by  a  hand  wheel  U  and  screw 
P,  which,  by  the  bell  crank  N  M,  are  attached 
to  the  link  L  L. —  The  Screw.  Screw  steamers 
are  far  more  efficient  than  paddle-wheel  ves 
sels,  not  only  because  the  screw  is  a  better  in 
strument  of  propulsion,  but  because  it  permits 
the  use  of  more  efficient  machinery,  and  espe 
cially  because  it  utilizes  a  large  amount  of  en 
ergy  entirely  wasted  with  the  paddle  wheel  in 
putting  in  motion  the  water,  which  latter,  com 
ing  into  contact  with  the  hull  of  the  vessel,  is 
set  in  motion  by  friction,  and  the  following 
current  is  left  behind  to  expend  its  ris  viva  by 


STEAM  ENGINE 


349 


contact  with  the  surrounding  mass  of  water. 
The  currents  so  produced,  in  the  case  of  screw 
vessels,  impinge  upon  the  screw,  which  works 
immediately  astern  of  the  vessel,  and  com 
municate  to  it  a  portion  of  that  energy  which 
would  otherwise  be  lost  in  the  creation  of 
such  currents.  Screws  work  far  below  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  lose  less  by  slip  than 
the  paddle  wheel.  Screw  engines  are  quick- 
working,  compact,  and  light.  Their  higher 
piston  speed,  their  smaller  size,  and  especially 
their  more  uniform  action  upon  the  propeller 
and  the  water,  produce  greater  economy  in 
the  use  of  steam  and  a  more  effective  appli 
cation  of  power  than  is  obtained  with  the 
paddle  wheel.  Incidentally,  by  permitting 
the  replacing  of  a  considerable  weight  of  ma 
chinery  and  fuel  by  paying  freight,  they  add 
greatly  to  the  commercial  value  of  the  steam 
vessel.  The  forms  of  screws  are  exceedingly 
diverse,  but  those  in  common  use  are  not 
numerous.  In  naval  vessels  it  is  common  to 
apply  screws  of  two  blades,  that  they  may 
be  hoisted  above  water  into  a  "well"  when 
the  vessel  is  under  sail,  or  set  with  the  two 
blades  directly  behind  the  stern  post,  when 
their  resistance  to  the  forward  motion  of  the 
vessel  will  be  comparatively  small.  In  other 
vessels,  and  in  the  greater  number  of  full-pow 
ered  naval  vessels,  screws  of  three  or  four 
blades  are  used.  The  usual  form  of  screw  has 
blades  of  nearly  equal  breadth  from  the  hub 
to  the  periphery,  or  slightly  widening  toward 
their  extremities,  as  is  seen  in  an  exaggerated 
degree  in  fig.  15,  representing  the  form  adopt 
ed  for  tug-boats,  where  large  surface  near  the 
extremity  is  more  generally  used  than  in  ves 
sels  of  high  speed  running  free.  In  the  Grif 
fith  screw,  which  has  been  much  used,  the  hub 
is  globular  and  very  large.  The  blades  are  se 
cured  to  the  hub  by  flanges,  and  are  borted  on 
in  such  a  manner  that  their  position  may  be 


FIG.  15. — Tug-boat  Screw. 


FIG.  16.— Ilirsch  Screw. 


changed  slightly  if  desired.  The  blades  are 
shaped  like  the  section  of  a  pear,  the  wider 
part  being  nearest  the  hub,  and  the  blades 
tapering  rapidly  toward  their  extremities.  A 


usual  form  is  intermediate  between  the  last 
and  that  shown  in  fig.  15,  the  hub  being  suffi 
ciently  enlarged  to  permit  the  blades  to  be  at 
tached  as  in  the  Griffith  screw,  but  more  near 
ly  cylindrical,  and  the  blades  having  nearly 
uniform  width  from  end  to  end.  The  Ilirsch 
screw,  fig.  16,  is  used  on  the  steamship  City  of 
Peking.  The  pitch  of  a  screw  is  the  distance 
which  would  be  traversed  by  the  screw  in  one 
revolution  were  it  to  move  through  the  water 
without  slip;  i.  <?.,  it  is  double  the  distance 
C  D,  fig.  15.  C  D'  represents  the  helical  path 
of  the  extremity  of  the  blade  B,  and  O  E  F  II 
K  is  that  of  the  blade  A.  The  proportion  of 
diameter  C  C'  to  the  pitch  of  the  screw  is  de 
termined  by  the  speed  of  the  vessel.  For  low 
speed  the  pitch  may  be  as  small  as  one  and 
one  fourth  the  diameter.  For  vessels  of  high 
speed  the  pitch  is  frequently  double  the  diam 
eter.  The  diameter  of  the  screw  is  made  as 
great  as  possible,  since  the  slip  decreases  with 
the  increase  of  the  area  of  screw  disk.  Its 
length  is  usually  about  one  sixth  the  diameter. 
A  greater  length  produces  loss  by  increase 
of  surface  causing  too  great  friction,  while  a 
shorter  screw  does  not  fully  utilize  the  resist 
ing  power  of  the  cylinder  of  water  within 
which  it  works,  and  increased  slip  causes 
waste  of  power.  Negative  slip  occurs  when 
the  vessel  moves  at  a  higher  speed  than  it 
would  attain  were  the  screw  to  work  in  a  solid 
nut ;  it  is  sometimes  observed  in  badly  formed 
vessels.  The  slip  is  decreased  by  increasing 
the  diameter,  and  also  by  increasing  the  length 
of  the  screw.  The  increased  friction  above 
referred  to  prevents  the  latter  process  from 
being  economically  carried  beyond  the  maxi 
mum  given.  An  empirical  value  for  the  prob 
able  slip  in  vessels  of  good  shape,  which  is 
closely  approximate  usually,  is  given  by  Prof. 

Thurston  as  S=4  — ,  in  which  S  is  the  slip  per 

cent.,  and  M  and  A  are  the  areas  of  the  mid 
ship  section  and  of  the  screw  disk  in  square 
feet.  The  most  effective  screws  have  slightly 
greater  "pitch  at  the  periphery  than  at  the  hub, 
and  an  increasing  pitch  from  the  forward  to 
the  rear  part  of  the  screw.  The  latter  method 
of  increasing  pitch  is  more  generally  adopted 
alone.  The  thrust  of  the  screw  is  the  pressure 
which  it  exerts  in  driving  the  vessel  forward. 
In  well  formed  vessels,  with  good  screws, 
about  two  thirds  of  the  power  applied  to  the 
screw  is  utilized  in  propulsion,  the  remainder 
being  wasted  in  slip  and  other  useless  work. 
Its  efficiency  is  in  such  a  case,  therefore,  GO 
per  cent.  Twin  screws,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  stern  post,  are  sometimes  used  in  vessels  of 
light  draught  and  considerable  breadth,  where 
by  decreased  slip  is  secured.  The  following 
are  the  dimensions  of  some  of  the  largest  ma 
rine  screw  engines  of  the  well  known  types. 
The  engines  of  the  British  iron-clad  Monarch, 
a  vessel  of  over  8,000  tons  displacement,  have 
given  an  ''indicated  power"  of  8,528  horses  at 
05  revolutions  a  minute,  when  making  a  speed 


350 


STEAM  ENGINE 


of  about  15  knots  or  l1?^  statute  miles  an  hour. 
The  steam  pressure  was  25  Ibs.  These  engines 
are  horizontal,  and  have  steam  cylinders  120  in. 
in  diameter,  and  4£  ft.  stroke  of  piston ;  the 
pistons  weigh  8  tons  each.  The  surface  con 
densers  contain  10,500  sq.  ft.  of  condensing 
surface,  the  tubes  being  |  in.  diameter,  and  6 
ft.  long.  The  propelling  power  is  a  two-bladed 
Griffith  screw,  23  \  ft,  diameter,  20^  ft.  moan 
pitch,  expanding  5  ft.  The  valves  are  moved 
by  a  link  motion,  of  which  the  reversing  gear 
is  worked  by  a  small  steam  reversing  engine, 
which  weighs  about  350  tons ;  the  boiler 
weighs  nearly  as  much  more.  The  cost  of 
engines  and  boiler  was  £60,500.  The  City 
of  Peking,  a  screw  steamer  built  for  the  Pa 
cific  mail  company,  is  a  vessel  of  5,000  tons. 
There  are  two  pairs  of  compound  engines, 
having  cylinders  of  51  and  88  in.  diameter, 
and  4J-  ft.  stroke  of  piston.  The  crank  shafts 
are  18  in.  in  diameter.  Steam  is  carried  at  00 
Ibs.,  and  is  expanded  nine  times.  The  boilers 
are  ten  in  number,  cylindrical  in  form  and 
with  cylindrical  flues ;  they  are  13  ft.  in  diam 
eter,  lOt  ft.  long,  with  shells  of  iron  \\  in. 
thick,  and  have  520  ft.  of  grate  surface,  1(5,500 
sq.  ft.  of  heating  surface,  and  1,000  sq.  ft,  of 
superheating  surface.  The  smoke  funnels,  or 
stacks,  are  8 A  ft.  in 
diameter  and  70  ft. 
high. — Steam  Pres 
sure  and  Engine 
Power.  The  steam 
in  the  engine  exerts 
a  varying  pressure 
from  the  beginning 
to  the  end  of  the 
stroke,  and  these 
pressures  may  be 
determined  experi 
mentally  by  the  use 
of  the  steam  engine 
indicator.  The  best 
form  now  in  general 
use  is  the  Richards 
indicator,  fig.  17.  A 
miniature  steam  cyl 
inder,  A,  has  within 
it  a  closely  fitted 
piston,  which  by  exceedingly  nice  construction 
is  made  to  work  perfectly  steam-tight;  with 
out  friction  or  leakage.  Its  rod  B  is  attached 
to  the  parallel  motion  C  1)  E  F,  which  carries 
a  pencil  at  the  middle  of  F  in  a  perfectly  ver 
tical  line.  To  the  upper  side  of  this  piston 
and  to  the  cap  V  of  the  cylinder  is  screwed  a 
helical  steel  spring,  of  such  strength  that,  re 
sisting  the  steam  pressure  beneath  the  piston, 
it  causes  the  pencil  to  rise  and  fall,  as  pressures 
vary,  through  distances  which  are  proportional 
to  the  changes  of  pressure.  A  scale,  G,  on  the 
barrel  II  II,  indicates  the  pressures  per  square 
inch  which  correspond  with  the  position  of  the 
pencil  at  any  instant.  The  barrel  II  H  is  con 
nected  by  means  of  the  string  I  with  some  part 
of  the  engine  having  a  motion  coincident  in 


FIG.  17.— Kiohards  Indicator. 


time  with  that  of  the  steam  piston,  but  of  such 
extent  that  at  each  stroke  of  the  engine  the 
barrel  II  will  be  turned  about  three  fourths  of 
a  revolution  only.  A  piece  of  paper  or  thin 
card  is  wrapped  upon  this  barrel,  its  end  being 
secured  by  the  springs  W,  and  upon  this  paper 
the  indicator  card  or  diagram  is  automatical 
ly  made  by  the  pencil.  The  instrument  is 
attached  to  the  steam  cylinder  by  the  cock  N, 
which  is  screwed  at  O  into  the  cylinder  in  such 
a  position  that  steam  can  at  all  times  enter  it, 
and  so  that  the  pressure  in  the  engine  and  in 
the  indicator  shall  be  the  same.  The  instru 
ment  is  secured  to  the  cock  by  the  use  of  the 
nut  with  its  double  screw  threads  R  S,  one 
of  which  being  finer  than  the  other,  the  cone 
T  may  be  forced  into  U  very  firmly,  and  per 
fectly  steam-tight.  An  indicator  should  be 
attached  to  each  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  dia 
grams  taken  simultaneously  if  possible.  The 
instrument  being  thus  attached  and  steam 
admitted,  after  a  few  moments'  working  has 
thoroughly  heated  the  cylinder,  the  steam  is 
shut  off  from  the  indicator,  and  the  pencil  is, 
with  its  support  J  K,  swung  around,  until  it 
touches  the  paper.  As  the  barrel  revolves,  the 
pencil  makes  a  horizontal  line,  which  is  called 
the  atmospheric  line  or  line  of  atmospheric 
pressure.  The  reading  of  the  barometer  will 
then  give  the  distance  of  the  vacuum  line,  or 
the  line  of  absolutely  no  pressure,  below  this 
line  of  reference.  Steam  is  again  admitted, 
and  the  pencil,  rising  and  falling  as  the  steam 
pressure  changes  in  the  cylinder,  while  the 
paper  is  moved  laterally  with  a  motion  pre 
cisely  similar  to  that  of  the  piston,  a  diagram 
is  made,  usually  resembling  1)  c  d  e  f  a  in  fig. 
18,  taken  from  the  work  of  Mr.  Charles  T. 
Porter  on  the  indicator.  Steam  from  the  boiler 
is  supplied  to  the  engine  at  the  commencement 
of  the  stroke  nearly  at  boiler  pressure,  and 
follows  the  piston  at  that  pressure  until  at  c 
the  steam  passage  is  gradually  contracted,  and 
finally  closed  by  the  steam  valve.  The  steam 
thus  confined  within  the  cylinder  expands  as 


08/7 

"»A 


? 


-03 


C  /Zcru/w  STROKC  an---i      -^ 

FIG.  18. — Diagram  of  Indicator. 

the  piston  moves  forward,  diminishing  in  pres 
sure  until  it  arrives  at  d,  where  the  exhaust 
valve  gradually  opens  communication  with  the 


v  I 


STEAM  ENGINE 


351 


condenser ;  the  pressure  drops  to  e  at  the  end 
of  the  stroke,  and  as  condensation  becomes 
completed  during  the  return  stroke,  the  mini 
mum  pressure  is  soon  readied  and  retained 
until  atythe  closing  of  the  exhaust  valve  shuts 
up  a  small  portion  remaining  in  the  cylinder, 
and  it  is  compressed  by  the  returning  piston 
and  its  pressure  thus  increased  to  #,  where  the 
end  of  the  return  stroke  is  reached,  the  steam 
valve  again  opens,  and  a  new  cycle  of  opera 
tions  begins.  A  B  is  the  atmospheric  line,  and 
C  D  that  of  absolute  vacuum.  In  consequence 
of  the  slow  closing  of  the  steam  or  cut-off 
valve  in  this  case,  the  steam  is  not  completely 
cut  off  until  the  point  h  is  reached,  where  the 
change  in  the  character  of  the  curve  shows 
that  only  from  li  to  d  does  the  steam  expansion 
line  truly  represent  the  law  of  change  of  vol 
ume  with  pressure.  From  c  to  Ji  the  steam 
"wire-draws"  through  the  steam  port,  and  the 
benefit  of  expansion  is  not  fully  secured.  Were 
the  steam  port  closed  instantaneously  at  c,  the 
line  c  g  wrould  be  the  expansion  line,  and  would 
closely  correspond  with  that  described  already 
(see  STEAM)  for  the  special  conditions  under 
which  it  may  have  been  formed.  It  is  to  se 
cure  this  sudden  closing  and  this  full  benefit 
of  expansion  that  the  drop  cut-offs  of  Sickels, 
Corliss,  Greene,  and  others  have  been  adopt 
ed.  Referring  again  to  the  diagram,  should 
the  "lead"  be  increased,  and  steam  thus  admit 
ted  earlier  in  the  stroke,  the  line  a  6  would 
be  formed  parallel  with  but  in  advance  of  its 
present  position.  "With  less  lead,  the  point  & 
would  be  moved  also,  the  line  a  I  becoming 
inclined  to  the  left.  With  a  greater  or  less 
expansion,  the  point  e  moves  to  the  right  or 
the  left.  With  a  rapidly  closing  cut-off  valve, 
the  curve  c  Ji  becomes  shorter,  and  the  curve 
dig  more  nearly  like  c  g.  A  better  vacuum 
would  bring  the  line  ef  nearer  CD.  In  a 
non-condensing  engine  ef  would  be  above  A 
B.  The  distance  of  ef  above  A  B  or  above 
C  D  indicates  the  back  pressure  produced  by 
resistances  in  the  exhaust  passages,  or  the  de 
gree  of  imperfection  of  the  vacuum  which  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  both  vapor  and  air  in 
small  quantity.  With  a  three-ported  valve, 
such  as  is  used  on  locomotives,  a  shorter  cut 
off  would  cause  an  earlier  closing  of  the  ex 
haust  on  the  return  stroke,  and  the  point  / 
would  fall  at  the  left  of  its  present  position. 
—The  mean  value  of  the  steam  pressure  in 
the  cylinder,  as  determined  by  measuring  the  j 
altitude  of  the  diagram  at  several  points,  or 
by  obtaining  its  area  with  a  planimeter  and 
dividing  by  its  length,  is  termed  the  mean 
pressure.  The  horse  power  is  determined  by 
multiplying  the  mean  pressure  by  the  area  of 
piston  and  the  speed  of  piston,  and  dividing 
by  the  value  of  a  horse  power.  That  is,  HP  = 

-*    *— ,   where  P  is  the  mean  pressure   per  j 

square  inch,  A  the  area  of  piston  in  square 
inches,  V  the  speed  of  piston  or  the  product  ; 
of  the  length  of  stroke  in  feet  by  twice  the  j 
VOL.  xv. — 23 


number  of  revolutions  per  minute.  The  horse 
power  was  assumed  by  James  Watt  as  equiv 
alent  to  33,000  Ibs.  raised  one  foot  high  in 
a  minute,  550  foot  pounds  a  second,  or  1,980,- 
000  foot  pounds  of  work  an  hour.  This  is 
about  the  maximum  which  the  best  London 
draught  horses  were  then  considered  capable 
of  performing.  An  average  actual  horse  pow 
er  is  about  25,000  Ibs.  a  minute,  but  Watt's 
figure  is  retained  by  engineers.  "With  engines 
of  ordinary  proportions,  the  mean  pressure 
may  be  determined  with  considerable  accuracy 

also  by  the  formula  p=T* ~—     — B — CP, 

the  assumption  being  very  nearly  correct  that 
steam  expands  in  such  cases  according  to  Mari- 
otte's  law,  the  curve  of  pressure  being  a  hyper 
bola  and  the  product  of  pressure  and  volume 
constant.  The  values  of  the  constants  A,  B, 
and  C,  as  determined  by  Francis  B.  Stevens, 
are  A=2'3,  B=5,  and  C=0'06.  P.  is  the  ini 
tial  pressure  and  p  the  mean  pressure.  With 
engines  wrorking  at  moderate  pressure,  with 
unjacketed  cylinders  and  medium  speed  of  pis 
ton,  the  point  of  cut-off  giving  maximum  econ 
omy  is  at  about  0'4  or  0'5  the  stroke.  AYith 
high  steam  and  rapid  motion,  and  with  steam- 
jacketed  cylinders,  economy  is  gained  until  the 
steam  is  expanded  four  to  six  times.  In  com 
pound  engines  it  is  not  unusual  to  expand  from 
eight  to  twelve  times,  but  experiment  has  not 
indicated  that  such  great  expansion  is  attended 
with  economy.  The  losses  which  accompany 
great  expansion  are  due  to  internal  condensa 
tion  of  steam  and  its  reevaporation  on  the 
opening  of  the  exhaust  valve,  when  it  carries 
away  a  large  proportion  of  unutilized  heat  into 
the  condenser.  This  loss  sometimes  exceeds 
the  amount  of  heat  actually  utilized.  In  re 
cent  experiments  the  steam  jacket  has  been 
found  to  save  20  per  cent,  by  checking  this 
condensation,  which  is  the  principal  source  of 
loss  of  economy  in  such  engines.  Superheat 
ing  the  steam  sufficiently  to  cause  it  to  pass 
through  the  cylinder  "  dry  "  diminishes  it  also. 
The  minimum  expenditure  of  steam  in  the  best 
engines  is  about  16  or  18  Ibs.  per  horse  pow 
er  per  hour.  The  amount  used  in  the  single 
cylinder  engine  with  moderate  expansion  and 
comparatively  low  pressure  is  seldom  less  than 
30  Ibs.,  and  in  old  styles  of  engines  worked 
with  a  pressure  of  20  Ibs.  per  square  inch  and 
cutting  off  at  three  fourths  stroke,  the  con 
sumption  of  fuel  is  often  G  Ibs.  and  of  steam 
40  to  50  Ibs.  per  horse  power  per  hour.  The 
expenditure  of  coal  has  been  reduced  by  suc 
cessive  improvements,  as  the  increase  of  steam 
pressure,  greater  expansion,  surface  condensa 
tion,  high  piston  speed,  the  use  of  the  steam 
jacket,  and  minor  changes  in  both  engine  and 
boiler,  until  the  best  steam  engines  of  the 
present  day  consume  but  about  2  Ibs.  of  coal 
per  horse  power  per  hour,  in  ordinary  work, 
and  in  some  instances  as  little  as  1^  Ib.  Even 
the  latter,  however,  is  but  about  one  eighth 
the  efficiency  which  would  be  given  by  a  per- 


352 


STEAM  NAVIGATION 


feet  heat  engine. — See  Tredgold,  "  Treatise  on 
Steam  Engines "  (3  vols.  4to,  London,  1852); 
Bourne,  "Treatise  on  the  Screw  Propeller'' 
(new  ed.,  London,  1873),  "Treatise  on  the 
Steam  Engine"  (new  ed.,  1873),  "Handbook 
of  the  Steam  Engine"  (new  ed.,  1873),  and 
"Examples  of  Modern  Steam,  Air,  and  Gas 
Engines"  (1868  et  seq.,  to  be  completed  in  24 
4to  parts);  Kankine,  "Manual  of  the  Steam 
Engine  and  other  Prime  Movers"  (7th  ed., 
London,  1874) ;  and  Clark,  "  Steam  and  Steam 
Engines  "  (London,  1875). 

STEAM  NAVIGATION.     The  origin  of  the  pad 
dle  wheel  for  propelling  vessels  antedates  the 


Christian  era.  The  earliest  application  of 
steam  to  turn  the  paddle  wheel  was  anticipa 
ted  by  Roger  Bacon.  The  attempt  of  Blasco 
de  Garay  in  1543,  if  it  was  made  as  asserted, 
is  the  earliest  on  record.  Papin  is  said  to  have 
experimented  with  his  engine  in  a  model  boat 
in  1707,  on  the  Fulda  at  Cassel.  Jonathan  Hulls 
patented  a  marine  steam  engine  Dec.  21,  1736, 
proposing  to  employ  his  vessel  in  towing.  He 
published  a  descriptive. pamphlet  in  1737,  con 
taining  a  sketch  (fig.  1)  of  a  Newcomen  engine, 
with  a  system  of  counterpoises,  ropes,  ratch 
ets,  and  grooved  wheels,  giving  a  continuous 
motion.  William  Henry  of  Chester  co.,  Pa., 


FIG.  1.— Hulls1s  Steamer,  1736. 


tried  a  model  steamboat  on  the  Conestoga 
river  in  1763.  The  count  d'Auxiron,  a  French 
nobleman,  assisted  by  M.  Perier,  made  a  simi 
lar  attempt  in  1774,  and  Perier  repeated  the 
experiment  in  1775.  The  marquis  de  Jouffroy 
was  engaged  in  the  same  work  from  1776  to 
1783,  using  a  larger  vessel  and  meeting  with 
encouraging  success.  James  Rumsey  was  en 
gaged  in  experiments  in  the  United  States  as 
early  as  1784,  and  in  1786  drove  a  boat  on  the 
Potomac  near  Sheppardstown  at  the  rate  of  4 
m.  an  hour  by  means  of  a  water  jet  forced  out 
at  the  stern.  Eumsey  subsequently  went  to 
England  and  continued  his  experiments  on  the 
Thames.  (See  RUMSEY,  JAMES.)  John  Fitch 
worked  at  this  problem  at  the  same  time  with 
Rumsey,  and  had  an  experimental  steamer  on 
the  Delaware  in  1786.  His  propelling  instru 
ments  were  paddles  suspended  by  the  upper 
ends  of  their  shafts  and  moved  by  a  series  of 
cranks.  This  boat  (fig.  2)  was  60  ft.  long.  An 
other  vessel  in  1790  made  many  trips  on  the 
Delaware,  reaching  an  average  speed  of  7|-  m. 
an  hour.  It  was  laid  up  in  1792.  In  1796 
Fitch  resumed  his  experiments  at  New  York, 
using  a  screw.  (See  FITCH,  JOHN.)  In  1788 
three  Scotch  gentlemen,  Miller,  Taylor,  and 
Symington,  obtained  a  speed  of  5  m.  an  hour 
with  a  steamboat  on  Dalswinton  loch.  In  this 
vessel  two  connected  hulls  Avere  driven  by  a 


single  paddle  wheel  placed  between  them  and 
turned  by  a  small  engine.  In  1789  a  larger 
vessel,  propelled  by  an  engine  of  12  horse 
power,  attained  a  speed  of  7  m.  an  hour.  In 
1801  Symington  constructed  for  Lord  Dundas 
a  steamboat  for  towing  on  the  canal,  named 
the  Charlotte  Dundas,  which  was  used  success 
fully  in  1802.  It  had  a  stern  wheel  driven  by 
an  engine,  22  in.  in  diameter  of  cylinder  and 
of  4  ft.  stroke.  It  drew  vessels  of  140  tons 
burden  3|-  m.  an  hour,  but  was  laid  up  soon 
afterward  in  consequence  of  a  fear  that  the 
banks  of  the  canal  might  be  seriously  injured 


FIG.  2.— Fitclfs  Steamboat,  1T8G. 

by  the  waves.  Robert  Fulton,  an  American 
artist,  and  subsequently  a  civil  engineer,  built 
a  steamboat  on  the  Seine  in  1803,  assisted  by 


STEAM  NAVIGATION 


353 


Chancellor  R.  Livingston.  (See  FULTON,  ROB 
ERT.)  Fulton  had  known  William  Henry  in 
the  United  States,  and  seems  to  have  been 
familiar  with  the  work  of  contemporary  in- 


FIG.  3. — Col.  John    Stevens's    Steam   Engine,  Boiler,  and 
Screws,  1804. 

ventors,  and  he  had  visited  England,  where  he 
found  others  at  work  upon  the  same  problem. 
In  1804  Col.  John  Stevens  experimented  with 
encouraging  success  with  a  small  vessel  driven 
by  a  high-pressure  engine,  a  sectional  boiler, 
and  a  single  screw.  He  also  tried  twin  screws, 
the  steamboat  having  a  length  of  68  ft.  and  a 
breadth  of  14  ft.  This  machinery  (fig.  3)  is 
retained  in  a  good  state  of  preservation  at  the 
Stevens  institute  of  technology,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 
Placed  in  a  new  hull  on  the  Hudson  in  1844, 
this  engine  produced  a  speed  of  8  m.  an  hour. 
The  experiments  of  Oliver  Evans  have  been 
mentioned  under  STEAM  CARRIAGE.  Fulton, 
after  studying  the  subject  abroad,  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1806,  and  with  Livingston 
had  a  boat  built  in  which  he  placed  machinery 
made  by  Boulton  and  Watt  in  England.  The 
craft  was  130  ft.  long,  of  18  ft.  beam,  7  ft.  depth, 
and  160  tons  burden.  The  hull  was  built  by 
Charles  Brown  of  New  York.  The  engine  had 


FIG.  4. — Engine  of  the  Clermont,  1SOT. 

a  steam  cylinder  24  in.  in  diameter  and  a  stroke 
of  4  ft.  The  boiler  was  20  ft.  long,  7  ft.  deep, 
and  8  ft.  wide.  The  wheels  were  15  ft.  in  di 
ameter,  with  floats  of  4  ft.  length  and  2  ft.  dip. 
This  steamboat,  the  Clermont,  made  a  success 
ful  trip  to  Albany  in  1807,  leaving  New  York 
at  1  o'clock  P.  M.  on  Monday,  Aug.  7,  stop 
ping  at  Livingston  Manor  (Clermont)  from  1 
o'clock  Tuesday  until  9A.M.  Wednesday,  and 
reaching  Albany  at  5  P.  M.  on  that  day/  The 
average  speed  was  nearly  5  m.  an  hour.  The 
return  trip,  on  Thursday  and  Friday,  occupied 
30  hours,  the  rate  of  speed  being  5  m.  an  hour. 


The  Clermont,  lengthened  10  ft.,  and  with  ma 
chinery  slightly  altered,  made  regular  trips  to 
Albany  in  1808,  and  was  the  first  steamboat 
ever  made  commercially  successful.  Almost 
simultaneously  with  Fulton's  Clermont,  Ste 
vens  brought  out  the  Phoenix,  a  side-wheel 
steamer  having  hollow  water  lines ;  in  the  fol 
lowing  year  it  was  provided  with  feathering 
paddle  wheels.  This  steamer  could  not  ply  on 
the  Hudson,  as  Fulton  and  Livingston  held  a 
monopoly  of  the  navigation  of  that  river,  and 
the  Phoenix  was  taken  by  sea  around  to  the 
Delaware  river.  This  was  the  first  sea  voyage 
ever  made  by  a  steam  vessel.  From  this  time 
the  steamboat  was  rapidly  introduced.  Fulton 
with  his  coadjutors  placed  a  fleet  upon  the  Hud 
son  river  and  Long  Island  sound,  and  Stevens 
worked  with  his  sons  upon  the  Delaware  and 
the  Connecticut,  and  finally  in  the  waters  of 
New  York  also.  In  1811  Fulton  and  Living 
ston  began  building  steamers  at  Pittsburgh. 
In  1812  the  Comet,  built  by  Henry  Bell,  inau 
gurated  regular  steam  navigation  on  the  river 
Clyde  in  Scotland.  This  steamboat  was  40  ft. 
long,  10^  ft.  wide,  and  of  25  tons  burden.  The 
engines,  of  three  horse  power,  drove  two  pairs 
of  paddle  wheels.  The  speed  attained  was 
about  5  m.  an  hour.  In  1825  James  P.  Allaire 
of  New  York  built  compound  engines  for  the 
Henry  Eckford,  and  subsequently  constructed 
similar  engines  for  several  other  steamers,  of 
which  the  Sim  made  the  trip  from  New  York 
to  Albany  in  1 2  hours  18  minutes."  Soon  after 
ward  Erastus  W.  Smith  introduced  this  form 
of  engine  on  the  great  lakes,  and  still  later 
they  were  introduced  into  British  steamers. 
The  machinery  of  the  steamer  Buckeye  State 
was  constructed  at  the  Allaire  works,  New 
York,  in  1850,  from  the  designs  of  John  Baird 
and  Erastus  W.  Smith,  the  latter  being  the 
designing  and  constructing  engineer.  The 
steamer  was  placed  on  the  route  between 
Buffalo,  Cleveland,  and  Detroit  in  1851,  and 
gave  most  satisfactory  results,  consuming  less 
than  two  thirds  the  fuel  required  by  a  similar 
vessel  of  the  same  line  fitted  with  the  single-cyl 
inder  engine.  The  steam  cylinders  of  this  en 
gine  were  placed  one  within  the  other,  the  low- 
pressure  exterior  cylinder  being  annular.  They 
were  37  and  80  in.  in  diameter  respectively, 
and  the  stroke  was  11  ft.  Both  pistons  were 
connected  to  one  cross  head,  and  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  engine  was  similar  "to  that 
of  the  common  form  of  beam  engine.  The 
steam  pressure  was  from  70  to  75  Ibs.,  about 
the  maximum  pressure  adopted  a  quarter  of  a 
j  century  later  on  transatlantic  lines.  Thissteam- 
I  er  was  of  high  speed  as  well  as  economical  of 
I  fuel. — Ocean  navigation  by  steam,  begun  by 
I  Stevens  in  1808,  was  made  an  assured  success 
!  by  the  voyage  of  the  Savannah  in  1819,  from 
Savannah,  Ga.,  to  Russia  via  England.  In  this 
vessel  both  sails  and  steam  were  used.  She  re 
turned  to  New  York,  direct  from  St.  Petersburg, 
in  26  days.  Between  1821  and  1825  John  Bab- 
cock,  Robert  L.  Thurston,  and  Capt.  Northup 


354 


STEAM  NAVIGATION 


STEARIO   ACID 


ran  steamers  from  Newport,  E.  L,  to  Provi 
dence  and  to  New  York.  In  1825  the  steamer 
Enterprise  went  to  Calcutta  from  England,  and 
in  1836  it  was  proposed  to  establish  'lines  of 
steam  vessels  between  New  York  and  Liverpool. 
In  1838  the  Sinus,  a  ship  of  700  tons  and  250 
horse  power,  sailed 
from  Cork,  April  4; 
and  the  Great  West 
ern,  a  comparatively 
powerful  steamer  of 
1,340  tons,  236  ft.  in 
length,  with  engines 
of  450  horse  power, 
paddle  wheels  28  ft. 
diameter  and  10  ft. 
length  of  floats,  sailed 
from  Bristol  April  8. 
Both  vessels  arrived 
at  New  York  April 
23,  the  Sinus  in  the 
morning  and  the  Great 
Western  in  the  after 
noon.  At  this  time 
Ericsson,  Smith,  and 
others  were  again  ex 
perimenting  with  the 
screw,  and  Ericsson 
soon  brought  it  into 

general  use  in  the  United  States.  His  first 
boat  was  successful  as  a  tugboat  on  the 
Thames  in  1837.  (See  STEAM  ENGINE.)  The 
first  naval  screw  vessel,  the  Archimedes,  built 
for  the  British  navy  in  1840,  was  so  perfect 
ly  successful  that  comparatively  few  paddle 
steamers  were  subsequently  built.  The  ear 
liest  regular  transatlantic  line  of  steamers,  the 
Cunard  line,  sent  its  first  vessel,  the  Britan 
nia,  of  1,350  tons,  from  Liverpool,  July  4, 
1840.  In  1847  Capt.  II.  B.  Forbes  took  out 
the  first  transatlantic  screw  steamer,  the  Mas 
sachusetts,  and  introduced  steam  vessels  into 
Chinese  waters,  sending  out  hulls  and  machin 
ery  from  the  United  States  in  sailing  vessels. — 
Attempts  have  been  made  within  a  few  years 
to  revive  the  system  of  hydraulic  propulsion 
first  tried  a  century  ago  by  Rumsey.  Chain 
propulsion  has  in  some  instances  proved  very 
satisfactory.  A  chain  or  wire  rope  is  laid  in 
the  bed  of  the  river,  or  along  the  proposed 
route  of  the  steamer,  and  passes  over  a  drum 
worked  by  steam  engines  on  the  vessel,  which 
is  hauled  along,  taking  in  the  chain  at  the  bow 
and  passing  it  out  astern.  In  this  arrange 
ment  loss  by  slip  or  oblique  action  is  avoided, 
and  a  very  satisfactory  degree  of  economy  is 
attained.  Here,  however,  but  little  lateral 
movement  of  the  vessel  is  permitted,  and  only 
one  vessel  can  make  use  of  the  chain. — The 
most  successful  steam  vessels  in  general  use 
are  the  screw  steamers  of  transoceanic  lines. 
These  are  from  350  to  450  ft.  long,  usually  pro 
pelled  from  12  to  15  knots  (14  to  17i  m.)  an 
hour,  by  engines  of  from  3,000  to  4,000  horse 
power,  consuming  from  70  to  100  tons  of  coal 
a  day,  and  crossing  the  Atlantic  in  from  8  to 


10  days.  These  vessels  are  now  invariably 
fitted  with  the  compound  engine  and  surface 
condensers.  The  largest  vessel  yet  constructed 
is  the  Great  Eastern,  fig.  5,  begun  in  1854  and 
completed  in  1859,  by  J.  Scott  Russell,  on  the 
Thames,  England.  This  ship  is  680  ft.  long, 


FIG.  5.— Great  Eastern. 

83  ft.  wide,  58  ft.  deep,  28  ft.  draught,  and  of 
24,000  tons  measurement.  There  are  four  pad 
dle  and  four  screw  engines,  the  former  having 
steam  cylinders  74  in.  in  diameter  with  14  ft. 
stroke,  the  latter  84  in.  in  diameter  and  4  ft. 
stroke.  They  are  collectively  of  10,000  actual 
horse  power.  The  paddle  wheels  are  56  ft.  in 
diameter,  the  screw  24  ft.  The  steam  boilers 
supplying  the  paddle  engines  have  44,000  sq.  ft. 
(more  than  an  acre)  of  heating  surface.  The 
boilers  supplying  the  screw  engines  are  still 
larger.  At  30  ft.  draught  this  great  vessel  dis 
places  27,000  tons.  The  engines  were  designed 
to  develop  10",000  horse  power,  driving  the 
ship  at  the  rate  of  16  J  statute  miles  an  hour. 

STEARIC  ACID  (Gr.  cTtap,  tallow),  a  fatty  acid 
obtained  from  mutton  suet,  and  other  fats  that 
contain  stearine,  by  saponifying  suet  and  de 
composing  the  hot  solution  of  the  soap  with 
hydrochloric,  or  still  better  with  tartaric  acid. 
The  oily  acids  are  next  submitted  to  pressure 
between  hot  plates,  by  which  means  a  large 
portion  of  the  oleic  acid  is  separated  ;  the  solid 
residue  is  then  to  be  purified  by  recrystalliza- 
tion  from  alcohol  three  or  four  times.  Its 
formula  is  IICisHseOa.  When  recrystallized 
from  ether,  until  the  fusing  point  becomes  con 
stant  at  159°,  and  slowly  cooled,  the  acid  forms 
beautiful  colorless,  transparent, rhombic  plates ; 
these  melt  into  a  colorless  oil,  tasteless  and 
without  odor,  and  when  quickly  cooled  the 
substance  concretes  in  a  white  crystalline  mass, 
which  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  forms 
with  hot  alcohol  a  solution  having  acid  reac 
tion.  It  is  the  material  of  the. so-called  stear 
ine  candles.  Stearic  acid  exists  in  fats  in 
combination  with  glycerine,  forming  stearine, 


STEARNS 


STEEL 


355 


from  which  it  is  separated  by  saponitlcation. 
(See  GLYCEEIXE.)  It  combines  with  numerous 
bases,  and  forms  with  them  both  normal  and 
acid  salts,  called  stearates.  Stearate  of  soda 
is  the  basis  of  ordinary  hard  soap  ;  stearate  of 
lead  is  a  constituent  of  lead  plaster. 

STEARNS,  a  central  co.  of  Minnesota,  bound 
ed  E.  by  the  Mississippi,  and  drained  by  Sauk 
river  and  lake ;  area,  1,379  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  14,206.  A  portion  of  the  county  is 
prairie,  but  the  W.  part  is  hilly.  There  are 
numerous  lakes  and  streams.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  St.  Paul  and  Pacific  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  305,114  bushels  of 
wheat,  78,627  of  Indian  corn.  447,193  of  oats, 
23,856  of  barley,  120,865  of 'potatoes,  28,939 
tons  of  hay,  17,701  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  323,085 
of  butter/  There  were  2,313  horses,  4,399 
milch  cows,  8,571  other  cattle,  6,174  sheep, 
and  6,237  swine  ;  9  manufactories  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  1  of  agricultural  implements,  4 
of  furniture,  7  breweries,  6  flour  mills,  and  5 
saw  mills.  Capital,  St.  Cloud. 

STEATITE.     See  TALC. 

STEDMAN,  Edmund  Clarence,  an  American  poet, 
born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  Oct.  8, 1833.  He  en 
tered  Yale  college  in  1849,  was  suspended  in 
1852,  and  did  not  return ;  but  in  1871  the  trus 
tees  restored  him  to  his  class  and  gave  him 
the  degree  of  A.  M.  After  editing  the  "  Nor 
wich  Tribune  "  and  the  "  Winsted  Herald,"  he 
settled  in  New  York  in  1855,  and  in  1859  be 
came  a  writer  for  the  "Tribune."  In  1861 
-'2  he  served  as  an  army  correspondent  for 
the  "World,"  and  in  1863  he  was  private  sec 
retary  to  Attorney  General  Bates  at  Wash 
ington.  In  1864  he  became  a  stock  broker  in 
New  York.  He  has  published  "  Poems,  Lyric 
and  Idyllic  "  (1860) ;  "  Alice  of  Momnouth,  an 
Idyl  of  the  Great  War,  and  other  Poems " 
(1864);  "The  Blameless  Prince,  and  other 
Poems"  (1869);  "  Complete  Poems "  (1873); 
and  "Victorian  Poets,"  a  volume  of  critical 
studies  (1875). 

STEEL,  a  malleable  compound  of  iron  and 
carbon,  which  may  be  hardened  and  tempered. 
Considerable  confusion  in  the  use  of  the  word 
has  arisen  in  late  years,  owing  to  the  intro 
duction  of  improved  metallurgical  processes, 
whereby  wrought  or  malleable  iron  may  be 
melted  and  cast  into  ingots.  These  ingots, 
having  the  appearance  of  ordinary  cast  steel 
and  some  of  its  properties,  have  likewise  re 
ceived  the  name  of  steel,  although  they  lack 
the  capacity  of  hardening  which  hitherto  was 
regarded  as  the  essential  characteristic  of  steel. 
Pure  or  wrought  iron  possesses  a  high  degree 
of  malleability  and  ductility,  is  difficultly  fusi 
ble,  may  be  welded  at  high  temperature,  but 
below  fusion,  and  is  soft  enough  when  cold  to 
be  readily  wrought  with  tools.  By  the  gradual 
addition  of  carbon  to  iron  we  notice  an  increase 
in  fusibility,  hardness,  and  resiliency,  while 
malleability  and  ductility  decrease.  The  small 
est  proportion  of  carbon  which  will  distinctly 
produce  these  effects  is  about  0'25  per  cent., 


and  the  largest  amount  of  carbon  which  can 
exist  in  iron  without  destroying  its  malleabil 
ity  is  about  2  per  cent.  Within  these  limits 
the  compounds  of  iron  and  carbon  possess  the 
property  of  becoming  soft  when  heated  to  red 
ness  and  slowly  cooled,  and  of  becoming  hard 
again  when  heated  and  quickly  cooled.  These 
processes  of  hardening  and  annealing  may  be 
repeated  indefinitely,  or  until  the  carbon  is 
burned  out  by  the  successive  heatings.  Iron 
with  more  carbon  than  2  per  cent,  (say  2  to  5) 
is  known  as  cast  iron.  It  is  more  fusible  than 
steel,  but  is  not  at  all  malleable,  and  while  it 
may  be  hardened  by  sudden  cooling,  it  is  brittle 
and  does  not  possess  the  resiliency  or  "  spring  " 
of  steel.  Soft  or  wrought  iron  has  been  until 
within  the  last  20  years  worked  by  rolling 
or  hammering  when  in  a  plastic  condition  at  a 
red  or  white  heat,  owing  to  the  impractica 
bility  of  fusing  pure  iron.  Steel  was  worked 
in  the  same  manner  as  wrought  iron  until 
Huntsman  succeeded  in  melting  it  in  crucibles 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century,  since 
when  cast  steel  has  replaced  welded  steel  for 
most  purposes,  on  account  of  its  greater  homo 
geneity,  since  all  welded  products  consist  of 
layers  or  fibres  of  metal  separated  by  cinder, 
which,  though  it  may  be  largely  extruded  by 
rolling  or  hammering,  yet  is  always  present  to 
a  sufficient  extent  to  prevent  the  absolute  con 
tact  of  all  the  particles  of  metal.  Since  the 
idea  of  perfect  homogeneity  combined  with 
malleability  has  so  long  been  associated  with 
our  notions  of  steel,  it  was  natural  that  when 
malleable  iron,  or  iron  low  in  carbon,  was 
melted  and  cast  in  moulds,  it  should  receive 
the  name  of  steel  without  regard  to  the  amount 
of  carbon  or  the  capacity  for  hardening.  It  is 
thus  that  the  products  of  the  Bessemer  con 
verter  and  the  Siemens  furnace  have  all  been 
classed  as  steel,  although  the  content  of  carbon 
may  vary  from  1'50  to  O'lO  per  cent.;  and 
owing  to  the  very  large  production  of  metal  by 
these  processes,  far  exceeding  in  amount  ordi 
nary  cast  steel,  this  classification  has  become 
well  established  in  iron  metallurgy.  The  un 
certainty  and  confusion  that  has  arisen  from 
classing  together  products  of  widely  different 
physical  and  chemical  properties,  has  led  to  an 
active  discussion  of  the  definition  and  classi 
fication  of  steel.  The  classification  of  Greiner 
of  Seraing  is  as  follows  : 


AMOUNT  OF 
CARBON 
PER  CENT. 

Series  of  irons  (welded). 

Series  of  steels 
(melted). 

0       to  0-15 
0-15  to  0-45 
0-45  to  0-55 
0-55  to  1-50 

Ordinary  iron. 
Granular  iron. 
Steely  iron  or  puddled  steel. 
Cemented  iron  or  steel. 

Extra  soft  steel. 
Soft  steel. 
Semi-soft  steel. 
Hard  steel. 

While  the  simplicity  and  convenience  of  this 
classification  from  a  manufacturing  point  of 
view  must  be  admitted,  its  adoption  is  opposed 
by  Gruner  and  others  on  the  ground  that  it 
takes  no  account  of  the  capacity  for  hardening. 


356 


STEEL 


— Among  the  elements  other  than  carbon  met 
with  in  steel  are  phosphorus,  silicon,  sulphur, 
and  oxygen  among  the  non-metals,  and  man 
ganese,  copper,  tungsten,  titanium,  and  chromi 
um  among  the  metals.  Some  of  these  are  in 
variably  present  in  the  materials  used  for  steel 
making,  and  are  usually  regarded  as  impurities 
in  the  steel,  while  others  are  added  to  produce 
certain  specific  effects.  The  modifications  of 
the  properties  of  steel  by  the  above  named 
elements  have  been  already  treated  partially 
under  IROX.  Steel  is  more  susceptible  to  the 
action  of  impurities  than  is  wrought  iron.  This 
is  especially  true  with  regard  to  phosphorus 
and  silicon,  and  is  readily  accounted  for  by  the 
similarity  of  action  of  these  substances  with 
carbon.  Recent  experiments  have  shown  that 
an  amount  of  phosphorus  which  would  be 
highly  detrimental  to  steel  containing  say  O'oO 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  may  be  present  with  safety 
when  the  carbon  is  as  low  as  O'lO  or  0*20  per 
cent.,  or  in  other  words  when  the  steel  passes 
into  soft  iron.  The  effect  of  this  formerly 
much  dreaded  enemy  of  iron  and  steel  has 
been  so  thoroughly  studied  that  "  phosphorus 
steels,"  so  called,  are  manufactured  and  sold. 
Phosphorus  makes  iron  hard,  brittle,  and  cold 
short  (see  IEOX),  and  this  is  also  true  in  a  modi 
fied  degree  of  carbon  and  silicon  ;  hence,  when 
two  or  all  three  are  present  together  in  iron, 
the  effect  is  cumulative.  The  contradictory 
statements  as  to  the  maximum  percentage  of 
phosphorus  that  Bessemer  metal  will  bear  find 
here  their  explanation.  It  was  formerly  said 
that  Bessemer  steel  with  more  than  0*05  per 
cent,  of  phosphorus  was  unfit  for  rails,  but 
later  experience  has  shown  that  if  the  amount 
of  carbon  does  not  exceed  (Ho  per  cent.,  phos 
phorus  to  the  extent  of  0'35  per  cent,  may  ex 
ist  without  seriously  impairing  the  strength 
and  ductility  of  the  metal.  This  fact,  recently 
brought  into  prominence  by  the  manufacture 
in  France  of  phosphorus  steel  on  a  large  scale, 
was  recognized  in  this  country  as  early  as  1870. 
Samples  of  boiler  plate  and  tough  steel  made 
at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  by  the  Martin  process,  showed 
on  analysis  the  following  composition  : 


ELEMENTS. 

1           2 

I 

3 

4           5 

Carbon.  .  . 

o  •  i  oo  o  •  i  °o 

(Vl°0 

O'l'-'S     0"1°0 

Sulphur  

Phosphorus  . 

...    0-003    0-003 
0-5:30    0-11:3 

0-007 
0-075 

0-814     6  •  ;>7-) 

Manganese  
Silicon  

.  ..   0-144    0-580 
..,0-174    0-015 

0-072 
0-025 

....      OK  052 

While  it  appears  from  the  above  that  phos 
phorus  may  in  a  measure  replace  carbon  in 
steel,  the  effect  of  these  two  substances  is  not 
identical,  and  the  limit  of  rigidity  is  much 
sooner  reached  with  the  former  than  with  the 
latter.  The  use  of  phosphorus  steel  is  solely 
a  question  of  economic  advantage,  since  its 
manufacture  permits  the  use  of  'impure  and 
consequently  cheaper  materials ;  but  as  far  as 
is  at  present  known,  the  compounds  of  iron 
and  phosphorus  possess  no  properties  that  give 


them  a  superiority  over  the  carbon  compounds 
for  industrial  applications.  The  effect  of  sili 
con  on  steel  appears  to  be  similar  to  that  of 
carbon,  as  the  general  analogy  of  the  two  ele 
ments  would  suggest ;  but  to  produce  a  given 
degree  of  hardness,  the  amount  of  silicon  neces 
sary  is  very  much  greater  than  that  of  carbon — 
the  reverse  of  the  case  with  phosphorus.  The 
most  contradictory  statements  exist  regarding 
the  effect  of  silicon  on  steel.  The  best  estab 
lished  data  are  summarized  by  Turner  as  fol 
lows:  A  small  amount  of  silicon  is  not  neces 
sarily  injurious  to  steel,  and  may  be  an  advan 
tage  in  those  varieties  which  are  to  be  used 
without  hardening,  and  where  there  is  no  spe 
cial  demand  for  tenacity  and  strength.  On  the 
other  hand,  where  steel  must  be  hardened  for 
use,  as  for  tools,  silicon  can  only  be  injurious, 
and  that  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  present. 
This  is  one  reason  why  Bessemer  steel  cannot 
generally  be  used  for  purposes  requiring  a  fine, 
hard  steel ;  for  it  is  usually  made  from  highly 
silicious  pig  iron.  But  some  of  the  Swedish 
Bessemer  steel,  made  from  pure  manganiferous 
pig  iron  low  in  silicon,  approximates  in  quality 
to  ordinary  cast  steel.  A  puddled  steel  made 
with  the  addition  of  a  highly  silicious  iron  ore 
has  been  brought  into  prominence  under  the 
name  of  "silicon  steel;"  but  there  is  no  evi 
dence  that  it  derives  any  of  its  properties  from 
silicon,  or  indeed  that  there  is  any  more  silicon 
in  it  than  in  ordinary  puddled  steel.  The  ef 
fect  of  sulphur  on  steel  is  entirely  different 
from  that  of  the  elements  already  mentioned. 
It  makes  it  "  red-short,"  that  is,  brittle  when 
hot ;  but  unlike  phosphorus,  it  does  not  sen- 
sihly  affect  its  malleability  when  cold.  The 
largest  amount  of  sulphur  that  steel  will  bear 
without  serious  impairment  of  its  malleability 
is  said  to  be  about  0-10  per  cent.  Oxygen 
produces  the  same  effect  on  homogeneous  iron 
as  sulphur,  as  might  be  inferred  from  the  close 
chemical  relations  of  the  two  elements.  It 
can  never  exist  in  the  harder  steels  prepared 
by  fusion,  for  it  would  then  combine  with  the 
carbon ;  but  it  is  frequently  met  with  in  the 
Bessemer  low  steels  and  iron,  and  makes  them 
red-short.  Red-shortness,  formerly  ascribed 
exclusively  to  sulphur,  has  been  found  in  very 
many  instances  to  be  due  to  oxygen.  Consid 
erable  importance  has  been  attached  to  the 
presence  of  nitrogen  in  steel,  and  Fremy  con 
siders  it  an  essential  ingredient.  Xumerous 
analyses  do  not  support  this  view,  and  it  is 
probable  that  its  presence  in  steel  is  entirely 
accidental  and  due  to  the  property  which  many 
metals  possess  of  absorbing  or  occluding  gases. 
—The  compounds  of  iron  with  the  metals,  or 
the  true  alloys  of  iron,  have  not  been  as  closely 
studied  as  its  compounds  with  the  non-metals, 
and  but  little  can  be  said  with  precision  of  the 
physical  characters  of  these  alloys  as  such,  or 
as  modified  by  the  presence  of  the  non-metallic 
elements.  The  properties  of  iron  are  not  as 
radically  modified  by  the  addition  of  small 
quantities  of  metals  as  is  the  case  with  the 


STEEL 


357 


non-metals.  Manganese  is  closely  allied  to  iron 
in  its  chemical  properties  ;  and  it  plays  a  very 
important  part,  and  one  in  many  cases  not 
well  understood,  in  the  preparation  of  steel. 
Ores  containing  considerable  manganese  are 
often  known  as  steel  ores.  The  beneficial  ef 
fect  of  the  addition  of  this  metal  or  its  com 
pounds  in  the  manufacture  of  crucible  steel  was 
discovered  by  Heath  in  England  (patented  in 
1839),  but  the  nature  of  its  action  is  still  some* 
what  obscure.  Kecent  experiments  by  Caron 
show  that  sulphur  is  at  least  in  part  removed 
by  manganese,  and  it  is  also  probable  that  the 
presence  of  this  metal  in  the  steel  prevents  the 
injurious  action  of  sulphur,  although  as  a  rule 
manganese  added  as  oxide  in  the  crucible  does 
not  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  steel. 
The  part  that  it  plays  in  the  Bessemer  and 
Martin  processes  is  well  understood,  viz. :  it 
removes  the  oxygen  that  the  molten  metal  has 
absorbed,  and  thus  corrects  red-shortness,  and 
it  is  probable  that  its  favorable  effect  may  be 
in  many  other  instances  referred  to  this  action. 
The  affinity  of  manganese  for  oxygen  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  iron,  and  therefore  the  re 
duction  of  metallic  manganese  from  its  oxide 
is  accomplished  with  more  difficulty;  conse 
quently  a  manganese  cinder,  unlike  an  iron 
cinder,  protects  the  carbon  of  steel  from  oxi 
dation.  Further,  when  manganese  is  present 
in  molten  metal,  the  oxidation  of  the  iron  is 
prevented  until  all  or  nearly  all  the  manganese 
is  oxidized.  Below  a  certain  amount,  say  1 
per  cent.,  manganese  has  been  shown,  contrary 
to  former  opinions,  to  exert  no  disturbing  ef 
fect  on  the  properties  of  steel.  Greiner  says 
that  manganese  possesses  the  property  of  ren 
dering  steel  very  malleable  and  weldable,  and 
that  hard  steels  containing  sulphur,  phospho 
rus,  and  carbon  (as  high  as  T50  per  cent.)  can 
be  forged  with  ease  if  they  contain  sufficient 
manganese.  Nearly  all  observers  agree  that  it 
is  a  corrective  of  red-shortness.  Manganese 
steel,  so  called,  was  for  some  time  made  in 
Leoben,  Austria,  but  its  manufacture  was  aban 
doned,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  prod 
uct.  The  combinations  of  steel  with  chromium, 
tungsten,  and  titanium  have  attracted  much  in 
terest  from  the  fact  that  they  appear  to  have 
peculiar  and  valuable  properties.  They  are 
often  represented  to  be  steels  in  which  the 
metals  named  replace  carbon.  This  view  is 
inadmissible  from  a  chemical  standpoint,  and 
it  is  probable  that  these  compounds  are  carbon 
steels  modified  in  their  properties  by  the  pres 
ence  of  other  metals.  An  analysis  of  Mushet's 
"  special "  steel,  generally  supposed  to  be  made 
from  titaniferous  ores,  showed  the  presence  of 
tungsten  and  no  titanium,  viz. :  tungsten,  7'98 
per  cent.;  carbon,  1'40;  silicon,  0'24.  This 
compound  is  excessively  hard  under  ordinary 
conditions ;  on  sudden  cooling  it  breaks,  and 
it  can  only  be  worked  at  a  very  low  red  heat. 
Tungsten  has  also  been  added  in  the  Bessemer 
converter,  and  the  resulting  steel,  containing  as 
high  as  0*558  per  cent,  of  tungsten,  was  found 


to  combine  a  high  degree  of  toughness  and 
capacity  for  hardening.  Tungsten  likewise  in 
creases  the  power  of  steel  to  retain  magnetism. 
Titanium  seems  to  produce  effects  similar  to 
those  of  tungsten.  Chromium  also  appears  to 
confer  valuable  properties  on  steel,  somewhat 
resembling  those  produced  by  tungsten.  The 
"chrome  steel"  manufactured  in  Brooklyn, 
N".  Y.,  combines  in  a  high  degree  tenacity  and 
ductility,  and  is  capable  of  bearing  a  high  heat 
for  rolling,  hammering,  and  welding.  It  is 
highly  carburized,  one  sample  giving  0'98  per 
cent,  of  carbon,  and  another  1*23.  The  amount 
of  chromium  found  in  one  analysis  was  1*66,  and 
in  another  it  did  not  exist  in  appreciable  quan 
tity.  Determinations  of  the  tensile  strength 
of  this  steel  by  Kirkaldy  of  London,  on  bars 
5  in.  in  length,  varied  from  115,780  Ibs.  to 
1GT,320  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  with  an  elonga 
tion  in  the  first  instance  of  11 '6  per  cent.,  and 
in  the  second  of  7  per  cent.  Determinations 
made  at  the  West  Point  foundery  ranged  from 
173,770  Ibs.  to  198,910  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 
When  hardened  at  a  very  low  heat,  it  acquires 
great  hardness ;  a  high  heat  renders  it  brittle, 
as  might  be  expected  from  its  large  percentage 
of  carbon.  Copper  is  sometimes  an  accidental 
ingredient  in  steel.  It  seems  to  make  it  red- 
short,  and  its  presence  even  in  small  amount  is 
believed  to  be  highly  deleterious.  Faraday 
and  Stoddart  have  experimented  on  alloys  of 
steel  with  the  noble  metals.  They  found  the 
compound  of  steel  with  a  small  amount  of  sil 
ver  to  have  valuable  properties,  but  its  expense 
would  be  a  barrier  to  its  introduction.  Many 
analyses  of  fine  steel  have  shown  the  presence 
of  aluminum;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
this  metal  exerts  a  favorable  action  on  steel, 
but  the  subject  has  not  been  investigated. — 
CLASSIFICATION  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  STEELS. 
For  the  purposes  of  description  of  steels  and 
the  processes  of  their  manufacture,  a  classifica 
tion  based  on  the  mode  of  production  may  be 
found  convenient.  When  iron  ore  is  used,  the 
process  is  one  of  deoxidation  and  subsequent 
carburization ;  with  pig  iron  it  is  one  of  decar- 
burization ;  and  with  wrought  iron  it  is  one  of 
carburization.  The  following  outline  of  pro 
cesses  is  arranged  on  this  plan: 

1.  Steel  from  the  ore  direct,  by  reduction  and  carburization. 
Ore  steel,  direct  steel.    Example,  bloomary  steel. 

2.  From  pig  iron  by  decarburization. 

a.  By  solid  oxidizing  agents,  as  iron  ore,  saltpetre.  &c., 
•without  fusion.  Examples,  puddled  steel,  Ileaton  steel. 

5.  By  solid  oxidizing  agents  with  fusion.  Example, 
Uchatius  steel. 

c.  By  the  oxidizing  agency  of  air,  with  fusion.-   Exam 
ple,  Bessemer  steel. 

d.  By    oxidizing  and  reducing   gases.      Example,  the 
Berard  process. 

3.  From  wrought  iron  by  carburization. 

a.  By  fusion  with  pig  iron.    Example.  Martin  steel. 
l>.  By  fusion  with  coal  or  carbonaceous  substances.    Ex 
ample,  Indian  steel  or  wootz. 

c.  By  heating  in  charcoal  without   fusion.      Example, 
cement  steel. 

d.  By  heating  in  carburetted  hydrogen,  without  fusion. 
Example,  Mackintosh  or  Baron  steel. 

The  distinction  between  crude  and  fine  steel  is 
not  now  so  sharply  defined  as  formerly,  but  in 


358 


STEEL 


general  the  term  fine  steel  is  reserved  for  those 
products  made  by  fusion  of  the  purest  mate 
rials  in  a  crucible,  and  particularly  for  the  cast 
steel  made  by  fusion  of  cement  steel.  Shear 
steel,  produced  by  welding  and  rolling  cement 
steel,  may  also  be  classed  here.  In  many  in 
stances  two  or  more  reactions  or  processes  for 
steel  making  are  combined,  but  in  following 
the  above  classification  the  principal  feature 
only  of  the  process  is  considered. — 1.  Steel 
direct  from  the  Ore.  The  process  for  obtain 
ing  wrought  or  soft  iron  direct  from  the  ore 
(see  BLOOMAEY,  and  IEOX)  affords,  with  some 
slight  modifications  of  charging  and  manipula 
tion,  a  product  containing  sufficient  carbon  to 
entitle  it  to  rank  among  the  steels ;  but  the 
steel  thus  produced  is  always  low  in  carbon, 
and  may  be  classed  with  puddled  steel.  In 
the  Catalan  or  bloomary  forge  the  circum 
stances  favoring  the  production  of  a  steely 
product  are  :  a  slow  process,  that  the  reduced 
iron  may  have  time  to  absorb  carbon  ;  the 
protection  as  far  as  possible  of  the  mass  of 
plastic  metal  from  the  direct  action  of  the 
blast  and  from  the  action  of  rich  iron  cin 
der  ;  and  also  the  use  of  manganiferous  ores, 
since  the  oxido  of  manganese,  as  already  ex 
plained,  does  not  oxidize  carbon  readily.  The 
character  of  tho  steel  produced  by  the  bloom 
ary  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  ores  and 
the  skill  of  the  workmen.  The  impurities  of 
the  ores  are  more  completely  eliminated  in 
the  direct  processes  than  in  the  blast  furnace 
process,  a  gain  obtained  at  the  expense  of  a 
considerable  loss  of  iron.  Titaniferous  ores 
can  be  successfully  worked  in  the  bloomary, 
and  are  said  to  give  a  superior  steel.  The 
product  of  the  bloomary  generally  lacks  uni 
formity,  a  defect  which  can  be  remedied  by 
repeated  heatings  and  hammering.  The  bloom 
ary  process  is  rarely  used  now  for  the  direct 
production  of  steel,  but  the  iron  made  by  this 
process  is,  on  account  of  its  purity,  advanta 
geously  employed  for  conversion  into  steel  by 
the  cementation  process. — 2.  Steel  from  Ply 
Iron.  2a.  Puddled  Steel.  The  process  of 
puddling  for  steel  does  not  differ  essentially 
from  that  for  iron.  (See  IEOX  MANUFACTURE.) 
The  operation  is  stopped  before  complete  de- 
carburization,  or  when  the  desired  hardness  is 
attained.  The  conditions  favoring  the  produc 
tion  of  steel  in  the  puddling  furnace  are  as 
follows:  1.  Pure  pig  iron  is  necessary,  since 
the  refining  is  not  carried  as  far  as  with 
wrought  iron,  and  also  because  a  less  basic 
cinder  is  employed.  2.  The  pig  iron  should 
be  highly  carburized,  that  it  may  not  come  to 
nature  too  quickly.  3.  It  should  not  contain 
too  little  silicon,  or  the  cinder  will  be  too  basic 
or  "rich."  4.  The  presence  of  manganese  is 
favorable,  as  it  produces  a  fluid  and  non-oxidi 
zing  cinder.  5.  The  cinder  should  be  "  poor  " 
or  highly  silicious,  since  rich  cinder  decarbu- 
rizes  the  metal.  6.  The  process  should  go  on 
slowly,  that  it  may  be  the  more  under  control. 
7.  During  tho  balling  the  temperature  must 


be  reduced  as  much  as  possible,  and  a  smoky 
flame  produced,  to  prevent  oxidation.  The  na 
ture  of  puddled  steel  has  already  been  consid 
ered  in  the  foregoing.  It  possesses  a  degree  of 
hardness  proportional  to  the  amount  of  carbon 
(which  rarely  exceeds  0*5  per  cent.),  and  a 
fibrous  or  welded  structure.  It  has  been  large 
ly  used  for  the  heads  of  rails,  being  much  more 
readily  welded  to  iron  than  ordinary  cast  steel. 
Puddled  steel  made  from  pure  pig  irons  is  also 
much  used  for  melting  in  crucibles  for  the  pro 
duction  of  fine  cast  steel.  Saltpetre  (potas 
sium  nitrate)  has  been  used  for  the  conversion 
of  pig  iron  into  wrought  iron  and  steel.  Its 
action  is  both  oxidizing  and  purifying,  the 
former  through  the  large  amount  of  oxygen 
of  the  salt  which  is  readily  given  off,  and  the 
latter  through  the  strong  base,  potassa,  which 
combines  with  the  silicic  and  phosphoric  acids 
produced.  The  apparatus  devised  by  Ileaton 
for  the  reaction  between  -molten  cast  iron 
and  saltpetre,  for  the  conversion  of  poor  pig 
iron  into  good  steel,  has  been  abandoned  on 
account  of  the  expense  and  uncertainty  of 
the  process.  2&.  Uchatius  Steel.  Steel  pro 
duced  by  the  reaction  of  pig  iron  and  iron  ore 
may  be  obtained  in  the  molten  condition,  if 
the  temperature  of  production  is  high  enough. 
This  is  effected  either  in  a  crucible  or  in  a 
Siemens  regenerative  furnace.  Uchatius  steel, 
named  from  its  inventor,  is  made  by  fusing  a 
mixture  of  granulated  pig  iron,  iron  ore,  and 
oxide  of  manganese  in  crucibles.  Its  manu 
facture  is  now  confined  to  Sweden  (though 
originally  introduced  in  Austria),  where  the 
pure  irons  and  ores  are  admirably  adapted  to 
the  process.  At  the  Siemens  works  in  Lan- 
dore,  Wales,  the  manufacture  in  the  open 
hearth  is  regularly  carried  on  by  mixture  of 
pig  iron  and  iron  ore.  The  process  differs  from 
that  of  Uchatius  in  that  the  ore  is  added  in 
successive  portions,  and  that  to  the  decarbu- 
rized  metal  spiegeleisen  is  added,  as  is  usual  in 
the  open-hearth  processes.  Scrap  iron  is  also 
sometimes  added,  but  its  use  is  not  essential  to 
the  process.  .The  charge  consists  of  5  to  (> 
tons  of  Bessemer  pig  iron  and  30  cwt.  of  pure 
ore'.  The  product  is  used  principally  for  rails, 
and  averages  O40  per  cent  of  carbon.  2c. 
Bessemer  Steel.  The  Bessemer  or  pneumatic 
process  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  carbon, 
silicon,  &c.,  from  pig  iron  by  means  of  a  blast 
of  air  forced  through  the  molten  metal.  The 
reactions  involved  are  in  many  respects  the 
same  as  those  in  the  puddling  process  ;  that  is 
to  say,  the  silicon  is  first  oxidized,  and  the  silica 
thus  formed  combines  with  the  oxides  of  iron 
and  manganese  (if  present)  to  form  a  cin 
der,  and  the  carbon  is  subsequently  oxidized  to 
carbonic  oxide.  Owing,  however,  to  the  ra 
pidity  of  the  process  and  the  large  amount  of 
pig  iron  employed,  the  heat  developed  in  the 
oxidation  of  the  silicon,  carbon,  &c.,  is  suffi 
cient  to  retain  the  resulting  steel  or  iron  in  a 
fluid  condition,  so  that  it  can  be  cast  directly 
into  moulds.  The  history  of  this  remarkable 


STEEL 


359 


process  is  briefly  as  follows  :  On  Oct.  IV,  1855, 
Henry  Bessemer  patented  a  process  of  blowing 
air  or  steam  through  molten  pig  iron  in  cruci 
bles,  until  the  metal  was  decarburized  to  any 
desired  extent.  At  this  time  he  recognized 
the  fact  that  while  steam  cooled  the  metal,  air 
increased  the  heat  from  red  to  white.  A  pat 
ent  in  December  of  the  same  year  specified  a 
circular  or  elliptical  vessel  provided  with  a  re 
fractory  lining  and  hung  on  trunnions,  which 
could  be  filled  and  emptied  by  means  of  a 
lipped  opening.  In  this  patent  the  essential 
features  of  the  process  were  fully  developed. 
A  patent  of  Feb.  12,  1856,  indicated  that  the 
heat  developed  in  the  process  was  sufficient 
without  the  additional  use  of  fuel,  and  that, 
according  to  the  duration  of  the  blowing,  steel 
or  soft  iron  might  be  produced.  In  July, 
185G,  Bessemer  read  a  paper  before  the  British 
association  at  Cheltenham  on  the  "  Manufac 
ture  of  -Iron  and  Steel  without  Fuel,"  which 
created  an  intense  interest.  But  the  subse 
quent  trials  did  not  yield  uniformly  satisfactory 
results,  and  except  by  the  inventor  the  process 
was  practically  abandoned.  Patient  and  care 
ful  experiments  showed  that  not  all  pig  irons 
were  adapted  to  the  process  ;  that  sulphur  and 
phosphorus  were  not  eliminated,  and  conse 
quently  pig  irons  containing  a  notable  propor-* 
tion  of  these  substances  could  not  be  used. 
Again,  the  interruption  of  the  process  at  the 
precise  point  of  decarburization  desired  was 
found  to  be  impracticable,  owing  to  lack  of 
trustworthy  indications.  Further,  it  was  found 
that  the  process  was  not  adapted  to  making 
the  finer  and  harder  steels,  but  had  its  chief 
application  in  the  production  of  low  steels  or 
soft  iron.  The  absorption  of  oxygen,  and  the 
consequent  red-shortness  of  the  metal  when 
the  pig  iron  was  blown  to  nearly  complete 
decarburization,  was  overcome  by  the  addi 
tion  of  spiegeleisen,  a  white  pig  iron  contain 
ing  from  7  to  12  per  cent,  of  manganese. 
This  was  a  suggestion  of  Robert  Mushet,  and 
to  it  the  practical  success  of  the  Bessemer  pro 
cess  is  largely  due.  After  conquering  all  the 
obstacles  to  success,  Bessemer  did  not  find  a 
ready  acceptance  of  his  process  owing  to  the 
distrust  caused  by  his  previous  failures.  He 
therefore  started  in  1859  a  small  establishment 
of  his  own  in  Sheffield  for  the  regular  manu 
facture  of  his  steel.  His  commercial  success 
soon  led  to  the  general  adoption  of  his  pro 
cess  throughout  the  civilized  world,  more  par 
ticularly  at  first  in  Sweden,  where  the  pure 
ores  and  fuels  furnished  a  pig  iron  admirably 
adapted  to  the  process.  In  1867  there  were  in 
England  52  Bessemer  converters,  in  Prussia 
22,  in  France  12,  in  Austria  14,  in  Sweden  15, 
and  in  Belgium  2.  In  1873  Germany  alone 
had  70  converters,  and  the  number  had  risen 
in  England  to  105.  The  production  in  Eng 
land  has  increased  from  6,000  tons  in  1867 
to  540,000  tons  in  1874.— The  Bessemer  pro 
cess  consists,  first,  in  melting  the  pig  iron; 
second,  transferring  the  molten  metal  to  the 


converter,  where  it  is  subjected  to  the  action 
of  the  blast  of  air  ;  third,  pouring  the  finished 
product  into  a  ladle  ;  and  fourth,  pouring  from 
the  ladle  into  the  mould.  The  metal  »when 
solid,  but  while  still  hot,  is  taken  from  the 
moulds  and  worked  by  rolling  or  hammering 
into  the  desired  form.  Pig  iron  is  in  some 
cases  used  direct  from  the  blast  furnace,  but 
remelting  is  generally  found  advantageous. 
The  furnaces  now  used  for  this  purpose  are 
generally  cupolas,  which  melt  quicker  and  are 
more  economical,  although  the  direct  contact 
of  the  iron  with  the  fuel  may  cause  a  deterio 
ration  of  the  metal  if  the  fuel  is  impure.  The 
reverberatory  furnace  is  not  open  to  this  objec 
tion,  but  the  pig  iron  may  here  suffer  a  loss  of 
silicon  and  manganese,  owing  to  the  oxidizing 
atmosphere.  The  molten  metal  is  either  run 
in  troughs  directly  from  the  furnace  to  the 
converter,  or  is  first  run  into  ladles  where  it 
can  be  weighed,  and  thence  carried  to  the  con 
verter.  The  latter  is  a  pear-shaped  vessel, 
sometimes  called  the  retort  or  simply  the  ves 
sel,  consisting  of  an  iron  mantle  lined  with 
a  refractory  silicious  material.  It  is  usually 
made  in  two  parts,  upper  and  lower,  for  con 
venience  of  lining.  The  bottom,  which  con 
tains  the  tuyeres,  is  made  in  a  separate  conical 
piece,  and  inserted  from  below.  The  size  of 
the  converter  is  usually  calculated  for  a  charge 
of  five  to  six  tons  of  pig  iron.  This  amount 
of  metal  occupies  but  a  small  part  of  the  ves 
sel,  as  is  indicated  in  the  accompanying  figures. 
The  greatest  external  diameter  is  about  8  ft., 
with  a  total  height  of  from  12  to  15  ft.  The 
silicious  material  of  the  lining  usually  con 
tains  a  little  alumina.  The  so-called  "  ganis- 
ter "  used  in  England  for  this  purpose  is  a 
ground  sandstone  found  in  the  coal  forma 
tion,  containing  93  per  cent,  of  silica,  4  per 
cent,  of  alumina,  and  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  oxide 
of  iron.  The  lining  is  made  by  ramming  the 
material  in  a  moist  condition  around  a  form 
placed  in  the  converter.  It  is  usually  about 
12  in.  thick.  The  greatest  attention  must  be 
paid  to  the  selection  of  the  material  for  the 


FIG.  1. 


lining  and  to  its  thorough  consolidation,  for 
upon  the  lining  the  success  of  the  process 
largely  depends.  The  tuyeres,  from  7  to  12 


360 


STEEL 


in  number,  are  made  of  fine  clay  in  the  form 
of  truncated  cones,  each  perforated  with  7  to 
12  holes  about  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  di 
ameter.  They  are 
arranged  on  the 
bottom  plate,  and 
ganister  or  other 
material  stamped 
around  them;  and 
the  finished  bot 
tom,  after  drying, 
is  inserted  in  the 
converter.  The 
bottom  lasts  gen 
erally  for  6  to  10 
heats,  while  a  care 
fully  made  lining 
may  endure  1,000 
or  more  heats. 
The  converter  is 
mounted  on  trira- 
F  2  nions,  one  of  which 

is  hollow  and  con 
veys  the  blast  to  the  tuyere  box  below  the 
tuyeres,  and  to  the  other  is  attached  the  mech 
anism  by  which  the  converter  is  revolved. 
Figs.  1  and  2  give  sectional  views  of  the  con 
verter  in  two  positions.  Fig.  3  is  a  plan  of 
the  converter  with  the  rotating  machinery. 
The  ladle  into  which  the  steel  is  poured  from 
the  converter  is  shown  in  figs.  4,  5,  and  6. 
Fig.  4  is  a  vertical  section  of  the  ladle  crane 
and  elevation  of  the  ladle.  Fig.  5  shows  the 
platform  on  which  the  ladle  moves,  and  fig.  G 
is  a  partial  section  through  the  ladle,  show 
ing  the  loam-coated  rod  which  acts  as  a  stop- 


of  the  Bessemer  process  ever  came  from  the 
hands  of  its  inventor  in  as  complete  a  form. 
But  while  the  accumula 
ted  experience  of  15  years 
has  added  nothing  to  the 
essential  features  of  the 
apparatus  and  machinery, 
yet  in  the  minor  details  of 
construction  improvements 
have  been  made  which  have 
increased  the  capacity  of 
the  process  four  fold.  The 
highest  perfection  of  ap 
paratus  and  working  has 
been  attained  in  the  United 
States,  where  there  are  now 
(18TG)  ten  works  with  two 


converters  each,  of  five  to 
six  tons  capacity.  The 
improvements  in  American 
practice  have  been  largely 
due  to  Mr.  A.  L.  Holley, 
who  has  superintended  the 
construction  of  most  of  the 
works  in  this  country, 


FIG.  4. 


per  in  pouring.  By  this  latter  arrange 
ment  the  fiuid  steel  is  discharged  in  a 
thick  stream,  and  the  cinder  remains  on 
top.  The  steel  is  usually  cast  in  long  in 
gots  about  12  to  14  in.  square  at  the  base 
and  tapering  from  1  to  1J  in.,  each  in 
got  being  rolled  into  two  or  three  .rail 
blooms.  When  the  steel  is  intended  for 
other  purposes  than  rails,  moulds  of  spe 
cial  forms  are  used.  To  obviate  the  occur 
rence  of  air  bubbles  in  the  steel,  caused 
by  the  falling  of  the  stream  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom  of  the  mould  and  spatter 
ing  against  the  sides,  bottom  casting  is 
employed ;  that  is,  pouring  the  steel  down 
a  central  sprue  and  causing  it  to  enter 
the  bottom  of  several  moulds  at  a  time 
through  fire-clay  distributors.  The  blow 
ing  engine  for  supplying  the  blast  is  usu 
ally  double,  and  should  be  able  to  deliver 
8,000  to  11,000  cubic  feet  of  air  a  minute 
at  a  pressure  of  25  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch. 
Probably  no  other  invention  of  the  magnitude 


In  1868  an  output 
of  500  tons  a  month 
from  two  five-ton  con 
verters  was  barely 
reached.  The  pro 
duction  had  gradual 
ly  increased  to  4,200 
tons  of  ingots  a  month 
in  the  best  works,  in 
others  to  3,800  tons, 
and  in  one  instance 
to  5,000  tons.  In 
the  nominally  five-ton 
vessels  5£  to  5|  tons 
are  sometimes  pro 
duced  at  a  heat.  The 
improvements  which 
have  rendered  this 
large  and  regular  pro 
duction  possible  in 
this  country,  far  ex 
ceeding  that  of  Eu 
ropean  works,  have 
been  summed  up  by 
Mr.  Holley  as  follows : 
1,  improved  cupola 
furnaces  and  method 
of  working ;  2,  the 
means  used  for  quick 
ly  and  soundly  renewing  the  vessel  bottoms, 
and  the  use  of  fire  brick  around  the  tuyeres ; 


FIG. 


STEEL 


361 


3,  more  roomy  and  convenient  arrangement 
and  distribution  of  the  working  parts  and 
spaces ;  4,  filling  the  ingot  moulds  from  the 
bottom  by  improved  and  convenient  appara- 


FIG.  C. 


FIG.  5. 

tus. — The  converter,  after  being  lined,  is  thor 
oughly  dried  and  heated  to  redness,  and  pig 
iron  is  run  into  it  while  turned  to  the 'hori 
zontal  position.  On  tipping  up  the  convert 
er,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
blast  should  be  started  be 
fore  the  metal  reaches  the 
tuyeres.  This  is  effected  au 
tomatically  by  a  cam  on  one 
of  the  trunnions.  When  the 
converter  has  attained  the 
upright  position,  the  roar  of 
the  air  rushing  through  the 
metal  and  escaping  from  the 
mouth  is  heard.  In  this  stage 
a  large  part  of  the  oxygen 
is  absorbed  by  the  silicon  and 
manganese  (or  iron  in  the 
absence  of  manganese),  and 
the  flame  is  short  and  not 
highly  luminous.  The  spectroscope  shows  at 
this  time  a  continuous  spectrum  without  lines. 
Soon  the  escaping  flame  increases  in  size  and 
brilliancy,  assuming  an  orange  or  yellow  color 
with  blue  streaks  and  a  white  edge,  inter 
mingled  with  sparks  of  metal.  The  spectro 
scope  now  shows  the  sodium  line,  and  gen 
erally  those  of  potassium  and  lithium,  acciden 
tal  ingredients  of  the  metal  or  lining.  This 
constitutes  the  first  period  of  the  conversion, 
and  is  known  as  the  slag  or  cinder-forming 
period.  The  action  now  becomes  more  vio 
lent,  and  the  flame  more  intensely  luminous, 
and  large  masses  of  iron  or  cinder  are  often 
ejected  from  the  vessel,  probably  from  the 
energetic  action  of  the  oxide  of  iron  in  the 
cinder  on  the  carbon  of  the  metal.  The  spec 
troscope  now  shows  bands  of  dark  lines  in 
the  green,  which  have  been  proved  to  be  pro 
duced  by  manganese,  though  their  appearance 
is  dependent  on  the  oxidation  of  the  carbon. 
This  violent  stage  of  the  process  passes  grad- 
ualhr  into  the  third  and  more  peaceful  period, 
in  which  the  flame  increases  in  heat  and  bril 
liancy  and  assumes  a  purple  or  violet  tint. 
At  this  high  temperature  the  carbon  appears 
to  be  directly  oxidized  by  the  blast.  When 
the  carbon  is  all  removed  the  flame  suddenly 
drops,  which  is  the  indication  for  tipping  over 
the  converter  and  stopping  the  blast.  Coin 


cident  with  the  dropping  of  the  flame  is  the 
disappearance  of  the  dark  bands  from  the 
spectrum.  The  length  of  the  process  up  to 
this  point  may  vary  from  5  to  45  minutes,  ac 
cording  to  the  heat  of  the  metal,  the  amount 
of  silicon  and  manganese,  and  the  amount  of 
pressure  of  blast.  A  "blow"  usually  lasts  15 
to  20  minutes,  of  which  the  first  or  slag-form 
ing  period  generally  occupies  one  half.  Pig 
irons  with  little  silicon  often  pass  directly 
into  the  second  period.  The  metal  in  the 
converter  after  complete  decarburization  con 
tains  considerable  oxide  of  iron  in  suspension 
or  solution,  and  in  that  condition  is  worthless, 
since  it  breaks  up  under  the  hammer.  There 
is  added  to  it,  therefore,  metallic  manganese, 
as  before  explained,  which  combines  with  the 
oxygen  and  passes  into  the  cinder.  Spiegelei- 
sen  is  generally  used  for  this  purpose.  At  the 
end  of  the  blow  the  converter  is  tipped  over, 
and  the  spiegeleisen,  previously  melted,  is  run 
in.  An  energetic  action  at  once  manifests 
itself  by  the  escape  of  abundant  gas  and  flame. 
About  7  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the 
charge  is  used,  according  to  the  hardness  of 
steel  desired.  Spiegeleisen  contains  about  4  to 
5  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  the  amount  that  can 
be  used  is  therefore  limited,  for  the  carbon,  ta 
king  but  little  part  in  the  reaction,  enters  into 
combination  with  the  metal.  This  has  been  an 
obstacle  to  the  preparation  of  extra  soft  metal 
by  the  Bessemer  process.  Ferro-manganese, 
a  combination  of  manganese  and  iron  with  a 
little  carbon,  containing  50  per  cent,  more  or 
less  of  manganese,  was  early  used  with  success 
in  the  process,  but  its  manufacture  was  aban 
doned  owing  to  its  expense.  It  has  recently 
been  revived  and  its  use  resumed  in  the  Bes 
semer,  but  more  particularly  in  the  Martin 
process,  under  analogous  conditions,  for  the 
preparation  of  steel  or  homogeneous  iron 
containing  phosphorus.  The  employment  of 
ferro-manganese  is  also  becoming  general  for 
making  soft  iron  of  fine  quality  for  construc 
tion  of  ships,  bridges,  &c.  The  addition  of 
spiegeleisen  or  ferro-manganese  is  not  univer 
sally  practised.  Where  the  pig  iron  contains 
considerable  manganese,  the  process  may  be 
interrupted  at  the  desired  stage  of  decarburi 
zation,  and  even  metal  very  low  in  carbon, 
which  is  not  red-short  from  oxide  of  iron, 
may  be  successfully  cast.  This  method  is  fol 
lowed  in  Sweden  and  some  parts  of  Germany. 
The  loss  of  weight  in  the  conversion  of  pig 
iron  by  the  Bessemer  process,  including  scrap, 
is  from  10  to  15  per  cent.  The  heat  produced 
in  the  process,  formerly  supposed  to  be  mainly 
caused  by  the  oxidation  of  the  carbon,  is  now 
known  to  be  mainly  due  to  the  oxidation  of 
silicon  and  manganese,  and  also  of  the  iron. 
Silicious  pig  iron  is  therefore  generally  de 
manded  for  the  process.  From  1^  to  2  per 
cent,  of  silicon  is  the  amount  generally  de 
sired,  but  pig  irons  with  more  and  less  are 
often  used.  The  use  of  more  silicious  pigs  is 
disadvantageous  owing  to  a  lengthening  of  the 


362 


STEEL 


process,  and  also  to  the  large  amount  of  silicon 
remaining  in  the  steel.  When  highly  manga- 
t  niferous  pig  is  used,  the  silicon  may  sink  be- 
'  low  1  per  cent.,  and  the  resulting  steel  is  of 
a  much  finer  quality.  Much  of  the  Swedish 
Bessemer  steel,  celebrated  for  its  purity  and 
strength,  is  made  from  pig  iron  of  this  charac 
ter. — The  heavy  ingots  of  Bessemer  steel  in 
tended  for  rails  are  either  hammered  or  rolled 
(bloomed),  becoming  thereby  condensed  and 
elongated,  and  then  cut  into  lengths  suitable 
for  rolling  into  rails.  Blooming  is  now  gen 
erally  conceded  to  make  the  best  and  most  uni 
form,  product.  The  American  blooming  train 
consists  of  three  rolls  30  in.  in  diameter  and 

5  ft.  in  length,  which  are  adjustable  in  housings 
by  means  of  steel  screws.    Ingots  12^-  in.  square 
are  reduced  by  four  grooves  and  17  passes  to 

6  or  7  in.  square  in  four  minutes.     Special  ap 
pliances  for  manipulating  these  heavy  masses 
of  metal  by  machinery  are  attached  to  the  rolls 
and  greatly  facilitate  the  operation,  which  in 
some  cases  is  nearly  automatic.    The  rail  trains 
are  ordinarily  three  high  rolls.    (See  IRON  MAN 
UFACTURE.)     A  21-inch  train  for  rolling  7-inch 
ingots  into  rails  in  13  passes  is  divided  into 
three  lengths.    The  product  of  a  steel  rail  mill, 
working  on  7-inch  blooms,  is  about  1,000  tons 
of  rails  a  week.     The  consolidation  of  steel 
usually  accomplished  by  hammering  or  rolling 
may  also  be  effected  by  the  application  of  a 
heavy  steady  pressure.     This  latter  method  is 
applicable  not  only  to  the  forging  of  masses  of 
steel,  but  also  to  the  compression  of  the  metal 
while  in  the  molten  state.    Bessemer  embodied 
this  idea  in  one  of  his  earlier  patents.     Origi 
nally  practised  in  France,  the  compression  of 
liquid  steel  has  attained  its  greatest  develop 
ment  in  England,  where  Sir  Joseph  Whitworth 
has  an  extensive  plant  for  this  purpose,  which 
includes  four  hydraulic  presses  capable  of  ex 
erting  a  pressure  of  2,000  to  8,000  tons.     The 
pressure  usually  applied  is  six  tons  to  the  square 
inch,  by  which  an  ingot  is  reduced  one  eighth 
in  length.     To  small  castings  a  pressure  of  20 
tons  to  the  square  inch  is  sometimes  applied. 
Mild  steels  treated  by  this  process  have  shown 
a  tensile  strength  of  40  tons  to  the  square  inch, 
with  an  elongation  of  30  per  cent.     A  tube  of 
this  compressed  steel  26  in.  long  and  7'83  in. 
in  diameter,  with  a  bore  of  2'56  in.  (being  that 
of  a  nine-pound  field  gun),  sustained  48  explo 
sions  of  1^-  Ib.  of  powder  with  the  bore  closed 
by  a  screw  plug,  the  only  escape  for  the  gases 
being  through  the  touch  hole,  TV  in.  in  diame 
ter.     The  expansion  of  the  bore  increases  at 
every  explosion,  but  without  rupture.     Forg 
ing  steel  by  means  of  hydraulic  pressure  was 
first  introduced  by  Ilaswell  in  Vienna  in  1861. 
Heavy  ingots  are  forged  by  this  method  more 
effectually  than  by  hammering,   and   smaller 
articles  of  irregular  or  intricate  outline,  up  to 
150  Ibs.  or  more,   may  be  directly  formed  by 
pressure  of  the  white-hot  metal  into  moulds. 
2d.   The  Berard  Process.     The  conversion  of 
pig  iron  into  steel  or  soft  iron  by  means  of 


oxidizing  and  reducing  gases,  in  this  process,  is 
carried  out  on  the  hearth  of  a  reverberatory 
furnace  heated  by  gas.  The  pig  iron  is  decar- 
burized  by  means  of  air  in  connection  with 
hydro-carbon  gases,  which  are  expected  to  re 
move  the  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  The  result 
ing  iron  is  recarburized  by  the  reducing  gases. 
This  process  has  not  yet  proved  a  commercial 
success. — 3.  Steel  from  Wrought  Iron.  The 
above  described  processes  under  the  second 
division  of  the  classification,  to  which  many 
others  of  minor  importance  might  be  added,  all 
use  pig  iron  as  the  principal  material  for  the 
preparation  of  steel ;  and  as  it  is  a  substance 
of  complex  and  variable  composition,  the  qual 
ity  of  the  steel  derived  from  it  will  depend  on 
the  composition  of  the  pig  iron  used.  In  none 
of  the  processes  using  pig  iron  is  there  a  com 
plete  elimination  of  all  the  substances  associ 
ated  with  the  iron ;  hence  only  the  purer  va 
rieties  can  be  used  where  a  good  product  is 
desired.  In  the  third  division  wrought  iron  is 
the  principal  material  used,  and  as  this  may 
be  made  in  a  state  of  great  purity  even  from 
moderately  pure  pig  irons,  the  steel  made  from 
it  is  as  a  rule  superior  to  that  made  from  pig 
iron.  Wrought  iron  when  imperfectly  worked 


contains  considerable  cinder,  which  holds  the 
greater  part  of  the  phosphorus  originally  in 
the  pig  iron ;  and  when  steel  is  made  from 
such  wrought  iron  by  fusion,  the  phosphorus 
enters  the  steel.  3«.  The  Martin  Process. 
The  principle  of  manufacturing  steel  by  the 
reaction  of  wrought  iron  upon  melted  pig  has 
long  been  known.  Einmann,  Vana'ccio,  and 
even  Agricola  (about  1550)  describe  processes 
of  this  "kind.  Reaumur  (1722),  Chulut,  and 
Clouet  (1778)  published  experiments  in  which 
steel  was  produced  by  the  simultaneous  fusion 
of  cast  and  wrought  iron,  or  of  cast  iron  and 
iron  oxide.  But  these  experiments,  and  many 
others  of  subsequent  date,  were  successful 
only  so  far  as  the  manufacture  in  crucibles 
was  concerned.  It  was  only  in  closed  ves 
sels,  heated  from  without,  that  the  necessary 
high  temperature,  combined  with  exclusion  of 
air,  could  be  maintained.  Vitreous  fluxes 
were  early  used,  to  protect  the  surface  of  the 
molten  metals;  and  the  idea  of  employing  a 
reverberatory  furnace  is  found  in  the  work 
of  Ilassenfratz  (1812).  Several  English  and 
French  patents  of  the  early  part  of  this  cen 
tury  show  that  metallurgists  were  actively  en 
gaged  with  this  problem.  The  most  impor 
tant  historically,  though  at  the  time  without 
commercial  results,  .was  that  of  Heath  (1845), 
which  indicated  the  fusion  of  material  in  a 
hearth,  the  maintenance  of  an  extremely  high 
temperature,  and  the  employment  of  gase 
ous  fuel.  In  a  former  patent  (1839)  Heath 
had  claimed  the  addition  of  carburet  of  man 
ganese.  The  oxides  of  manganese  had  been 
previously  used  in  metallurgy ;  but  the  intro 
duction  of  metallic  manganese,  alloyed  with 
carbon,  was  an  important  novelty,  which  pref 
aced  the  employment  by  Mushet,  Bessemer, 


STEEL 


363 


and  Martin  of  the  "triple  compound"  of  iron, 
carbon,  and  manganese  (spiegeleisen).  The 
chief  difficulty  with  all  these  attempts  to 
manufacture  steel  by  fusion  in  the  reverbera- 
tory  was  the  lack  of  efficient  and  economical 
means  for  the  maintenance  of  the  intense  tem 
perature  required.  This  was  supplied  by  the 
important  invention  of  Siemens,  the  regenera 
tive  -gas  furnace  (see  FUEXACE),  in  which  the 
use  of  gas  as  fuel  was  perfectly  realized.  The 
effect  of  this  invention  was  great  and  immedi 
ate  in  every  branch  of  metallurgy  involving 
very  high  temperatures,  and  nowhere  more 
signal  than  in  the  remelting  and  subsequently 
in  the  direct  manufacture  of  steel  by  fusion. 
Sudre,  Alexandre,  Attwood,  and  Brigues,  Ram- 
bourg  and  co.  (the  last  at  Montlucon,  under 
the  advice  of  C.  W.  Siemens  himself)  attempted 
with  the  aid  of  the  new  system  of  heating  to 
fuse  cast  iron  with  wrought  iron  or  oxides  of 
iron  for  the  production  of  steel,  and  procured 
patents  on  the  strength  of  their  experiments. 
But  the  first  practical  success  was  that  of  Pierre 
and  Emile  Martin,  whose  method  is  set  forth 
in  their  patents  of  1865  and  1867.  These  me 
tallurgists,  after  a  series  of  experiments  ex 
tending  over  many  years,  arrived  at  a  combi 
nation  of  features,  most  of  them  separately 
known  before,  but  constituting  as  a  whole  a 
new  process,  by  which  they  were  enabled  to 
manufacture  open-hearth  steel  of  all  grades, 
from  the  homogeneous  metal  approaching 
wrought  iron  to  the  hardest  varieties,  on  a 
commercial  scale  and  with  profit.  Naturally 
their  claims  as  inventors,  among  so  many 
eager  competitors,  were  for  a  time  contested  ; 
but  the  report  in  their  favor  of  MM.  Jordan 
and  Burat,  made  in  November,  1874,  after  an 
investigation  extending  over  many  months,  for 
the  tribunal  of  the  Seine,  will  probably  be  ac 
cepted  as  conclusive.  The  Martin  process  is 
now  widely  employed  in  England,  on  the  con 
tinent  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States,  and 
constitutes  the  only  rival  of  the  Bessemer 
method  for  the  production  of  cheap  steel.  It 
consists  essentially  in  the  decarburization  of 
cast  iron  by  fusion  with  wrought  iron,  iron 
sponge,  steel  scrap,  or  iron  oxide,  in  the  hearth 
of  a  reverberatory  furnace,  heated  with  gas, 
the  flame  of  which  assists  the  reaction,  and  the 
subsequent  recarburization  or  deoxidation  of 
the  bath  by  the  addition  at  the  close  of  the 
process  of  white  iron,  spiegeleisen,  or  ferro- 
manganese.  The  period  of  fusion  and  decar 
burization  lasts  from  four  to  eight  hours  ;  the 
amount  of  spiegeleisen  or  ferro-manganese  add 
ed  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  bath, 
the  grade  of  steel  desired,  and  the  percentage 
of  manganese  in  the  alloy  used.  The  first  of 
these,  elements  is  determined  by  samples  taken 
from  time  to  time  during  the  process  and 
tested.  The  advantages  claimed  for  the  Mar 
tin  as  compared  with  the  Bessemer  process 
are :  its  less  expensive  plant ;  the  greater  du 
ration  of  the  operation  permitting  by  means 
of  sampling  more  complete  control  of  the 


quality  of  the  product,  and  also  conducing  to 
greater  uniformity  of  result ;  and,  as  a  conse 
quence  of  the  foregoing,  the  practicability  of 
employing  materials  which  have  not  hitherto 
been  considered  suitable  for  the  Bessemer  con 
verter.  The  greater  variety  of  materials  avail 
able  for  the  Martin  process  also  renders  the 
direct  conveyance  of.  the  molten  pig  from  the 
blast  furnace  to  the  steel  furnace  an  easier 
matter  in  this  process  than  in  the  other,  since 
the  initial  quality  of  the  pig  is  of  less  impor 
tance.  Yet  this  direct  conveyance  of  the  cast 
iron  has  thus  far  been  practised  in  certain 
Bessemer  works  alone.  The  Martin  process 
has  been  employed  at  Terre  Noire  in  France, 
and  by  Mr.  Slade  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  for  the 
production  of  phosphoric  steel  mentioned 
above.  The  production  of  Martin  steel  in  this 
country  has  risen  from  3,000  net  tons  in  1872 
to  7,000  tons  in  1874.  The  number  of  estab 
lishments  using  the  process  in  1874  was  13, 
and  its  introduction  was  in  progress  in  other 
works.  35.  Indian  Steel,  or  ~\Yootz.  This  is 
produced  by  fusion  of  wrought  iron  with  coal 
or  carbonaceous  substances  in  crucibles.  Small 
pieces  of  iron  made  in  the  small  native  fur 
naces  are  put  into  a  clay  crucible  with  some 
dried  wood  and  leaves,  and  covered  securely 
with  tempered  clay.  The  crucibles  are  then 
heated  until  fusion  is  complete,  when  they  are 
broken  open,  and  a  conical  mass  of  steel  weigh 
ing  2  or  2-|  Ibs.  is  obtained.  This  steel  is  gen 
erally  very  highly  carburized,  and  requires  to 
be  worked  at  a  low  heat.  It  is  much  esteemed 
for  its  purity,  but  the  production  is  small  in 
amount.  About  the  beginning  of  this  cen 
tury  David  Mushet  carried  out  an  extensive 
series  of  experiments  on  the  fusion  of  wrought 
iron  and  charcoal  in  crucibles,  and  determined 
the  amount  of  charcoal  necessary  for  the 
production  of  steel  of  different  degrees  of 
hardness.  Since  then  numberless  patents 
have  been  secured  for  mixtures  for  fusing 
in  crucibles,  comprising  mainly  the  different 
varieties  of  pig  iron,  wrought  iron,  carbon, 
and  oxide  or  other  compound  of  manganese. 
The  crucible  steel  of  the  present  day  is  largely 
made  from  such  mixtures,  the  quality  of  the 
product  depending  on  the  materials  used. 
3c.  Cement  Steel.  The  production  of  steel 
by  heating  wrought  iron  in  charcoal  without 
fusion  (cementation)  is  a  very  old  process,  but 
its  origin  is  unknown.  It  was  described  by 
Reaumur  in  1722,  and  has  not  been  material 
ly  changed  since.  Notwithstanding  the  in 
troduction  of  modern  processes,  this  method 
is  still  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
higher  grades  of  steel  for  tools  and  other  fine 
purposes.  The  iron  is  in  the  form  of  flat 
bars  about  f  in.  thick.  These  are  arranged 
in  layers  in  long  boxes  or  chests  of  fire  brick, 
each  layer  being  covered  with  charcoal  about 
4  in.  thick.  When  the  box  is  full,  it  is  covered 
with  clay  or  other  impervious  material,  and 
heated  to  bright  redness  for  seven  to  ten  days, 
according  to  the  degree  of  carburization  re- 


364 


STEEL 


quired.  Trial  bars  are  inserted  with  their 
ends  protruding,  which  may  be  withdrawn 
from  time  to  time  and  the  progress  of  the 
conversion  judged  from  the  appearance  of  the 
fracture.  When  the  desired  end  has  been  at 
tained,  the  fires  are  withdrawn  and  the  boxes 
allowed-  to  cool  slowly  for  several  days.  The 
bars  after  conversion  generally  have  blisters 
on  the  surface,  apparently  formed  by  the  pres 
sure  of  some  gas  from  within  the  bar;  hence 
the  name  "  blister  steel."  The  bars,  originally 
soft  and  tough,  are  found  after  conversion  to 
be  hard  and  brittle,  and  the  freshly  fractured 
surface  shows  a  steely  appearance.  Analyses 
of  successive  layers  of  the  bar  after  conversion 
show  that  the  carburization  proceeds  gradually 
from  the  surface  to  the  interior,  the  iron  near 
the  surface  being  much  more  highly  carburized 
than  that  at  the  centre.  In  order  to  obtain 
uniformity  in  cement  steel,  it  is  therefore  ne 
cessary  either  to  weld  several  bars  together  by 
repeated  rolling  or  hammering,  or  by  melting 
the  bars  in  crucibles.  The  former  process  is 
adopted  only  for  the  softer  cement  steels,  and 
furnishes  shear  steel.  The  use  of  this  welded 
steel  has  been  generally  superseded  by  cast 
steel,  but  it  is  still  employed  for  many  pur 
poses,  particularly  for  welding  to  iron.  The 
melting  of  steel  is  usually  effected  in  covered 
crucibles  capable  of  holding  40  to  80  Ibs.  of 
metal.  They  are  made  of  refractory  clay  or 
of  graphite  with  sufficient  clay  to  give  it  co 
herence;  These  crucibles  are  placed  in  fur 
naces  arranged  in  a  straight  line,  with  their 
tops  or  openings  on  a  level  with  the  working 
floor  of  the  casting  house.  Each  furnace  is  a 
rectangular  chamber  of  lire  brick,  capable  'of 
holding  two  crucibles,  and  has  a  separate  flue. 
Siemens's  regenerative  furnace  is  also  largely 
used  for  heating  crucibles  for  steel  melting. 
When  the  steel  is  thoroughly  melted  the  cruci 
ble  is  drawn  out  of  the  furnace,  and  the  molten 
metal  cast  in  the  form  of  rectangular  ingots  or 
into  special  moulds.  Where  large  castings  are 
to  be  made  of  crucible  steel,  the  metal  from 
several  crucibles  is  first  poured  into  a  com 
mon  receptacle,  and  thence  into  the  moulds. 
Case-hardening  of  wrought  iron  consists  in  a 
superficial  conversion  of  the  iron  into  steel  by 
heating  it  with  animal  charcoal  or  organic 
matters  in  the  same  manner  as  that  employed 
for  cement  steel,  but  for  a  shorter  time.  *Or 
the  iron  to  be  hardened  may  be  simply  heated 
to  redness  and  covered  with  a  carbonaceous 
substance  like  prussiate  of  potash  or  cyanide  of 
potassium,  which  will  cause  a  superficial  car 
burization.  Case-hardening  is  employed  for  ob 
jects  which  should  have  a  hard  and  steely  sur 
face  combined  with  the  toughness  of  wrought 
iron.  3<L  Mackintosh  or  Baron  Steel.  The  car 
burization  of  wrought  iron  by  means  of  gase 
ous  hydrocarbons  without  fusion  was  proposed 
in  1824,  and  was  patented  in  England  in  1825 
by  Charles  Mackintosh.  It  has  recently  been 
revived  under  the  name  of  the  Baron  process, 
but  has  not  been  made  practically  successful. 


PER  CENT.  OF  CARBON. 

Sp.  gr.,  soft. 

Sp.  gr.,  hardened. 

1'5     . 

7-785 

7-736 

1-2 

7-832 

7-771 

<)•!)  

0-6 

7-874 
7-879 

7-^03 

7-807 

0-4  

7  -893 

7-839 

,The  conversion  is  effected  at  a  white  heat,  and 
is  said  to  be  complete  in  a  few  hours. — The 
.limits  of  this  article  would  not  admit  of  even 
the  enumeration  of  all  the  steel-making  pro 
cesses  which  modern  inventors  have  suggested 
or  endeavored  to  carry  out.  A  large  number 
of  these  inventions  deal  with  the  direct  pro 
duction  of  steel  from  the  ore  by  processes 
similar  to  those  described  under  IKON  MANU 
FACTURE,  and  a  still  larger  number  with  the 
direct  conversion  of  pig  iron  into  steel. — PROP- 

EETIES    AND    TREATMENT  OF  STEEL.       The   phyS- 

ical  'properties  of  steel  vary  according  to  its 
composition,  structure,  and  treatment.  Thus 
the  specific  gravity  of  blister  steel  Avas  found 
by  Kirkaldy  to  vary  from  7'7080  to  7'7327  ;  of 
puddled  steel,  from  7'6237  to  7'7345  ;  and  of 
cast  steel,  from  7'8110  to  7'8303.  The  effect 
of  the  amount  of  carbon,  and  also  of  harden 
ing,  on  the  specific  gravity,  is  shown  in  the 
following  series  of  Swedish  Bessemer  steels : 


The  appearance  of  the  freshly  fractured  surface 
of  cast  steel  depends  likewise  on  the  amount 
of  carbon  and  on  the  degree  of  hardening. 
The  mote  carbon  present,  the  closer  and  more 
highly  crystalline  is  the  grain  of  the  steel,  and 
the  lighter  the  color;  effects  which  are  all 
enhanced  by  hardening.  Steel,  unlike  soft 
iron,  has  the  property  of  retaining  .magnetism, 
its  capacity  in  this  regard  increasing  with  the 
amount  of  carbon. — Hardening,  Tempering, 
and  Annealing.  Steel  is  hardened  by  suddenly 
cooling  it  from  a  red  heat  through  immersion 
in  waiter,  oil,  or  other  liquid.  The  degree  of 
hardness  thus  produced  is  proportional  to  the 
amount  of  carbon  in  the  steel  and  the  rapidity 
of  its  cooling.  Hardened  steel  heated  to  red 
ness  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly  recovers  its 
original  softness  and  malleability  (annealing) ; 
but  when  hardened  steel  is  heated  to  a  temper 
ature  considerably  below  redness,  and  cooled, 
it  is  only  softened  to  a  degree  inversely  pro 
portional,  generally,  to  the  temperature  of  the 
previous  heating.  This  process  is  called  tem 
pering.  For  temperatures  considerably  below 
red  heat,  it  is  practically  indifferent  whether 
the  cooling  be  slow  or  rapid.  The  operations 
of  hardening  and  tempering  are  dependent  on 
many  conditions,  such  as  the  composition  of 
the  steel,  the  temperature  to  which  it  is  heated, 
the  temperature,  specific  heat,  boiling  point, 
mobility  of  particles,  and  heat-conducting  pow 
er  of  the  liquid  in  which  it  is  cooled,  &c. 
The  following  table  shows  the  temperatures 
employed  in  tempering  for  different  purposes, 
and  the  color  indicative  of  each  temperature, 
which  appears  on  the  surface  of  polished  steel 
as  it  reaches  the  given  decree.  '  From  these 


i:  N  I  v 


STEEL 


o ; 

365 


colors,  probably  due  to  superficial  oxidation, 
the  experienced  workman  judges  of  the  tem 
per  which  the  steel  will  assume  : 

TEMPERATURE. 

Color. 

Corresponding  temper, 
suitable  fir 

Fahr.   |  Centigrade. 

430° 

450 

470 
490 
510 

530 
550 
560 
600 

221° 
23-2 

243 
254 

265 

277 
268 

2y3 

316 

Very  pale  yellow. 
Pale  straw. 

Full  yellow. 
Brown. 
Brown  with  purple 
spots. 
Purple. 
Bright  blue. 
Full  blue. 
Dark  blue. 

Lancets. 
Kazors  and    surgical 
instruments. 
Penknives. 
Scissors,  cold  chisels. 
Axes,  plane  irons. 

Table  knives. 
SwMs,  watch  springs. 
Fine  saws,  augers. 
Hand  and  pit  saws. 

Polished  articles  may  be  heated  for  tempering 
over  or  between  iron  plates,  in  a  gas  flame,  in 
molten  lead,  or  in  various  other  ways,  until  the 
proper  color  appears.  For  articles  not  polished, 
the  temperature  must  be  otherwise  determined, 
as  by  heating  in  oil  or  tallow  or  in  alloys  of 
known  fusibility.  When  oil  or  melted  tallow 
begins  to  smoke,  its  temperature  corresponds 
with  that  indicated  by  straw  color  on  the  pol 
ished  steel ;  darker  and  more  abundant  smoke 
corresponds  with  brown  ;  black  and  still  more 
abundant  smoke  rises  at  530°,  the  temperature 
of  purple;  when  the  vapor  takes  fire  from  a 
lighted  taper,  without  continuing  to  burn,  the 
temperature  is  about  580° ;  and  finally,  when 
the  oil  burns  and  rises  in  the  vessel,  the  point 
of  dark  blue  has  been  reached.  The  following 
table  shows  the  fusing  point  of  several  alloys 
of  tin  and  lead: 


Lead, 
parts. 

T 
i? 

14 

Tin, 
parts. 

Fusing  point, 
deg.  F. 

1      Lead, 
I      parts. 

Tin, 

parts. 

Fusing  point, 
deg.  F. 

4 
4 
4 
4 

4 

4 

420 
430 
442 

450 
470 
490 

19 

30 
48 
50 
BoiPg  lin 
Melting  1 

4 
4 
4 

2 
seed  oil 
ead  

509 
530 
550 
553 
COO 
612 

Steels  containing  other  substances  besides  car 
bon  appear  to  require  different  treatment  from 
pure  carbon  steels.  Thus  tungsten  and  titani 
um  steels,  so  called,  if  heated  bright  red  and 
suddenly  cooled,  are  said  to  become  excessive 
ly  brittle;  they  must  therefore  be  manipulated 
at  low  temperature.  Too  little  is  known  of 
these  compound  steels  to  permit  inferences  as 
to  their  physical  behavior.  The  hardening  of 
large  or  irregular  masses  of  steel  requires  great 
care.  Unequal  cooling  causes  fracture.  Gen 
erally  the  more  massive  portions  are  first 
dipped  in  the  liquid,  and  the  thinner  portions 
last ;  or,  in  case  of  any  great  disparity,  special 
means  are  adopted  to  retard  the  cooling  of  the 
smaller  parts.  The  causes  of  the  phenomena 
attendant  upon  hardening  and  tempering  steel 
were  long  involved  in  mystery,  and  are  not 
yet  all  known  with  certainty.  What  is  clearly 
known  on  the  subject  may  be  briefly  stated. 
The  degree  of  hardness  assumed  on  cooling  by 


a  given  steel  is  dependent  on  the  rate  of  cool 
ing.  Caron  says  the  degree  of  hardening  is 
inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
time.  The  liquids  which  favor  rapid  cooling 
are  those  having  a  high  specific  heat  and  a  low 
boiling  point.  Water  fulfils  these  conditions 
in  an  eminent  degree,  while  oil  has  a  much 
lower  specific  heat  and  a  much  higher  boiling 
point;  consequently  cooling  in  oil  is  a  more 
gradual  process  than  in  an  equal  volume  of 
water.  Increasing  the  volume  of  the  liquid 
and  maintaining  agitation,  so  as  to  diffuse  rap 
idly  the  heat  received  from  the  steel,  of  course 
hastens  cooling.  The  most  rapid  cooling  is 
produced  by  mercury,  by  reason  of  its  high 
conducting  power.  It  is  sometimes  used  to 
produce  extreme  hardness.  But  obviously  the 
initial  temperature  of  the  cooling  liquid  is  an 
essential  point ;  so  that  heated  mercury  or 
fusible  alloys  could  be  used  to  effect  slow  cool 
ing.  Ordinary  tempering  is  a  partial  anneal 
ing;  that  is,  excessive  hardness  having  been 
imparted  to  the  steel,  the  excess  is  removed  to 
the  degree  desired.  It  has  been  found  in  most 
cases  practically  easier  to  attain  an  accurate 
result  in  this  way  than  by  a  single  process  of 
hardening,  arrested  at  the  desired  point.  But 
recent  experiments  by  Caron  have  shown  that 
it  is  possible,  in  some  cases  at  least,  to  effect 
the  hardening  in  one  operation  by  carefully 
adjusting  the  amount  and  temperature  of 
the  water.  Water  at  131°  F.  was  found  to 
give  results  with  some  objects  equal  to  those 
produced  by  the  most  careful  hardening  and 
tempering.  Caron  has  further  found  that 
hardening  of  steel  with  0'2  to  0'4  per  cent, 
of  carbon  in  warm,  or  still  better  in  boiling 
water,  was  accompanied  by  an  increase  of  its 
tenacity  and  elasticity  without  a  material  im 
pairment  of  its  hardness. — The  toughening  of 
large  steel  objects,  such  as  cannon,  is  effected 
by  heating  them  to  redness  and  immersing  in 
oil,  where  they  gradually  cool.  This  process 
has  been  recommended  for  steel  rails.  The 
hardening  of  steel  is  probably  due  both  to  a 
chemical  combination  of  the  carbon  (present 
partly  as  graphite  in  soft  steel)  with  the  iron, 
and  to  a  state  of  tension  among  the  particles, 
conditions  which  are  both  removed  by  anneal 
ing.  The  tension  in  a  bar  of  hardened  steel  is 
shown  by  cutting  it  in  two  lengthwise,  when 
each  piece  assumes  a  curved  form,  concave  on 
the  cut  side.  Soft  iron  does  not  harden  when 
suddenly  cooled,  but  acquires  increased  rigid- 
i  ity  and  tensile  strength  ;  while  cast  iron,  con 
taining  more  carbon  than  steel,  becomes  under 
the  same  treatment  extremely  hard  (chilled 
iron),  often  harder  than  steel.  The  freshly 
fractured  surface  of  hardened  steel  shows  a 
fine  grain,  often  velvety  in  appearance ;  that 
of  soft  steel  presents  facets.  In  the  former, 
analysis  shows  no  uncombined  carbon  ;  in  the 
latter,  a  small  amount  of  graphite  is  almost 
always  present.  Steel  expands  on  hardening, 
i  and  loses  specific  gravity.  Eisner  found  one 
!  sample  to  change  in  gravity  from  7'9288  to 


366 


STEEL 


7-6578,  and  another  from  8-0923  to  7'6578. 
Caron  found  a  decrease  from  7*817  to  7'743. 
The  latter  found  that  hammered  steel  on  hard 
ening  lost  in  length  and  gained  in  other  di 
mensions,  while  rolled  steel  gained  in  length. 
The  effect  of  hardening  on  the  tenacity  of 
steel  is  discussed  under  IKON,  and  also  further 
on  in  this  article.  Steel  over-heated  becomes 
brittle,  and  is  said  to  be  burnt.  Whether  this 
impaired  cohesion  is  due  to  oxide  of  iron,  or, 
as  has  been  suggested,  to  carbonic  oxide  (either 
of  which  might  be  formed  at  high  tempera 
tures  with  access  of  air),  or  to  a  crystallization 
of  the  particles,  is  not  certainly  known.  Many 
fluxes  have  been  suggested  for  restoring  burnt 
steel.  They  usually  contain  easily  fusible  sub 
stances,  such  as  alkalies,  borax,  &c.,  combined 
with  carbonaceous  compounds,  such  as  prns- 
siato  of  potash.  Hammering  at  a  high  heat  is 
said  to  restore  burnt  steel. — The  working  of 
steel  requires  great  skill  and  judgment.  It 
cannot  be  wrought  at  very  high  temperatures ; 
and  the  more  carbon  it  contains,  the  lower 
must  be  the  heat  of  working.  The  harder 
steels  are  generally  hammered  at  a  cherry- 
red  heat.  On  the  other  hand,  working  at 
too  low  a  temperature  seriously  impairs  the 
tenacity  of  steel,  as  is  abundantly  shown  by 
experience  with  steel  rails.  Welding  steel 
to  steel  or  steel  to  iron  is  difficult,  except 
with  the  softest  or  least  carburized  varieties. 
Fluxes  to  facilitate  such  welding  are  largely 
used  with  good  effect;  they  add  nothing  to 
the  intimacy  of  the  weld,  their  action  being 
mechanical  only  (cleansing,  exclusion  of  air, 
&c.),  as  in  the  case  of  iron  welding.  There 
is  always  danger  of  the  separation  of  iron 
and  steel  at  the  weld,  unless  the  latter  is  very 
soft.  Special  devices,  such  as  causing  one  of 
the  metals  so  welded  to  overlap  and  enclose 
the  other,  counteract  this  tendency  in  part. 
Or  fluid  steel  may  be  cast  directly  around 
white-hot  wrought  iron,  the  weld  being  pro 
moted  by  subsequent  rolling  or  hammering. 
Sometimes  the  iron  and  steel  to  be  welded  are 
enclosed  in  a  case  of  thin  wrought  iron  and 
exposed  to  a  welding  heat,  the  enclosure  pre 
venting  an  access  of  air  and  oxidation  of  the 
surfaces  of  the  metal. — Strength  of  Steel.  The 
cohesive  force  of  steel  is  usually  considered 
under  the  different  heads  of  absolute  strength, 
or  the  force  required  to  produce  rupture  ;  the 
elastic  limit,  or  the  least  force  by  which  a  per 
manent  alteration  of  form  is  effected ;  and  the 
extensibility,  or  the  amount  of  elongation  un 
der  a  breaking  stress.  The  experimental  data 
are  referred,  for  convenience  of  comparison, 
to  bars  or  rods  of  one  square  inch  section.  The 
above  named  properties  are  dependent,  first, 
on  the  chemical  composition  of  the  metal ; 
secondly,  on  its  homogeneity;  thirdly,  on  its 
molecular  structure;  and  fourthly,  on  the  tem 
perature.  (For  comparison  of  the  strength  of 
cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  and  steel,  see  IROX.) 
1.  The  effect  of  the  amount  of  carbon  on  the 
properties  of  steel  is  shown  in  the  following 


tables  compiled  from  Knut  Styffe's  work  on 
the    "  Elasticity,    Extensibility,    and    Tensile 
Strength  of  Iron  and  Steel  :" 

PUDDLED    STEEL—  SQUARE 
BARS. 

Breaking 
weight  per  sq.  in. 
of  original  mean 
area,  in  Ibs. 

Breaking 
weight  referred 
to  area  of 
iracture. 

Hard  steel,  with  0'6  to  0'8  pel- 
cent,  carbon  
Middling  hard,  with  0-55  to  0*7 
per  cent,  carbon  
Soft  steel,  with  less  than  0'5  per 
cent,  carbon  
Puddled  iron,  with  0'2  per  cent, 
carbon 

89,189 
80,628 
70,272 
48,319 

122,240 
115,670 
112,593 
120,770 

BESSEMER   STEEL. 

CARBON, 
PER  CENT. 

Elastic 
limit. 

Breaking 
weight  per  sq. 
in.  of  original 
area,  in  lh.s. 

Breaking 

weight,  frac 
tured  area. 

Elongation 
by  rupture 
per  cent. 

2-16 
1-85 
1-35 
1-14 
V05 
0-1)9 
O'GS 
0-42 
0-33 

64.502 
57,040 
76,511 
85,431 
63,620 
65,875 
68,620 

84.990 
41,251 

86,804 
99,842 
107,184 
127,564 
108,213 
102,998 
101,214 
68,757 
64,708 
63,268 

89,617 
102.173 
137,303 
216,153 
176.422 
106,223 
155,218 
161,325 
141,219 

2-96 
1-75 
2-80 
2-90 
2-90 
3-70 
3-70 
16-70 
16-70 
24-50 

The  last  sample  was  homogeneous  iron  prepared 
with  ferro-manganese.  To  interpret  correctly 
results  like  the  above,  it  is  necessary  to  elimi 
nate  all  disturbing  influences  of  composition  and 
treatment.  While  these  figures  do  not  show 
a  uniform  change  of  properties  with  gradually 
increasing  amounts  of  carbon,  they  neverthe 
less  show  decidedly  that  the  effect  of  carbon 
on  iron  is  to  increase  its  absolute  strength 
and  elastic  limit,  and  to  decrease  its  extensi 
bility.  An  increase  of  carbon  beyond  1-2  per 
cent,  is  not  accompanied,  as  a  rule,  by  an  in 
crease  in  absolute  strength.  When  reference 
is  had  to  the  fractured  area,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  force  required  to  produce  rupture  does  not 
differ  as  widely  in  different  steels  as  when  the 
original  area  alone  is  considered.  The  effect 
of  melting,  or  in  other  words  of  the  homoge 
neity  of  steel,  is  strikingly  shown  by  a  compar 
ison  of  the  two  preceding  tables,  the  former 
referring  to  puddled  or  welded  steel,  and  the 
latter  to  Bessemer  or  homogeneous  steel.  The 
effect  of  molecular  structure  on  the  physical 
properties  of  steel  has  been  partially  treated 
under  IROX.  The  table,  vol.  ix.,  p.  374,  shows 
that  the  effect  of  hardening  is  to  increase  great 
ly  the  strength  and  elastic  limit  in  steel,  and  to 
decrease  its  extensibility.  The  data  given  by 
J.  Barba  ("Memoir  on  the  Uses  of  Steel1')  show 
that  as  the  proportion  of  carbon  decreases,  the 
effect  of  sudden  cooling  becomes  less  marked, 
but  even  the  softest  iron  is  made  somewhat 
more  rigid  by  this  treatment.  The  effect  of 
hardening  and  tempering  is,  further,  well  shown 
by  the  following  results  of  experiments  on  bars 
of  steel  cut  from  the  same  mass  and  submitted 
to  a  different  treatment,  made  with  reference 


STEEL 


367 


to  the  use  of  steel  for  the  construction  of  the 
bridge  over  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis : 


CONDITION   OF 
STEEL. 

Tensile  strength, 
Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

Crushing  strength, 
Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

No.  1.    In  its  original 
condition...  f.  
No.  2.       Heated     to 
bright  red  and  cool 
ed  in  oil  at  78"  
No.  3.      Heated      to 
bright  red,  harden 
ed  in  water  at  72°, 
and     tempered    at 
blue  heat 

109,473  to  181,  SC4 
201,341  to  227,542 

152  533  to  17C  084 

100,080  to  112,400 
173,200  to  199,200 

325  400  to  400  000 

No.  4.      Heated      to 
bright      red      and 
hardened  in  water 
•at  72°  

132,659  to  150,480 

275,640  to  381,680 

— The  change  of  molecular  structure  result 
ing  from  working  steel  when  cold  has  lately 
demanded  attentive  consideration  from  engi 
neers,  owing  to  the  increased  use  of  steel  for 
construction  and  for  the  permanent  ways  of 
railroads.  All  violent  mechanical  treatment 
of  steel  after  it  has  become  cold,  such  as  roll 
ing,  hammering,  punching,  notching,  &c.,  is 
found  to  impair  its  strength  seriously.  Sand- 
berg  has  stated  that  the. strength  of  steel  rails 
notched  on  the  flange  was  decreased  from  50 
to  97  per  cent. ;  the  former  where  the  notch 
was  semicircular,  the  latter  where  the  notch 
was  square.  It  is  evident  that  this  decrease  of 
strength  is  not  alone  due  to  the  removal  of  so 
much  material,  but  that  there  must  be  a  local 
tension  of  the  particles  which  leads  to  rupture, 
and  annealing  is  found  to  remove  this  tension. 
—The  variety  of  opinions  entertained  by  engi 
neers  as  to  the  principal  causes  of  fracture  of 
steel  rails  is  shown  in  the  following  summary 
of  answers  recently  obtained  from  the  admin 
istrations  of  24  German  railways  in  response 
to  the  request  of  a  commission  appointed  to 
investigate  this  subject.  The  figures  in  pa 
rentheses  indicate  the  number  of  administra 
tions  mentioning  the  prefixed  cause.  1.  The 
employment  of  too  brittle  metal  (8).  2.  Manu 
facture  at  too  high  temperature  (2).  3.  Roll 
ing  at  too  low  temperature  (3).  4.  Cooling 
irregularly  or  too  rapidly  after  rolling  (5).  5. 
straightening  cold,  producing  fissures  which 
enlarge  and  result  in  fracture  (15) ;  producing 
a  change  of  structure  (1).  G.  Notching  the 
flange  (14)  (only  two  denied  this  cause).  7. 
Manner  of  piercing  the  holes  (6).  8.  Reduc 
tion  of  area  of  section  of  rails  by  the  holes  (1). 

9.  Bending  the  rails  for  laying  on  curves  (3). 

10.  Rough  handling  of  rails,  such  as  throwing 
from  cars  to  the  ground,  giving  rise  to  fissures 
which  result  in  fracture  (9).     It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  majority  of  answers  agree  in  attribu 
ting  the  fracture  of  rails  to  improper  treat 
ment  of  the  steel  when  cold.     The  cause  of  the 
brittleness  and  impaired  strength  in  steel  and 
iron  consequent  upon  punching  has  been  in 
vestigated  in  Lorient,  France,  by  J.  Barba, 
who  has  found  that  cold  punching  induces  a 
local  hardening  and  tension  of  the  metal,  in  a 

VOL.  XT.— 24 


zone  less  than  0-04  in.  wide,  around  the  hole, 
and  that  when  this  hardened  portion  is  filed  or 
cut  away,  or  softened  and  relaxed  by  anneal 
ing,  the  metal  regains  its  original  strength  and 
extensibility.  He  thinks  the  hardening  due  to 
the  combination  of  carbon  and  iron,  as  is  also 
supposed  to  be  the  case  when  steel  is  hardened 
by  heating  and  sudden  cooling.  Indeed,  this 
heating  and  cooling  is  what  undoubtedly  occurs 
to  the  immediately  adjacent  metal  in  punching. 
The  diminished  strength  of  punched  plates  is 
caused  by  this  narrow  hardened  portion,  which, 
owing  to  its  decreased  extensibility,  receives 
the  full  effect  of  the  stress,  a  rupture  being 
produced  in  this  portion  and  then  extending 
throughout  the  whole  mass  of  metal.  The  same 
effect,  in  an  enhanced  degree,  would  follow 
blows  or  shocks.  The  following  are  among 
the  results  obtained  by  Barba : 

TERRE   NOIRE    BESSEMER    STEEL. 


SIZE  AND   CHARACTER   OF  HOLE. 


TENSILE   STRENGTH 
IN  TONS   PER   SQ.  IN. 


Bar  1-96  in.  [  Bar  1 '771 
vide.          in.  wide. 


Cylindrical  hole  punched,  0 "  f .69  in !      25-86 

Hole  enlarged  to  0' 774  in \     82-20 

Cylindrical  hole  drilled,  0  •  669  in 

Cylindrical  hole  punched,  0'590  in.,  en 
larged  to  0-669  in. ..    


27-76 
34:ci 

33-98 


The  effect  of  annealing  after  punching  is  shown 
in  the  following : 


CHARACTER    OF    BAR. 


Tensile  strength 
n  toDS  Per  S(J-  in- 


Punched  bar j  24'47 

"          "    annealed 29 '48 

Drilled  bar j  29  •  98 

Punched,  enlarged,  and  annealed j  80 '30 


The  effect  of  temperature  on  the  strength  of 
steel  has  already  been  considered  under  IRON. 
More  recently  Joule  has  experimented  on  the 
tensile  strength  of  steel  bars,  and  confirms 
the  result  of  previous  investigations,  that  the 
tensile  strength  is  not  impaired  by  reduction 
of  temperature.  In  determining  the  effect  of 
blows  at  reduced  temperatures,  he  experiment 
ed  on  cast-iron  nails,  and  found  that  as  many 
nails  broke  at  ordinary  as  at  freezing  tempera 
tures  when  exposed  to  a  falling  weight.  These 
results  must  not  be  regarded  as  contradicting 
those  of  Sandberg  on  iron  rails,  nor  does  it 
follow  that  the  same  effect  would  have  been 
produced  had  steel  bars  been  used  instead  of 
cast  iron. —  Uses  of  Steel.  The  industrial  ap 
plications  of  steel,  formerly  confined  mainly 
to  tools,  weapons,  and  springs,  have  been 
widely  extended  since  the  introduction  of  the 
Bessemer  and  Martin  processes.  Among  the 
principal  modern  uses  of  steel  are  rails,  boil 
ers,  machinery,  bridge  construction,  and  ship 
building.  The  fact  must  not  be  overlooked 
that  the  term  steel  is  now  generally  applied  to 
all  homogeneous,  malleable  compounds  of  iron, 
and  includes  products  of  all  degrees  of  hard- 


368 


STEELE 


STEEN 


ness  and  rigidity.  The  adoption  of  steel  for 
any  particular  purpose  must,  therefore,  be  in 
telligently  based  on  its  composition,  structure, 
and  treatment. — Production  of  Steel  in  the 
United  States.  The  following  statistics  are 
compiled  from  the  report  of  the  secretary  of 
the  American  iron  and  steel  association,  of 
January,  1875 : 

PRODUCTION  BY  YEARS  IX  NET  TONS. 


YEARS. 


Bessemer  steel,    i     Other  steel. 


18G5  
1866 

! 

15,202 
18,973 

1S67  

3,000 

19,000 

1863  

•     8.500 

21,500 

1869 

1    12000 

23  000 

1870  

40,000 

35,000 

1871  .  . 

1    45,000 

37,000 

1872  
1873  

110,500 
1   157,000 

38,000 
50,000 

1874 

176  579 

47481 

Of  the  Bessemer  production  there  was  made 
into  rails:  in  1872,  94,070  tons;  1873,  129,- 
015  ;  1874,  144,944.  The  importations  of  Bes 
semer  rails  for  three  years  were  149,786,  159,- 
571,  and  100,486  tons,  valued  at  $8,207,013, 
$8,984,103,  and  $6,838,875,.gold,  respectively. 
The  average  price  in  currency  at  which  Amer 
ican  steel  rails  have  been  sold  at  the  works 
since  the  establishment  of  the  industry  is  as 
follows:  1867,  $160;  1868,  $158^;  1869, 
$132J;  1870,  $106| ;  1871,  $102^;  1872,  $112; 
1873,  $120J;  1874,  $94J;  1875,  $75.  Of  the 
steel  other  than  Bessemer  produced  in  1874, 
34,128  tons  was  crucible  steel,  the  remainder 
puddled,  open  hearth,  and  blister  steel. 

STEELE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Minnesota,  drained 
by  the  Lester  river  and  branches  of  Cannon 
river;  area,  432  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,271. 
The  surface  is  undulating,  diversified  by  prai 
rie  and  strips  of  forest,  and  the  soil  fertile. 
There  are  three  or  four  small  lakes  and  sev 
eral  fine  streams.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  385,214  bushels  of  wheat,  82,040 
of  Indian  corn,  230,421  of  oats,  12,709  of 
barley,  36,025  of  potatoes,  19,928  tons  of  hay, 
7,172  Ibs.  of  wool,  208,249  of  butter,  and  8,700 
of  hops.  There  were  1,971  horses,  2,846  milch 
cows,  3,794  other  cattle,  2,785  sheep,  and  2,006 
swine.  The  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul, 
and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroads 
pass  through  the  capital,  Owatonna. 

STEELE,  Sir  Rifhard,  a  British  author,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1671,  died  at  Llangnnnor,  near 
Carmarthen,  Wales,  Sept.  1, 1729.  lie  received 
his  early  education  at  the.  Charterhouse,  where 
his  intimacy  with  Addison  was  formed.  In 
1691  he  entered  Merton  college,  Oxford,  but 
left  at  the  expiration  of  three  years  without 
taking  a  degree,  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the 
horse  guards,  and  reached  the  rank  of  captain 
in  Lucas's  fusileers,  an  appointment  due  to  his 
colonel,  Lord  Cutts,  to  whom  he  had  dedicated 
"The  Christian  Hero"  (1701).  In  odd  con 
trast  with  this  work  was  his  comedy  of  "  The 
Funeral,  or  Grief  a  la  Mode"  (1702),  which 


was  followed  by  "  The  Tender  Husband " 
(1703),  and  "The  Lying  Lover"  (1704).  He 
was  appointed  "  gazetteer  "  and  gentleman 
usher  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  and  de 
rived  ample  means  from  two  wealthy  mar 
riages  (the  last  in  1707),  but  was  always  in  pe 
cuniary  trouble  through  reckless  expenditure 
and  dissipation,  his  life  being  passed,  as  he 
says,  in  "sinning  and  repenting."  In  1709  he 
commenced  the  "Tatler,"  for  which  Addison 
furnished  many  of  the  leading  papers,  though 
by  no  means  so  many  as  Steele,  whom  he  now 
assisted  to  the  appointment  of  a  commissioner 
of  the  stamp  office.  With  the  overthrow  of 
the  whigs  in  1710  he  lost  his  office  of  gazet 
teer,  and  with  it  the  means  of  supplying  the 
items  of  official  news  which  at  first  formed  an 
important  feature  in  the  "  Tatler."  This  pa 
per  was  accordingly  succeeded  in  1711  by  the 
"  Spectator,"  written  chiefly  by  Steele  and  Ad 
dison,  and  subsequently  by  the  "  Guardian," 
begun  and  ended  in  1713,  and  the  "  Lover,"  the 
"Header,"  and  other  periodicals  which  had  but 
a  brief  existence.  In  1713  Steele  resigned  his 
office,  and  was  returned  to  parliament  from 
Stockbridge  in  Hampshire ;  but  for  writing 
articles  in  the  "  Crisis  "  and  the  "  Englishman," 
adjudged  to  have  been  libels  against  her  majes 
ty's  administration,  he  was  expelled  by  a  vote 
of  245  to  152.  His  pen,  however,  continued  to 
be  actively  employed  in  the  whig  interest,  and 
on  the  accession  of  George  I.  he  received  sev 
eral  profitable  appointments,  was  knighted,  and 
elected  to  parliament  from  Borojighbridge. 
In  1722  he  produced  his  last  and  best  comedy, 
"The  Conscious  Lovers,"  which  proved  com 
pletely  successful,  and  brought  him  in  ample 
receipts ;  but  he  was  soon  reduced  to  straits 
again.  A  paralytic  attack  rendered  him  inca 
pable  of  further  literary  labor,  and  he  retired 
to  a  small  estate  near  Carmarthen  left  him  by 
his  second  wife,  where  he  died  almost  forgot 
ten  by  his  contemporaries.  He  first  conceived 
the  characters  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  Will 
Honeycomb,  and  others  of  the  Spectator  club, 
which  received  their  finishing  touches  from 
the  hand  of  Addison.  His  letters  to  his  wife, 
about  400  in  number,  form  one  of  the  most 
singular  correspondences  ever  published. — 
There  is  an  elaborate  treatise  on  the  character 
and  genius  of  Steele  in  Forster's  "Historical 
and  Biographical  Essays"  (2  vols.,  London, 
1858);  and  Thackeray,  in  his  "Lectures  on 
the  English  Humorists,"  has  treated  the  same 
subject  at  length.  See  also  "Memoirs  of  the 
Life  and  Writings  of  Sir  Eichard  Steele,"  with 
his  correspondence,  by  II.  R.  Montgomery  (2 
vols.  8vo,  London,  1865). 

STEEL  ENGRAVING.     See  EXGEAVIXG. 

STEELYARD.     See  BALAXCE. 

STEEN,  Jan,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in  Leyden 
in  1636,  died  in  Delft  in  1689.  lie  studied 
under  Brouwer  and  Van  Goyen,  whose  daugh 
ter  he  married.  According  to  Kugler,  he 
brought  into  full  play  all  the  elements  of  genu 
ine  low  comedy.  In  the  museum  at  the  Hague 


STEERING  APPARATUS 


STEIN 


369 


is  his  well  known  "Representation  of  Unman 
Life."  He  painted  in  all  about  300  pictures. 
— Sep  J.  Steen,  Etude  sur  Vart  en  Hollande, 
by  Van  Westrheenen  (the  Hague,  1856). 

STEERING  APPARATUS,  the  appliances  by 
which  vessels  are  guided  through  the  water. 
The  earliest  method  was  by  a  long  oar  passed 
out  of  the  stern.  An  oar  is  a  very  efficient 
means  of  steering  boats,  and  is  still  employed 
on  whale  boats,  rafts,  &c.  The  rudder  gov 
erns  a  ship's  motion  by  being  turned  so  that 
its  plane  is  in  a  position  oblique  to  the  plane 
of  the  masts  and  keel,  and  the  reaction  of 
the  water  against  it  causes  the  ship  to  turn. 
The  head  of  the  rudder,  projecting  above  the 
deck,  is  furnished  with  a  horizontal  handle  or 
lever  called  the  tiller,  by  which  the  rudder  is 
turned.  The  term  helm  is  often  applied  to 
this,  as  also  to  the  rudder  and  tiller  together. 
To  keep  the  rudder  in  the  desired  position 
against  the  force  of  the  waves,  on  small  ves 
sels  a  rope  is  made  fast  on  the  weather  side 
by  one  end,  while  the  other  is  held  with  a  turn 
around  the  tiller.  A  block  and  tackle  are  re 
quired  for  larger  vessels,  replaced  upon  still 
larger  ones  by  "the  wheel."  This  is  a  wheel 
and  axle  set  upon  the  tiller,  the  rope  of  which, 
making  several  turns  round  the  axle,  is  carried 
toward  each  side  of  the  ship,  so  that  the  turn 
ing  of  the  axle  draws  the  tiller  toward  that 
side  the  rope  of  which  is  being  wound  up. 
The  handles  for  working  the  wheel  appear  as 
spokes  extending  beyond  the  periphery.  On 
river  steamers,  to  enable  the  steersman  (in  this 
case  called  a  pilot)  to  guide  the  vessel  from  his 
own  observation,  the  wheel  is  placed  within  a 
structure  called  the  pilot  house  on  the  upper 
deck  at  the  forward  end,  and  connected  with 
the  rudder.  For  this  purpose  ropes  were  for 
merly  used,  but  serious  disasters  having  oc 
curred  from  their  being  burned  in  case  of  fire, 
it  is  now  a  law  in  the  United  States  that  chains 
or  iron  rods  shall  be  used.  By  the  use  of  two 
screw  propellers,  one  each  side  the  rudder,  it 
was  found  by  Mr.  Edwin  A.  Stevens  of  Hobo- 
ken,  N.  J.,  that  when  these  are  worked  in  op 
posite  directions  the  vessel  may  be  turned  on 
its  centre  as  a  pivot ;  he  adopted  this  plan  for 
the  "  Stevens  battery." 

STEEVENS,  George,  an  English  editor,  born  at 
Stepney,  May  10, 1736,  died  at  Hampstead,  Jan. 
22,  1800.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam 
bridge.  His  first  publication,  a  reprint  of 
"  Twenty  of  the  Plays  of  Shakespeare,  being 
the  whole,  Number  printed  in  Quarto  during 
his  Lifetime"  (4  vols.  8vo,  1766),  contained  in 
foot  notes  a  variety  of  readings  from  other 
quarto  editions.  The  reputation  which  he 
thereby  acquired  led  to  his  association  with 
Johnson  in  the  preparation  of  the  edition  of 
Shakespeare  published  in  1773  with  their  joint 
names.  Their  second  edition  appeared  in  1778, 
and  in  1780  Malone,  who  had  assisted  John 
son  and  Steevens,  published  a  supplement  con 
taining  the  doubtful  plays  and  the  poems. 
Steevens,  associated  with  Isaac  Reed,  in  the 


next  twelve  years  prepared  two  new  editions 
(10  vols.  8vo,  1785,  and  15  vols.,  1793),  in  which, 
"  instead  of  a  timid  and  servile  adherence  to 
ancient  copies,"  he  undertook  the  "  expulsion 
of  useless  and  supernumerary  syllables,  and  an 
occasional  supply  of  such  as  might  fortuitously 
have  been  omitted."  The  text  of  these  edi 
tions  remained  the  standard  for  nearly  50  years. 

STEFFENS,  Heinrich,  a  German  author,  born  in 
Stavanger,  Norway,  May  2,  1773,  died  in  Ber 
lin,  Feb.  13,  1845.  lie  studied  theology  and 
the  natural  sciences  at  Copenhagen,  and  after 
ward  at  Jena  became  a  disciple  of  Schelling. 
After  .returning  to  Copenhagen  he  engaged, 
under  the  auspices  of  Werner  at  Freiberg,  in 
geological  labors.  He  was  professor  at  Halle 
from  1804  to  1807,  and  again  from  1809  to 
1811,  and  subsequently  at  Breslau  (except  du 
ring  his  service  in  the  army  in  1814-'15)  till 
1831,  when  he  was  transferred  to  Berlin.  He 
was  associated  with  the  principal  philosophers 
and  poets  of  his  day,  and  also  with  Schleier- 
macher,  and  became  known  in  theology  first 
as  a  dissenter  from  and  finally  as  an  adherent 
of  the  strict  doctrines  of  the  old  Lutherans. 
He  excelled  as  a  poetical  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  but  his  reputation  rests  on  his  philo 
sophical  labors,  in  which,  according  to  Miche- 
let,  "  he  most  manifestly  set  forth  the  totality 
of  the  school  of  Schelling."  His  works  include 
Recension  von  Schelling^s  naturphilosopliiscTien 
Schriften  (Jena,  1800) ;  Grundzuge  der  philo- 
soplii&clien  Naturwissenscliaft  (Berlin,  1806) ; 
Handbuch  der  Ory~ktognosic(?>  vols.,  Halle,  1811 
-'19) ;  Caricaturen  des  Ileiligsten  (2  vols.,  Leip- 
sic,  1S19-'21);  AntJiropologie  (2  vols.,  Breslau, 
1822);  Von  der  fahchen  Theologie  und  dcm 
wahren  Glauben  (1824;  new  ed.,  1831);  Wie 
icJi  wieder  Lutlieraner  wurde  und  was  mir  das 
Lutherthum  ist  (1831) ;  Novellen  (16  vols., 
1837-'8);  and  Was  icJi  er lebte  (10  vols.,  1840- 
'45;  2d  ed.,  1844-'6;  abridged  English  trans 
lation  by  W.  L.  Gage,  "  The  Story  of  my 
Career  as  Student  at  Freiberg  and  Jena,"  Bos 
ton,  1863;  republished  under  the  title  "Ger 
man  University  Life,"  Philadelphia,  1874). 

STEIN,  Karl,  baron.     See  ALTENSTEIX. 

STEIN,  Heinrich  Friedrieh  Karl,  baron,  a  Ger 
man  statesman,  born  at  Nassau,  Oct.  26,  1757, 
died  at  Friicht,  near  Nassau,  June  29,  1831. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  rose  to  distinc 
tion  in  the  department  of  mines  in  Westphalia, 
In  1804  he  was  chief  of  an  economico-com- 
mercial  department  in  the  Prussian  ministry 
of  the  interior,  and  abolished  restrictions  on 
trade  and  introduced  other  reforms.  Foresee 
ing  the  calamities  of  Prussia,  he  urged  in  vain 
the  union  of  all  the  German  states.  This 
made  him  uncongenial  to  Frederick  William 
III.,  who  removed  him  in  January,  1807. 
But  he  was  soon  reinstated,  and  in  July  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  ministry.  He  reorganized 
the  whole  civil  service,  abolished  feudal  usages, 
adopted  a  new  scheme  of  militia,  and  opened 
the  way  for  the  Zollverein  and  the  present 
unity  of  Germany.  Napoleon,  after  favoring 


370 


STEIN 


STENO 


Stein's  accession,  became  in  1808  embittered 
against  him  on  account  of  an  intercepted  let 
ter  in  which  the  Prussian  minister  expressed 
a  hope  for  his  speedy  downfall.  Stein  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  cabinet  in  November,  and 
Napoleon  outlawed  him  in  December,  and  con 
fiscated  his  property.  lie  sought  refuge  in 
Austria,  and  in  May,  1812,  with  the  emperor 
Alexander  in  Russia.  At  the  end  of  1813, 
after  the  capture  of  Dresden  by  the  allies,  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  council  for  the 
administration  of  the  reconquered  German  ter 
ritories,  and  exerted  much  influence  on  the 
memorable  events  of  1814-'15.  In  1819  he 
formed  a  society  for  investigating  early  Ger 
man  history,  and  he  promoted  the  publication 
of  the  celebrated  Monumenta  Germanic?  Ilis- 
torica.  In  1827  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Prussian  council  of  state. — Pertz  has  edited 
Denlcschriften  dcs  FreiJierrn  vom  Stein  (Ber 
lin,  1828),  and  published  Das  Lelcn  dcs  Minis 
ters  Freiherrn  vom  Stein  (6  vols.,  1849-'55; 
abridged  ed.,  Ans  Stein's  Leben,  2  vols.,  185G). 
See  also  Stern,  Stein  und  sein  Zcitalter  (Leip- 
sic,  1855) ;  Venedey,  Heinrich  Friedrich  Karl 
vom  Stein  (Iserlohn,  1808);  and  Arndt,  Meine 
Wanderungen  und  WanJlungen  mit  dem  l\eichs- 
freiherrn  vom  Stein  (Berlin,  1858;  3d  ed., 
1870).  Monuments  were  erected  to  him  at 
Nassau  in  1872,  and  in  Berlin  in  1875. 

STEIN,  Charlotte  libertine  Ernestine  voa,  a  Ger 
man  baroness,  born  in  Weimar,  Dec.  25,  1742, 
died  there,  Jan.  0,  1827.  She  was  a  daughter 
of  a  marshal  of  tlio  grand  ducal  court,  and  in 
1764  married  the  baron  Friedrich  von  Stein, 
to  whom  she  bore  seven  children,  and  who  died 
in  1793.  She  became  intimate  with  Goethe 
soon  after  his  first  arrival  at  Weimar  in  1775. 
In  1788,  shortly  after  his  return  from  Italy 
and  the  beginning  of  his  liaison  with  his  fu 
ture  wife  Ohristiane  Vulpius,  Goethe  broke  off 
his  relations  with  Fran  von  Stein,  though  she 
continued  to  exercise  much  influence  upon  his 
mind.  Her  tragedy  Dido,  edited  by  H.  Diint- 
zor  (Leipsic,  1867),  refers  to  Goethe  and  his 
Weimar  contemporaries.  A.  Schott  has  edited 
Goethe's  letters  to  her,  excepting  those  from 
Italy  (3  vols.,  Weimar,  1848-'ol),  and  those 
addressed  by  him  and  his  mother  to  Frau 
von  Stein's  son  appeared  in  1846.  Her  cor 
respondence  with  Schiller's  wife  is  contained 
in  Charlotte  von  Schiller  und  Hire  Freunde  (2 
vols.,  Stuttgart,  1865).  See  also  Charlotte  von 
Stein,  by  II.  Diintzer  (2  vols.,  1874). 

STEIN,  Lorenz,  a  German  political  econo 
mist,  born  in  Eckernforde,  Schleswig,  Nov.  15, 
1815.  He  became  professor  at  Kiel  in  1846, 
was  prominent  in  the  movement  for  the  inde 
pendence  of  the  duchies,  represented  the  pro 
visional  government  of  Schleswig-Holstein  at 
Paris  in  1848,  and  was  removed  from  his  pro 
fessorship  in  1852.  In  1855  he  became  pro 
fessor  of  political  sciences  at  Vienna.  His 
works  include  Franzosiche  Staats-  und  Rechts- 
geschichte  (3  vols.,  Basel,  1846-'8);  Geschichte 
der  socialen  Bewegung  in  Franlcreich  von 


1789  l)is  auf  unsere  Tage  (new  ed.,  3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1849-'51);  System  der  Staatswissen- 
schaften  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1852-'6) ;  Lehrbuch 
der  Finanzwissenschaft  (Leipsic,  1860;  2d  ed., 
1871);  Die  Verwaltungslehre  (4  vols.,  Stutt 
gart,  1865-'8);  DieLehrevoniHeericesen(l^4:)] 
and  Gegenwart  und  Zuleunft  der  Rcchts-  und 
Staatswissenschaft  Deutschlands  (1875). 

STEINBOCK.     See  IBEX. 

STEINLE,  Johann  Ednard,  a  German  painter, 
born  in  Vienna  in  1810.  He  studied  in  Munich, 
worked  in  Rome  under  Overbeck's  direction, 
and  painted  in  fresco  "  The  Sermon  on  the 
Mount"  in  the  chapel  of  Rheineck,  the  "  Chorus 
of  Angels"  in  the  Cologne  cathedral  (1843), 
and  the  "  Judgment  of  Solomon  "  in  the  Romer 
at  Frankfort  (1844).  In  1850  he  was  appoint 
ed  professor  at  the  Stiidel  institute.  His  sub 
sequent  works  include  "  Christ  as  the  Good 
Shepherd"  and  "  The  Lost  Son." 

STEINTHAL,  Heyuiann,  a  German  philologist, 
born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Grobzig,  Anhalt, 
May  16,  1823.  He  studied  in  Berlin,  and  be 
came  a  lecturer  there  on  language  and  my 
thology.  In  1852  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
Chinese,  and  in  1863  returned  to  Berlin  as 
professor  extraordinary.  Besides  editing  with 
Lazarus  the  Zeitschrlft  far  Volkerpsychologie 
und  Sprachwissenschaft  (Berlin,  1859  et  seq.\ 
he  has  published  Die  Classification  der  Spra- 
chen  (Berlin,  1850) ;  Der  Ursprung  der  Sprachc 
(1851);  Die  Entwiclcelung  der  Schrift  (1852); 
Das  gegenseitige  Verhaltniss  der  Grammatik, 
Log ilc  und  Psychologic  (1855);  Geschichte  der 
Sprachwissenschaft  bei  den  Gricchen  (1863) ; 
Die  Mande-Negcrsprachen  (1867) ;  and  Abriss 
der  Sprachwissenschaft  (1871  et  scq.). 

STELLIO  (Daud.),  a  genus  of  iguanian  liz 
ards,  characterized  by  a  triangular,  flattened 
head,  covered  with  numerous  small  spinous 
plates ;  body  depressed,  the  scales  having  in 
termixed  some  larger  and  rougher  plates ;  a 
longitudinal  fold  on  each  side  between  the  legs ; 
no  femoral  pores,  and  no  dorsal  or  caudal 
crest ;  anal  pores  distinct ;  tail  with  large  keeled 
and  spiny  scales  arranged  in  whorls;  inci 
sors  four  above,  canines  two  above  and  none 
below,  and  cheek  teeth  triangular ;  no  teeth  on 
palate  ;  tongue  thick  and  fleshy.  The  common 
stellio  (S.  vulgaris,  Daud.),  the  lacerta  stellio 
of  Linnams,  the  hardun  of  the  Arabs,  is  about 
a  foot  long,  of  which  the  tail  is  not  quite  one 
half;  the  color  is  olive,  shaded  and  spotted 
with  black  above  and  olive  yellow  below.  It 
is  common  in  the  Levant,  and  especially  in 
Egypt,  where  its  excrements  wore  formerly 
collected  and  used  in  making  cosmetics ;  it  is 
very  active,  feeding  on  insects,  and  living  in 
ruins,  clefts  of  rocks,  and  holes  in  the  ground. 
The  stellio  of  the  ancients  was  a  species  of 
gecko,  and  probably  the  ptyodactylus  Hassel- 
quistii  (Dum.  and  Bibr.).  (See  GECKO.) 

STENDHAL.     See  BEYLE. 

STEJVO,  Nicolas,  a  Danish  anatomist,  born  in 
Copenhagen  in  1638,  died  in  1680.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Copenhagen  and  afterward  at  Ley- 


STENOGRAPHY 


STEPHEN 


371 


den,  where  he  graduated  in  1664.  Very  early 
in  his  professional  life  he  discovered  the  exis 
tence,  course,  and  office  of  the  excretory  duct 
of  the  parotid  gland,  since  known  as  "  Steno's 
duct."  He  acquired  reputation  by  his  anatom 
ical  writings,  became  physician  to  the  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany,  and  afterward  professor  of 
anatomy  at  Copenhagen.  Returning  to  Flor 
ence,  he  became  a  Catholic  in  1669  and  a  priest 
in  1677,  and  was  for  the  rest  of  his  life  a  mis 
sionary  with  the  title  of  apostolic  vicar  of  the 
see  of  Rome  for  all  the  north. 

STENOGRAPHY,  a  method  of  abbreviating  or 
dinary  writing  by  the  use  of  signs,  now  al 
most  universally  superseded  by  phonography 
or  phonetic  shorthand.  (See  PIIOXOGEAPHY.) 

STENTGR,  a  Grecian  herald  in  the  Trojan 
war,  from  whose  name  is  derived  the  word 
stentorian.  Homer  describes  him  as  "great 
hearted,  brazen-voiced  Stentor,  who  shouted 
as  loud  as  fifty  other  men." 

STEPHEN  (Gr.  a-fyavoc,  a  crown),  Saint,  the 
first  martyr  of  the  Christian  church.  He  was 
a  Hellenist  by  birth,  and  one  of  the  seven 
deacons  in  the  Christian  congregation  of  Je 
rusalem,  who,  upon  the  complaint  of  the  Hel 
lenists  that  their  widows  were  neglected,  had 
been  chosen  by  order  of  the  apostles  to  super 
intend  everything  connected  with  the  relief  of 
the  poor.  The  Jews  charged  him  with  speak 
ing  against  the  law  and  the  temple,  against 
Moses,  and  against  God,  and  by  order  of  the 
sanhedrim  he  was  stoned.  (Acts  vi.  and  vii.) 
His  death  is  believed  to  have  happened  in  the 
year  36  or  37.  His  feast  has  been  celebrated 
in  the  eastern  and  western  churches  on  Dec. 
26  since  the  4th  century. 

STEPHEN,  the  name  of  ten  popes,  of  whom 
the  following  are  most  important.  I»  Stephen 
I.,  Saint,  born  in  Rome  about  200,  died  there  in 
257  (according  to  some  authorities  in  260). 
He  was  elected  in  253  (or  257).  His  pontifi 
cate  is  remarkable  for  his  having  deposed,  at 
the  instance  of  St.  Cyprian,  the  Novatian  Mar- 
cianus,  bishop  of  Aries,  for  having  reversed 
the  sentence  of  a  Spanish  synod  deposing  two 
bishops  accused  of  apostasy ;  and  for  a  mem 
orable  controversy  with  St.  Cyprian  rela 
ting  to  the  necessity  of  rebaptizing  converted 
heretics.  Only  fragments  of  Stephen's  epis 
tles  are  extant.  He  was  put  to  death  during 
the  persecution  of  Valerian.  II,  Stephen  III. 
(called  by  French  historians  Stephen  II.),  born 
in  Rome  about  690,  died  there  in  April,  757. 
He  was  educated  in  the  school  of  St.  John 
Lateran,  and  was  a  canon  regular  of  that  ba 
silica  when  he  was  chosen  pope,  in  March, 
752,  as  successor  of  Stephen  II.,  who  died 
three  days  after  his  election,  without  having 
received  episcopal  consecration.  Stephen  III., 
immediately  after  his  accession,  opposed  As- 
tolphus,  king  of  the  Lombards,  who  had  pos 
sessed  himself  of  Ravenna  and  its  dependent 
provinces,  and  demanded  the  surrender  of 
Rome  and  its  territory.  Having  for  a  year 
vainly  sought  the  armed  .intervention  of  the 


Greek  emperor  Constantino  V.,  the  pope  went 
fo  Pavia  in  October,  753,  to  conciliate  Astol- 
phus,  and  thence  to  Pontyon  in  Champagne, 
in  January,  754,  w^here  he  implored  the  pro 
tection  of  Pepin,  king  of  the  Franks.  During 
Eastertide  an  assembly  was  held  at  Quercy- 
sur-Oise,  at  which  Pepin  and  his  nobles  pledged 
themselves  to  defend  the  pope,  and  the  latter 
gave  a  series  of  decisions  relating  to  matrimo 
ny  and  church  government.  In  July  he  con 
secrated  the  abbey  church  of  St.  Denis  near 
Paris,  and  anointed  and  crowned  Pepin  and 
his  sons  Carloman  and  Charles  (afterward 
Charlemagne),  and  returned  to  Italy  with 
Pepin  and  a  powerful  army.  Astolphus  was 
forced  to  give  up  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna; 
but  after  the  departure  of  Pepin  in  December 
he  reoccupied  these  territories  and  besieged 
Stephen  in  Rome.  Pepin  recrossed  the  Alps 
early  in  755,  defeated  Astolphus,  and  com 
pelled  him  by  treaty  to  make  over  the  exar 
chate  to  the  pope.  This  treaty,  which  was 
signed  by  Pepin,  his  sons,  and  the  chief  Frank- 
ish  barons  and  prelates,  assigned  the  recon 
quered  provinces  as  a  gift  "to  the  blessed  Pe 
ter,  the  holy  church  of  God,  and  the  Roman 
republic,"  and  inaugurated  the  temporalities  of 
the  Roman  see.  In  756  Desiderius,  the  suc 
cessor  of  Astolphus,  ratified  this  treaty  as  a 
condition  to  his  being  recognized  by  Stephen 
and  Pepin.  The  literary  remains  of  Stephen 
III.  consist  of  important  letters  contained  in 
the  Codex  Carolinus,  and  of  his  Eesponsa  ad 
Gallos,  in  Labbe's  Concilia.  III.  Stephen  X. 
(Frederick  of  Lorraine),  born  about  1000,  died 
in  Florence  in  1058.  He  was  brother  to 
Godfrey  of  Lorraine,  duke  of  Tuscany.  Pope 
Leo  IX.  made  him  a  cardinal,  and  in  1054  sent 
him  as  legate  to  Constantinople.  On  his  re 
turn  in  1055,  his  life  being  threatened  by  the 
emperor  Henry  III.,  he  fled  to  Monte  Casino, 
and  became  a  Benedictine  monk  in  that  mon 
astery,  and  in  May,  1057,  its  abbot.  He  was 
made  cardinal  priest  by  Pope  Victor  II.,  in 
whose  place  he  was  elected  in  August,  1057, 
by  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Hildebrand  (after 
ward  Pope  Gregory  VII.).  He  held  several 
councils  in  Rome  for  the  enforcement  of  sa 
cerdotal  celibacy,  and  degraded  all  incontinent 
clerics  who  had  violated  the  statutes  of  Pope 
Leo  IX.  He  visited  Monte  Casino,  caused  an 
abbot  to  be  elected  in  his  own  place,  compelled 
the  monks  to  reform  all  abuses  incompatible 
with  their  vow  of  poverty,  and  created  Pietro 
Damiani  cardinal.  He  issued  the  most  rigor 
ous  decrees  against  simony,  hut  maintained 
the  exemption  of  clergymen  from  trial  by  lay 
judges,  and  from  being  taxed  without  the  au 
thorization  of  the  holy  see. 

STEPHEN,  king  of  England,  the  fourth  and 
last  of  the  Anglo-Norman  line,  born  about 
1100,  died  Oct7  25,  1154.  His  father  was 
Stephen,  count  of  Blois,  and  his  mother  was 
Adela  or  Adelicia,  the  fourth  or  fifth  daughter 
of  William  the  Conqueror ;  and  Stephen  was 
their  third  son  and  sixth  child.  He  early  be- 


372 


STEPHEN 


STEPHENS 


came  a  favorite  of  Henry  I.,  his  maternal  un 
do,  who  knighted  him  in  his  youth,  and  gave 
him  the  earldom  of  Mortagne  in  Normandy 
and  several  valuable  estates  in  England.  Hen 
ry  procured  his  marriage  to  Matilda,  heiress  to 
the  count  of  Boulogne,  as  early  as  1114,  by 
which  Stephen  became  possessed  of  that  title 
and  property.  When,  in  1120,  William,  the 
heir  of  Henry  I.,  and  so  many  other  members 
of  the  king's  family  and  household,  were  lost 
by  the  foundering  of  the  White  ship,  Stephen 
had  been  saved  from  the  same  fate  by  leaving 
the  vessel  on  finding  that  she  was  too  crowded 
for  safety.  Stephen  with  other  nobles  took 
the  oath  to  support  Henry's  daughter  the  em 
press  Matilda  as  queen  of  England  and  duchess 
of  Normandy,  should  her  father  die  without 
issue  male;  but  her  subsequent  marriage  with 
Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  count  of  Anjou,  in  vio 
lation  of  the  king's  assurance,  was  thought  to 
have  cancelled  the  obligation.  Theobald,  count 
of  Blois,  Stephen's  eldest  brother,  was  regard 
ed  by  many  Normans  as  the  proper  person 
to  succeed  Henry ;  but  while  they  were  delib 
erating,  Stephen  hastened  to  England,  and  was 
crowned  in  December,  1135.  He  confirmed  to 
the  English  the  immunities  and  laws  of  Hen 
ry  I.,  and  also  the  laws  and  customs  of  Ed 
ward  the  Confessor.  lie  secured  peace  with 
Scotland  by  making  cessions  to  King  David, 
from  whom  he  obtained  acknowledgment  and 
homage.  At  a  meeting  of  barons  and  prelates 
at  Oxford,  he  produced  a  letter  from  the  pope 
approving  his  election  to  the  throne.  A  char 
ter  was  framed,  by  which  the  old  privileges  of 
all  classes  were  confirmed,  and  certain  abuses 
of  the  preceding  reign  were  removed.  -The 
reign  of  Stephen  was  a  period  of  constant  war 
and  tumult,  lie  was  involved  in  contests  with 
the  Welsh,  who  inflicted  defeat  and  loss  on  the 
English.  In  the  war  that  was  renewed  witli 
Scotland  in  1138,  the  English  gained  the  great 
battle  of  the  standard,  Aug.  22.  Revolts  broke 
out,  at  different  times,  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  The  cause  of  the  empress  Matilda 
was  early  taken  up  by  a  party  in  England, 
headed  by  her  natural  brother  Robert,  earl  of 
Gloucester;  and  on  Sept.  30,  1139,  Matilda 
landed  in  England.  Stephen  was  defeated 
and  made  prisoner,  Feb.  2,  1141,  at  the  battle 
of  Lincoln.  The  greater  portion  of  the  coun 
try  submitted  to  the  victors;  but  Matilda's 
arrogance  was  so  offensive  that  a  reaction 
speedily  took  place.  Her  brother  was  defeat 
ed  and  captured  in  September,  1141,  and  was 
exchanged  for  Stephen.  At  the  battle  of  Wil 
ton,  July  1,  1143,  Gloucester  was  victorious, 
and  the  king  preserved  his  freedom  only  by 
flight.  The  war  raged  for  years,  and  the  con 
dition  of  England  was  made  most  deplorable. 
In  1153  Henry,  son  of  Matilda,  arrived  in 
England  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force, 
and  defeated  Stephen  at  Malmesbury ;  but 
leading  men  on  both  sides  now  interposed  to 
bring  about  a  peace,  which  was  facilitated  by 
the  sudden  death  of  the  king's  eldest  son,  Eus 


tace.  By  the  treaty  of  Winchester,  Nov.  7, 
1153,  it  was  settled  that  Stephen  should  re 
main  king  of  England  for  life,  and  that  ho 
should  be  succeeded  by  Henry ;  and  that  Ste 
phen's  son  William  should  retain  all  his  pos 
sessions  acquired  by  marriage  or  otherwise, 
and  all  those  which  his  father  had  held  in 
Normandy,  England,  and  elsewhere,  before  he 
became  king.  Stephen  did  not  survive  the 
making  of  this  treaty  quite  one  year.  His 
reign  was  the  most  miserable  time  ever  known 
in  England.  The  country  was  covered  with 
castles,  many  hundreds  of  which  were  erected 
at  this  period;  and  it  was  devastated  by  the 
foreign  soldiery,  the  king  himself  employing 
numerous  mercenaries,  principally  from  Flan 
ders  and  Brittany.  The  throne  passed  on  his 
death  to  the  house  of  Plantagenet  in  the  per 
son  of  Henry  II. 

STEPHEN  I,,  Saint,  king  of  Hungary.  See 
HUNGARY,  vol.  ix.,  p.  55. 

STEPHEN,  king  of  Poland.  See  BATHOEI, 
and  POLAND,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  640. 

STEPHEN.  I.  Sir  James,  an  English  states 
man,  born  in  London,  Jan.  8,  1789,  died  in 
Coblentz,  Sept.  15,  1859.  He  graduated  at 
Cambridge  in  1812,  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
at  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  was  appointed  coun 
sel  in  the  colonial  department  of  the  public 
service,  and  in  1824  counsel  to  the  board  of 
trade.  In  1834  he  was  made  assistant  and  sub 
sequently  permanent  under-secretary,  and  re 
tired  from  office  in  1847,  when  he  was  knight 
ed.  From  1849  till  his  death  he  was  regius 
professor  of  modern  history  in  the  university 
of  Cambridge.  He  published  "Essays  in  Ec 
clesiastical  Biography  and  other  Subjects "  (2 
vols.  8vo,  London,  1849;  4th  ed.,  with  a  bio 
graphical  notice  by  his  son,  18GO),  and  "Lec 
tures  on  the  History  of  France  "  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1851).  II.  James  Fitzjames,  an  English  jurist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  March,  1829. 
He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1852,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1854,  and  was  legal  adviser  to 
the  government  in  India  from  December,  1869, 
to  April,  1872,  when  ho  returned  to  London. 
He  has  published  "  General  View  of  the  Crim 
inal  Law  of  England  "  (8vo,  1863)  ;  "  Defini 
tion  of  Murder  Considered  "  (1866) ;  and  "  Lib 
erty,  Equality,  Fraternity"  (1873).  "Essays 
by  a  Barrister,"  reprinted  from  the  "  Satur 
day  Review"  in  1862,  is  attributed  to  him. 

STEPHENS,  an  unorganized  N.  W.  county  of 
Texas,  intersected  in  the  north  by  the  Clear  fork 
of  Brazos  river;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
330,  of  whom  24  were  colored.  The  surface 
is  diversified  with  hills  and  valleys,  creeks  and 
springs.  Stock  raising  is  the  chief  occupation. 
The  bottom  lands  of  Ilubbard's  creek  are  rich. 
^STEPHENS,  or  Stephanas  (Fr.  Estienne  or 
~Etienne),  the  name  of  a  French  family  of  print 
ers  who  flourished  during  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries.  HENRY,  the  founder  of  the  family 
(born  about  1465,  died  about  1520),  established 
a  printing  house  in  Paris  in  1502.  He  pub 
lished  mathematical  and  theological  works, 


STEPHENS 


373 


distinguished  for  their  accuracy.  His  sons, 
FRANCIS  (1502-'50),  ROBERT  I.  (born  in  Paris 
in  1503,  died  in  Geneva  in  1559),  and  CHARLES 
(born  in  Paris  about  1505,  died  in  1564),  were 
largely  engaged  in  printing.  Robert,  a  man 
of  great  learning  and  industry,  in  his  20th 
year  published  an  edition  of  the  Latin  New 
Testament,  with  some  corrections  by  himself. 
At  his  house,  which  was  the  resort  of  the 
most  eminent  literary  men,  Latin  was  the  or 
dinary  language  of  conversation,  even  among 
the  children  and  servants,  to  whom  it  was 
taught  by  his  wife.  For  many  years  scarcely 
a  month  passed  in  which  some  work,  generally 
edited  and  corrected  by  himself,  did  not  issue 
from  his  press.  He  is  said  to  have  publicly 
posted  proof  sheets  of  his  works,  with  the  offer 
of  a  premium  for  the  detection  of  errors.  In 
1531  he  began  the  publication  of  his  Dictiona- 
riuyi,  seu  Thesaurus  Lingua  Latin®,  which  he 
improved  in  two  subsequent  editions.  New 
editions  have  appeared  in  the  present  century 
at  London  (8  vols.  fol.,  1815-'25)  and  Paris  (9 
vols.  fol.,  1829-'63).  His  editions  of  the  Bible 
with  notes  brought  him  into  trouble  with  the 
Sorbonne,  from  which  he  was  protected  during 
the  life  of  Francis  I.,  who  had  appointed  him 
royal  printer.  After  the  king's  death  the  Sor 
bonne  caused  the  sale  of  his  Bibles  to  be  pro 
hibited,  and  to  insure  his  safety  the  printer 
retired  to  Geneva,  where  he  died,  it  is  said, 
in  the  Calvinistic  faith.  He  published  at  least 
11  complete  editions  of  the  Bible,  in  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  French,  besides  many  sepa 
rate  editions  of  the  New  Testament;  and  382 
other  works,  mostly  of  the  first  importance, 
came  from  his  press.  He  first  introduced  the 
existing  division  of  the  New  Testament  into 
verses.  Charles,  the  younger  brother  of  Rob 
ert,  devoted  himself  to  physical  sciences,  and 
for  some  years  practised  medicine.  He  suc 
ceeded  to  his  brother's  business  when  the  lat 
ter  retired  to  Geneva,  and  was  subsequently 
appointed  printer  to  Henry  II.  His  publica 
tions,  scientific  and  classical,  are  numerous. — 
HENRY,  son  of  Robert  (born  in  Paris  in  1528, 
died  in  1598),  spoke  Latin  with  fluency  while 
a  child,  and  throughout  his  life  was  a  profound 
student  of  Greek  literature.  His  establishments 
were  successively  in  Paris  and  Geneva;  but 
after  the  publication  of  his  Thesaurus  Lingua 
Gracce,  the  costliness  of  which  confined  it  to 
a  limited  number  of  purchasers  and  involved 
the  printer  in  pecuniary  embarrassments,  he 
travelled  from  city  to  city,  exploring  libraries, 
and  collecting  an  immense  amount  of  material 
for  works  which  he  was  projecting,  and  which 
he  published  wherever  he  happened  to  be. 
Among  the  best  known  of  them  are  :  Confor- 
mite  clu  langage  francois  avec  le  grec  (Geneva, 
about  1565  ;  latest  ed.,  with  a  notice  of  his  life 
by  Leon  Feugere,  Paris,  1853),  and  La  precel- 
lence  du  langage  francois  (Paris,  1579  ;  latest 
ed.,  with  an  essay  on  him  and  notes  by  the 
same  author,  1851). — Among  others  of  the 
family  were  PAUL,  son  of  the  preceding  (born 


in  Geneva  in  1566,  died  there  in  1627),  who 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  printing  establish 
ment  at  Geneva,  which  he  conducted  for  many 
years ;  and  ANTHONY,  his  son  (born  in  Geneva 
about  1592,  died  at  the  Hotel-Dieu  in  Paris  in 
1674),  who  for  50  years  conducted  a  printing 
house  in  Paris,  but  died  in  great  poverty. — See 
A.  A.  Renouard,  Annales  de  V imprinter ie  des 
Estienne  (Paris,  1837;  2d  ed.,  1843). 

STEPHENS,  Alexander  Hamilton,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Taliaferro  co.,  Ga.,  Feb.  11, 
1812.  He  graduated  at  Franklin  college,  Ath 
ens,  Ga.,  in  1832,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1834,  and  rapidly  obtained  a  large  and  lucra 
tive  practice  at  Crawfordville.  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislature  of  Georgia  in  1836,  and  was 
reflected  for  five  successive  terms.  In  1842 
he  was  elected  to  the  state  senate.  In  1843 
he  was  elected  as  a  whig  to  congress,  and  held 
his  seat  till  1859.  In  February,  1847,  he  sub 
mitted  a  series  of  resolutions  in  relation  to 
the  Mexican  war,  which  afterward  formed  the 
platform  of  the  whig  party.  He  opposed  the 
Clayton  compromise  in  1848,  and  took  a  lead 
ing  part  in  the  compromises  of  1850.  The 
passage  of  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  act  of 
1854  in  the  house  of  representatives  was 
strongly  supported  by  him  as  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  territories.  After  the  breaking 
up  of  the  whig  party  he  acted  with  the  demo 
crats.  At  the  close  of  the  35th  congress  Mr. 
Stephens  declined  to  be  again  a  candidate,  and 
on  July  2,  1859,  he  made  a  speech  at  Augusta, 
Ga.,  announcing  his  retirement  from  public 
life.  During  the  presidential  canvass  of  1860 
he  sustained  Douglas,  and  denounced  those 
who  advocated  a  dissolution  of  the  LTnion  in 
case  of  Mr.  Lincoln's  election ;  and  in  Novem 
ber,  1860,  he  made  a  speech  before  the  legis 
lature  of  Georgia  against  secession,  on  which 
subject  he  had  an  interesting  correspondence 
with  Mr.  Lincoln  in  December.  He  was  nev 
ertheless  elected  to  the  secession  convention 
which  met  at  Milledgeville,  Jan.  16,  1861,  and 
there  spoke  and  voted  against  the  secession 
ordinance.  He  was  a  member  of  the  south 
ern  congress  which  met  in  Montgomery,  Ala., 
in  February,  and  was  elected  vice  president 
of  the  confederacy.  On  March  21  he  deliv 
ered  a  speech  in  Savannah,  in  which  he  de 
clared  slavery  to  be  the  corner  stone  of  the 
new  government.  (See  CONFEDERATE  STATES.) 
On  April  23,  as  a  special  commissioner  from 
the  Confederate  States,  he  addressed  the  con 
vention  at  Richmond,  urging  the  union  of  Vir 
ginia  with  the  confederacy.  He  frequently 
differed  from  the  policy  of  the  Richmond  gov 
ernment,  especially  on  the  subject  of  martial 
law;  and  on  Sept.  8,  1862,  he  pronounced  the 
appointment  by  Gen.  Bragg  of  James  M.  Cal- 
houn  as  civil  governor  of  Atlanta  a  palpable 
usurpation.  His  letter  on  this  subject  created 
a  marked  sensation  through  the  south.  On 
Feb.  3,  1865,  with  R.  M.  T.  Hunter  and  John 
A.  Campbell,  he  held  an  informal  conference 
on  a  steamer  in  Hampton  roads  with  Presi- 


374 


STEPHENS 


STEPHENSON 


dent  Lincoln  and  Mr.  Seward,  which  had  no 
practical  result.  After  Lee's  surrender  Ste 
phens  returned  to  his  home  in  Crawfordville, 
where  on  May  11,  1865,  he  was  arrested  and 
sent  to  Fort  Warren  in  Boston  harbor ;  but  on 
Oct.  11  he  was  released  on  parole.  On  Feb.  22, 
1866,  he  delivered  a  speech  before  the  legisla 
ture  of  Georgia  favoring  the  restoration  policy 
of  President  Johnson.  In  the  same  month  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  but  as 
the  state  had  not  complied  with  the  conditions 
of  reconstruction,  he  was  not  permitted  to 
take  his  seat.  In  1872  he  was  elected  to  con 
gress,  and  again  in  1874,  almost  without  oppo 
sition.  He  has  published  "A  Constitutional 
View  of  the  Late  War  between  the  States,  its 
Causes,  Character,  Conduct,  and  Results"  (2 
vols.  8vo,  Philadelphia,  1868-'70),  and  several 
speeches. — See  "Alexander  II.  Stephens,  in 
Public  and  Private,"  with  his  letters  and 
speeches  before,  during,  and  since  the  war,  by 
Henry  Cleveland  (8vo,  Philadelphia,  1867). 

STEPHENS,  Aun  Sophia  (WIXTEEBOTIIAM),  an 
American  authoress,  born  in  Derby,  Conn.,  in 
1813.  In  1832  she  married  Ed\vard  Stephens, 
a  printer  of  Plymouth,  Mass.,  in  1835-'7  edited 
the  "Portland  Magazine"  and  in  1836  the 
"  Portland  Sketch  Book,"  and  in  1837  removed 
to  New  York.  She  has  since  edited  and  con 
tributed  to  various  periodicals,  and  published 
many  novels,  one  of  the  best  known  of  which 
is  "Fashion  and  Famine"  (1851),  which  ap 
peared  in  three  French  versions.  A  uniform 
edition  of  her  works  was  published  in  Phila 
delphia  in  1869  (14  vols.  12rno).  Among  her 
later  novels  are  "Wives  and  Widows"  (1869); 
"Married  in  Haste"  (1870);  "A  Noble  Wo 
man  "(1871);  "The  Reigning  Belle"  (1872); 
"  Bellehood  and  Bondage  "  (1873) ;  "  Lord 
Hope's  Choice,"  and  its  sequel,  "  The  Old 
Countess"  (1873);  and  "Phemie  Frost's  Ex 
periences"  (1874). 

STEPHENS,  John  Lloyd,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Shrewsbury,  N.  J.,  Nov.  28,  1805,  died 
in  New  York,  Oct.  10, 1852.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  college  in  1822,  studied  law,  and 
practised  in  New  York.  After  spending  two 
years  in  travel,  ho  published  "Incidents  of 
Travel  in  Egypt,  Arabia  Petrrea,  and  the  Holy 
Land"  (2  vols.  12mo,  1837),  and  "Incidents 
of  Travel  in  Greece,  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Po 
land  "  (2  vols.  12mo,  1838).  "lie  was  appointed 
minister  to  Central  America  in  1839,  explored 
the  ancient  remains  of  that  country,  and  pub 
lished  "  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Central  Ameri 
ca,  Chiapas,  and  Yucatan  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  New 
York,  1841).  In  1842  he  again  visited  Yuca 
tan,  and  published  "Incidents  of  Travel  in 
Yucatan"  (2  vols.  Svo,  1843).  These  works 
were  illustrated  by  his  fellow  traveller  Fred 
erick  Catherwood  of  London,  and  are  valua 
ble  contributions  to  American  antiquities.  Mr. 
Stephens  was  active  in  establishing  the  first 
American  line  of  transatlantic  steamships.  As 
vice  president  of  the  Panama  railroad  company 
he  negotiated  in  1849  the  contract  with  the 


government  of  New  Granada,  was  chosen  pres 
ident  of  the  company,  and  superintended  the 
construction  of  the  road  till  his  death. 

STEPHENSON,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Illinois, 
bordering  on  Wisconsin,  intersected  by  the 
Pecatonica  river  and  several  railroads;  area, 
550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  30,608.  The  surface 
is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  529,513  bushels  of 
wheat,  135,362  of  rye,  1,615,679  of  Indian 
corn,  960,620  of  oats,  165,266  of  barley,  261,- 
110  of  potatoes,  36,507  tons  of  hay,  87,803  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  69,251  of  wool,  757,458  of  butter, 
30,976  of  cheese,  and  10,855  gallons  of  sor 
ghum  molasses.  There  were  11,441  horses, 
10,723  milch  cows,  15,186  other  cattle,  18,348 
sheep,  and  34,437  swine  ;  14  manufactories  of 
carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  agricultural  imple 
ments,  3  of  furniture,  3  of  iron  castings,  8  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  woollen  goods,  3 
breweries,  and  1  tannery.  Capital,  Freeport. 

STEPHENSON.  I.  George,  an  English  railway 
engineer,  born  at  Wylam,  Northumberland, 
June  9,  1781,  died  at  Tapton  park,  near  Ches 
terfield,  Derbyshire,  Aug.  12,  1848.  For  sev 
eral  years  he  was  employed  at  various  collier 
ies  as  fireman,  and  afterward  as  plugman,  and 
gradually  acquired  so  complete  a  knowledge 
of  the  engine  as  to  be  able  to  take  it  apart  and 
make  any  ordinary  repairs.  At  18  he  could 
not  read ;  but  within  two  years,  by  attending 
night  schools,  he  was  able  to  read,  write,  and 
cipher  with  tolerable  facility.  In  1805  he  re 
moved  to  Killingworth  colliery,  and  about  this 
time  was  desirous  of  emigrating  to  the  Uni 
ted  States,  but  was  unable  to  raise  money  for 
his  passage  and  outfit.  lie  continued  to  work 
in  different  collieries,  and  in  his  leisure  hours 
studied  mechanics  and  engineering,  mended 
clocks  and  shoes,  cut  out  clothes  for  the  miners, 
and  turned  his  hand  to  other  useful  occupa 
tions.  His  skill  in  repairing  engines  and  his 
improvements  upon  old  machinery  led  in  1812 
to  his  appointment  as  enginewright  at  Kil 
lingworth,  at  a  salary  of  £100  a  year.  Besides 
erecting  a  winding  engine  for  drawing  up  coal, 
and  a  pumping  engine,  he  projected  and  laid 
down  a  self-acting  incline  along  the  declivity 
of  the  Willington  ballast  quay,  so  arranged 
that  full  wagons  descending  to  the  vessels 
drew  up  the  empty  ones.  But  the  construc 
tion  of  an  efficient  and  economical  locomotive 
steam  engine  mainly  occupied  his  attention, 
and  in  July,  1814,  he  completed  one  which 
worked  successfully  on  the  Killingworth  rail 
way,  and  proved  the  best  yet  constructed.  It 
was  the  first  locomotive  made  with  smooth 
wheels,  for  he  rejected  the  contrivances  which 
Trevithick,  Blenkinsop,  and  others  had  thought 
necessary  to  secure  sufficient  adhesion  between 
the  wheels  and  the  rails.  While  engaged  in 
plans  for  an  improved  engine,  his  attention 
was  attracted  to  the  increase  in  the  draught 
of  the  furnace  obtained  by  turning  the  waste 
steam  up  the  chimney,  at  first  practised  solely 
in  the  desire  to  lessen  the  noise  caused  by  the 


STEPHENSON 


375 


escape  of  the  steam.  Hence  originated  the 
steam  blast,  the  most  important  improvement 
in  the  locomotive  up  to  that  time,  and  it  was 
embodied  in  Stephenson's  next  engine,  com 
pleted  in  1815.  For  some  years  Stephenson 
had  been  experimenting  with  the  fire  damp 
in  the  mines,  and  in  1815  he  completed  a 
miner's  safety  lamp,  which  is  still  in  use  in  the 
Killingworth  collieries.  The  invention  of  a 
safety  lamp  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  was  nearly 
simultaneous,  and  to  him  the  mining  proprie 
tors  presented  a  service  of  plate  worth  £2, 000, 
at  the  same  time  awarding  £100  to  Stephen- 
son.  This  led  to  a  protracted  discussion  as  to 
the  priority  of  the  invention,  and  in  1817  Ste 
phenson's  friends  presented  £1,000  to  him. 
Having  brought  the  locomotive  to  a  consid 
erable  degree  of  perfection,  Stephenson  next 
turned  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of 
railways,  his  opinion  being  that  both  were 
parts  of  one  mechanism,  and  that  the  employ 
ment  of  steam  carriages  on  common  roads  wras 
impracticable.  For  the  purpose  of  making 
railways  solid  and  level,  and  preventing  jerks 
at  the  junction  of  the  rails,  he  took  out  in  1816 
a  patent  for  an  improved  rail  and  chair,  and 
recommended  the  employment  of  heavier  rails 
and  the  substitution  of  wrought  for  cast  iron. 
In  connection  with  these  improvements  he  add 
ed  considerably  to  the.  lightness  and  strength 
of  the  locomotive,  simplified  the  construction 
of  the  working  parts,  and  substituted  steel 
springs  for  the  small  cylinders  on  which  the 
boiler  had  at  first  rested.  His  next  important 
undertaking  was  the  construction  of  a  railway 
eight  miles  in  length  for  the  owners  of  the  Het- 
ton  colliery,  which  was  successfully  opened  on 
Nov.  18,  1822,  the  level  parts  being  traversed 
by  five  of  Stephenson's  locomotives,  while  sta 
tionary  engines  were  employed  to  overcome 
the  heavy  grades.  In  1820  an  act  of  parlia 
ment  was  obtained  for  a  railway  between  Stock 
ton  and  Darlington,  of  which  Stephenson,  who 
made  the  preliminary  surveys  and  specifica 
tions,  was  in  1823  appointed  engineer.  The 
line  was  intended  to  be  worked  by  stationary 
engines  for  the  steep  gradients,  with  horse 
power  on  the  level  portions  ;  but  at  Ste 
phenson's  urgent  request  the  act  was  amend 
ed  so  as  to  permit  the  use  of  locomotives 
on  all  parts  of  the  road,  which  was  opened 
Sept.  27,  1825.  In  1824,  in  connection  with 
Edward  Pease,  he  opened  an  establishment  for 
the  manufacture  of  locomotives  at  Newcas- 
tle-upon-Tyne.  In  1825  he  was  appointed  prin 
cipal  engineer  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manches 
ter  line,  made  the  preliminary  surveys,  and 
in  June  1826,  began  the  construction  of  the 
road,  which  employed  him  during  the  next 
four  years.  Of  the  engineering  difficulties  suc 
cessfully  overcome,  the  most  important  was  the 
crossing  at  Chatmoss,  a  bog  44-  m.  in  length,  on 
which  the  road  was  made  to  float.  While  this 
road  was  building,  the  most  eminent  engineers 
persisted  in  recommending  stationary  engines 
in  place  of  locomotives,  which  they  declared 


unsafe  and  incapable  of  attaining  high  speed ; 
and  the  clumsy  expedient  of  a  series  of  sta 
tionary  machines  1|-  m.  apart,  dragging  the 
trains  by  ropes,  wTould  have  been  adopted  but 
for  the  energy  of  Stephenson  and  a  few  of  his 
friends.  He  finally  prevailed  on  the  directors 
\  to  offer  a  prize  of  £500  for  the  most  effective 
locomotive  engine  for  the  purposes  of  the  road ; 
and  at  a  trial  which  took  place  near  Liver 
pool,  Oct.  6,  1829,  his  engine,  the  Rocket,  con 
structed  by  himself  and  his  son  Robert,  was 
adjudged  to  be  the  best  of  the  four  entered, 
having  averaged  a  speed  of  14  m.  an  hour, 
and  even  attained  one  of  29  m.  The  dis 
tinguishing  features  of  the  Rocket,  the  first 
high-speed  locomotive  of  the  standard  mod 
ern  type,  were  the  multitubular  boiler,  which 
was  not  Stephenson's  invention,  but  was  first 
applied  by  him  to  locomotives ;  the  blast 
pipe ;  and  the  direct  connection  of  the  steam 
cylinders  to  one  axle  and  one  pair  of  wheels. 
At  the  opening  of  the  road,  Sept.  15,  1830, 
eight  locomotives  constructed  at  the  Stephen- 
son  works  were  employed,  and  Mr.  Iluskisson, 
having  been  accidentally  struck  down  and 
fatally  injured  by  the  Rocket,  was  conveyed 
in  -the  Northumbrian,  driven  by  George  Ste 
phenson,  from  Parkside  to  Eccles,  15  m.,  at 
the  then  unprecedented  rate  of  36  m.  an  hour. 
Stephenson  was  almost  incessantly  employed 
for  the  next  15  years  on  new  ro^ds,  and 
was  called  three  times  to  Belgium  and  once 
to  Spain  as  a  consulting  engineer.  With 
his  increasing  wealth  he  also  engaged  exten 
sively  and  profitably  in  coal  mining  and  lime 
works,  particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Tapton  park,  an  elegant  seat  in  Derbyshire, 
where  he  passed  his  latter  years.  He  de 
clined  the  honor  of  knighthood. — See  u  Life 
of  George  Stephenson,"  by  Samuel  Smiles 
(8vo,  London,  1857  ;  8th  ed.,  including  Robert 
Stephenson,  1864;  again  enlarged,  1868).  II. 
Robert,  a  railway  engineer,  son  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  at  Wellington,  near  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne,  Oct.  16,  1803,  died  in  London, 
Oct.  12,  1859.  After  several  years'  schooling 
at  Newcastle,  and  a  preparatory  training  in 
the  collieries,  he  went  in  1822  to  the  univer 
sity  of  Edinburgh.  He  returned  home  in  1823, 
and  accepted  in  1824  an  engagement  as  engi 
neer  in  South  America.  In  1827,  after  a  short 
tour  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  he  re 
turned  to  England,  and  was  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
railway,  and  in  connection  with  his  father  in 
the  improvement  of  locomotives.  After  be 
ing  engaged  on  several  minor  railway  lines,  ho 
was  appointed  engineer  of  the  London  and 
Birmingham  road,  which  under  his  direction 
was  completed  in  18$S  ;  and  thenceforth  for 
many  years  he  "was  almost  exclusively  occupied 
with  similar  undertakings  at  home  and  abroad. 
Among  his  most  remarkable  works  are  the 
high  level  bridge  over  the  Tyne  at  Newcastle, 
the  viaduct  over  the  Tweed  valley  at  Berwick, 
the  Conway  bridge,  and  above  all  the  Britan- 


376 


STEREOSCOPE 


nia  tubular  bridge  across  the  Menai  straits. 
(See  BKIDGE,  vol.  in.,  p.  275.)  He  was  also 
employed  on  railways  in  Belgium,  Sweden, 
Norway,  Italy,  France,  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  and  visited  Egypt  several  times  to 
superintend  the  construction  of  a  road  be 
tween  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  on  the  line  of 
which  are  two  tubular  bridges,  traversed  by 
trains  on  the  roof  instead  of  the  inside,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Britannia  bridge.  He  also 
designed  an  immense  bridge  across  the  Nile 
at  Kaffre  Azzayat,  and  the  great  Victoria  tu 
bular  bridge  which  crosses  the  St.  Lawrence 
near  Montreal,  and  was  formally  opened  in  the 
summer  of  I860.  From  1847  till  his  death  he 
represented  the  Yorkshire  borough  of  Whitby 
in  parliament.  He  was  a  member  of  several 
scientific  bodies,  received  a  great  gold  medal 
of  honor  from  the  French  industrial  exposition 
of  1855,  and  from  1855  to  1858  was  president 
of  the  institute  of  civil  engineers,  lie  pub 
lished  "  Description  of  the  Locomotive  Steam 
Engine"  (4to,  London,  1838);  "Report  on 
the  Atmospheric  Rail  way  System  "  (4to,  1844) ; 
and  "  The  Great  Exhibition,  its  Palace  and 
Contents "  (12rno,  1851).  Besides  Smiles's 
biography,  his  life  has  been  written  by  J.  C. 
Jeaffreson  and  W.  Pole  (2  vols.,  London,  1864). 
STEREOSCOPE  (Gr.  crepedg  solid,  and  aKorreiv, 
to  see),  an  instrument  by  aid  of  which  the  two 
eyes  view  two  different  pictures  of  the  same 
object  and  combine  them  into  one  having  the 
appearance  of  solidity.  This  illusion  is  pro 
duced  by  presenting  to  the  right  eye  a  picture 
which  represents  the  object  in  perspective  as 
it  would  appear  to  that  eye  alone,  and  to  the 
left  eye  the  picture  of  the  object  as  seen  by 
the  left  eye.  If  these  two  pictures  exactly 
represent  the  object  as  seen  respectively  by 
the  right  and  the  left  eye,  which  can  readily 
be  accomplished  by  means  of  photography, 
we  shall,  on  looking  into  the  stereoscope,  re 
ceive  the  same  impression  of  solidity  or  relief 
as  is  given  when  both  eyes  look  at  the  real 
object.  One  who  has  sufficient  power  of  di 
recting  the  movements  of  his  eyes  does  not 
need  an  instrument  to  aid  him  in  combining 
the  two  pictures  on  a  stereoscopic  slide.  It 
is  only  required  that  the  right  eye  and  the 
left  shall  be  respectively  directed  to  corre 
sponding  points  on  the  right-hand  and  left- 
hand  pictures.  It  is  said  that  a  stereoscope 
as  just  described  was  conceived  by  Prof.  El 
liot  of  Edinburgh  in  1834,  but  was  not  con 
structed  by  him  till  1839,  after  Sir  Charles 
AVheatstone  had  in  1838  invented  and  exhibit 
ed  his  reflecting  stereoscope.  In  Wheatstone's 
instrument  the  observer  looks  with  his  left  eye 
into  a  mirror  at  #,  fig.  1,  and  with  his  right  eye 
into  a  mirror  at  b.  Thesfe  mirrors  are  inclined 
at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  and  hence  reflect  into 
the  eyes  the  two  pictures  placed  at  k  and  g. 
These  pictures  therefore  appear  at  the  same 
place  behind  the  two  mirrors,  and  give  the 
observer  the  impression  that  he  is  looking  at 
an  object  or  group  of  objects  having  solidity, 


or  the  third  dimension.  In  1849  Sir  David 
Brewster  invented  a  refracting  stereoscope. 
This  is  more  convenient  than  Wheatstone's, 
but  does  not  give  such  well  defined  effects  as 
the  reflecting  instrument.  In  Brewster's  ste- 


FIG.  1. — Wheatstone's  Stereoscope. 

reoscope  the  two  pictures  are  placed  side  by 
side,  and  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a 
partition,  S,  fig.  2,  so  that  the  right  eye  can 
only  view  the  right-hand  picture  and  the  left 
eye  the  left-hand  one.  These  two  pictures  are 


FIG.  2. — Breweter's  Stereoscope. 

observed  through  two  lenticular  prisms,  L  and 
R,  fig.  3,  which  not  only  slightly  magnify  the 
pictures,  but  also  cause  them  to  overlap  each 
other;  and  thus  we  see  in  the  middle  of  the 
instrument  one  picture  which  appears  in  relief. 


FIG.  3.— Section  of  the  Eye  Pieces. 

These  effects  of  solidity  can  readily  be  exag 
gerated  by  taking  the  two  pictures  by  means 
of  two  photographic  cameras,  the  distance  be 
tween  the  centres  of  whose  lenses  is  greater 
than  that  between  the  centres  of  the  human 
eyes.  The  explanation  of  the  illusions  of  the 
stereoscope  is  contained  in  the  explanation  of 
the  fact  that  binocular  vision  gives  us  the  per 
ception  of  the  third  dimension  of  extension  in 
all  objects  not  over  200  ft.  distant  from  the 
eyes  ;  for  in  the  stereoscope  we  have  the  ima 
ges  formed  on  the  retina  of  the  right  eye  and 
of  the  left  similar  to  the  images  that  would  be 
formed  in  the  eyes  if  real  solid  objects  were 
before  us,  having  the  sizes  and  the  situations 


STEREOTYPE 


STERLING 


377 


that  they  appear  to  have  in  the  stereoscopic 
illusion  in  the  instrument ;  also,  the  axes  of  the 
eyes  are  inclined  to  each  other  in  the  same 
manner  when  looking  in  the  stereoscope  as 
they  would  be  if  they  regarded  the  above  men 
tioned  group  of  solid  objects.  Hence  the  eye 
is  affected  exactly  as  when  it  views  these  real 
objects,  and  a  stereoscopic  perception  is  the 
effect.  Indeed,  a  simple  rule  for  all  illusions 
of  sight,  as  Helmholtz  concisely  states,  is  "  that 
we  always  believe  that  we  see  such  objects  as 
would,  under  conditions  of  normal  vision,  pro 
duce  the  retinal  image  of  which  we  are  actual 
ly  conscious."  The  reason  that  a  stereoscopic 
perception  is  obtained  when  we  look  at  a  near 
object  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  impressions 
produced  by  the  two  different  pictures  of  this 
object  on  the  retina,  and  the  muscular  adjust 
ment  of  the  ocular  axes  so  that  they  converge 
to  the  same  point  of  the  object,  are  translated, 
through  the  experience  of  touch,  as  effects  be 
longing  to  solidity.  Some  have  imagined  that 
they  had  explained  stereoscopic  perception  by 
the  fact  that  the  axes  of  the  eyes  converge  to 
point  after  point  on  the  object  in  rapid  succes 
sion,  and  thus,  as  it  were,  triangulate  the  posi 
tions  of  these  points  by  a  series  of  visual  tri 
angles,  which  have  for  their  base  the  distance 
separating  the  yellow  spots,  or  maculce  lutece, 
on  the  retinas  of  the  eyes  (see  EYE,  fig.  1),  and 
for  sides  the  lines  drawn  from  these  spots  to 
the  various  observed  points  of  the  object.  But 
Dove  showed  that  the  stereoscopic  perception 
is  obtained  when  we  illuminate  the  pictures 
in  the  stereoscope  by  the  flash  of  a  Leyden 
jar  ;  and  Prof.  Rood  has  shown  that  the  dura 
tion  of  this  illumination  is  only  four  billionths 
of  a  second,  a  duration  altogether  too  short 
to  allow  the'  eyes  time  to  make  any  motion. 
Others  have  maintained  that  a  combination  of 
the  impressions  produced  upon  both  retinas 
takes  place,  and  thus  .the  two  plane  retinal  pic 
tures  are  fused  into  a  stereoscopic  perception ; 
but  the  retinal  impressions  do  not  combine,  for 
Dove  has  shown  that  when  dull  black  is  alone 
viewed  with  one  eye,  while  white  is  regard 
ed  with  the  other,  the  perception  produced  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  metallic  surface  of  gra 
phite  ;  whereas  the  real  combined  sensation  of 
these  impressions  is  a  dull  gray.  From  these 
and  many  other  experiments  we  learn  that 
"two  distinct  sensations  are  transmitted  from 
the  two  eyes,  and  reach  the  consciousness  at 
the  same  time  and  without  coalescing;  that 
accordingly  the  combination  of  these  two  sen 
sations  into  the  single  picture  of  the  external 
world  of  which  we  are  conscious  in  ordinary 
vision  is  not  produced  by  any  anatomical  mech 
anism  of  sensation,  but  by  a  mental  act." — See 
"The  Stereoscope,"  by  Sir  David  Brewster 
(London,  1856),  and  "Recent  Progress  of  the 
Theory  of  Vision,"  by  Ilelmholtz,  published 
in  his  "Popular  Lectures  on  Scientific  Sub 
jects  "(New  York,  1874). 

STEREOTYPE.     See  PEINTING,  vol.  xiii.,  p. 
850. 


STERLING.     See  POUND  STERLING. 

STERLING,  a  city  of  Whitesides  co.,  Illinois, 
on  the  1ST.  bank  of  Rock  river,  and  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  and  the  Rockford, 
Rock  Island,  and  St.  Louis  railroads,  at  the 
terminus  of  the  Rock  River  branch  of  the 
Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  line,  110  m. 
W.  of  Chicago  and  28  m.  E.  of  the  Mississippi 
river;  pop.  in  1860,  2,428;  in  1870,  3, 998;' in 
1875,  5,312.  It  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  is 
supplied  with  water  by  the  Holly  system  of 
works  and  by  an  artesian  well  1,650  ft.  deep, 
discharging  700  barrels  an  hour.  It  is  chiefly 
devoted  to  manufacturing.  The  river  at  this 
point  is  spanned  by  a  dam  of  solid  masonry, 
1,100  ft,  long  and  7  ft.  high,  which  with  the 
9  ft,  natural  fall  of  the  rapids  above'  affords 
an  immense  water  power.  The  value  of  the 
manufactures  of  Sterling  and  Rock  Falls  (op 
posite)  in  1874  was  about  $4,250,000,  and  the 
number  of  hands  employed  upward  of  1,000. 
The  articles  are  principally  of  wood,  includ 
ing  agricultural  implements,  school  furniture, 
feed  mills,  pumps,  burial  cases,  carriages  and 
wagons,  building  materials,  butter  tubs,  wash 
ing  machines,  barrels,  hedge  trimmers,  tables, 
mittens,  machinery,  mineral  paint,  paper,  &c. 
There  are  five  flour  mills,  a  distillery  (the  lar 
gest  in  the  United  States),  two  tanneries,  and 
a  pork-packing  establishment.  Sterling  has  a 
national  bank,  three  public  school  houses,  two 
reading  rooms,  a  public  library,  two  weekly 
newspapers,  and  12  churches.  It  was  laid  out 
in  1836,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1857. 

STERLING,  John,  a  British  author,  born  at 
Kames  castle,  isle  of  Bute,  July  20,  1806,  died 
at  Ventnor,  isle  of  Wight,  Sept.  18,  1844.  He 
was  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Cambridge  uni 
versities,  in  1827  went  to  London,  and  for  a 
few  months  in  1828  edited  with  F.  D.  Maurice 
the  "Athenaeum."  In  1830-'31  he  passed  15 
months  on  St.  Vincent  island,  West  Indies,  for 
his  health,  the  state  of  wThich  required  inter 
vals  of  residence  in  the  south  of  France,  Ma 
deira,  and  Italy  through  the  rest  of  his  life. 
In  1834  he  took  deacon's  orders  and  became 
curate  to  his  former  college  tutor  J.  C.  Hare, 
rector  of  Hurstmonceaux,  Sussex;  but  in  Feb 
ruary,  1835,  he  went  to  London  to  devote  him 
self  to  literature.  In  August,  1838,  he  found 
ed  the  Anonymous  club,  afterward  called  the 
Sterling  club.  Among  the  members  were  Car- 
lyle,  Tennyson,  Moncton  Milnes,  John  Stuart 
Mill,  J.  C.  Hare,  C.  L.  Eastlake,  Sir  Edmund 
Head,  and  G.  C.  Lewis.  Sterling  published 
"Arthur  Coningsby,"  a  novel  (London,  1833); 
"Minor  Poems"  (1839);  "The  Election,"  a 
poem  (1841) ;  and  "  Strafford,"  a  drama  (1843). 
After  his  death  appeared  "Essays  and  Tales," 
collected  from  various  reviews,  with  a  memoir 
by  J.  C.  Hare  (2  vols.  8vo,  1848);  "Life  of 
John  Sterling,"  by  Thomas  Carlyle  (1851)  ; 
"Twelve  Letters  by  John  Sterling,"  edited  by 
W.  Coningham  (1851) ;  and  "  The  Onyx  Ring," 
from  "Blackwood,"  with  a  biographical  pre 
face  by  Charles  Hale  (Boston,  1856). 


378 


STERN 


STESICHORUS 


STERN,  Daniel.  See  AGOTJLT,  MAEIE  CATHE 
RINE  SOPHIE  DE  FLAVIGXY. 

STERNBERG,  a  town  of  Moravia,  10  m.  1ST. 
of  Olraiitz;  pop.  in  1870,  13,479.  It  has  an 
old  palace  and  a  military  school,  and  is  the 
great  centre  of  the  Moravian  manufacture  of 
cotton  and  linen  goods. 

STERNE,  Laurence,  an  English  author,  born 
in»Clonmel,  Ireland,  Nov.  24,  1713,  died  in 
London,  March  18,  1768.  His  parents  were 
English,  and  his  father,  Roger  Sterne,  was  a 
lieutenant  in  Handaside's  regiment,  the  move 
ments  of  which,  ''from  barrack  to  transport, 
from  Ireland  to  England,"  young  Laurence 
followed  until  his  10th  year,  when  he  was  put 
to  school  at  Halifax  in  England.  lie  gradu 
ated  at  Cambridge  in  1736,  took  orders,  and 
was  presented  to  the  living  of  Sutton  in  York 
shire.  In  1741  he  married,  and  about  the  same 
time  obtained  the  living  of  Stillington,  adjoin 
ing  Sutton,  while  his  uncle  procured  him  a  pre 
bend  in  York  cathedral.  For  nearly  20  years 
his  only  acknowledged  publications  were  two 
sermons,  although  he  wrote  political  para 
graphs  for  the  newspapers,  and  is  said  to  have 
conducted  for  some  time  a  periodical  elec 
tioneering  paper  in  the  whig  interest.  In  1759 
he  published  at  York,  under  the  pseudonyme 
of  "Mr.  Yorick,"  the  first  two  volumes  of 
"  Tristram  Shandy,"  which  were  reprinted  in 
London  early  in  1760.  The  3d  and  4th  vol 
umes  appeared  in  1761,  the  5th  and  6th  in 
1762,  the  7th  and  8th  in  1765,  and  the  9th  in 
1767.  Long  before  the  completion  of  the 
work,  the  charin  and  the  novelty  of  the  style, 
the  whimsical  digressions,  the  exquisite  touch 
es  of  pathos  and  humor,  and  its  many  admi 
rably  conceived  characters,  had  taken  an  ex 
traordinary  hold  upon  the  public,  and  Sterne 
ranked  with  Fielding  and  Richardson  and 
Smollett  as  a  great  writer  of  prose  fiction. 
He  was  lionized  in  London,  where  people 
were  invited  a  fortnight  in  advance  to  dine 
with  him ;  and  Boswell  has  recorded  John 
son's  remark  that  "  the  man,  Sterne,  had 
engagements  for  three  months."  The  erudi 
tion  which  so  greatly  astonished  the  not  very 
learned  readers  who  welcomed  the  appear 
ance  of  "Tristram  Shandy"  will,  however, 
scarcely  stand  the  test  of  modern  criticism, 
and  it  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Ferriar,  in  his 
"  Illustrations  of  Sterne  "  (1798),  that  the 
quaint  imagery  and  the  quainter  conceits  scat 
tered  through  the  book  were  largely  borrow 
ed  from  Rabelais,  Burton,  and  other  authors. 
But  after  making  liberal  allowances  for  pla 
giarisms,  his  Uncle  Toby,  Corporal  Trim,  Mr. 
Shandy,  Dr.  Slop,  and  Widow  Wadman  must 
be  considered  among  the  most  original  per 
sonages  in  fiction.  In  1760  and  1766,  du 
ring  the  publication  of  "  Tristram  Shandy," 
appeared  four  volumes  of  sermons,  also  by 
"  Mr.  Yorick."  In  1760  Sterne  received  an 
additional  living  at  Coxwold  in  Yorkshire,  and 
took  a  house  in  York  for  his  wife  and  daugh 
ter,  but  passed  most  of  his  own  time  in  Lon 


don  or  on  the  continent.  In  1762  he  visit 
ed  France,  and  in  1764  went  to  Italy  for  his 
health.  Returning  to  York  in  1767  he  wrote 
the  first  and  only  part  of  "  The  Sentimental 
Journey,"  and  took  it  to  London  for  publica 
tion.  Soon  after  its  appearance  he  died  with 
out  a  friend  near  him,  and  was  privately  buried 
at  Edge  ware.  In  1775  his  daughter  Lydia  pub 
lished  three  volumes  of  his  "Letters  to  his 
Friends,"  accompanied  by  a  short  autobio 
graphical  memoir  ;  and  in  the  same  year  ap 
peared  "  Letters  to  Eliza,"  consisting  of  ten 
letters  addressed  by  Sterne  in  March  and  April, 
1767,  to  "Mrs.  Elizabeth  Draper,' wife  of  Dan 
iel  Draper,  Esq.,  counsellor  at  Bombay,  and 
at  present  chief  of  the  factory  at  Surat,"  and 
another  collection  of  letters  in  one  volume. 
"  Seven  Letters  by  Sterne  and  his  Friends," 
edited  by  W.  Durrant  Cooper,  were  privately 
printed  in  1844.  The  most  complete  edition 
of  Sterne's  works  was  edited  by  James  P. 
Browne,  M.  D.,  and  comprises  in  an  appendix 
13  letters  hitherto  unpublished  (4  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1873). — Of  the  personal  character  of 
Sterne,  as  seen  in  his  life  and  letters,  no  fa 
vorable  impression  can  be  formed.  The  latter 
show  him  to  have  been  indifferent  to  the  du 
ties  of  his  profession,  lax  in  principle,  a  bad 
husband,  a  faithless  lover,  offering  his  affec 
tions  to  two  or  three  married  women  at  once, 
the  dupe  of  every  coarse  flatterer,  and  false 
to  his  professions  of  virtue  or  sensibility. 

STERNHOLD,  Thomas,  an  English  writer,  born 
in  Hampshire  about  1500,  died  in  August, 
1549.  He  was  groom  of  the  robes  to  Henry 
VIII.  and  Edward  VI.,  and  was  noted  at  court, 
for  his  poetical  talents  and  piety.  He  under 
took  a  translation  into  metre  of  the  Psalms 
of  David,  but  completed  only  37,  printed  in 
1549,  after  his  death,  with  seven  by  John 
Hopkins,  under  the  title  of  "  All  such  Psalms 
of  David  as  Thomas  Sternholde,  late  Grome 
of  the  Kinges  Majestyes  Robes,  did  in  his 
lyfe-tyme  drawe  into  Englyshe  Metre."  The 
version  was  completed  and  published  in  1562 
as  "The  Whole  Book  of  Psalms,  collected 
into  English  Metre  by  T.  Sternhold,  J.  Hop 
kins,  and  others,  conferred  with  the  Ebreu  ; 
with  apt  Notes  to  sing  them  withal;"  under 
which  title  it  was  annexed  to  the  "  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,"  and  was  used  till  superseded 
by  Tate  and  Brady's  collection  (1696).  Stern- 
hold  was  also  the  author  of  "  Certain  Chap 
ters  of  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  drawen  into 
Metre  "  (1549). 

STESICHORUS,  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  in 
•Ilimera,  Sicily,  in  632  B.  C.,  died  about  555. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  educated  at  Catana,  and 
to  have  been  on  friendly  terms  with  Phalaris 
of  Agrigentum.  It  is  said  that  his  real  name 
was  Tisias,  and  that  he  received  the  name  of 
Stesichorus,  "  chorus  leader,"  for  his  efforts  in 
choral  poetry,  for  which  he  invented  the  divi 
sions  of  strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode.  He 
wrote  in  the  Doric  dialect.  His  poems  were 
chiefly  on  heroic  subjects,  although  he  wrote 


STETHOSCOPE 


STEUBEN 


379 


many  on  themes  more  purely  lyrical.  He  was 
the  first  of  the  Greeks  who  composed  erotic 
poems.  The  fragments  of  his  writings  have 
been  collected  by  Kleine  (Stesichori  Himeren- 
sis  Fragment^  Berlin,  1828) ;  by  Schneidewin 
in  his  Delectus  Poesis  Grcecorum  (Gottingen, 
1839);  and  by  Bergk  in  Poetce  Lyrici  Greed 
(3d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1867). 

STETHOSCOPE.     See  AUSCULTATION. 

STETTIN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Pornerania,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Oder,  76  m.  N.  E.  of  Berlin;  pop.  in  1871, 
76,149.  The  river  is  crossed  by  two  bridges, 
and  the  town  and  suburbs  are  defended  by 
walls,  a  citadel,  and  several  forts  and  outworks. 
Stettin  has  several  fine  squares,  with  monu 
ments  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  Frederick 
William  II L,  is  generally  well  built,  and  pos 
sesses  a  school  of  navigation,  with  an  obser 
vatory.  The  ancient  castle  of  Stettin,  which 
was  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Pomerania, 
contains  a  collection  of  northern  antiquities. 
Chemical  products,  woollen,  linen,  cotton,  su 
gar,  anchors,  &c.,  are  manufactured.  The  im 
ports  amounted  in  1873  to  87,631,985  thalers, 
and  the  exports  to  30,394,333  thalers.  The  re 
gistered  shipping  included  30  sea-going  steam 
ers  and  178  other  vessels..  Vessels  drawing 
over  15  ft.  cannot  ascend  the  Oder,  and  dis 
charge  at  Swinemtinde  on  the  Baltic,  35  m. 
distant.  The  town  was  a  considerable  place 
as  early  as  the  9th  century,  and  was  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Hanseatic  league.  It  belonged  to 
Sweden  from  1648  to  1720. 

STEIIART,  Sir  James  Denham,  a  Scottish  politi 
cal  economist,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  October, 
1713,  died  Nov.  26,  1780.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1734  was 
admitted  to  the  Scottish  bar.  Although  of  a 
whig  family,  he  became  imbued  with  Jacobite 
doctrines.  Having  declared  for  the  young 
pretender  in  1745,  he  was  sent  by  him  on  a 
mission  to  the  court  of  France,  and  the  conse 
quence  was  a  compulsory  absence  from  Great 
Britain  for  17  years.  In  1763  he  was  permit 
ted  to  return  to  Scotland,  and  in  1771  he  ob 
tained  a  free  pardon.  While  abroad  he  pub 
lished  works  in  French  and  German  on  chro 
nology  and  money,  and  in  1767  produced  his 
"  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Political  Econ 
omy  "  (2  vols.  4to,  London),  lie  also  wrote 
"  The  Principles  of  Money  applied  to  the  Pres 
ent  State  of  the  Coin  of  Bengal"  (1772),  "A 
Plan  for  introducing  an  Uniformity  of  Weights 
and  Measures"  (1790),  &c.  A  complete  edi 
tion  of  his  works  was  edited  by  his  son,  Gen. 
Sir  James  Denham  Steuart  (6  vols.,  1805). 
(See  POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  668.) 

STEUBEN.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  New  York, 
bordering  on  Pennsylvania,  drained  by  Che- 
rnung,  Canisteo,  Tioga,  and  Conhocton  rivers ; 
area,  1,425  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  67,717 ;  in 
1875,  73,923.  The  surface  is  broken  and  the 
soil  generally  fertile.  Iron  ore  and  good  build 
ing  stone  are  found.  There  are  two  or  three 
small  lakes,  and  Keuka  (formerly  Crooked)  lake 


is  partly  within  the  county.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  Erie  railway  and  branches,  and  by  the 
Corning,  Cowanesque,  and  Antrim  railroad. 
Considerable  lumber  is  exported.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  540,557  bushels  of 
wheat,  72,792  of  rye,  344,299  of  Indian  corn, 
1,538,117  of  oats,  207,024  of  barley,  286,102 
of  buckwheat,  543,687  of  potatoes,  169,294 
tons  of  hay,  150,540  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  700,704 
of  wool,  62,118  of  hops,  112,228  of  maple 
sugar,  87,013  of  honey,  2,834,636  of  butter, 
and  233,438  of  cheese  (not  including  factory 
cheese).  There  were  15,642  horses,  30,329 
milch  cows,  2,993  working  oxen,  22,717  other 
cattle,  145,645  sheep,  and  15,430  swine;  5 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements.  48 
of  carriages  and  wagons,  7  of  cheese,  16  of 
cooperage,  15  of  furniture,  1  of  glass  ware,  8 
of  iron  castings,  19  of  tanned  and  9  of  curried 
leather,  4  of  machinery,  22  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  2  of  wine,  2  woollen  mills,  3  distil 
leries,  5  breweries,  89  saw  mills,  and  18  flour 
mills.  Capitals,  Bath  and  Corning.  II.  AN. 
E.  county  of  Indiana,  bordering  on  Ohio  and 
Michigan,  and  intersected  by  the  St.  Joseph's 
and  Pigeon  rivers ;  area,  340  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  12,854.  The  surface  is  prairie  and  wood 
land,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  232,816  bushels  of  wheat, 
352,200  of  Indian  corn,  97,719  of  oats,  90,020 
of  potatoes,  16,861  tons  of  hay,  117,837  Ibs. 
of  wool,  289,472  of  butter,  and  3,313  of  sor 
ghum  molasses.  There  were  4,122  horses, 
3,823  milch  cows,  5,838  other  cattle,  32,387 
sheep,  and  11,332  swine.  The  Fort  Wayne, 
Jackson,  and  Saginaw  railroad  passes  through 
the  capital,  Angola. 

STEIBEN,  Frederick  William  Augustus,  baron,  an 
American  soldier,  born  in  Magdeburg,  Prussia, 
Nov.  15,  1730,  died  near  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Nov. 
28,  1794.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  col 
leges  of  Neisse  and  Breslau,  and  became  a 
cadet  in  an  infantry  regiment  in  1747,  an  en 
sign  in  1749,  and  a  lieutenant  in  1753.  In 
1757  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles 
of  Prague  and  Kossbach,  in  1758  was  appoint 
ed  an  adjutant  general,  and  was  in  the  battles 
of  Kay  and  Kunersdorf  in  1759,  in  the  latter  of 
which  he  was  wounded.  In  1762  he  was  made 
adjutant  general  in  the  king's  staff.  He  was  a 
member  of  Frederick's  select  academy  of  young 
officers  who  were  under  his  special  instruc 
tion  ;  and  after  the  siege  of  Schweidnitz,  in 
which  he  participated,  the  king  presented  him 
with  a  valuable  lay  benefice.  At  the  close  of 
the  seven  years'  war  he  accompanied  to  sev 
eral  courts  of  Europe  the  prince  of  Hohenzol- 
lern-Hechingen,  who  in  1764  made  him  grand 
marshal  and  general  of  his  guard.  In '  1777, 
while  on  a  visit  to  France,  he  was  induced  by 
the  count  St.  Germain  to  go  to  America.  He 
arrived  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Dec.  1,  and 
immediately  wrote  to  congress  and  to  Gen. 
Washington,  tendering  his  service  as  a  volun 
teer.  Shortly  afterward  he  went  to  York, 
Pa.,  where  congress  was  in  session,  was  di- 


380 


STEUBENVILLE 


STEVENS 


rected  to  join  the  army  under  Washington, 
and  during  the  winter  arrived  at  Valley  Forge. 
On  May  5,  1778,  he  was  appointed  inspector 
general  with  the  rank  of  major  general,  and 
in  June  he  was  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth. 
He  prepared  a  manual  for  the  army,  which 
was  approved  by  congress  in  1779,  and  intro 
duced  the  most  thorough  discipline.  In  1780 
he  was  a  member  of  the  court  martial  on  the 
trial  of  Major  Andre.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  troops  in  Virginia, 
and  in  January  following  was  active  in  harass 
ing  the  British  forces  under  Benedict  Arnold. 
In  the  summer  he  was  attached  to  Gen.  Lafay 
ette's  division,  and  took  part  in  the  siege  of 
Yorktown.  In  1700  congress  voted  him  a  life 
annuity  of  $2,500.  Several  of  the  states  passed 
resolutions  acknowledging  his  services,  and 
voted  him  tracts  of  land.  New  York  present 
ed  him  with  16,000  acres  near  Utica,  forming 
a  township  called  from  him  Steuben,  where  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  bis  life,  giving  por 
tions  of  the  land  to  his  aids,  and  leasing  the  re 
mainder.  His  life  has  been  written  by  Francis 
Bowen  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography," 
and  by  Friedrich  Kapp  (New  York,  I860). 

STEUBENVILLE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Jef 
ferson  co.,  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  river,  here  crossed 
by  a  railroad  bridge,  22  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Wheeling, 
W.  Va.,  35  m.  W.  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  1 25  m. 
E.  by  N.  of  Columbus;  pop.  in  I860,  6,154; 
in  1870,  8,107;  in  1875,  locally  estimated  at 
15,000.  It  stands  on  an  elevation  on  tlie  right 
bank  of  the  river,  is  well  laid  out  and  substan 
tially  built,  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  farming 
and  stock-growing  country,  and  is  the  centre 
of  an  important  trade.  Abundance  of  excel 
lent  coal  is  found  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
there  are  eight  shafts  within  the  city  limits. 
The  court  house  is  the  finest  in  eastern  Ohio. 
The  city  has  water  works,  gas  works,  and  two 
steam  lire  engines.  The  Pittsburgh,  Cincin 
nati,  and  St.  Louis  railroad,  and  the  river  divi 
sion  of  the  Cleveland  and  Pittsburgh  railroad, 
intersect  here.  The  river  trade  is  extensive. 
The  chief  manufactories  are  two  founderies 
and  machine  shops,  two  rolling  mills,  a  nail 
mill,  two  engine  and  boiler  works,  three  blast 
furnaces,  a  flouring  mill,  two  woollen  mills, 
a  paper  mill,  three  breweries,  and  two  glass 
works.  There  are  two  national  banks,  two 
private  banks,  two  savings  institutions,  nine 
public  schools,  including  a  high  school,  a  fe 
male  seminary,  a  Roman  Catholic  school,  two 
daily  and  two  weekly  newspapers,  and  18 
churches  (Christian,  Congregational,  Episcopal, 
Lutheran,  Methodist,  Presbyterian,  and  Roman 
Catholic). — A  blockhouse  was  erected  on  the 
site  of  Steubenville  in  1786,  and  in  1787  a  fort 
was  built  and  named  in  honor  of  Baron  Steu 
ben;  but  the  place  was  not  permanently  set 
tled  till  1707.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1851,  and  in  1871  its  limits  were  extended. 

STEVENS,  I.  A  W.  county  of  Minnesota, 
intersected  by  the  Pomme  do  Terre  river,  a 
tributary  of  the  Minnesota;  area,  576  sq.  m.; 


pop.  in  1870,  174.  The  surface  is  rolling  and 
is  studded  with  numerous  lakes.  The  soil  is 
productive.  The  St.  Paul  and  Pacific  railroad 
traverses  it.  IL  An  unorganized  S.  W.  county 
of  Kansas,  bordering  on  Indian  territory ;  area, 
720  sq.  m.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Cimarron 
river.  The  surf  ace  is  undulating.  III.  AN.  W. 
county  of  Dakota,  bounded  S.  W.  by  the  Mis 
souri  river,  recently  formed  and  not  included 
in  the  census  of  1870 ;  area,  about  3,100  sq.  m. 
It  is  mostly  occupied  by  the  Plateau  clu  Coteau 
du  Missouri.  The  N.  E.  corner  is  intersected 
by  Mouse  river.  IV.  The  N.  E.  county  of 
Washington  territory,  bordering  on  British 
Columbia  and  Idaho,  bounded  S.  in  part  by  the 
Snake  river,  W.  in  part  by  the  Cascade  moun 
tains,  and  intersected  by  the  Columbia ;  area, 
28,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  734.  Lake  Chelan 
is  in  the  W.  part,  and  the  county  is  watered  by 
Clarke's  fork,  the  Okinakane,  Palouse,  Spo 
kane,  and  other  streams.  There  are  broad 
plains  and  rugged  mountains,  with  some  bar 
ren  places,  but  the  proportion  of  valuable  land 
is  large,  and  much  of  it  is  very  fertile.  The 
climate  is  mild.  There  are  gold  mines  on  the 
bars  of  the  Columbia  and  lateral  streams.  The 
cliief  productions  in  1870  were  8,701  bushels  of 
wheat,  12,504  of  oats,  3,825  of  potatoes,  and 
701  tons  of  hay.  There  were  415  horses,  1,100 
cattle,  and  485  swine.  Capital,  Colville. 

STEVEXS,  Abel,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  19,  1815.  He  studied  at 
Wesleyan  university,  Middletown,  Conn.,  and 
in  1834  was  settled  as  pastor  of  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  in  Boston.  In  1837  he  trav 
elled  in  Europe,  and  on  his  return  was  sta 
tioned  in  Providence,  R.  I.  In  1840  he  toojc 
editorial  charge  of  "Zion's  Herald"  in  Boston, 
and  in  1852  of  the  "  National  Magazine,"  New 
York  ;  in  1855  revisited  Europe,  and  on  return 
ing  in  1856  was  elected  editor  of  the  4k  Christian 
Advocate  and  Journal,"  New  York.  He  after 
ward  became  joint  editor  of  "  The  Methodist," 
from  which  he  retired  in  1874.  Dr.  Stevens 
has  published  "Memorials  of  the  Introduction 
of  Methodism  into  New  England"  (1848); 
"  Memorials  of  the  Progress  of  Methodism  in 
the  Eastern  States  "  (1852) ;  "  Church  Polity;" 
"  The  Preaching  required  by  the  Times  "  (1855) ; 
"  Sketches  and  Incidents,  a  Budget  from  the 
Saddle  Bags  of  an  Itinerant ;"  "  The  Great  Re 
form;"  "History  of  the  Religious  Movement 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century  called  Methodism  " 
(3  vols.,  1858-'61),  which  has  been  several 
times  edited  and  reprinted  in  England;  "Life 
and  Times  of  Nathan  Bangs,  I).  I)."  (1863); 
"  History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America"  (4  vols., 
1864-'7) ;  "  The  Centenary  of  American  Meth 
odism  "  (1866) ;  "  The  Women  of  Methodism" 
(1866);  and  "Compendium  of  the  History  of 
Methodism  "  (1868). 

STEVENS,  Alexander  Hodtrdon.  an  American  sur 
geon,  born  in  New  York  in  1780,  died  there, 
March  30,  1860.  He  graduated  in  medicine  in 
1815  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  and 


STEVEN'S 


381 


became  surgical  dresser  and  afterward  house 
surgeon  in  the  New  York  hospital.  In  1817 
he  was  appointed  attending  surgeon  there,  and 
in  1839  resigned  and  was  chosen  consulting 
surgeon.  He  was  professor  of  the  principles 
and  practice  of  surgery  in  the  college  of  physi 
cians  and  surgeons,  New  York,  from  1826  to 
1837,  and  of  clinical  surgery  from  1837  to  1839. 
He  was  also  president  of  the  college  from  1843 
to  1855.  In  1848  he  was  chosen  president  of 
the  medical  society  of  the  state  of  New  York. 

STEVENS,  George  Alexander,  an  English  author, 
born  in  London  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century,  died  at  Baldock,  Hertfordshire,  Sept. 
6,  1784.  He  was  at  first  a  strolling  actor,  and 
acquired  reputation  as  a  writer  of  burlesques 
and  of  comic  songs.  In  1760  he  published 
a  novel,  "The  History  of  Tom  Fool,"  and  a 
few  years  later  produced  an  entertainment  en 
titled  "A  Lecture  on  Heads."  He  also  pub 
lished  a  volume  of  "  Songs,  Comic  and  Satiri 
cal  "  (1772) ;  and  after  his  death  appeared 
"  The  Adventures  of  a  Speculist,  compiled 
from  the  Papers  of  G.  A.  Stevens,  with  his 
Life,  a  Preface,  and  Notes"  (1788). 

STEVENS.  I.  John,  an  American  inventor, 
born  in  New  York  in  1749,  died  in  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  in  1838.  He  early  engaged  in  solving 
the  problem  of  steam  navigation,  and  in  a 
memorial  to  the  legislature  of  New  York  in 
1789  stated  that  he  had  perfected  his  plans. 
In  1804  he  launched  a  propeller,  using  the 
screw,  and  in  1805  he  employed  twin  screws. 
He  completed  the  steamboat  Phoenix  in  1807, 
and  being  prevented  by  Fulton's  monopoly 
from  navigating  the  Hudson,  he  sent  the  ves 
sel  to  sea  and  up  the  Delaware.  Her  engines 
were  high-pressure  condensing,  and  the  boil 
ers  of  the  kind  now  called  sectional.  Neither 
these  nor  either  single  or  twin  screws  were 
generally  employed  by  engineers  until  many 
years  afterward.  In  1812  he  designed  a  cir 
cular  iron-clad  or  revolving  steam  battery  with 
armor  plating,  substantially  the  same  as  those 
recently  designed  by  the  late  John  Elder,  and 
like  those  now  constructing  for  the  Eussian 
navy;  and  in  the  same  year  he  published  a 
pamphlet  on  railroads,  indicating  the  mode  of 
applying  steam,  calculating  their  cost,  and  pre 
dicting  the  speed  of  trains.  He  planned  the 
Camden  and  Amboy  railroad.  II.  Robert  Liv 
ingston,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Iloboken, 
N.  J.,  in  1788,  died  there,  April  20,  1856.  He 
had  charge  of  his  father's  steamboat  the  Phoe 
nix  in  its  passage  to  the  Delaware,  and  in  1808 
introduced  concave  water  lines  in  her  hull,  the 
first  application  of  the  wave  line  to  ship  build 
ing  ;  and  he  was  afterward  largely  engaged  in 
building  steamboats.  In  181 3-' 14  he  invented 
and  sold  to  the  government  percussion  elonga 
ted  shells  for  smooth-bore  guns;  in  1818  he 
burned  anthracite  coal  in  a  cupola  furnace,  and 
soon  after  used  it  in  his  steamers.  In  1822 
he  substituted  the  skeleton  wrought-iron  work 
ing  beam  for  the  heavy  cast-iron  one  before  in 
use;  and  during  the  next  27  years  he  made 


numerous  other  improvements  in  steam  ma 
chinery  and  navigation.  In  1836  he  introduced 
the  T  rail  on  the  Camden  and  Amboy  railroad, 
of  which  he  was  president  for  many  years. 
In  1842  he  was  commissioned  by  the  United 
States  government  to  build  an  iron-plated  war 
steamer  or  battery,  to  be  shell-proof  and  driv 
en  by  screws.  (See  IROX-CLAD  SHIPS.)  In 
consequence  of  a  change  of  his  plan,  it  was 
unfinished  at  his  death.  III.  Edwin  Augustus, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Hoboken 
in  1795,  died  in  Paris,  France,  Aug.  7,  1868. 
With  his  brothers  he  established  lines  of  steam 
passenger  and  tow  boats  on  the  Hudson  and 
other  rivers.  He  also  made  several  inven 
tions  and  improvements  in  machinery  and 
naval  architecture.  At  the  opening  of  the 
civil  war  "lie  endeavored,  in  conjunction  with 
his  brother  James  C.,  to  induce  the  govern 
ment  to  take  and  put  in  service  the  iron-clad 
battery  begun  by  Robert  L.  Stevens,  offering 
to  complete  the  ship  at  their  own  expense,  pay 
ment  only  to  be  made  in  case  of  her  success. 
For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  feasibility  of 
their  plans,  they  fitted  out  the  small  iron-clad 
Naugatuck,  and  sent  her  into  action ;  she  took 
part  in  the  engagement  on  the  James  river,  and 
rendered  valuable  assistance.  The  government 
declined  the  offer,  and  Edwin  A.  Stevens  left 
at  his  death  $1,000,000  for  the  completion  of 
his  brother's  plans.  The  amount  proved  insuf 
ficient,  however,  and  the  vessel  was  sold  to  the 
United  States  navy  in  November,  1874,  by  the 
state  of  New  Jersey,  to  which  he  had  be 
queathed  it.  Congress  having  failed  to  make 
the  appropriation  for  the  purchase,  the  vessel 
still  remains  (1876)  in  dock  at  Hoboken.  Mr. 
Stevens  possessed  an  immense  fortune.  He 
endowed  the  Stevens  high  school  at  Iloboken, 
and  at  his  death  left  nearly  $1,000,000  for  the 
purpose  of  founding  the  Stevens  institute  of 
technology.  (See  HOBOKEX.) 

STEVENS.  I.  Joseph,  a  Belgian  painter,  born 
in  Brussels  about  1819.  He  is  the  son  of  a 
French  officer,  is  self-taught,  and  resides  alter 
nately  at  Paris  and  Brussels,  and  is  distin 
guished  for  his  pictures  of  animals,  especially 
dogs,  and  also  for  his  genre  paintings.  II. 
Alfred,  a  Belgian  painter,  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  in  Brussels  in  1828.  He  com 
pleted  his  studies  under  Ptoqueplan  in  Paris, 
and  has  made  himself  known  by  his  genre 
pictures,  such  as  "  The  Visit,"  k'  The  Pink 
Lady,"  and  "  The  Love  of  Gold." 

STEVENS,  Thaddens,  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Peacham,  Caledonia  co.,  Yt.,  April  4, 
1793,  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Aug.  11, 1868. 
His  pa'rents  were  poor,  and  he  was  lame  and 
sickly  from  childhood;  but  he  qualified  him 
self  by  hard  study  to  enter  college,  and  gradu 
ated  with  honor  at  Dartmouth  in  1814.  He 
went  immediately  to  York,  Pa,,  where  he  taught 
school  and  studied  law,  and  soon  obtained  a 
large  practice.  He  kept  aloof  from  politics  till 
the  election  of  Jackson  in  1828,  against  whom 
!  he  took  part  with  great  ardor,  and  became  an 


382 


STEVINUS 


STEWART 


active  member  of  the  whig  party.  In  1833  and 
for  several  succeeding  years  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Pennsylvania  legislature,  and  he  became 
distinguished  by  his  opposition  to  slavery.  He 
was  appointed  a  canal  commissioner  in  1838, 
and  rendered  important  services  to  the  state 
in  the  promotion  of  her  system  of  internal  im 
provements.  In  1842  he  removed  to  Lancaster, 
and  for  six  years  devoted  himself  to  his  profes 
sion.  He  was  elected  representative  in  congress 
in  1848  and  reflected  in  1850.  He  strongly 
opposed  the  fugitive  slave  law  and  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill.  He  was  again  elected  to  con 
gress  in  1858,  and  held  his  seat  till  his  death. 
In  his  latter  years  in  congress  he  was  a  recog 
nized  chief  of  the  republican  party,  and  took 
the  lead  in  all  measures  for  emancipating  and 
arming  the  negroes  and  for  giving  them  citizen 
ship.  He  also  advocated  acts  of  confiscation 
and  other  severe  measures  against  the  confed 
erates  ;  and  he  was  chairman  of  the  managers 
for  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson. 

STEVLMS,  or  Stevin,  Simon,  a  Flemish  mathe 
matician,  born  in  Bruges  about  1550,  died  at 
the  Hague  about  1630.  The  particulars  of  his 
life  are  unknown.  In  1580  he  published  in 
Dutch  a  work  on  "  Statics  and  Hydrostatics  " 
and  "Anew  System  of  Fortification;"  in  1589 
a  tract  on  the  motion  of  the  heavens ;  and  in 
1599  a  treatise  on  navigation  (translated  into 
Latin  by  Grotius,  Leyden,  1624).  In  1605  Wil- 
lebrord  Snell  translated  into  Latin  most  of  the 
works  of  Stcvinus,  but  died  before  completing 
the  translation.  In  1634  Albert  Girard  pub 
lished  at  Leyden  all  his  works  in  French,  in 
cluding  a  collection  of  geometrical  problems. — 
See  Simon  Stevin,  by  Quetelct  (Brussels,  1845). 

STEWARD,  Lard  High,  in  England,  the  highest 
officer  under  the  crown,  who  was  formerly 
known  by  the  Latin  title  of  magnus  scneschal- 
lus.  Under  the  Plantagenets  the  office  was 
hereditary,  and  was  held  by  the  house  of  Lei 
cester,  until  forfeited  by  Simon  de  Montfort. 
Since  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  it  has  been  abol 
ished  as  a  permanent  dignity,  and  is  conferred 
for  some  special  occasion,  as  a  trial  before  the 
house  of  peers  or  a  coronation.  The  lord  high 
steward  presides  at  the  former,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  proceedings,  breaks  his  wand  and 
dissolves  the  court. — the  office  of  steward,  or 
stewart,  also  existed  from  early  times  in  Scot 
land,  and  gave  name  to  the  royal  family  of 
Stuart,  in  which  it  was  hereditary  from  the 
time  of  David  I.  (1124-'53)  till  the  accession 
to  the  throne  of  Robert  (II.)  Stuart,  grandson 
of  King  Robert  Bruce,  in  1371. 

STEWART.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Georgia, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Chattahoochee  river,"  which 
separates  it  from  Alabama,  and  drained  by  sev 
eral  of  its  tributaries;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  14,204,  of  whom  9,100  were  col 
ored.  The  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  271,288  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  26,103  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  13,643  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  703  horses,  1,933  mules 
and  asses,  1,759  milch  cows,  3,963  other  cattle, 


1,150  sheep,  and  8,270  swine.  Capital,  Lump- 
kin.  II.  A  1ST.  W.  county  of  Tennessee,  border 
ing  on  Kentucky,  intersected  by  the  Cumber 
land  river  and  bounded  W.  by  the  Tennessee; 
area,  about  425  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,019, 
of  whom  2,700  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
undulating  and  the  soil  very  fertile.  Valuable 
iron  ore  abounds.  The  Louisville,  Nashville, 
and  Great  Southern  railroad  passes  through  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  31,380 
bushels  of  wheat,  428,311  of  Indian  corn,  26,623 
of  oats,  17,635  of  Irish  and  18,746  of  sweet 
potatoes,  1,809  bales  of  cotton,  1,191,620  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  16,135  of  wool,  and  10,335  gallons 
of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  1,579  horses, 
2,158  milch  cows,  3,575  other  cattle,  8,939 
sheep,  and  15,652  swine;  3  manufactories  of 
pig  iron,  and  1  of  blooms.  Capital,  Dover. 

STEWART,  Alexander  Tnrney,  an  American  mer 
chant,  born  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  Oct.  27, 
1802.  He  studied  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin, 
but  did  not  take  a  degree,  emigrated  to  New 
York  in  1818,  and  engaged  in  teaching.  In 
1823  he  began,  at  No.  283  Broadway,  a  business 
which  has  gradually  expanded  into  one  of  the 
largest  mercantile  concerns  in  the  world.  lie 
sent  a  ship  load  of  provisions  to  Ireland  du 
ring  the  famine  of  1846,  and  made  similar 
gifts  to  the  sufferers  by  the  Franco-German 
war  and  by  the  Chicago  fire  in  1871.  In  1867 
he  was  chairman  of  the  honorary  commission 
sent  by  the  United  States  government  to  the 
Paris  exposition.  In  March,  1869,  President 
Grant  appointed  him  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
but  his  confirmation  was  prevented  by  the 
law  which  excludes  from  that  office  all  who 
are  interested  in  the  importation  of  merchan 
dise.  Mr.  Stewart  has  now  (1876)  nearly  com 
pleted  the  erection  on  4th  avenue  and  32d 
street,  New  York,  of  a  building  costing  more 
than  .$1,000,000,  which  is  understood  to  be' 
intended  as  a  home  for  working  girls ;  and  he 
is  also  building  at  Hempstead  Plains,  Long- 
Island,  on  a  tract  of  10,000  acres,  a  town 
known  as  Garden  City. 

STEWART,  Balfour,  a. British  physicist,  born 
in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  1,  1828.  He  studied  in 
the  universities  of  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh, 
and  in  1852  engaged  in  business  in  Melbourne, 
Australia;  but  in  1854  he  retired  to  Rich 
mond,  near  Melbourne,  and  devoted  himself 
to  science.  In  1855  he  returned,  and  was 
assistant  for  six  months  to  John  Welch,  su 
perintendent  of  the  Kew  observatory,  and 
afterward  for  three  years  to  Prof.  Forbes  in 
Edinburgh,  lecturing  on  mechanics  and  assist 
ing  in  experiments.  In  1859  he  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  Kew  observatory,  and 
in  1861  examiner  in  the  universities  of  Lon 
don  and  Edinburgh.  In  1868  he  received  the 
Rumford  medal  from  the  royal  society.  In 
1870  he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  Owens  college,  Manchester,  still 
retaining  the  directorship  of  the  Kew  observa 
tory.  Besides  several  papers  in  the  "Trans 
actions  "  of  the  royal  society,  he  has  published 


STEWART 


383 


"Elementary  Lessons  in  Physics"  (London, 
1870)  ;  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Heat "  (1871)  ; 
"Physics  Primer"  (1872);  and  "The  Conser 
vation  of  Energy  "  (1873). 

STEWART,  Charles,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  July  28,  1778,  died  in 
Bordentown,  N.  J.,  Nov.  7,  1869.  He  entered 
the  merchant  service  at  the  age  of  13  as  cabin 
boy,  and  rose  to  the  command  of  an  Indiaman. 
In  March,  1798.  he  entered  the  navy  as  lieu 
tenant  in  the  frigate  United  States,  employed 
in  the  West  Indies  against  French  privateers. 
In  July,  1800,  he  was  appointed  to  the  com 
mand  of  the  schooner  Experiment,  of  12  guns. 
On  Sept.  1  he  captured,  after  an  action  of  10 
minutes,  the  French  schooner  Deux  Amis,  of 
8  guns;  and  soon  after,  near  the  island  of 
Barbuda,  the  French  schooner  Diana,  of  14 
guns.  He  also  recaptured  several  American 
vessels  which  had  been  taken  by  French  pri 
vateers.  As  commander  of  the  brig  Siren  he 
participated  in  the  naval  operations  of  1804 
against  Tripoli,  and  aided  in  the  destruction 
of  the  frigate  Philadelphia.  He  became  cap 
tain  in  1806.  In  the  summer  of  1813  he  took 
command  of  the  Constitution,  and  in  December 
sailed  from  Boston  upon  a  cruise  to  the  coasts 
of  Guiana  and  the  Windward  islands,  which 
resulted  in  the  capture  of  the  British  schooner 
of  war  Pictou,  of  14  guns,  a  letter  of  marque 
under  her  convoy,  and  several  merchant  ves 
sels.  About  the  middle  of  December,  1814,  he 
sailed  in  the  same  ship  upon  a  second  cruise, 
and  on  Feb.  20,  1815,  captured,  after  an  action 
of  40  minutes  fought  at  night,  II.  B.  M.  ship 
Cyane,  mounting  34  guns,  with  185  men,  and 
the  sloop  of  war  Levant,  of  21  guns  and  156 
men.  The  Constitution  mounted  52  guns  with 
470  men.  Her  loss  was  3  killed  and  12  wound 
ed,  while  the  total  loss  of  the  British  ships 
has  been  stated  at  41.  The  Levant  was  re 
captured  by  a  British  squadron.  From  1816 
to  1820  Com.  Stewart  commanded  a  squadron 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  1821  to  1823 
in  the  Pacific.  He  afterward  served  on  the 
board  of  navy  commissioners,  and  as  com 
mander  of  the  home  squadron  and  the  naval 
station  at  Philadelphia.  In  1857  he  was  placed 
on  the  retired  list,  but  resumed  service  in  1859 
as  commander  of  the  Philadelphia  navy  yard, 
under  a  new  commission  as  senior  flag  officer ; 
and  on  July  16,  1862,  he  was  made  a  rear  ad 
miral  on  the  retired  list. 

STEWART,  Dugald,  a  Scottish  metaphysician, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  22,  1753,  died  there, 
June  11,  1828.  His  father  was  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Matthew  Stewart  (17l7-'85),  professor  of  math 
ematics  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and 
author  of  several  mathematical  works.  He 
was  educated  at  the  high  school  and  university 
of  his  native  city,  heard  the  lectures  of  Reid 
at  Glasgow  during  one  term  (177l-'2),  was 
recalled  to  Edinburgh  to  act  as  his  father's 
substitute  in  the  charge  of  the  mathematical 
classes,  and  was  formally  elected  conjoint  pro 
fessor  in  1775.  For  several  years  he  was 
VOL.  xv. — 25 


prominent  in  the  weekly  debates  of  the  specu 
lative  society,  before  which  he  also  read  essays 
on  philosophical  subjects.  He  was  elected  pro 
fessor  of  moral  philosophy  in  1785,  and  lec 
tured  in  this  department  during  the  next  24 
years.  His  aim  was  always  moral  and  prac 
tical  more  than  speculative,  to  portray  ideal 
perfection  and  advance  the  harmonious  cul 
ture  of  all  the  faculties,  intellectual,  moral, 
and  sensitive,  rather  than  to  teach  definite 
solutions  of  intellectual  problems ;  and  his  lec 
tures  therefore  proceeded  from  psychology  to 
theories  of  character  and  manners,  life  and 
literature,  taste  and  the  arts,  politics  and  nat 
ural  theology.  The  prominence  which  he  as 
signed  to  the  last  subject,  as  the  highest  branch 
of  metaphysics,  was  designed,  as  he  explained, 
to  resist  the  prevalent  skeptical  tendencies  of 
the  era  of  the  French  revolution.  From  the 
beginning  he  gave  lectures  on  the  theory  of 
government  as  a  part  of  the  course  on  moral 
philosophy,  and  in  1800  he  first  delivered  a 
special  course  on  the  new  science  of  political 
economy.  He  published  the  first  volume  of 
"Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human 
Mind "  in  1792.  In  the  following  year  he 
published  his  "  Outlines  of  Moral  Philosophy," 
and  read  before  the  royal  society  an  account  of 
the  life  and  writings  of  Adam  Smith,  which  was 
printed  in  the  "  Transactions,"  and  was  followed 
by  his  biographies  of  Dr.  Robertson  (1796) 
and  Dr.  Reid  (1802).  Nothing  else  appeared 
from  his  pen  till  1810,  though  in  this  interval 
he  prepared  the  matter  of  all  his  other  wri 
tings,  with  a  single  exception.  In  1806  the 
sinecure  office  of  gazette  writer  of  Scotland 
was  created  for  him.  He  accompanied  in  that 
year  Lord  Lauderdale  on  his  mission  to  Paris. 
In  1810  he  retired,  on  account  of  failing  health, 
from  active  duty  as  a  professor,  and  published 
his  "Philosophical  Essays."  He  had  in  the 
mean  time  removed  to  Kinneil  house,  on  the 
shore  of  the  frith  of  Forth,  20  m.  from  Edin 
burgh,  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  His  later  publications  are :  "Elements  of 
the  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,"  vol.  ii. 
(1814),  and  vol.  iii.  (1827);  a  preliminary  dis 
sertation  to  the  supplement  of  the  "Encyclo 
pedia  Britannica,"  entitled  "A  General  View 
of  the  Progress  of  Metaphysical,  Ethical,  and 
Political  Science  since  the  Revival  of  Letters  " 
(parti.,  1815;  part  ii.,  1821);  and  "The  Phi 
losophy  of  the  Active  and  Moral  Powers" 
(1828),  which  was  completed  only  a  few  weeks 
before  his  death.  In  1822  paralysis  deprived 
him  of  the  power  of  speech  and  of  the  use  of 
his  right  hand,  but  by  the  aid  of  his  daughter 
as  an  amanuensis  he  continued  his  studies  until 
disabled  by  a  fresh  paralytic  shock,  which  soon 
terminated  fatally. — His  collected  works  were 
edited  by  Sir  William  Hamilton  (10  vols.  8vo, 
Edinburgh,  1854-'8;  supplement,  1860).  His 
lectures  on  political  economy  were  first  pub 
lished  in  this  edition.  The  10th  volume  con 
tains  a  memoir  by  John  Veitch,  with  selec 
tions  from  his  correspondence. 


384 


STEWART 


STIEGLITZ 


STEWART,  John,  an  English  traveller,  born  in 
London  about  1740,  died  there  in  1822.  He 
went  to  Madras  in  1763,  in  the  civil  service 
of  the  East  India  company,  but  at  the  end 
of  two  years  resigned  his  office  and  began  a 
series  of  pedestrian  tours  through  Hindostan, 
Persia,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  was  at  different  times  in  the  service 
of  the  nawaub  of  Arcot  and  of  Hyder  All.  lie 
next  walked  to  Europe  by  the  way  of  the  Ara 
bian  desert;  and  having  perambulated  every 
part  of  Great  Britain,  he  crossed  the  Atlantic 
and  visited  on  foot  many  parts  of  the  United 
States.  lie  was  commonly  called  "walking 
Stewart."  His  writings  were  printed  in  three 
volumes  in  1810,  mainly  for  private  distribu 
tion.  An  account  of  his  life  and  adventures 
was  published  after  his  death  (London,  1822). 

STEWART,  Robert  Henry,  marquis  of  London 
derry.  See  OASTLEKEAGH. 

STEWART  ISLAND.     See  NEW  ZEALAND. 

STEYER,  Steier,  or  Steyr,  a  town  of  Upper 
Austria,  between  the  Steyer  and  the  Enns, 
at  their  junction,  19  m.  S.  E.  of  Linz;  pop. 
in  1870,  13,392.  It  is  united  with  its  sub 
urbs  Ennsdorf  and  Steyerdorf  by  two  bridges. 
There  are  extensive  manufactures  of  hard 
ware  and  cutlery  in  the  town  and  surrounding 
villages.  It  was  once  the  capital  of  a  county, 
and  till  1192  belonged  to  Styria,  which  from  it 
derived  its  name  (Gcr.  Steycrmarfy. 

STICKLEBACK,  the  popular  name  of  the  acan- 
thopterous  fishes  of  the  mailed-cheeked  family 
or  sclerogenidce,  and  genus  gasterosteus  (Linn.). 
They  are  also  called  banstickles,  and  are  the 
epinoclics  of  the  French.  Most  of  the  species 
are  found  in  fresh  water,  and  are  from  2  to  3 
in.  long ;  the  sides  are  more  or  less  protected 
by  bony  plates,  the  other  parts  being  without 
scales;  very  small  and  crowded  teeth  on  the 
jaws,  none  on  the  palate ;  branchiostegal  rays 
three ;  tail  keeled  on  both  sides ;  ventrals  ab 
dominal,  reduced  to  a  strong  spine,  used  as  a 
weapon,  and  one  or  two  soft  rays ;  free  spines, 
from  3  to  15  in  front  of  the  dorsal,  which  is 
supported  by  soft  rays;  bones  of  the  pelvis 
large,  forming  an  abdominal  sternum.  They 
feed  on  aquatic  insects  and  worms,  and  the 
fry  of  fish ;  their  pugnacity  exceeds  that  of 
any  other  fish,  and  their  voracity  and  fear 
lessness  make  it  easy  to  capture  them  by  the 
simplest  means ;  they  are  very  active,  and  some 
times  spring  entirely  out  of  water.  They  breed 
in  summer,  in  nests  built  by  the  males,  which 
at  this  season  have  the  throat  carmine  red  and 
the  eyes  brilliant  bluish  green,  the  other  parts 
above  being  ashy  green  and  the  abdomen  sil 
very  and  translucent,  The  nest  is  made  of 
delicate  vegetable  fibres,  matted  into  an  irregu 
lar  circular  mass  cemented  by  mucus  from  the 
body,  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  attached  to 
water  plants,  with  one  or  two  openings  near 
the  centre ;  when  the  nest  is  prepared  the  fe 
male  is  enticed  or  driven  in,  and  there  deposits 
her  eggs,  which  are  fecundated  by  the  male ; 
the  latter  remains  constantly  on  guard,  swim 


ming  in  the  neighborhood,  driving  away  in 
truders  with  great  ferocity,  frequently  putting 
in  his  head  to  see  if  all  is  right,  and  fanning 
the  water  with  the  pectorals  and  caudal  to 
secure  free  circulation  and  ventilation  for  the 
eggs ;  he  is  frequently  seen  shaking  up  the 
eggs,  and  carrying  away  impurities  in  the 
mouth.  The  young  are  hatched  in  two  or  three 
weeks,  and  grow  very  slowly ;  any  of  the  small 
fry  getting  outside  of  the  nest  are  instantly 
seized  in  the  mouth  of  the  parent  and  put  back. 
There  are  about  40  young  to  a  nest.  — The  com 
mon  European  species  (G.  aculeatus,  Linn.; 
since  separated  into  three  by  Cuvier)  has  three 
spines  in  front  of  the  dorsal,  and  is  found  in 
almost  every  pool  and  rivulet  in  Great  Britain. 
The  G.  spinachia  (Linn.)  has  14  or  15  free 
spinous  rays  on  the  back,  and  has  an  elongated 
head  and  body ;  it  is  a  marine  species,  found 
in  the  northern  seas  of  Europe.  The  best 
known  of  the  many  species  in  the  United  States 
are  the  two-spined  stickleback  (G.  Itiaculeatus, 
Mitch.),  which  is  found  from  Labrador  to  New 
York,  2  in.  long,  olive-green  above,  yellowish 


Two-spincd  Stickleback  (Gasterosteus  biaculcatus). 

green  on  sides,  with  two  distant  spines  on  the 
back  and  a  third  near  the  dorsal ;  and  the  four- 
spined  stickleback  (G.  quadracus,  Mitch.),  of 
the  Massachusetts  and  New  York  coasts.  Other 
species  have  eight  to  ten  spines,  and  the  males 
in  all  assume  the  red  tint  in  the  breeding  sea 
son,  both  in  salt  and  fresh  water. 

STICKNEY,  Sarah.     See  ELLIS,  WILLIAM. 

STIEGLITZ.  I.  Christian  Lndwig,  a  German 
author,  born  in  Leipsic,  Dec.  12,  175G,  died 
there,  July  17,  1836.  lie  was  an  architect, 
held  important  local  offices,  and  published  po 
etical  and  other  works,  but  is  chiefly  known 
by  his  EncyUopadie  dcr  Banknnst  dcr  Alien 
(5  vols.,  Leipsic,  1792-'8)  and  Gcscliiclite  dcr 
Baukumt  vom  fruhesten  Altertlium  Ins  in  die 
neuern  Zciten  (Nuremberg,  1827;  2d  ed.,  1830). 
II.  Heinrich,  a  German  poet,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Arolsen,  Feb.  22,  1803,  died 
in  Venice,  Aug.  24,  1849.  He  was  librarian 
and  teacher  at  Berlin  from  1828  to  1833,  when 
to  cure  his  melancholy  he  started  on  a  jour 
ney  with  his  wife.  The  latter  in  1834  killed 
herself  in  the  hope  that  the  sudden  shock  might 
restore  his  mental  vigor.  Her  correspondence 
and  diary  were  edited  by  Mundt :  Charlotte 
Sticglitz,  ein  De)ikmal  (iS35).  Her  husband 
subsequently  led  a  wandering  life.  His  works 
include  Blldcr  des  Orients  (4  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1831-'3),  Stimmen  dcr  Zeit  in  Licdcrn  (1832), 
and  his  posthumous  SclbstlriograpMe  and  Erin- 
ncrungen  an  Charlotte  (1865). 


STIEGLITZ 


STILLS 


385 


STIEGLITZ,  Ludwig  Yon,  a  Eussian  banker,  born 
in  Arolsen,  Germany,  of  Jewish  parents,  in 
1778,  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  March  18,  1843. 
He  was  a  brother  of  the  medical  writer  Johann 
Stieglitz,  and  in  early  life  went  to  St.  Peters 
burg.  He  was  poor,  but  gradually  became 
rich  and  influential,  and  at  his  death  left  a 
colossal  fortune.  He  was  made  a  baron  in 
1825.  His  brothers  Nikolaus  and  Bernhard 
also  became  rich,  and  one  of  the  latter.'s  sons 
was  made  councillor  of  the  ministry  of  the 
interior.  The  son  of  Ludwig,  the  baron  Alex 
ander,  continued  the  father's  business  till  1858, 
when  he  assumed  the  direction  of  the  new 
government  bank,  retiring  in  1866. 

STIGMARIA.     See  COAL  PLANTS. 

STILES,  Ezra,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
at  North  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  15,  1727,  died  in 
New  Haven,  May  12,  1795.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1746,  and  was  a  tutor  there 
from  1749  to  1755.  He  studied  theology,  and 
began  preaching  in  June,  1749.  He  afterward 
studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1753, 
and  practised  at  New  Haven.  In  1755  he  be 
came  pastor  of  the  second  church  in  Newport, 
E.  I.,  where,  in  addition  to  his  professional 
duties,  he  engaged  in  oriental,  linguistic,  liter 
ary,  and  scientific  investigations.  His  congre 
gation  at  Newport  being  broken  up  by  the 
British  occupation  of  the  place  in  May,  1777, 
he  removed  to  Portsmouth,  N.  IT.,  to  become 
pastor  of  the  North  church.  In  September  of 
the  same  year  he  was  elected  president  of  Yale 
college,  and  shortly  after  professor  of  ecclesi 
astical  history,  and  from  1780  was  also  profes 
sor  of  divinity.  He  published  an  "Account 
of  the  Settlement  of  Bristol"  (1785),  and  "His 
tory  of  three  of  the  Judges  of  Charles  I." 
(1795) ;  and  he  left  an  unfinished  church  his 
tory  of  New  .England,  besides  more  than  40 
volumes  of  manuscripts.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  James  L.  Kingsley,  in  Sparks's 
"American  Biography,"  2d  series,  vol.  vi. 

STILICHO,  Flavins,  a  Roman  general,  behead 
ed  Aug.  23,  A.  D.  408.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
Vandal  officer  of  the  cavalry  under  the  empe 
ror  Valens.  For  his  services  as  an  envoy  to 
Persia  in  384  Theodosius  gave  him  the  hand  of 
Serena,  his  niece  and  adopted  daughter.  Sti- 
licho  shortly  became  master  general  of  the 
army  in  the  western  parts  of  the  empire,  and 
gained  several  victories  over  the  barbarians. 
Jealousy  between  him  and  Eufinus,  whom 
Theodosius  made  governor  of  the  East,  soon 
ripened  into  intense  hatred.  In  394  Stilicho 
became  governor  of  the  West,  as  guardian  of 
Honorius,  whom  Theodosius  had  proclaimed 
Augustus.  Theodosius  died  in  395,  leaving 
to  Honorius  the  empire  of  the  West,  and  to 
Arcadius  that  of  the  East.  After  crossing  the 
Alps  and  establishing  a  firm  peace  on  the 
border,  Stilicho  turned  toward  the  East,  os 
tensibly  against  Alaric,  but  really  to  break 
the  power  of  Eufinus.  He  was  stopped  near 
Thessalonica  by  a  message  from  the  Byzan 
tine  court,  but  engaged  Gainas,  the  leader  of 


the  Gothic  allies  of  Arcadius,  to  put  Eufinns 
to  death,  which  he  accomplished,  Nov.  27, 
395.  In  396  Stilicho,  without  being  asked  for 
aid  by  Arcadius,  sailed  from  Italy  against  the 
barbarians,  who  were  ravaging  northern  Greece 
and  the  Peloponnesus ;  but  Alaric  escaped  into 
Epirus,  of  which  he  took  possession.  Arcadius 
ordered  Stilicho  to  leave  his  territory,  and 
made  Alaric  master  general  of  the  province  of 
Illyricum.  In  398  a  marriage  was  celebrated 
between  Stilicho's  daughter  Maria  and  Honori 
us.  In  402  Alaric  invaded  Italy,  and  Stilicho, 
collecting  his  scattered  troops  from  Eheetia, 
Gaul,  and  Germany,  defeated  him  at  Pollentia 
(403),  and  again  soon  after 'under  the  walls  of 
Verona.  Alaric  then  departed,  and  Stilicho  in 
404  received  the  honor  of  a  triumph  in  Eome. 
He  now  formed  an  alliance  with  his  late  enemy 
against  the  emperor  of  the  East,  promising  to 
pay  him  a  large  annual  subsidy.  In  405  Italy 
was  invaded  by  Eadagaisus,  at  the  head  of 
a  multitude  of  Vandals,  Suevi,  Burgundians, 
Alans,  and  Goths.  While  they  besieged  Flor 
ence,  Stilicho  cut  off  their  communications  and 
forced  them  to  capitulate  (406).  Eadagaisus 
was  put  to  death,  and  his  men  were  sold  as 
slaves;  but  the  other  portion  of  this  horde, 
which  had  not  entered  Italy,  ravaged  Gaul, 
from  which  Stilicho  had  been  obliged  to  with 
draw  the  garrisons.  A  large  party  were  in 
dignant  at  Stilicho's  supposed  partiality  for 
the  barbarians,  and  especially  at  the  decline  of 
the  authority  of  Eome  over  Britain,  Gaul,  and 
Spain.  His  power  at  court  was  also  secretly 
undermined  by  the  eunuch  Olympius,  whom 
he  himself  had  introduced  into  the  imperial 
palace.  The  latter  represented  to  Honorius 
that  he  was  without  authority  in  his  own  king 
dom,  and  that  his  death  was  meditated  by 
Stilicho,  who  designed  placing  the  imperial 
crown  upon  the  head  of  his  son  Eucherius. 
While  Honorius  was  at  Pavia  in  408,  through 
the  agency  of  Olympius,  the  friends  of  Stili 
cho,  some  of  the  most  illustrious  officers  of  the 
empire,  were  murdered.  Stilicho  was  in  the 
camp  of  the  barbarian  allies  at  Bologna,  and 
his  friends  demanded  to  be  led  against  the 
murderers.  He  hesitated,  and  his  friends  left 
him  to  his  fate.  An  attempt  to  assassinate 
him  was  made  by  Sarus,  a  Goth,  but  Stilicho 
escaped  and  took  refuge  in  a  church  in  Eaven- 
na.  From  this  sanctuary  he  was  led  out  by 
Count  Heraclian  and  instantly  slain. 

STILLE,  Alfred,  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Philadelphia,. Oct.  30,  1813.  He  graduated 
at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  in  1832,  and 
was  resident  physician  of  the  Philadelphia  hos-.. 
pital  in  1836,  and  of  the  Pennsylvania  hospital 
in  1839-'41,  having  employed  the  interval  in 
attending  medical  lectures  in  Paris  and  other 
capitals  of  Europe.  He  became  lecturer  on 
pathology  and  practice  of  medicine  to  the 
Philadelphia  association  for  medical  instruc 
tion  in  1844,  physician  to  St.  Joseph's  hospital 
in  1849,  and  afterward  professor  of  the  theory 
and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  Pennsylvania 


386 


STILLINGFLEET 


STIMPSON 


medical  college,  and  since  June,  1864,  in  the 
university  of  Pennsylvania.  He  has  published 
"Medical  Instruction  in  the  United  States" 
(Philadelphia,  1845) ;  "  Elements  of  General 
Pathology  "  (1848)  ;  "  Report  on  Medical  Lit 
erature""  (1850);  "The  Unity  of  Medicine" 
(1856)  ;  "  Hitmboldt's  Life  and  Character  " 
(1859) ;  and  "  Therapeutics  and  Materia  Med- 
ica"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1860;  revised  and  enlarged, 
1864;  4th  ed.,  1874).— His  brother  MOEETON 
(born  Oct.  27,  1822,  died  Aug.  20,  1855),  resi 
dent  physician  of  the  Pennsylvania  hospital  in 
1848-'9,  and  afterward  lecturer  to  the  Philadel 
phia  association  for  medical  instruction,  pub 
lished  with  Francis  Wharton  a  "  Treatise  on 
Medical  Jurisprudence "  (Philadelphia,  1855  ; 
2d  ed.,  with  medical  part  revised  and  enlarged 
by  Dr.  Alfred  Stille,  1860). 

STILLINGFLEET,  Edward,  an  English  bishop, 
born  in  Cranborne,  Dorset,  April  17,  1635, 
died  in  London,  March  27,  1609.  lie  was  edu 
cated  at  Cambridge,  at  the  age  of  18  obtained 
a  fellowship,  and  in  1657  was  presented  to  the 
rectory  of  Button.  Subsequently  ho  became 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  Charles  II.  and  dean  of 
St.  Paul's,  and  in  1689  bishop  of  Worcester. 
He  published  "  Irenicum,  or  the  Divine  Plight 
of  particular  Forms  of  Church  Government 
Examined"  (1659),  manifesting  much  more 
toleration  than  his  later  works;  "A  Rational 
Account  of  the  Grounds  of  Protestant  Reli 
gion"  (fol.,  1664);  "Discourse  concerning  the 
Idolatry  practised  in  the  Church  of  Rome" 
(1671)  ;  a  sermon  against  the  nonconformists 
entitled  "The  Mischief  of  Separation,"  to  the 
criticisms  upon  which  he  replied  in  a  volume 
entitled  "  The  Unreasonableness  of  Separa 
tion"  (4to,  1681);  and  tracts  against  Roman 
Catholics  and  Socinians.  lie  is  best  known 
by  his  "  Origines  Sacrro,  or  Rational  Account 
of  the  Grounds  of  Natural  and  Revealed  Reli 
gion"  (4to,  1662),  and  his  "Origines  Britan- 
nicro,  or  the  Antiquities  of  the  British  Church 
es  "  (1685).  When  James  II.  revived  the  court 
of  ecclesiastical  commission,  Stillingfleet  re 
fused  to  bo  a  member  of  it,  and  after  the 
revolution  of  1688  he  published  a  discourse 
concerning  the  illegality  of  the  commission. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  engaged  in  a 
sharp  controversy  with  Locke  on  the  hitter's 
definition  of  substance  and  theory  of  ideas  in 
general.  His  works  were  printed  in  1710  in 
6  vols.  fol.,  to  which  was  added  in  1735  a  vol 
ume  of  his  miscellaneous  writings. 

STILLWATER,  ST.  Y.  See  SARATOGA,  BAT 
TLE  OF. 

STILLWATER,  a  city  and  the  county  scat  of 
Washington  co.,  Minnesota,  on  the  W.  bank  of 
the  St.  Croix  river,  25  m.  N.  of  its  junction 
with  the  Mississippi,  and  16  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  St. 
Paul,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  two  lines 
of  railroad;  pop.  in  1870,  4,124;  in  1875, 
5,750.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  lumber  trade  of 
the  St.  Croix  valley,  and  contains  seven  saw 
mills,  a  flouring  mill,  two  planing  mills,  an 
.extensive  cooperage  and  cabinet  factory,  two 


national  banks,  two  large  public  school  build 
ings,  the  state  prison,  a  public  library,  three 
weekly  newspapers,  and  nine  churches. 

STILT,  a  wading  bird  of  the  avocet  family, 
and  genus  himantopus  (Briss.).  The  bill  is 
long,  straight,  slender,  and  pointed,  with  a 
groove  on  each  side  to  the  middle ;  wings  long 
and  pointed,  first  quill  much  the  longest ;  tail 
short  and  nearly  even ;  legs  very  thin  and  long, 
with  scaled  tarsi ;  toes  moderate,  joined  at  the 
base,  with  a  wide  membrane  between  the  out 
er  and  middle  toes;  hind  toe  wanting;  claws 
small  and  sharp ;  neck  long.  Half  a  dozen 
species  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
The  black-necked  stilt  (//.  nigricollis,  Vieill.) 
is  abont  14  in.  long,  black  above,  with  fore 
head,  lower  parts,  rump,  and  tail  white ;  bill 
black,  and  legs  red.  It  is  found  as  far  N.  as 
the  middle  states  in  spring,  frequenting  salt 
marshes  in  small  flocks,  and  going  S.  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  United  States  in  autumn ;  the 
nests  are  built  in  company,  at  first  upon  the 


Black-necked  Stilt  (Ilimantopus  nigricollis). 

ground,  from  which  they  are  gradually  raised 
by  successive  additions ;  the  eggs  are  usually 
four,  of  a  pale  yellowish  clay  color,  with 
large  irregular  blotches  and  lines  of  brownish 
black;  the  flight  is  rapid  and  regular,  the  legs 
extending  behind ;  the  flesh  is  indifferent  eat 
ing.  The  white  stilt  (IT.  melanopterus,  Meyer) 
is  of  about  the  same  size,  and  white,  with  the 
back  and  wings  shining  greenish  black,  and 
legs  red  ;  it  prefers  the  edges  of  fresh-water 
streams,  and  is  found  in  S.  E.  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa ;  the  bill  is  3  in.  and  tarsus  4  in. 

STIMPSON,  William,  an  American  naturalist, 
born  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  Feb.  14,  1832,  died 
at  Ilchester  Mills,  Howard  co.,  Md.,  May  26, 
1872.  Ho  studied  under  Agassiz,  and  in  1849 
engaged  in  dredging  off  the  coast  of  New 
England.  In  1852  he  accompanied  Agassiz 
to  Norfolk,  Va.,  to  investigate  the  marine 
fauna  of  that  region.  In  1852-'6  he  was  nat 
uralist  to  the  North  Pacific  exploring  expedi 
tion,  and  in  December,  1864,  became  curator 


STIRLING 


STOCK  EXCHANGE 


38Y 


of  the  Chicago  academy  of  sciences,  and  after 
ward  secretary  and  director  of  the  museum. 
The  great  fire  of  October,  1871,  destroyed  his 
collections  and  manuscripts,  embodying  the 
results  of  20  years  of  scientific  labor,  including 
his  works  on  the  shells  of  the  E.  coast,  and  on 
the  Crustacea  of  North  America,  with  500  draw 
ings  and  200  illustrations  already  engraved. 
He  passed  the  winter  of  1871-'2  off  the  Florida 
coast,  till  a  haemorrhage  of  the  lungs  ended  his 
activity.  His  works  include  "A  Revision  of 
the  Synonymy  of  the  Testaceous  Mollusks  of 
New  England"  (Boston,  1851);  "Synopsis  of 
the  Marine  Invertebrata  of  Grand  Menan,"  &c. 
(in  vol.  vi.  of  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge,"  "Washington,  1854) ;  "  Crustacea 
and  Echinodermata  of  the  Pacific  Shores  of 
North  America"  (Boston,  1857);  Prodromus 
Descriptionis  Animalium  Evertebratorum  quce 
in  Expeditione  ad  Oceanian  Pacificum  Septen- 
trionalem,  &c.  (8  parts,  Philadelphia,  185 7-' 60)  ; 
"  Notes  on  North  American  Crustacea"  (New 
York,  1859) ;  and  "  Researches  upon  the  Hy- 
drobiinge  and  Allied  Forms  "  (1865). 

STIRLING,  a  town  of  Scotland,  capital  of 
Stirlingshire,  on  the  river  Forth,  31  m.  W.  N. 
W.  of  Edinburgh;  pop.  in  1871,  14,279.  It 
is  on  a  height  at  the  head  of  the  navigation 
of  the  river,  which  is  crossed  by  two  bridges 
and  a  railway.  Many  of  the  public  buildings 
are  very  ancient.  The  castle,  which  stands 
upon  a  rocky  height  220  ft.  above  the  plain, 
holds  a  prominent  place  in  the  history  of 
Scotland,  and  is  connected  with  most  of  the 
important  events  that  occurred  in  that  king 
dom  before  it  was  annexed  to  England.  The 
ancient  royal  palace  is  still  standing,  and  there 
is  also  a  palace  begun  by  James  V.  and  finished 
by  his  daughter  Mary.  There  are  several  an 
cient  churches  and  some  modern  ones  within 
the  town,  besides  numerous  schools.  The  town 
house  is  very  ancient,  and  the  old  residence 
of  the  earl  of  Mar  is  very  curious.  Stirling 
has  manufactories  of  woollens,  leather,  ropes, 
&c.  The  river  is  shallow,  but  a  considerable 
trade  is  carried  on.  The  Scottish  Central  rail 
way  passes  it,  and  three  other  railways  have 
their  termini  at  the  town. 

STIRLING,  Earl  of.    See  ALEXAXDEE,  WILLIAM. 

STIRLING,  Sir  William  (MAXWELL),  a  Scottish 
author,  born  at  Kennmre,  near  Glasgow,  in 
1818.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1839, 
and  resided  several  years  in  Spain.  He  has 
published  "Annals  of  the  Artists  of  Spain" 
(3  vols.  8vo,  1848),  "  The  Cloister  Life  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth"  (1852),  and  "Ve 
lasquez  and  his  Works"  (12mo,  1855),  and 
edited  the  marquis  de  Yillars's  Memoires  de 
la  cour  d\Espagne  sons  le  regne  de  Charles  II. 
(4to,  1862).  From  1852  to  1865  he  was  a 
member  of  parliament  for  Perthshire.  In  1866 
he  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy  and  estates  of 
his  uncle,  Sir  John  Maxwell,  and  assumed  the 
surname  of  Maxwell.  He  was  elected  rector 
of  the  university  of  St.  Andrews  in  1863,  and 
of  that  of  Edinburgh  in  1872. 


STIRLINGSHIRE,  a  central  county  of  Scot 
land,  bordering  on  the  counties  of  Perth,  Clack 
mannan,  Linlithgow,  Lanark,  and  Dumbarton  ; 
area,  466  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  98,218.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Forth,  Avon,  Kelvin,  En- 
drick,  and  Carron.  Loch  Coulter,  Loch  Elrigg, 
and  half  of  Loch  Lomond  are  in  the  county. 
Ben  Lomond,  in  the  N.  W.  part,  rises  3,192  ft. 
above  the  sea.  Coal  and  iron  are  mined ;  wool 
and  cotton  are  manufactured;  and  there  are 
immense  iron  works  at  Carron.  The  principal 
towns  are  Stirling,  Falkirk,  Alva,  Bannock- 
burn,  and  Denny. 

STOAT.     See  EEMINE. 

STOR3EUS,  Joannes,  a  Greek  compiler,  prob 
ably  born  at  Stobi  in  Macedonia,  lived  proba 
bly  in  the  5th  century  A.  D.  He  made  ex 
tracts  from  more  than  500  Greek  authors, 
many  of  whom  are  not  otherwise  known  to 
us.  The  work  was  early  divided  into  two  por 
tions,  the  one  called  "Anthology"  (Florile- 
giuiJi)  or  Sermones,  the  other  "  Physical,  Dia 
lectical,  and  Ethical  Extracts"  (Eclogce  Pliy- 
sicce,  Dialectics  et  Ethicce).  The  best  edition 
of  both  portions  is  that  of  Meineke  (6  vols., 
Leipsic,  1855-'62). 

STOCK.     See  GILLIFLOWEE. 

STOCKBRIDGE,  a  town  of  Berkshire  co., 
Massachusetts,  on  the  Housatonic  river  and 
railroad,  115  m.  in  direct  line  W.  of  Boston, 
and  12  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Pittsfield;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,003;  in  1875,  2,089.  The  surface  of  the 
town  is  varied  ;  in  the  south  is  Monument 
mountain,  separating  it  from  Great  Barring- 
ton,  in  the  west  West  Stockbridge  mountain, 
in  the  southeast  the  Beartown  mountains,  and 
in  the  northwest  Rattlesnake  mountain.  Be 
tween  these  are  valleys  of  great  beauty.  The 
Housatonic  and  its  affluents  drain  the  town. 
The  Stockbridge  or  Housatonic  Indians,  among 
whom  John  Sergeant  and  Jonathan  Edwards 
labored  as  missionaries,  formerly  had  their 
home  here,  but  removed  westward  in  1788. 
The  villages  of  Glendale  and  Curtisville  have 
some  manufactures.  The  village  of  Stock- 
bridge  has  a  hotel,  a  bank,  an  insurance  of 
fice,  an  incorporated  academy,  several  private 
schools,  a  library,  and  three  churches  (Congre 
gational,  Episcopal,  and  Roman  Catholic). 

STOCK  EXCHANGE,  a  place  where  stocks  are 
bought  and  sold.  In  England  the  term  stocks 
is  confined  to  government  stocks,  annuities, 
&c.,  and  the  term  shares  is  used  for  the  capi 
tal  or  stock  of  railroad,  banking,  and  other 
companies ;  but  in  the  United  States  bonds 
representing  national,  state,  county,  and  city 
debts,  and  the  shares  of  railroads,  banks,  mi 
ning,  manufacturing,  telegraph,  and  insurance 
companies,  are  all  called  stocks.  In  France 
the  word  rentes  has  the  same  limitation  as 
stocks  in  England.  Dealing  in  stocks,  bonds, 
and  annuities  is  the  business  of  the  stock  ex 
change,  and  the  dealers  in  them  are  known 
as  stock  brokers  and  stock  jobbers.  In  New 
York  the  traffic  in  stocks  is  of  two  kinds,  the 
regular  sales  at  the  first  and  second  boards, 


388 


STOCK  EXCHANGE 


and  the  operations  of  the  street.  The  first  are 
legitimate,  and  the  sales  are  presumed  to  be 
bonafide;  the  second  are  generally  specula 
tive,  and  are  often  mere  gambling  or  betting 
by  men  without  capital.  The  board  of  brokers 
in  New  York  is  composed  of  more  than  1,000 
regular  members,  who  at  their  two  daily  ses 
sions,  either  on  their  own  account  or  as  bro 
kers  for  others,  purchase  or  sell  the  various 
stocks  which  are  called  in  order.  The  presi 
dent,  secretary,  treasurer,  and  governing  com 
mittee  of  40  members  are  the  executive  of  the 
exchange,  and  can  admit,  suspend,  expel,  and 
readmit  members.  Next  in  importance  is  the 
sub-committee  of  arbitration,  which  decides 
all  disputes  arising  from  transactions  between 
members.  When  a  member  fails  to  deliver 
or  pay  for  stocks  as  agreed,  his  name  is  struck 
from  the  list ;  but  he  may  be  reinstated  upon 
effecting  a  settlement  with  his  creditors.  The 
New  York  stock  exchange  is  the  wealthiest 
organization  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  The 
par  value  of  annual  sales  made  at  the  boards 
and  "  over  the  counter  "  is  estimated  at  more 
than  $22,000,000,000 ;  but  this  enormous  sum 
covers  all  sorts  of  speculative  transactions, 
including  those  where  no  actual  transfer  of 
stocks  occurs,  and  "differences"  only  are  paid 
or  adjusted,  these  operations  forming  in  fact 
the  bulk  of  the  business  in  Wall  street.  The 
rules  of  the  exchange  are  very  strict,  and  cover 
a  rigid  scrutiny  of  all  securities,  a  systema- 
tization  of  the  brokerage  business  of  member 
with  member,  a  surveillance  over  members 
in  respect  of  their  fidelity  to  contracts,  and 
a  stringent  examination  of  the  character  and 
responsibility  of  candidates  for  membership. 
An  applicant  for  membership  must  be  21 
years  old,  a  banker,  broker,  or  stock  dealer  in 
New  York  for  one  year,  or  a  clerk  to  a  mem 
ber  for  two  years,  or  a  member  in  good  stand 
ing  of  the  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  or  Boston 
board.  The  initiation  fee  of  a  member  ad 
mitted  by  election  has  recently  been  fixed  at 
$10,000,  and  of  one  admitted  by  transfer  at 
$500.  During  business  hours  the  board  is  in 
constant  communication  with  the  financial  cen 
tres  of  Europe,  and  the  brokers  pay  $1,000,000 
a  year  for  telegrams  from  London  alone. — The 
stock  exchange  has  its  own  peculiar  terms,  not 
generally  understood  by  outsiders.  Among 
those  in  most  frequent  use  are  "long"  and 
"short,"  expressing  individual  excess  or  de 
ficiency  in  the  holding  of  a  specified  stock  for 
speculative  purposes ;  and  "bull"  and  "bear," 
designating  those  respectively  who  find  their 
interest  in  operating  for  a  rise  or  fall  in  the 
price  of  stocks,  or  who,  foreseeing  either  a  rise 
or  fall,  take  measures  to  protect  themselves  or 
make  a  profit  on  the  "turn  of  the  market." 
The  bull  endeavors  to  appreciate  or  "  toss  up," 
and  the  bear  to  depreciate  or  "  pull  down  "  the 
price.  The  phrase  "buyer's  option,"  added 
to  the  memorandum  of  a  sale  of  stocks,  im 
plies  that  the  purchaser  who  buys  at  30  or  60 
days  can  call  for  the  delivery  of  the  stocks 


at  any  time  within  the  period  by  giving  one 
day's  notice  and  paying  interest  at  6  per  cent, 
up  to  the  time  he  calls.  Such  purchases  are 
usually  made  at  a  little  above  the  cash  price. 
"Seller's  option"  is  a  little  below  the  cash 
price,  and  the  seller  has  the  right  to  deliver  on 
any  day  within  the  limited  time,  by  giving  one 
day's  notice,  receiving  interest  up  to  the  time 
of  delivery.  A  "corner"  is  an  operation  by 
one  or  several  brokers,  who  form  a  clique  to 
compel  others  to  pay  a  heavy  difference  on  the 
price  of  stock.  Sometimes  the  clique  purchase 
gradually  a  large  amount  of  stock  on  time, 
buyer's  option  ;  they  next  sell  nearly  the  same 
amount  on  time,  seller's  option,  so  as  to  secure 
an  eventual  market  for  their  stock  ;  then  buy 
for  cash,  thus  raising  the  price,  and  make  a 
sudden  call  for  the  stock  they  have  purchased 
on  buyer's  option,  which,  if  they  have  calcu 
lated  correctly,  compels  the  parties  from  whom 
they  have  purchased  to  buy  of  them  at  a  high 
price  in  order  to  deliver  at  a  low  one.  "A 
point,"  the  first  element  of  successful  specu 
lation,  is  trustworthy  private  information  con 
cerning  a  certain  stock,  such  as  whether  a  bull 
movement  is  organizing,  or  an  extra  dividend 
is  to  be  declared,  or  new  stock  is  to  be  issued, 
or  any  other  cause  is  likely  to  affect  the  price. 
A  "lame  duck"  is  a  broker  who  is  unable  to 
respond  with  the  shares  or  money  when  con 
tracts  mature.  A  "  spread  eagle"  is  the  oper 
ation  of  a  broker  who  sells  a  large  quantity 
of  stock  on  time,  say  CO  days,  buyer's  option, 
and  buys  the  same  quantity  at  a  lower  price, 
on  the  same  time,  seller's  option.  If  both 
contracts  run  their  full  time,  he  makes  his  dif 
ference  ;  but  if  the  buyer  or  seller  calls  for  a 
settlement  before  the  time,  he  may  be  serious 
ly  embarrassed.  The  "street"  or  the  "curb 
stone  brokers"  are  not  governed  by  as  strict 
rules,  and  their  operations  are  mostly  specu 
lative.  "Put,"  "call,"  "ballooning,"  "sad 
dling,"  "  unloading,"  and  more  than  40  other 
terms  make  up  the  dialect  of  the  exchange. — 
In  the  Paris  bourse  there  are  60  agents  de 
change,  appointed  by  the  government.  Each 
must  deposit  125,000  fr.  in  the  national  trea 
sury  as  a  guaranty  of  upright  conduct,  and 
also  100,000  fr.  with  the  syndicate  of  the  bourse 
as  a  cautionary  fund  applicable  to  losses  sus 
tained  by  the  customer  through  the  broker's 
fault.  A  broker's  seat  is  worth  from  1,500,- 
000  to  2,000,000  fr.,  and  cannot  be  sold  without 
the  consent  of  the  governing  committee.  There 
are  60  courtiers  de  commerce  and  8  courtiers 
cl*  assurance,  who  transact  much  of  their  busi 
ness  at  the  bourse.  The  haussiers  and  baissiers 
correspond  to  the  American  bulls  and  bears, 
and  the  coulisse  to  street  or  curbstone  opera 
tors.  Cash  sales  are  infrequent,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  business  is  "  privilege,"  technically 
marche  d  prime,  the  buyer  deciding  on  the 
15th  and  30th  of  the  month  whether  he  will 
take  the  stock  or  not,  but  in  either  case  having 
to  pay  the  premium.  The  time  transactions 
are  usually  "  the  end  of  the  current  month," 


STOCK  FISH 


STOCKHOLM 


389 


or  the  end  of  the  next  month.  The  4th  of  each 
month  is  settling  day.  The  parquet  is  in  ses 
sion  from  1  to  3  P.  M.  every  day ;  the  coulisse 
is  in  session  through  the  day,  and  it  includes 
a  large  number  of  female  jobbers  and  specu 
lators.  The  London  stock  exchange  numbers 
nearly  2,000  regular  members,  who  must  be 
reflected  annually.  Each  member  pays  £10 
yearly,  and  three  members  give  security  to  the 
amount  of  £300  each  for  a  new  member. — The 
excitement  at  the  hour  of  "high  'change," 
in  London,  Paris,  or  New  York,  is  often  such 
as  beggars  description ;  several  hundred  men 
are  shouting,  calling  out  what  they  have  to  sell 
or  what  they  wish  to  buy,  at  the  top  of  their 
voices,  all  together,  and  leaping  and  gesticu 
lating,  almost  as  if  insane ;  in  speculative  peri 
ods,  immense  sums  are  made  or  lost  in  a  few 
minutes.  The  stock  exchanges  of  Amsterdam, 
Berlin,  Frankfort,  Madrid,  and  Vienna  are 
among  those  most  noted  in  Europe. 

STOCK  FISH.  See 
COD. 

STOCKH1RDT,  Jnlins 
Adolf,  a  German  chem 
ist,  born  at  Rohrs- 
dorf,  Saxony,  Jan.  4, 
1809.  After  serving 
in  a  pharmacy,  he 
taught  natural  scien 
ces  at  Dresden  in 
1838-'9,  afterward  at 
Chemnitz  till  184T, 
and  in  1848  was  called 
to  the  new  chair  of 
agricultural  chemis 
try  in  the  academy  of 
Tharand.  In  1844 
he  began  a  course  of 
lectures  before  the 
Chemnitz  agricultural 
society,  wThich  led  to 
the  establishment  of 
the  system  of  agri 
cultural  experimental 

stations.  From  1846  to  1849  he  edited  Das 
polytechniscJie  Centralllatt,  and  from  1850 
to  1855  (with  Schober),  Die  ZeitscJirift  fur 
deutsche  LandicirtJie  ;  and  in  1855  he  estab 
lished  at  Berlin  Der  cJiemiscJie  Aclcersmann, 
in  which  are  published  his  familiar  lectures 
before  farmers1  clubs  and  societies,  which  he 
calls  "  field  sermons.'1  It  is  said  that  the  yield 
of  grain  in  Saxony  has  been  doubled  chief 
ly  through  his  efforts.  His  principal  works 
are :  Untersuchung  der  zwickcmer  Steinkohlen 
(1840) ;  Ueber  ErTcennung  und  Anwendung  der 
Giftfarle  (1844);  ScJiule  der  Chemie  (1846; 
I7tli  ed.,  1873;  English  translation  by  G.  IT. 
Pence,  M.  D.,  "The  Principles  of  Chemistry 
illustrated  by  Simple  Experiments,"  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  1 850 ;  also  by  A.  Henfrey,  London,  1855) ; 
Cruanolmchlein  (1851) ;  and  Chemische  Feld- 
predigten  (1851 ;  English  translation  by  J.  E. 
Teschemacher,  "Chemical  Field  Lectures  for 
Agriculturists,"  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1853). 


[  STOCKHOLM,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Sweden, 
in  lat.  59°  20'  K,  Ion.  18°  3'  E.,  330  m.  N.  E. 
of  Copenhagen;  pop.  in  1874,  147,249.  It  is 
partly  built  on  islands  and  intersected  by  many 
canals,  surrounded  on  the  land  side  by  rocks, 
forests,  and  hills,  and  on  the  water  side  by  Lake 
Mselar  and  the  Salt  Sjo  (Salt  lake),  an  arm  of 
the  Baltic.  This  combination  of  land  and  water, 
together  with  the  magnificent  harbor  and  pal 
ace,  and  other  remarkable  sights,  forms  one  of 
the  most  picturesque  panoramas  in  the  world. 
The  city  is  well  built,  has  several  fine  squares, 
and  abounds  in  stately  buildings.  The  royal 
palace,  completed  in  1754,  consists  of  a  huge 
quadrangle  of  solid  granite ;  it  is  as  remarkable 
for  the  fitting  up  of  the  royal  apartments  as 
for  its  grand  and  admirable  proportions,  and 
the  chaste  yet  massive  style  of  its  Italian  ar 
chitecture.  It  is  on  the  highest  and  most  cen 
tral  of  the  three  islands  of  the  original  town, 
distinctively  called  the  city  (Stad),  and  one  of 


Eoyal  Palace,  Stockholm. 

the  three  main  metropolitan  divisions.  These 
islands  have  been  enlarged  by  embankments 
built  on  piles,  whence  the  name  of  Stockholm, 
meaning  an  island  on  piles.  The  other  two 
chief  divisions  are  the  northern  suburb  (Norr- 
malm\  the  fashionable  quarter,  and  the  south 
ern  suburb  (Sodermalm\  that  of  the  working 
classes ;  the  former  is  connected  with  the  city 
by  a  fine  granite  bridge,  and  the  latter  by  sev 
eral  drawbridges,  and  there  is  a  new  line  of 
railway,  with  remarkable  viaducts  and  tun 
nels.  *The  principal  government  offices  and 
mercantile  houses  are  adjacent  to  the  palace 
and  the  quay,  and  the  most  elegant  stores  are 
in  Norrmalm.  The  building  next  in  beauty  to 
the  royal  palace  is  the  new  national  museum, 
at  the  S.  end  of  the  formerly  separate  island 
of  Blasiiholm,  which  is  now  united  to  Norr- 
malm.  Its  front  faces  the  terrace  garden  of 
the  royal  palace,  overlooking  the  harbor ;  it  is 
200  ft.  long  by  170  ft.  broad,  and  90  ft.  high, 


390 


STOCKHOLM 


STOCKING 


and  has  three  stories  filled  with  interesting 
collections,  soon  to  include  the  picture  gallery 
of  the  palace.  A  new  building  has  also  been 
provided  for  the  royal  or  national  library  of 
about  70,000  volumes  and  4,000  unique  manu 
scripts,  which  occupied  a  space  extending  over 
nearly  the  whole  S.  E.  wing  of  the  palace. 
There  are  more  than  25  places  of  worship, 
chiefly  for  Lutherans,  but  including  several 
for  other  Protestants,  one  for  Catholics,  one 
for  Swedenborgians,  and  a  new  and  handsome 
synagogue.  The  interior  of  the  church  of 
St.  Clara  is  exceptionally  fine.  The  Swedish 
kings  are  crowned  in  the  old  St.  Nicholas 
church.  The  most  ancient  church  is  that  of 
Solna,  with  the  tomb  of  Berzelius,  and  the 
most  picturesque  is  the  Riddarholm,  original 
ly  a  Franciscan  convent  and  now  used  as  a 
pantheon.  In  the  latter  are  the  armor  of 
Charles  IX.,  attributed  to  Benvenuto  Cellini, 
the  shrine  of  Gustavus  Adolplms,  and  that  of 
Charles  XII.  in  the  opposite  Carolin  chapel. 
Bernadotto  is  buried  in  the  chapel  of  the  pres 
ent  dynasty,  adjoining  the  Gustavan.  Other 
notable  buildings  are  the  governor's  palace ; 
the  houses  of  parliament,  including  the  Rid- 
darlms,  or  house  of  the  nobles  and  the  diet; 
the  royal  mint;  the  exchange;  the  academy 
of  sciences,  with  a  library  of  40,000  volumes, 
a  cabinet  of  natural  history,  and  a  museum 
with  rich  zoological,  mineralogical,  and  geo 
logical  collections ;  the  geological  and  tech 
nological  institutes;  the  mining  academy,  re 
cently  removed  hither  from  Fahhm ;  the  new 
art  union  and  exhibition  buildings,  with  con 
cert  rooms ;  the  royal  theatre,  where  Gustavus 
III.  was  assassinated  in  1792  ;  and  the  houses 
in  which  Swedenborg  and  other  eminent  men 
were  born.  The  most  celebrated  educational 
institution  is  the  medical  faculty,  the  princi 
pal  one  in  Sweden,  attended  by  a  much  larger 
number  of  students  than  that  at  the  university 
of  Upsal.  A  new  free  university  is  projected, 
and  there  are  three  gymnasia,  various  special 
schools,  a  military  college,  and  a  high  school 
of  artillery,  the  last  near  the  city  at  Marieberg. 
No  city  has  a  greater  variety  of  rural  and 
waterside  pleasure  grounds.  The  most  cele 
brated  is  the  Djurgard  or  deer  park,  which 
occupies  almost  an  entire  island  opposite  the 
"city,"  since  1868  united  to  the  metropolitan 
district.  It  is  about  3  m.  in  circumference, 
and  contains  the  Rosendal  palace.  The  Ilaga 
park,  a  little  beyond  the  observatory,  opposite 
the  new  cemetery,  is  studded  with  islands, 
has  water  communication  between  its  differ 
ent  parts  and  the  city,  and  contains  a  royal 
palace.  The  adjacent  park  of  Carlberg  is 
another  delightful  summer  resort.  The  park 
known  as  the  Ilumlegard  (hop  garden),  W. 
and  N.  "W.  of  Norrmalm,  has  been  greatly 
improved;  it  contains  the  new  library  build 
ing  and  large  barracks.  In  Berzelius's  park 
is  a  monument  to  Berzelius.  Among  the  oth 
er  numerous  monuments  in  the  city  are  those 
to  Birger  Jarl  and  to  Swedish  sovereigns. 


That  of  Charles  XII.  was  erected  in  1868,  op 
posite  the  palace  in  the  Kungstriidgard  (king's 
garden)  square.  Few  cities  present  greater 
natural  beauties  than  Stockholm,  and  in  the 
vicinity  are  many  royal  and  private  summer 
palaces  and  villas.  The  city  is  also  the  centre 
of  Swedish  industry  and  trade.  It  has  about 
300  manufacturing  establishments,  chiefly  of 
sugar,  tobacco,  machinery,  cast  iron,  leather, 
silk,  soap,  cloth,  and  porcelain.  It  is  the  prin 
cipal  Swedish  port  of  entry.  The  imports 
in  1874  amounted  to  about  $50,000,000,  and 
the  exports  to  $30,000,000;  and  the  customs 
receipts  reached  nearly  $6,000,000.  The  en 
tries  of  British  ships  alone  comprised  38  steam 
ers  and  161  sailing  vessels.  The  total  inward 
shipping  in  the  foreign  trade  includes  over 
1,500  vessels,  besides  nearly  10,000  in  the 
coasting  trade,  and  about  60  local  steamers. 
The  exports  to  the  United  States  in  1873-'4, 
chiefly  iron,  were  valued  at  $1,063,997  in  gold. 
The  harbor  accommodates  the  largest  vessels, 
and  is  defended  by  a  fortress. — -The  reputed 
founder  of  Stockholm  was  Birger  Jarl,  the 
father  and  guardian  of  Waldemar,  elected  king 
in  1250.  A  settlement  had  been  in  existence 
at  the  spot  since  the  destruction  of  Sigtuna 
by  Finnish  pirates -in  1187.  It  was  a  power 
ful  stronghold  against  the  devastations  of  the 
pirates  in  all  the  towns  along  Lake  Meclar,  and 
was  frequently  besieged.  Stockholm  became 
the  residence  of  the  Swedish  monarchs  soon 
after  Birger's  death,  though  Upsal  continued 
long  afterward  to  bo  the  seat  of  government. 
With  Liibeck  and  Hamburg  reciprocity  of  free 
trade  was  established,  and  soon  after  with  Riga. 
In  1501  the  citadel  was  held  against  insurgents 
by  Christina,  queen  of  Denmark,  whose  hus 
band,  King  John,  ruled  over  the  three  united 
kingdoms  of  Scandinavia.  King  John  had  left 
his  queen  in  command  of  a  garrison  of  1,000 
men,  whose  number,  after  a  siege  of  eight 
months,  was  reduced  to  about  80.  She  was 
compelled  to  capitulate,  May  27,  1502.  A  still 
more  heroic  defence  against  the  Danes  under 
Christian  II.  was  made  by  Christina  Gyllen- 
stjerna,  the  widow  of  the  fallen  regent  Sten 
Sture.  After  a  terrible  siege  of  four  months, 
the  place  was  surrendered,  Sept.  7,  1520,  with 
the  solemn  guarantee  of  the  king  to  respect 
the  rights  of  the  inhabitants.  A  fearful  mas 
sacre  ensued,  known  as  the  "blood  bath  of 
Stockholm."  Many  treaties  have  been  signed 
here  in  modern  times;  in  1855  that  with  the 
western  powers  guaranteeing  the  integrity  of 
Swedish  territories. 

STOCKING,  a  close-fitting  garment  for  the 
foot  and  leg,  usually  knit  or  woven.  From 
paintings  found  at  Pompeii,  as  also  from  no 
tices  in  some  of  the  Latin  classics,  it  appears 
that  stockings  were  known  to  the  Romans  in 
the  latter  days  of  the  republic  and  under  the  em 
pire  ;  but  they  formed  no  part  of  the  ordinary 
costume.  Fasciae,  bandages  wound  round  the 
leg  from  the  ankle  to  the  knee,  were  sometimes 
worn  by  persons  in  delicate  health,  or  as  a  pro- 


STOCKING 


391 


tection  to  the  legs  when  walking  through  briers, 
as  in  hunting,  on  the  march,  &c.  The  art  of 
knitting  stockings  is  usually  said  to  have  origi 
nated  in  Scotland  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th 
century.  In  the  times  of  Elizabeth  it  was  an 
important  industry  in  England,  and  the  queen's 
government  refused  letters  patent  to  William 
Lee,  the  inventor  of  the  stocking  frame  (1589), 
on  the  ground  that  the  machine-made  goods 
would  drive  the  home-made  out  of  the  markets 
and  ruin  the  workpeople.  Lee  took  his  machine 
to  France,  and  established  a  factory  at  Rouen, 
where  he  employed  a  number  of  his  own  coun 
trymen.  Political  troubles  soon  drove  him  out 
of  Rouen,  and  he  died  on  the  way  to  England. 
His  brother  introduced  the  manufacture  into 
Nottinghamshire,  which  has  ever  since  been 
famous  for  its  production  of  stockings.  Stock 
ing  frames  were  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  the  18th  century  at  Philadelphia  and 
Germantown,  Pa.,  New  York  city,  and  seve 
ral  places  in  the  middle  and  eastern  states.  The 
adaptation  of  the  Lee  machine  to  power  was 
first  accomplished  by  Timothy  Bailey  of  Albany 
in  1831 ;  and  the  first  machine  thus  run  was 
at  Gohoes,  N.  Y.,  in  1832.  The  old  Lee  inven 
tion  was  a  square  frame,  producing  a  straight 
strip,  which  was  cut  off  in  proper  lengths,  and 
seamed  together  to  form  the  stocking.  But  a 
great  improvement  upon  this,  the  origin  of 
which  is  unknown,  was  the  circular  loom  in 
which  a  continuous  circular  web  is  knit  of  any 
length,  which  is  cut  up  and  formed  into  the 
shape  of  a  stocking.  Several  others  have  since 
been  devised  in  the  United  States  for  manufac 
turing  purposes,  as  also  for  family  use. — The 
various  knitting  machines,  which  are  too  nu 
merous  to  be  mentioned  in  detail  in  this  arti 
cle,  produce  what  is  called  the  stocking  stitch 
or  chain  work,  consisting  of  loops  formed  in 
succession  upon  a  single  thread,  each  one  locked 
by  that  which  follows  it.  These  machines  may 
be  distinguished  by  the  different  kinds  of  nee 
dles  they  employ,  and  also  by  the  manner  in 
which  these  are  arranged :  whether  on  a  straight 
horizontal  line,  all  pointing  the  same  way,  as 
in  the  common  stocking  loom,  or  around  an 
open  horizontal  circle,  all  pointing  toward  the 
centre.  The  latter  are  known  as  the  rotary 
round  machines.  Every  needle  is  hooked  at 
the  end,  so  as  to  hold  the  thread  laid  across  it 
that  is  to  form  the  next  loop,  while  the  loop 
previously  formed  on  the  same  needle  slips 
back  on  the  shank  as  the  needle  is  pushed  for 
ward,  and  with  its  return  runs  over  the  hook 
and  off  the  e,nd.  The  contrivance  by  which  this 
is  effected  distinguishes  the  several  needles.  In 
the  straight  frames  the  work  is  done  first  across 
the  needles  in  turn  in  one  direction  and  then 
back  in  the  other,  and  so  on ;  but  in  the  rotary 
round  machines  the  revolution  carries  the  nee 
dles  constantly  round  in  the  same  direction, 
each  one  taking  up  the  thread  in  turn,  and  so 
rapidly  that  the  movements  cannot  be  clearly 
perceived.  The  one  class  of  machines  pro 
duces  a  fiat  web,  and  the  other  a  tubular  one, 


each  of  which  hangs  from  the  needles  and  is 
drawn  down  as  it  lengthens  by  means  of  a 
weight.  The  number  of  stitches  or  loops  which 
each  machine  can  form  in'  a  minute  varies  with 
the  gauge  of  the  needles  or  the  distance  apart 
at  which  they  are  set.  The  machines  construct 
ed  for  family  use,  and  worked  by  a  treadle  or 
crank  like  a  sewing  machine,  make  about  half 
as  many  stitches  as  the  factory  machines.  In 
the  factory  three  or  four  machines  are  easily 
tended  by  one  boy.  Ribbed  work  is  performed 
in  the  same  machines  by  bringing  in  play  a  set 
of  vertical  needles,  so  arranged  as  to  work  in 
connection  with  the  horizontal  and  produce  the 
additional  stitches  required.  As  the  needles 
are  set  to  a  particular  gauge,  they  necessarily 
produce  the  same  number  of  stitches  to  the 
inch;  and  the  only  variations  practicable  in 
the  work  are  in  using  yarns  or  threads  of  dif 
ferent  degrees  of  fineness,  and  in  altering  the 
tension  so  as  to  make  the  work  closer  «or  more 
open. — The  shaping  of  the  web  to  fit  the  foot 
is  a  matter  of  no  little  ingenuity.  The  flat  web 
is  either  knit  in  long  strips  of  sufficient  width 
to  make  when  turned  over  several  stockings 
which  are  cut  out  from  these ;  or  the  web  is 
at  once  knit  upon  the  machine  in  the  shape 
required  for  making  a  stocking  when  the  parts 
are  properly  folded  over.  In  the  latter  the 
wider  part,  when  turned  over  and  fastened, 
forms  the  leg  of  the  stocking.  Two  narrow 
strips  at  the  base  of  this  part,  turned  under 
and  joined  together,  form  the  heel ;  while  a 
central  strip  twice  the  length  of  the  foot,  being 
turned  over  at  the  toe,  forms  the  top  and  bot 
tom  of  the  foot,  and  is  neatly  united  to  the  heel 
and  around  its  edges  by  knitting  or  seaming. 
In  forming  the  foot  to  the  cylindrical  webs,  a 
slit  is  made  above  the  heel  half  across  the  web, 
which  admits  of  the  part  designed  for  the  foot 
being  curved  out  at  the  instep.  The  loops 
along  the  edges  of  the  cut  are  then  taken  up 
on  hand  needles,  and  the  space  for  the  heel 
is  filled  out  by  hand  knitting.  In  the  same 
manner  the  toe  is  completed;  and  thus  the 
stocking  is  finished  without  a  seam. — Notwith 
standing  the  large  number  of  machines  em 
ployed  in  knitting,  stockings  are  still  largely 
produced  by  the  old  method  of  hand  knitting, 
which  admits  of  the  use  of  a  harder  and  firmer 
yarn  than  that  adapted  to  the  machines;  and 
even  where  the  machine  work  is  produced  in 
large  mills  employing  steam  power,  the  hand 
looms  are  also  in  extensive  use,  many  of  them 
in  the  houses  of  the  operatives.  In  the  facto 
ries  the  knitting  machines  are  also  made  to  pro 
duce  many  other  articles  of  apparel,  as  under 
shirts,  drawers,  comforters,  scarfs,  opera  hoods, 
talmas,  nubias,  gloves,  mits,  &c.  The  total  pro 
duction  of  this  class  of  goods  (hosiery)  in  the 
United  States  in  1870  amounted  to  $19,871,254 ; 
number  of  hands  employed,  14,105.  Nearly 
the  whole  amount  was  produced  in  the  follow 
ing  states:  New  York,  $5,528,742;  Pennsyl 
vania,  $5,306,738;  Massachusetts,  $3,213,481 ; 
New  Hampshire,  $1,757,445  ;  Connecticut, 


392 


STOCKMAR 


STOCKTON 


$1,251,742;  New  Jersey,  $568,900 ;  Vermont, 
$551,129  ;  and  Rhode  Island,  $137,000. 

STOCKMAR,  Christian  Friedrich,  baron,  a  Ger 
man  physician,  born  in  Coburg,  Aug.  22,  1787, 
died  there,  July  9,  1863.  He  practised  medi 
cine  at  Coburg,  and  in  1S14-'15  in  the  army. 
In  1816  he  became  physician  to  Prince  Leo 
pold,  and  soon  afterward  his  private  secre 
tary,  and  was  comptroller  of  his  household 
till  after  his  accession  in  1831  to  the  Belgian 
throne.  Subsequently  Leopold  sent  him  to 
London  to  assist  the  princess  and  future  queen 
Victoria  with  his  advice.  In  1836  he  arranged 
the  marriage  of  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Coburg 
with  Queen  Maria  II.  of  Portugal,  and  in  1837 
accompanied  Prince  Albert  to  Italy.  He  was 
the  trusted  friend  of  the  Coburg  princes  and 
other  high  personages,  especially  of  Queen  Vic 
toria  and  Prince  Albert,  to  whom  he  made  a 
long  visit  every  year  till  1857.  In  1858  he  aid 
ed  in  the  negotiations  for  the  marriage  of  the 
present  crown  prince  of  Prussia  with  the  Eng 
lish  princess  royal.  The  latter  designed  the 
monument  erected  to  him  at  Coburg.  He  re 
ceived  the  title  of  baron  from  several  sovereigns. 
— See  DenJciDurdiglceiten  aus  den  Papieren  des 
FreiJierrn  Christian  Friedrich  von  Stockmar,  by 
Ernst  von  Stockmar  (Brunswick,  1872;  English 
translation,  edited  by  Max  Muller,  "Memoirs 
of  Baron  Stockmar,"  2  vols.,  London,  1873). 

STOCKPORT,  a  town  of  Cheshire,  England, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Mersey  and  the  Thame, 
5  m.  S.  E.  of  Manchester;  pop.  in  1871,  53,- 
014.  It  stands  upon  a  hill,  and  the  houses  rise 
above  each  other  in  irregular  tiers.  The  Mer 
sey  is  crossed  by  five  bridges,  and  there  are  sev 
eral  suburbs,  the  most  extensive  of  which  are 
Ileaton-Norris,  Edgeley,  and  Portwood.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  barracks, 
court  house,  union  workhouse,  and  the  build 
ing  for  the  Sunday  school,  which  is  attended 
by  nearly  4,000  children.  A  magnificent  rail 
way  viaduct  of  26  arches  spans  a  portion  of 
the  town  as  well  as  the  river  Mersey.  The 
former  extensive  manufacture  of  silk  has  been 
supplanted  by  that  of  cotton,  for  the  spinning 
and  weaving  of  which  there  are  in  the  town 
and  suburbs  about  100  factories.  There  are 
also  establishments  for  bleaching,  dyeing,  and 
printing  cotton,  brass  and  iron  founderies,  &c. 
Rich  coal  mines  are  worked  in  the  vicinity. 

STOCKTON,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  San 
Joaquin  co.,  California,  on  a  level  prairie  at 
the  head  of  Stockton  slough,  a  wide  and  deep 
arm  of  the  San  Joaquin  river  extending  E. 
from  that  stream  for  about  3  m.,  and  on  the 
Central  Pacific  railroad,  63  m.  (direct)  E.  by 
N.  of  San  Francisco ;  pop.  in  1860,  3,679 ;  in 
1870,  10,066,  of  whom  4,102  were  foreigners, 
including  1,076  Chinese;  in  1875,  estimated  at 
14,000.  The  Stockton  and  Copperopolis  rail 
road  extends  to  Milton,  Calaveras  co.,  30  m., 
and  from  it  branches  the  Stockton  and  Visalia 
railroad,  extending  to  Oakdale,  Stanislaus  co., 
34  m.  from  Stockton.  The  Visalia  division 
of  the  Central  Pacific  railroad,  branching  from 


the  main  line  9  m.  W.  of  the  city,  runs  S. 
through  the  San  Joaquin  valley  for  nearly  200 
m.  A  narrow-gauge  railroad  to  lone  City, 
Amador  co.,  about  40  m.,  will  render  avail 
able  the  immense  coal  deposits  of  that  county. 
Stockton  has  a  good  harbor,  and  the  river  is 
navigable  to  this  point  from  San  Francisco  at 
all  seasons  by  vessels  of  from  150  to  250  tons. 
In  the  winter  and  spring  steamers  ascend  near 
ly  200  m.  above  the  city.  The  business  blocks 
are  principally  of  brick.  The  court  house  and 
city  hall,  near  the  centre  of  the  city,  is  sur 
rounded  with  choice  shade  trees  and  shrub 
bery,  as  are  also  many  of  the  residences.  Sev 
eral  of  the  churches  are  costly  structures.  The 
city  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  is  supplied  with 
water  through  pipes  from  three  artesian  wells. 
It  has  a  volunteer  fire  department,  and  a  horse 
railroad.  The  business  of  Stockton  consists 
chiefly  in  furnishing  supplies  to  the  farmers 
of  the  San  Joaquin  valley  and  in  the  shipment 
of  wheat,  wool,  and  other  produce.  The  ship 
ments  of  wheat  for  the  three  years  1873-'5 
averaged  nearly  3,500,000  bushels,  valued  at 
about  $3,000,000.  The  city  contains  four  bank 
ing  institutions,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$1,650,000,  including  a  national  gold  bank  and 
a  savings  and  loan  society.  There  are  two 
manufactories  of  carriages,  three  of  agricul 
tural  implements,  two  of  sash,  blinds,  &c.,  one 
of  paper,  several  of  boots  and  shoes,  saddlery 
and  harness,  furniture,  tinware,  &c.,  two  flour 
ing  mills,  two  iron  founderies,  three  tanneries, 
and  three  breweries.  Considerable  wine  is 
also  made  here.  Stockton  is  the  seat  of  the 
state  lunatic  asylum.  It  has  a  high  school  and 
33  other  public  schools  of  different  grades, 
three  newspapers,  each  having  daily  and  week 
ly  editions,  and  12  churches,  viz. :  2  Baptist, 
1  Congregational,  1  Episcopal,  1  German  Re 
formed,  1  Jewish,  3  Methodist,  2  Presbyterian, 
and  1  Roman  Catholic.  The  city  was  laid  out 
in  1849  and  incorporated  in  1850. 

STOCKTON.  I.  Richard,  a  signer  of  the  Dec 
laration  of  Independence,  born  near  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  Oct.  1,  1730,  died  there,  Feb.  28,  1781. 
He  graduated  at  the  college  of  New  Jersey,  at 
Newark,  in  1748,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1754,  became  a  member  of  the  executive  coun 
cil  of  New  Jersey  in  1768,  and  in  1774  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court.  In  1776  he  was  elected 
to  congress,  and  served  on  the  committee  ap 
pointed  to  inspect  the  northern  army.  After 
his  return  to  New  Jersey  he  was  captured  by 
the  British,  confined  in  the  common  prison  at 
New  York,  and  treated  with  such  severity  as 
ultimately  to  cause  his  death.  II.  Robert  Field, 
an  American  naval  officer,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1796, 
died  there,  Oct.  7,  1866.  lie  entered  the  navy 
in  1810,  became  a  lieutenant  in  1814,  and  in 
1821  went  to  Africa  in  command  of  the  Erie, 
and  aided  the  colonization  society  in  procuring 
the  territory  forming  the  present  republic  of 
Liberia.  On  his  return  he  -was  sent  to  the 
West  Indies  against  the  pirates.  For  several 


STOCKTON 


STODDARD 


393 


years  he  took  an  active  part  in  politics  as  a 
partisan  of  Gen.  Jackson.  In  1838  he  served 
as  flag  officer,  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  1839 
was  made  a  captain  and  recalled.  He  was  one 
of  the  earliest  advocates  of  a  steam  navy,  and 
drew  the  plans  for  the  steam  sloop  of  war 
Princeton,  built  at  Philadelphia  in  1842-'4,  the 
explosion  of  one  of  the  guns  of  which  at  Wash 
ington  in  1844  caused  the  death  of  five  per 
sons,  including  the  secretaries  of  war  and  the 
navy.  In  October,  1845,  he  was  sent  to  the 
Pacific  coast,  where  he  took  command,  and  in 
the  following  year  conquered  California  and 
established  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
returning  overland  in  1847.  .  In  1849  he  re 
signed  his  commission,  and  in  1851  was  elected 
United  States  senator.  He  promoted  the  abo 
lition  of  flogging  in  the  navy,  and  resigned  in 
1853.  His  "Life,  Speeches,  and  Letters"  was 
published  in  1856  (New  York). 

STOCKTON,  Thomas  Hewlings,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  at  Mount  Holly,  N.  J.,  June 
4,  1808,  died  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  9,  1868.  He 
studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia,  but  became 
a  Methodist  Protestant  preacher,  and  was  sta 
tioned  at  Baltimore  in  1830.  He  was  chaplain 
of  the  house  of  representatives  from  1833  to 
1835,  and  again  from  1859  to  1861,  and  of  the 
senate  in  1862.  In  1850-'55  he  was  associate 
pastor  of  St.  John's  Methodist  church  in  Balti 
more,  and  from  1856  of  the  church  of  the  New 
Testament  in  Philadelphia.  He  compiled  and 
published  a  Protestant  Methodist  hymn  book, 
and  issued  the  New  Testament  in  paragraph 
form,  and  editions  of  the  Bible,  each  book,  by 
itself.  His  other  works  include  "Floating 
Flowers  from  a  Hidden  Brook  "  (Philadelphia, 
1844);  "The  Bible  Alliance"  (Cincinnati, 
1850) ;  "  Ecclesiastical  Opposition  to  the  Bible  " 
(Baltimore,  1853) ;  "  Sermons  for  the  People" 
(Pittsburgh,  1854);  "The  Blessing"  (Phila 
delphia,  1857)  ;  "  Stand  up  for  Jesus,"  a  ballad 
with  notes,  illustrations,  and  music,  and  a  few 
additional  poems  (Philadelphia,  1858) ;  "Poems, 
with  Autobiographical  and  other  Notes" 
(1862);  "The  Peerless  Magnificence  of  the 
Word  of  God"  (1862);  "Influence  of  the 
United  States  on  Christendom"  (1865);  and 
from  his  manuscript,  after  his  death,  "  The 
Book  Above  All "  (1870).— See  "  Memory's 
Tribute  to  the  Life,  Character,  and  Work  of 
Rev.  Thomas  H.  Stockton,"  by  the  Rev.  A. 
Clark  (New  York,  1869),  and  "Life,  Charac 
ter,  and  Death  of  Rev.  Thomas  II.  Stockton," 
by  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Wilson  (Philadelphia,  1869). 

STOCKTON-ITON-TEES,  a  town  of  Durham, 
England,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tees,  10  m. 
from  its  mouth  in  the  North  sea,  and  220  m. 
N.N.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  27,598. 
The  river  is  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  custom  house, 
town  hall,  borough  hall,  mechanics'  institute, 
and  theatre.  It  is  an  important  railway  centre, 
and  several  branch  lines  bring  in  the  produce 
of  the  numerous  coal  and  lead  mines  in  the 
vicinity.  It  has  considerable  commerce,  and 


vessels  of  300  tons  can  come  up  to  the  quays. 
The  manufactures  comprise  sail  cloth,  rope, 
linen  and  worsted  yarns,  and  iron  and  brass 
work,  and  there  are  ship  yards,  breweries, 
brick  kilns,  and  corn  mills. — Stockton  was 
early  a  place  of  importance,  and  was  the  resi 
dence  of  the  bishops  of  Durham.  In  1325  it 
was  ravaged  by  the  Scots.  In  1644  it  was 
taken  by  the  Scottish  army,  and  in  1652  the 
castle  was  demolished. 

STODDARD,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Missouri, 
bounded  W.  by  the  St.  Francis  and  drained  by 
the  Castor  river;  area,  about  800  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  8,535,  of  whom  70  were  colored.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  county  is  level,  and 
there  are  swamps  and  shallow  lakes,  the  prin 
cipal  of  the  latter  being  Lake  Nicormy,  25  m. 
long  and  4  m.  wide.  It  is  a  part  of  the  "  sunk 
country"  produced  by  the  earthquake  of  1811. 
Large  forests  of  cypress  abound.  It  is  inter 
sected  by  the  Cairo,  Arkansas,  and  Texas  divi 
sion  of  the  St.  Louis  and  Iron  Mountain  rail 
road.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  34,- 
501  bushels  of  wheat,  384,051  of  Indian  corn, 
17,259  of  oats,  29,708  of  potatoes,  118,534  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  9,138  of  wool,  37,688  of  butter,  and 
11,991  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  2,295  horses,  2,560  milch  cows,  1,286 
working  oxen,  4,206  other  cattle,  6,765  sheep, 
and  26,558  swine.  Capital,  Bloomfield. 

STODDARD.  I.  Richard  Henry,  an  American 
author,  born  in  Hingham,  Mass.,  in  July,  1825. 
His  father,  a  sea  captain,  was  early  lost  on  a 
voyage,  and  the  son  for  several  years  worked 
in  an  iron  foundery  in  New  York.  In  1849  he 
privately  printed  a  volume  of  poems,  entitled 
"  Footprints,"  followed  by  a  maturer  collec 
tion  of  "  Poems  "  in  1852.  In  the  latter  year 
he  received  an  appointment  in  the  New  York 
custom  house,  which  he  held  till  1870.  In 
1853  he  published  "Adventures  in  Fairy  Land," 
a  book  for  young  people,  and  in  1857  "  Songs 
of  Summer."  His  other  works  are  :  "  Town  and 
Country,  and  the  Voices  in  the  Shells,"  for 
children  (New  York,  1857);  "Life,  Travels, 
and  Books  of  A.  von  Humboldt,"  with  an  in 
troduction  by  Bayard  Taylor  (Boston,  1860 ; 
London,  1862)  ;  "  The  King's  Bell,"  a  poem 
(Boston,  1862;  London,  1864;  New  York, 
1865)  ;  "  The  Story  of  Little  Red  Riding  Hood," 
in  verse  (New  York,  1864) ;  "  The  Children  in 
the  Wood,"  in  verse  (1865);  "Abraham  Lin 
coln,  a  Horatian  Ode"  (1865);  "Putnam  the 
Brave  "  (1869)  ;  and  "  The  Book  of  the  East," 
containing  his  later  poems  (1871).  He  has  ed 
ited  "  Gen.  Lyon's  Political  Essays,  Avith  his 
Life"  (New  York,  1861);  "The  Loves  and 
Heroines  of  the  Poets  "  (1861) ;  J.  G.  Vas- 
sar's  "  Twenty-one  Years  round  the  W'orld " 
(1862) ;  "Madrigals,  mostly  from  the  Old  Eng 
lish  Poets"  (1865);  "The  Late  English  Poets" 
(1865) ;  a  new  edition  with  additions  of  Gris- 
wold's  "Poets  and  Poetry  of  America  "  (1872), 
and  of  his  "  Female  Poets  of  America  "  (1874) ; 
and  the  "  Bric-a-Brac  Series"  (1874  et  seq.). 
II.  Elizabeth  (BAESTOW),  wife  of  the  preceding, 


394 


STODDARD 


STOLBERG 


born  in  Mattapoisett,  Mass.,  in  1823.  Since 
her  marriage  in  1852  she  has  published  three 
novels,  "  The  Morgesons  "  (1862),  "  Two  Men  " 
(1865),  and  "  Temple  House  "  (1867),  all  de 
scriptive  of  New  England  life  and  scenery, 
and  has  assisted  her  husband  in  the  editing  of 
two  or  three  annuals. 

STODDARD,  Solomon,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Boston  in  1643,  died  in  Northampton, 
Mass.,  Feb.  11,  1729.  He  graduated  at  Har 
vard  college  in  1662,  was  appointed  "fellow  of 
the  house,"  and  was  the  first  librarian  of  the 
college  from  1667  to  1674.  In  1669  he  became 
minister  at  Northampton,  and  was  ordained 
Sept.  11,  1672.  In  February,  1727,  Jonathan 
Edwards,  his  grandson,  was  elected  as  his  col 
league.  In  1700  he  published  "  The  Doctrine 
of  Instituted  Churches,"  as  an  answer  to  the 
work  of  Increase  Mather  entitled  "  The  Order 
of  the  Gospel,"  which  occasioned  an  exciting 
controversy.  He  maintained  that  the  Lord's 
supper  is  a  converting  ordinance,  and  that  all 
baptized  persons,  not  scandalous  in  life,  though 
consciously  unconverted,  may  lawfully  partake 
of  it.  lie  also  wrote  "A  Guide  to  Christ" 
(1714) ;  "  The  Safety  of  appearing  in  the  Day 
of  Judgment  in  the  Righteousness  of  Christ," 
which  was  reprinted  at  Edinburgh  in  1792 ; 
and  "  The  Trial  of  Assurance  "  (1796). 

STOICS  (Gr.  <7-od,  porch),  or  philosophers  of 
the  porch,  one  of  the  speculative  schools  of 
antiquity,  so  called  from  the  place  at  Athens 
(croa  Troiitifaf)  in  which  their  founder  Zeno  gave 
his  instructions  (about  300  B.  C.).  Of  their 
earlier  representatives,  besides  the  founder,  the 
most  prominent  were  Ariston  of  Chios,  Clean- 
thes,  Chrysippus,  Zeno  of  Tarsus,  Persieus, 
Herillus  of  Carthage,  Sphcerus,  Diogenes  the 
Babylonian,  Antipater  of  Tarsus,  and  Posido- 
nius  and  Pansstius  of  Rhodes  (about  130  B. 
C.j;  of  their  later,  Seneca  (died  A.  D.  65), 
Epictetus,  Anurous  Cornutus,  Persius  Flaccus, 
Musonius  Ruftis,  Arrian,  Marcus  Aurelius,  and 
many  of  the  most  distinguished  Roman  citi 
zens.  Originally  treating  the  three  depart 
ments  of  logic,  physics,  and  ethics,  they  are 
chiefly  known  as  moralists,  since  they  con 
nected  philosophy  intimately  with  the  duties 
of  practical  life.  In  logic,  they  found  the 
criterion  of  knowledge  in  sensuous  impres 
sions,  which  furnish  the  materials  fashioned 
by  reason,  and  combated  skepticism  by  affirm 
ing  that  every  representation  of  an  object  im 
plies  the  existence  of  the  object  itself.  In 
physics,  they  regarded  God  and  the  world  as 
power  and  its  manifestation,  matter  being  a 
passive  ground  in  which  dwells  the  divine 
energy.  Their  ethics  was  a  protest  against 
moral  indifference,  and  to  live  in  harmony 
with  nature,  conformably  to  reason  and  the 
demands  of  universal  good,  and  in  the  utmost 
indifference  to  pleasure,  pain,  and  all  external 
good  or  evil,  was  their  fundamental  maxim. 
(See  MORAL  PHILOSOPHY,  vol.  xi.,  p.  809.)  An 
attempt  to  revive  the  stoic  philosophy  was 
made  by  Justus  Lipsius  (1547-1606),  especially 


in  his  Manuductio  ad  Stoicam  Philosophiam 
and  Physiologia  Stoicorum. — See  Tiedemann, 
System  der  stoischen  Moral  (177^).;  Dourif,  Du 
Stolcisme  et  du  G  hristianisme  (Paris,  1863)  ;  O. 
Reichel,  "The  Stoics,  Epicureans,  and  Skep 
tics"  (translated  from  Zeller's  Philosophie  der 
Griechen,  London,  1869);  Weygoldt,  Zeno  von 
Citium  und  seine  Lehre  (Jena,  1872) ;  and 
Wellmann,  Die  Philosophic  des  Stoikers  Zenon 
(Leipsic,  1873). 

STORES9  a  N.  county  of  North  Carolina,  bor 
dering  on  Virginia,  and  drained  by  a  branch 
of  the  Dan  river ;  area,  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  11,208,  of  whom  2,608  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  fertile.  Iron 
ore  is  abundant.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  33,450  bushels  of  wheat,  11,948  of 
rye,  171,214  of  Indian  corn,  36,353  of  oats, 
11,246  of  Irish  and  9,953  of  sweet  potatoes, 
844,145  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  6,381  of  wool,  46,325 
of  butter,  37,050  of  honey,  and  7,421  gallons 
of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  916  horses, 
504  mules  and  asses,  4,928  cattle,  5,482  sheep, 
and  12,132  swine.  Capital,  Danbury. 

STORES,  George  Gabriel,  a  British  mathemati 
cian,  born  in  Skreen,  Ireland,  Aug.  13,  1819. 
He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1841,  and  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  Pembroke  college.  In  1849 
he  was  appointed  Lucasian  professor  of  mathe 
matics  in  the  university.  In  1851  he  was 
chosen  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  and  in  1852 
contributed  to  its  "Transactions"  his  cele 
brated  paper  "  On  the  Change  of  the  Refran- 
gibility  of  Light,"  which  gained  the  Rumford 
medal.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Brit 
ish  association  in  1869.  lie  has  published  many 
papers  on  questions  in  pure  mathematics  and 
physics,  particularly  on  the  theory  of  light. 

STORE  -ITON-TREXT,  a  parliamentary  bo 
rough,  town,  and  parish  of  Staffordshire,  Eng 
land,  on  the  river  Trent,  134  m.  N.  "W.  of  Lon 
don  ;  pop.  of  the  parish  (including  Ilanley  and 
other  towns)  in  1871,  89,262;  of  the  parlia 
mentary  borough,  130,985.  The  town  is  the 
centre  of  "the  Potteries,"  is  well  built,  with 
numerous  wharves  and  warehouses,  and  is  in 
tersected  by  the  great  trunk  Trent  canal  and 
the  North  Staffordshire  railway.  Pottery  is 
the  principal  manufacture,  employing  a  large 
proportion  of  the  population,  and  the  place  is 
famous  for  its  china,  porcelain,  statuettes,  and 
ornamental  and  encaustic  tiles. 

STOLBERG.  I.  Friedrich  Leopold,  count,  a  Ger 
man  poet,  born  at  Bramstedt,  Holstein,  Nov. 
7,  1750,  died  near  Osnabrtick,  Dec.  5,  1819. 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  the  Danish 
chamberlain  Count  Christian  Giinther,  who 
was  the  first  of  his  rank  to  liberate  his  serfs, 
his  mother  imparted  a  strong  religious  bias  to 
his  education.  From  1770  to  1772  he  stud 
ied  at  Halle,  and  subsequently  at  Gottingen, 
where  he  and  his  brother  became  prominent 
members  of  the  Dichterfiund.  In  his  travels 
in  1775  he  was  with  Goethe  at  Frankfort  and 
other  places,  and  next  at  Weimar,  where  ho 
accepted  an  office  at  the  court ;  but  Klopstock 


STOLPE 


STOMACH 


395 


prevailed  upon  him  to  enter  the  service  of 
the  prince-bishop  of  Liibeck,  who  in  1777  sent 
him  as  envoy  to  Copenhagen.  He  married 
Anna  von  Witzleben  in  1782,  and  resided  at 
Eutin,  where  through  his  influence  Voss  be 
came  rector.  In  1786  he  was  transferred  to 
an  office  at  Neuenburg  in  Oldenburg.  After 
his  wife's  death  in  1788  he  sought  solace  in 
the  society  of  the  count  and  countess  Revent- 
low  at  Emkendorf,  and  their  influence  made 
him  more  orthodox.  Soon  afterward  he  was 
appointed  Danish  ambassador  at  Berlin,  and 
in  1790  he  married  the  countess  Sophia  von 
Redern.  He  was  appointed  by  the  prince- 
bishop  district  governor  at  Eutin,  but  obtained 
leave  of  absence,  and  visited  Miinster,  where 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  ultramontane 
princess  Amalia  Gallitzin,  and  afterward  Romfe, 
where  his  growing  partiality  for  Catholicism 
was  greatly  increased.  Seven  years  later  he  and 
his  whole  family,  excepting  his  elder  daugh 
ter,  formally  joined  the  Catholic  church  (June 
1,  1800).  This  alienated  him  from  many  of 
his  former  friends,  especially  from  Voss,  and 
his  conversion  influenced  that  of  the  younger 
Schlegel  and  the  tone  of  other  writers  of  the 
romantic  school.  He  resigned  his  office  at 
Eutin  in  the  same  year,  and  resided  at  Miin 
ster  till  1812,  when  the  surveillance  to  which 
his  censure  of  the  governmeDt  subjected  him 
drove  him  to  a  secluded  locality  near  Biele 
feld,  and  in  1816  he  removed  to  his  Hanove 
rian  domain  of  Sondermuhlen.  His  poetical 
works  form  the  largest  portion  of  the  Werke 
tier  Bruder  Stolberg  (22  vols.,  Hamburg,  1821- 
'6).  Among  his  other  works  are  Die  Inset,  a 
prose  romance  developing  the  Utopian  scheme 
of  a  model  republic,  dramas  with  choruses, 
translations  of  the  Iliad  and  of  parts  of  Plato, 
./Eschylus,  and  Ossian,  and  Geschichte  der  Re 
ligion  Jesu  Cliristi  (15  vols.,  Hamburg,  1811- 
'18;  continued  by  Fr.  Kerz  to  vol.  xlv.,  Mentz, 
1825-'46,  and  by  Brischar  to  vol.  lii.,  1849- 
'59). — See  Der  Graf  Friedricli  Leopold  von 
Stolberg  und  seine  Zeitgenossen,  by  Menge  (2 
vols.,  Gotha,  1862).  II.  Christian,  count,  broth 
er  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Hamburg,  Oct. 
15,  1748,  died  near  Eckernforde-,  Schleswig, 
Jan.  18,  1821.  He  was  associated  with  his 
brother  at  Gottingen,  and  shared  in  many  of 
his  poetical  and  other  labors.  He  held  an  office 
at  Tremsbiittel,  Holstein,  from  1777  to  1800. 
His  wife,  originally  countess  of  Reventslow, 
figures  in  his  poems  as  his  beloved  Louisa. 

STOLPE,  or  Stolp,  a  walled  town  of  Prussia, 
in  the  province  of  Pomerania,  on  the  navi 
gable  river  Stolpe,  10  m.  from  its  mouth  at 
the  port  of  Stolpemunde  on  the  Baltic,  and 
125  m.  N.  E.  of  Stettin;  pop.  in  1871,  16,280. 
It  has  a  castle,  three  churches,  a  gymnasium, 
two  hospitals,  a  house  for  invalids,  and  manu 
factures  of  amber,  wool,  linen,  copper,  hats, 
starch,  tobacco,  and  leather. 

STOMACH,  the  hollow  organ  in  which  the 
first  part  of  the  function  of  digestion  is  per 
formed  in  every  perfectly  developed  animal. 


As  a  general  rule,  throughout  the  vertebrate 
animals  we  find  a  complex  stomach  associated 
with  a  vegetable  diet;  but  this  has  striking 
exceptions,  as  in  the  dolphin,  which  has  a  mul 
tiple  stomach  with  an  animal  diet,  and  the 
horse,  which  has  a  simple  stomach  with  the 
same  vegetable  food  as  the  ox.  In  man  the 
stomach  is  the  widest  and  most  dilatable  part 
of  the  alimentary  canal ;  it  is  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  abdomen,  -in  the  epigastric  and  part  of 
the  left  hypochondriac  region,  below  the  dia 
phragm,  above  the  arch  of  the  colon  and  trans 
verse  mesocolon,  and  to  a  certain  extent  be 
tween  the  liver  and  spleen ;  it  comes  in  contact 
in  front  with  the  anterior  wall  of  the  abdomen, 
and  behind  with  the  organs  and  vessels  lying 
upon  the  spine.  Its  shape  varies  greatly,  but 
when  moderately  distended,  in  or  out  of  the 
body,  resembles  a  bent  cone,  curved  from  be 
fore  backward  and  from  above  downward, 
following  its  length  ;  it  lies  almost  transverse, 


a 


The  Human  Stomach  laid  open. — a.  The  oesophagus.  5. 
The  cardiac  dilatation  or  great  pouch,  c.  The  lesser  cur 
vature,  d.  The  pylorus,  e.  The  hepatic  duct.  /.  The 
gall  bladder,  g.  The  pancreatic  duct,  opening,  together 
Avith  the  common  biliary  duct,  into  the  duodenum,  h  I. 
The  duodenum. 

a  little  obliquely  downward,  forward,  and  to 
the  right;  the  anterior  border  is  the  greater 
curvature,  and  is  lodged  between  the  folds  of 
the  great  omentum  ;  the  oesophagus  enters  at 
about  one  quarter  of  the  length  from 'the  left 
extremity;  the  great  cul-de-sac  on  the  left  is 
united  to  the  spleen  by  short  vessels.  The 
"pylorus"  is  the  constriction  between  the 
smaller  extremity  of  the  stomach,  directed 
toward  the  right,  and  the  commencement  of 
the  duodenum.  The  average  capacity  of  the 
stomach  is  regarded  as  about  five. pints;  but 
this  varies  very  much  according  to  the  age  and 
habits  of  the  individual,  and  even  according  to 
the  alternating  conditions  of  fulness  or  vacuity. 
When  filled  with  food,  the  stomach  becomes 
more  horizontal,  so  that  its  great  curvature 
looks  forward  and  its  lesser  curvature  back 
ward. — The  stomach  is  composed  of  four  dis 
tinct  coats  or  tunics:  1.  The  external  or  peri- 


396 


STOMACH 


STOMACH  (DISEASES  OF  THE) 


toneal  coat  is  a  thin  serous  layer  covering  the 
outside  of  the  organ,  continuous  with  the 
general  peritoneal  layer  of  the  abdomen.  Its 
moist  and  smooth  external  surface  enables  the 
stomach  and  other  neighboring  organs  to  glide 
readily  over  each  other  without  friction  or 
injury.  2.  The  muscular  coat,  immediately 
beneath  the  peritoneal  covering,  is  composed 
of  a  double  series  of  circular  and  longitudinal 
muscular  fibres,  of  the  smooth  or  unstriped 
variety,  whose  involuntary  alternating  con 
tractions  and  relaxations  cause  the  peristaltic 
movements  of  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  and 
provide  for  the  requisite  mixture,  transporta 
tion,  and  final  expulsion  of  its  contents.  3. 
The  submucous  cellular  coat  is  a  layer  of  loose 
areolar  tissue,  between  the  muscular  coat  and 
the  mucous  membrane.  The  office  of  this 
layer  is  to  form  such  a  connection  between  the 
muscular  and  mucous  tunics  as  to  keep  them 
in  a  certain  degree  of  apposition,  and  yet  allow 
of  the  folding  up  of  the  mucous  membrane 
when  the  organ  is  empty,  and  its  expansion 
when  filled  with  food.  4.  The  mucous  mem 
brane  of  the  stomach,  its  most  important  tunic 
in  a  physiological  point  of  view,  is  the  mem 
brane  which  secretes  the  gastric  juice.  Its  in 
ternal  surface  is  soft  and  velvety,  owing  to  its 
being  covered  with  minute  conical  folds  or 
ridges  which  are  partly  distinct  and  partly  con 
nected  with  each  other.  Its  thickness  is  com 
posed  of  a  great  number  of  tubular  glands  or 
follicles,  the  "  gastric  tubules,"  which  begin  at 
the  inferior  portion  of  the  mucous  membrane  by 
blind  extremities,  run  perpendicularly  through 
its  substance,  and  open  by  minute  orifices  upon 
its  free  surface  into  the  general  cavity  of  the 
stomach.  These  tubules  vary  somewhat  in  dif 
ferent  parts  of  the  stomach.  In  the  pyloric  or 
right-hand  portion  they  are  nearly  straight  and 
simple  in  structure,  and  of  the  same  diameter 
throughout.  In  the  cardiac  or  left-hand  portion 
they  are  more  compound,  several  of  them  uni 
ting,  at  a  little  distance  below  the  surface,  into 
comparatively  wide  circular  tubes,  lined  with 
cylindrical  instead  of  glandular  epithelium.  In 
the  middle  region  of  the  stomach  the  gastric 
glands  are  also  compound ;  and  their  inferior  or 
tubular  portions,  which  are  here  very  long,  are 
filled,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  glandular 
epithelium,  with  very  large,  rounded,  granu 
lar,  nucleated  cells,  which  often  seem  to  fill 
nearly  their  entire  cavity,  and  to  project  from 
their  sides  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  them  an 
irregularly  tumefied  or  varicose  appearance. 
The  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  is  ex 
ceedingly  vascular,  the  capillary  blood  vessels 
penetrating  everywhere  between  the  adjacent 
tubules,  and  forming  an  abundant  superficial 
plexus  about  their  orifices.  At  the  time  of  di 
gestion  the  quantity  of  blood  circulating  in  the 
mucous  membrane  is  greatly  increased  by  an 
expansion  of  the  smaller  arteries  supplying  the 
capillary  network.  The  mucous  membrane 
becomes  turgid  and  reddened,  the  gastric  tu 
bules  enter  into  a  state  of  functional  activity 


and  begin  to  pour  out  the  gastric  juice,  which 
is  to  act  upon  the  food.  Soon  afterward  the 
muscular  coat  of  the  organ  is  in  its  turn  ex 
cited  to  peristaltic  action,  by  which  the  food  is 


Compound  Gastric  Tubule,  from  the  middle  region  of  tho 
Stomach,  a.  Upper  or  wide  portion,  lined  with  cylindri 
cal  epithelium,  b.  Lower  or  tubular  portion,  lined  with 
glandular  epithelium. 

moved  alternately  to  and  fro,  from  the  cardiac 
toward  the  pyloric  extremity  of  the  organ,  and 
subjected  also  to  a  kind  of  gentle  and  continu 
ous  churning  process  by  which  the  gastric  juice 
exuded  from  the  mucous  membrane  is  made  to 
penetrate  every  part  of  the  alimentary  mass, 
and  come  in  contact  simultaneously  with  the 
whole.  As  digestion  proceeds,  successive  por 
tions  of  the  liquefied  food  are  carried  through 
the  pylorus  into  the  small  intestine ;  and  as  the 
stomach  is  thus  gradually  emptied  it  resumes 
its  previous  condition  of  repose.  The  peri 
staltic  motion  comes  to  an  end,  the  vascular 
congestion  subsides,  and  the  further  secretion 
of  gastric  juice  is  suspended  until  the  next 
period  of  digestion  arrives. 

STOMACH,  Diseases  of  tlic.  Diseases  of  the 
stomach  may  be  classed  as  inflammatory, 
structural,  and  functional.  Gastritis  or  in 
flammation  of  the  stomach  may  be  acute,  sub- 
acute,  or  chronic.  It  is  always  attended  by 
certain  symptoms,  but  they  are  also  mostly 
the  symptoms  of  other  diseases.  Vomiting  is 
frequent  and  persistent,  but  is  of  itself  not 
sufficient  evidence,  nor  when  associated  with 
pain  in  the  epigastric  region.  The  following 
combination  of  symptoms  may  be  considered 
as  diagnostic  :  intense  pain  of  a  burning  char 
acter  over  the  epigastrium,  together  with  shoot 
ing  pains  in  the  chest,  unaccompanied  by  the 
physical  signs  of  pulmonary  disease,  nausea,  and 


STOMACH   (DISEASES  OF  THE) 


397 


vomiting  of  muco-serous  matter  tinged  with 
bile  and  often  with  blood,  the  act  causing  in 
tense  suffering.  The  thirst,  though  not  always 
present,  is  often  so  great  as  to  be  almost  in 
supportable.  The  pulse  is  frequent,  small,  and 
wiry.  The  temperature  of  the  skin  is  gener 
ally  considerably  raised.  The  bowels  are  con 
stipated  except  in  cases  of  poisoning. — Acute 
gastritis  is  caused  by  traumatic  injuries  and  by 
irritant  poisons ;  also  by  excessive  indulgence 
in  alcoholic  drinks.  Over-eating  and  the  eating 
of  indigestible  food  are  also  causes.  The  treat 
ment  does  not  involve  much  medication  ;  rest, 
cooling  drinks,  light  bland  food,  and  the  ad 
ministration  of  nourishing  enemas  with  some 
times  small  quantities  of  opiates,  are  the  chief 
reliances.  Lime  water  and  milk  may  some 
times  be  taken  better  than  almost  anything 
else.  Wine  may  be  given  by  the  mouth  or 
spirits  by  the  rectum. — Subacute  gastritis  is 
generally  more  or  less  transient.  When  at 
tended  with  considerable  fever,  the.  affection 
is  sometimes  called  "  gastric  fever ;"  but  this 
term  is  indefinite,  and  is  also  applied  to  cases 
of  what  are  called  "  abortive  typhoid  fever," 
in  which  the  symptoms  for  the  first  few  days 
are  like  those  of  typhoid  fever  and  then  cease. 
It  is  often  the  consequence  of  errors  in  diet, 
either  of  over-eating  or  of  eating  improper 
food,  and  frequently  follows  a  debauch.  There 
is  tenderness  in  the  epigastric  region  and  a 
furred  tongue.  Pain  in  the  head  is  often  a 
prominent  symptom,  frequently  accompanied 
by  nausea.  The  pulse  is  usually  feeble  and 
the  extremities  cold.  If  the  inflammation  ap 
proaches  the  acute  character,  the  symptoms 
are  heightened  in  proportion.  Rest,  absti 
nence  from  food  for  a  time,  bland  and  nutri 
tious  diet,  regulation  of  the  intestinal  evacua 
tions  by  enemas,  the  application  of  sinapisms 
or  other  counter-irritants  or  of  warm  water 
dressings  over  the  epigastrium,  and  the  admin 
istration  of  demulcents,  as  flax-seed  tea,  and 
also  small  pieces  of  ice,  are  ordinarily  indi 
cated.  Subacute  gastritis  is  frequently  con 
nected  with  acute  dyspepsia,  in  which  case  it 
is  often  designated  by  the  indefinite  term  "bil 
ious  attack,"  although  the  term  is  generally  an 
improper  one,  as  the  liver  is  not  usually  par 
ticularly  implicated.  There  is  congestion  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  in  which 
that  of  the  intestines  finally  participates,  with 
active  diarrhoaa  and  sometimes  severe  colic. 
The  treatment  includes  the  unloading  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  with  sometimes  the  ad 
ministration  of  anodynes,  particularly  chloro 
form. — Chronic  gastritis  may  come  on  gradu 
ally,  or  it  may  follow  the  acute  or  subacute 
form.  Its  symptoms  are  liable  to  be  mistaken 
for  those  of  functional  disorder  which  consti 
tute  dyspepsia.  The  causes  are  errors  in  diet, 
poisonous  or  irritating  substances,  excessive 
drinking  of  alcoholic  liquors,  poverty  of  the 
blood,  irregularity  in  the  circulation,  and  dis 
eases  of  other  organs.  The  treatment  is  rest 
of  the  organ,  gentle  exercise  of  the  body,  nu 


tritious  but  easily  digestible  food,  tonics,  coun 
ter-irritants,  bathing  with  after  friction  of  the 
skin,  and  sometimes  the  administration  of  pills 
of  nitrate  of  silver  or  of  powders  of  subnitrate 
of  bismuth. — The  structural  diseases  of  the 
stomach  are  induration,  softening,  ulceration, 
cancer,  degeneration  of  the  gastric  follicles, 
and  dilatation.  Induration  or  sclerosis  of  the 
stomach  is  due  to  a  morbid  fibrous  growth  in 
the  submucous  areolar  tissue,  involving  thick 
ening  of  the  coats  of  the  organ.  It  is  prob 
ably  caused  by  chronic  inflammation  of  the 
submucous  areolar  tissue.  The  affection  may 
involve  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  organ. 
When  limited  in  extent  the  pylorus,  is  the  part 
usually  affected,  a  condition  liable  to  produce 
stricture  and  render  the  case  dangerous  from 
retention  of  food.  It  is  a  rare  affection,  scarce 
ly  ever  attacking  those  who  are  under  40  years 
of  age.  Its  symptoms  are  liable  to  be  mistaken 
for  those  of  cancer,  but  its  long  continuance 
without  the  rapid  progress  of  cancerous  dis 
ease,  and  also  its  appearance  in  other  organs, 
are  diagnostic.  It  is  generally  regarded  as 
chiefly  occurring  in  hard  drinkers.  The  treat 
ment  is  abstinence  from  spirits  and  other  stimu 
lants,  and  a  nutritious  and  well  regulated  diet. 
— Softening  of  the  stomach  may  be  the  result 
of  inflammation,  but  there  are  cases  of  non-in 
flammatory  origin.  The  softening  may  be  con 
fined  to  the  mucous  coat,  or  it  may  involve 
all  the  others.  Non-inflammatory  softening  is 
probably  sometimes  caused  by  defective  nu 
trition  of  the  membrane. — Ulceration  of  the 
stomach  is  one  of  the  sequelae  of  acute  gas 
tritis,  but  it  may  follow  inflammation  limited 
to  the  space  of  the  ulcer.  The  ulcer  varies  in 
size,  sometimes  being  so  small  as  not  to  be  easily 
found,  or  it  may  be  an  inch  or  more  in  diam 
eter.  The  disease  may  prove  fatal  from  per 
foration,  from  haemorrhage,  or  from  inanition. 
Its  duration  is  variable,  and  it  is  often  curable. 
The  treatment  should  include  as  much  rest  as 
possible  for  the  stomach  consistent  with  nu 
trition. — Cancer  attacks  the  stomach  about  as 
frequently  as  it  does  other  parts,  but  it  is  in 
this  situation  nearly  always  primary ;  that  is, 
the  affection  does  not  make  its  appearance 
previously  in  any  other  part.  The  pylorus  is 
the  situation  niostly  attacked,  and  the  disease 
does  not  then  usually  pass  into  the  duodenum. 
When  however  the  cardiac  end  of  the  organ  is 
the  seat,  the  cancer  generally  also  more  or  less 
affects  the  oesophagus.  The  cancer  is  generally 
of  the  hard  variety  known  as  scirrhus.  The 
affection  is  attended  with  the  peculiar  lanci 
nating  pains  of  cancer,  and  vomiting  is  fre 
quent,  although  less  so  than  in  simple  ulcer. 
Blood  is  often  found  with  the  vomited  mat 
ter,  generally  having  the  appearance  of  coffee 
grounds,  and  sometimes  contains  purulent  mat 
ter.  These  symptoms  are  accompanied  by  pro 
gressive  anaemia  and  loss  of  weight. — Degen 
eration  of  the  gastric  follicles  has  been  found 
a  more  frequent  affection  than  was  formerly 
suspected,  and  is  the  accompaniment  of  many 


398 


STONE 


cases  of  dyspepsia.  The  treatment  should  be 
mainly  constitutional,  including  good  air  and 
nutritious  diet. — Dilatation  of  the  stomach  is 
usually  caused  by  obstruction  of  the  pylorus, 
but  it  sometimes,  though  rarely,  occurs  with 
out  it.  The  organ  often  becomes  enormously 
distended,  and  tilled  with  undigested  and  fer 
mented  matter,  and  the  muscular  coat  exceed 
ingly  thin.  Regulation  of  the  diet  is  the  prop 
er  treatment. — The  most  important  functional 
diseases  of  the  stomach  are  dyspepsia  and  gas- 
tralgia.  (See  DYSPEPSIA.)  Gastralgia  is  a 
painful  nervous  affection,  sometimes  of  the 
most  excruciating  nature.  It  often  accompa 
nies  dyspepsia,  and  sometimes  the  structu 
ral  diseases.  When  existing  alone  and  in  an 
acute  form,  it  may  be  caused  by  the  presence 
of  obnoxious  ingesta.  It  sometimes  results 
from  malaria,  frequently  accompanies  inter 
mittent  fever,  and  is  sometimes  associated 
with  gout.  It  rarely  attacks  old  persons  or 
those  under  the  age  of  puberty.  Prof.  Alfred 
Stille  states  that  it  is  often  produced  by  chew 
ing  tobacco.  The  remedies  during  the  attack 
are  anodynes.  Morphine  may  be  given  by  the 
mouth  or  by  hypodermic  injection.  Bismuth 
has  been  used,  it  is  said,  with  good  results,  but 
it  is  not  generally  relied  on.  A  few  drops  of 
chloroform  with  water  often  give  speedy  re 
lief.  The  general  treatment  will  depend  upon 
regulating  the  bodily  functions  and  the  diet. 
When  of  a  malarious  origin  the  preparations 
of  quinia  are  indicated,  in  full  doses. 

STONE.     See  ROCKS. 

STONE,  the  common,  name  of  calculus  in  the 
urinary  bladder,  for  the  composition  of  which 
sae  CALCULI  and  GKA.VEL.  The  prominent 
symptoms  are  irritability  of  the  bladder  with 
frequent  irresistible  desire  to  pass  water,  and 
oc'casional  stoppage  of  the  stream,  with  pain 
in  various  parts  of  the  urinary  system,  and 
sometimes  the  presence  of  blood,  mucus,  and 
pus  in  the  urine.  None  of  these,  however,  can 
be  depended  on,  the  only  sure  diagnosis  rest 
ing  on  making  the  stone  perceptible  to  the 
ear  and  fingers  by  means  of  a  metallic  sound 
introduced  through  the  urethra,  and  brought 
into  direct  contact  with  the  foreign  body ;  even 
with  this  instrument,  several  introductions  in 
various  positions  of  the  body  are  sometimes 
necessary  for  its  detection.  The  symptoms 
vary  in  intensity  according  to  the  size  and 
roughness  of  the  stone,  the  state  of  the  urine, 
and  the  condition  of  the  bladder.  Stone  is 
formed  by  a  precipitation  of  the  urinary  salts 
either  in  the  kidney,  passing  thence  to  the 
bladder,  or  primarily  in  the  bladder.  In  the 
latter  case  a  foreign  body  may  be  the  nucleus. 
Stone  may  be  removed  from  the  bladder  by — 1, 
solution ;  2,  extraction  as  a  whole  through  the 
urethra ;  3,  extraction  through  an  opening  ar 
tificially  made  into  the  bladder  (lithotomy); 
4,  crushing  into  fragments  of  such  a  size  that 
they  can  pass  through  the  urethra  (lithotripsy). 
1.  Solution  may  be  attempted  by  remedies 
taken  by  the  mouth  or  injected  into  the  blad 


der.  Uric  acid  calculi  have  been  treated  by  the 
administration  of  alkalies,  and  the  phosphatic 
by  the  injection  of  a  solution  of  nitric  acid. 
These  methods  have  from  their  inefficacy  fallen 
into  disuse.  2.  Extraction  by  the  urethra  is 
now  done  only  in  females ;  in  them  the  canal 
is  so  short  and  dilatable  that  a  stone  of  con 
siderable  size  can  be  removed  by  this  method. 
3.  Lithotomy  is  indicated  in  all  males  under 
puberty,  and  in  others  when  the  stone  is  large 
or  there  are  several ;  when  the  urethra  is  stric- 
tured;  when  the  bladder  is  in  such  a  condi 
tion  as  to  be  unable  to  bear  the  repeated  in 
troduction  of  instruments,  and  the  irritation 
caused  by  the  fragments  resulting  from  litho 
tripsy  ;  and  when  the  kidneys  are  not  much 
diseased.  The  operation  may  be  done  by  inci 
sion  above  the  pubes  (the  supra-pubic),  through 
the  perineum  (the  perineal),  or  through  the 
rectum,  or  rectum  and  perineum  (the  recto-ves- 
ical).  The  supra-pubic  and  that  through  the 
rectum  and  perineum  are  usually  employed 
only  in  cases  in  which,  from  the  size  of  the 
stone  or  other  causes,  removal  through  the  pe 
rineum  is  impossible.  The  perineal  operations 
are  three  in  number,  the  lateral,  bilateral,  and 
median.  The  lateral  operation  is  in  general 
the  best,  and  it  may  be  performed  as  follows  : 
A  grooved  steel  staff  or  sound  of  full  size  is 
introduced,  the  bladder  being  moderately  dis 
tended,  the  patient  on  his  back,  with  shoulders 
elevated,  thighs  separated  widely  in  order  to  ex 
pose  the  perineum,  and  the  hand  grasping  arid 
bound  to  the  foot ;  the  patient  being  etherized, 
an  incision  is  made  on  the  left  side  of  the  peri 
neum  from  about  an  inch  before  the  anus  down 
ward  and  outward  to  a  point  midway  between 
the  anal  opening  and  the  tuberosity  of  the 
ischium,  the  muscular  fibres  being  divided  down 
to  the  staff;  the  left  index  finger  passed  into 
the  wound  keeps  back  the  rectum,  and  at  the 
same  time  feels  at  the  membranous  part  of  the 
urethra  the  groove,  which  is  entered  by  the 
knife  and  conducts  it  to  the  bladder,  the  ure 
thra  and  about  half  an  inch  of  the  prostate 
being  divided;  the  finger  is  then  introduced, 
dilating  the  opening ;  the  finger  being  with 
drawn,  the  forceps  are  introduced,  opened,  and 
the  stone  seized,  if  possible,  with  the  first  gush 
of  fluid  from  the  wound,  and  then  extracted 
by  slow,  steady,  and  undulating  movements, 
dilating  and  not  tearing  the  soft  parts.  If 
properly  performed,  and  the  after  treatment 
not  interfered  with  by  haemorrhage,  inflamma 
tion,  sloughing,  or  other  complications,  the 
urine  begins  to  flow  by  the  urethra  in  about  a 
week,  and  the  wound  heals  completely  in  four 
or  five  weeks.  In  the  bilateral  operation,  a 
curved  incision,  with  the  convexity  upward,  is 
made  from  one  side  of  the  perineum  to  the 
other,  between  the  anus  and  the  urethral  bulb, 
dividing  both  sides  of  the  prostate  by  a  double 
bistoury.  The  median  operation  differs  from 
the  preceding  in  that  the  incision  is  vertical 
and  in  the  median  line,  and  the  prostate  is  not 
cut,  but  is  dilated,  and  somewhat  lacerated,  by 


STONE 


399 


the  finger  introduced  through  the  opening  made 
into  the  urethra  in  front.  The  recto-vesical 
operation  consists  in  cutting  into  the  bladder 
from  the  rectum  on  the  median  line  behind 
the  prostate,  or  in  dividing  also  the  prostate 
and  perineum  in  the  median  line.  In  the  high 
operation  the  bladder  is  opened  above  the  pubes 
through  the  linea  alba,  Avhere  there  is  no  cov 
ering  of  peritoneum.  Lithotomy  was  practised 
25  centuries  ago ;  Hippocrates  bound  his  pupils 
by  oath  not  to  practise  it,  but  it  came  into  use 
again  in  the  time  of  Celsus,  in  whose  writings 
are  found  the  first  indications  of  the  bilateral 
operation;  the  lateral  operation  was  first  prac 
tised  toward  the  end  of  the  17th  century;  the 
supra-pubic  method  was  first  employed  by 
Franco  in  the  16th  century,  and  the  recto- 
vesical  by  Sanson  in  the  19th.  4.  Lithotripsy 
(more  commonly  called  lithotrity)  is  indicated 
in  patients  beyond  puberty,  when  the  stone  is 
single  and  not  large,  and  when  the  urethra  is 
not  strictured,  and  the  bladder  and  kidneys  are 
not  much  diseased.  The  early  instruments  used 
for  this  purpose  were  very  rude  and  danger 
ous,  the  stone  being  grasped  by  branches  made 
to  protrude  from  a  straight  catheter,  and  then 
bored  by  a  drill  extending  through  the  instru 
ment  and  worked  by  a  watchmaker's  bow ; 
after  it  was  bored  it  was  crushed  by  another 
complicated  instrument.  To  Civiale  (1817-'24) 
is  unquestionably  due  the  credit  of  having  in 
troduced  the  operation  by  improving  the  in 
struments  and  the  manner  of  their  use.  The 
instrument  now  used  is  composed  of  two  sli 
ding  blades,  introduced  in  the  shape  and  after 
the  manner  of  a  sound,  between  which  the 
stone  is  seized,  and  then  crushed  by  the  grad 
ual  pressure  of  a  screw ;  the  fragments  may 
then  be  washed  out  by  injections  or  by  the 
urine,  large  pieces  being  again  broken  by  the 
same  or  a  smaller  instrument.  In  properly  se 
lected  cases,  and  with  skilful  manipulation, 
this  operation  is  much  safer  than  lithotomy. 

STOXE.  I.  A  N.  county  of  Arkansas,  bound 
ed  N.  E.  by  White  river,  and  watered  by  the 
Little  Red  river.  It  was  formed  in  1873  from 
portions  of  Independence,  Izard,  Searcy,  and 
Van  Buren  counties.  The  surface  is  irregular. 
The  soil  produces  cotton,  grain,  tobacco,  and 
fruits.  Timber  is  abundant.  Iron,  lead,  and 
marble  occur.  Capital,  Mountain  View.  II. 
A  S.  W.  county  of  Missouri,  bordering  on  Ar 
kansas,  intersected  by  White  river,  and  drained 
by  its  tributary  the  James;  area,  about  500 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,253,  of  whom  20  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  broken,  and  the  soil 
fertile.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad 
touches  the  X.  W.  corner.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  13,022  bushels  of  wheat, 
121,735  of  Indian  corn,  14,340  of  oats,  3,205 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  3,521  of  wool,  27,817  of  but 
ter,  and  3,808  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  1,298  horses,  905  milch  cows,  1,683 
other  cattle,  3,023  sheep,  and  10,722  swine. 
Capital,  Galena.  III.  An  E.  county  of  Dakota, 
recently  formed  and  not  included  in  the  census 
VOL.  xv.— 26 


of  1870;  area,  about  700  sq.  m.  It  is  mostly 
table  land,  being  occupied  by  the  Coteau  des 
Prairies,  and  has  a  rolling  surface. 

STONE,  Thomas,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  born  at  Pointon  Manor,  Charles 
co.,  Md.,  in  1743,  died  at  Port  Tobacco,  Md., 
Oct.  5,  1787.  He  was  a  lawyer,  and  was  sent 
as  a  delegate  to  congress  in  1774  and  1775. 
He  strongly  favored  the  establishment  of  an 
independent  government,  although  under  in 
struction  from  the  Maryland  convention  to 
oppose  it ;  but  that  state  receded  from  its  op 
position  in  time  to  allow  its  delegates  to  sign 
the  Declaration.  He  served  on  the  committee 
to  prepare  a  plan  of  confederation,  and  was 
reflected  to  congress  in  1777  and  1783. 

STONE.  I.  William  Leete,  an  American  author, 
born  at  New  Paltz,  N.  Y.,  April  20, 1792,  died  at 
Saratoga  Springs,  Aug.  15,  1844.  He  was  a 
printer,  and  edited  successively  the  "  Herkimer 
American,"  "  Hudson  Whig,"  "The  Lounger" 
(Hudson),  "Albany  Daily  Advertiser,"  "Hart 
ford  Mirror,"  "The  Knights  of  the  Pound 
Table "  at  Hartford,  and  from  1821  the  New 
York  "  Commercial  Advertiser."  In  1843-'4  he 
was  superintendent  of  common  schools  in  New 
York.  His  principal  works  are :  "  History  of 
the  Great  Albany  Convention  of  1821  "  (8vo); 
"Narrative  of  the  Grand  Erie  Canal  Celebra 
tion"  (New  York,  1825);  "Letters  on  Mason 
ry  and  Anti-Masonry  "  (1832) ;  "  Matthias  and 
his  Impostures  "  (12mo,  1832,  and  18mo,  1835)  ; 
"Tales  and  Sketches"  (2  vols.  12mo,  1834); 
"  Essays  on  Social  and  Literary  Topics  "  (12mo, 
1835) ;  "  Ups  and  Downs  in  the  Life  of  a  Dis 
tressed  Gentleman"  (12mo,  1836);  "Life  of 
Maria  Monk  and  Refutation  of  the  Awful  Dis 
closures"  (8vo,  1836);  "Letters  on  Animal 
Magnetism"  (8vo,  1837);  "Life  of  Joseph 
Brant"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1838;  new  ed.  by  W.  L. 
Stone,  jr.,  with  index,  Albany,  1865) ;  "  Bor 
der  Wars  of  the  American  Revolution"  (2  vols. 
12mo,  1839) ;  "  Poetry  and  History  of  Wyo 
ming"  (12mo,  1841;  with  index,  1864);  "Life 
of  Red  Jacket— Sa-go-ye-wat-ha "  (8vo,  1835 
and  1841 ;  new  ed.  with  a  life  of  the  author  by 
W.  L.  Stone,  jr.,  1866);  and  "Life  of  Uncas 
and  Miantonomoh"  (24mo,  1842).  II.  William 
Leete,  jr.,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  New 
York,  April  4,  1835.  He  graduated  at  Brown 
university  in  1858  and  at  the  Albany  law  school 
in  1859,  and  is  now  (1876)  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "  New  York  School  Journal."  He  has 
published  "Life  and  Times  of  Sir  William 
Johnson,  Bart.,"  begun  by  his  father  (2  vols. 
8vo,  1865);  "Life  and  Writings  of  Col.  Wil 
liam  L.  Stone  "  (1866) ;  "  Saratoga  and  its  Min 
eral  Springs  "  (1866) ;  "  History  of  New  York 
City"  (1872);  "The  True  History  of  the  Jane 
McCrea  Tragedy  "  (1874) ;  "  Reminiscences  of 
Saratoga"  (1874);  and  "Centennial  Sketch 
es"  (1876).  He  has  translated  from  the  Ger 
man  the  "Memoirs  and  Letters  of  Mrs.  Gen 
eral  Riedesel"  (1867),  and  the  "Life  and 
Military  Journals  of  Major  General  Riedesel" 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1868). 


400 


STONE 


STONE  CHAT 


STONE,  William  Oliver,  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Derby,  Conn.,  Sept.  26,  1830,  died  in 
Newport,  R.  L,  Sept.  15,  1875.  He  studied  un 
der  Nathaniel  Jocelyn  in  New  Haven,  lost  all 
his  early  pictures  by  the  burning  of  his  studio, 
and  removed  to  New  York  in  1851.  His  first 
picture  exhibited  in  the  national  academy  was 
"  The  Mantilla"  (1854),  and  he  afterward  paint 
ed  many  portraits  of  prominent  persons,  being 
especially  successful  in  those  of  women  and 
children.  He  became  a  member  of  the  na 
tional  academy  in  1859. 

STONE  BORER,  a  name  given  to  several 
bivalve  shells,  especially  pholas  (Linn.)  and 
lithodomus  (Guv.),  from  their  power  of  boring 
into  the  hardest  rocks.  The  pholadida  (Gr. 
Qu^eiv,  to  hide  in  a  hole)  are  true  bivalves,  and 
have  two  accessory  plates  in  the  neighborhood 
of  tli£  hinge  for  the  protection -of  the  dorsal 
muscles ;  they  belong  to  the  group  siphono- 
phora  (Gray),  or  those  having  long  respira 
tory  siphons,  united  for  the  greater  part  of 
their  length;,  they  are  all  burrowing  animals, 
penetrating  the  hardest  substances.  The  shells 
are  usually  elongated,  gaping  at  one  or  both 
ends,  and  closed  by  two  adductor  muscles ; 
the  foot  is  large  and  powerful,  and  the  mantle 
is  closed  ;  they  are  found  in  all  climates.  The 
typical  genus  pholas  is  often  of  considerable 
size,  with  a  white,  hard,  rough,  but  very  brit 
tle  shell,  rendering  it  an  interesting  question 
how  it  can  perforate  a  solid  rock ;  the  opera 
tion  is  supposed  to  be  performed  by  a  rotatory 
motion  of  the  shell  effected  by  the  powerful 
foot.  The  date  shell  or  piddock  (P.  dactylus, 
Linn.),  about  2  in.  long  and  G  or  V  in.  wide, 
is  found  along  the  European  coast,  mostly  in 
calcareous  rocks ;  it  is  eaten  along  the  Medi 
terranean.  It  is  very  luminous,  and  hence 
some  have  supposed  that  its  excavations  may 


is  found  along  the  coasts  of  our  middle  and 
southern  states.  Many  fossil  species  are  known. 
The  family  of  veneracea,  of  the  same  group, 
are  also  stone  borers,  principally  by  means  of 


Date  Shell  (Pholas  dactylus). 

be  partly  due  to  electrical  action  on  the  sea 
water.  The  smaller  P.  Candida  (Linn.)  is  used 
for  bait  in  England.  The  P.  crispata  (Linn.) 


Stone  Borers  (Pholas  dactylus)  which  have  hollowed  out 
shelters  in  a  block  of  gneiss. 

the  foot. — Among  the  asiphonate  bivalves,  the 
most  remarkable  stone  borer  is  the  lithodomus 
lithophagus  (Guv.) ;  it  is  commonly  found  in 
holes  which  it  has  excavated  in  calcareous  and 
coral  formations ;  it  is  the  sea  date  shell  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  is  a  delicate  article  of 
food.  Its  perforations  have  served  as  impor 
tant  indications  of  the  change  of  level  of  the 
sea  coast  in  modern  times  ;  the  columns  of  the 
temple  of  Serapis  at  Pozzuoli  are  perforated 
by  these  shells  at  a  considerable  height  above 
the  actual  level  of  the  sea. — Another  bivalve, 
coming  near  the  clams,  generally  considered  a 
stone  borer,  is  saxicava  (Lam.),  which  appears 
under  such  a  variety  of  forms  that  two  genera 
and  at  least  15  species  have  been  made  of  the 
single  representative,  8.  rugosa  (Lam.)  ;  the 
young  symmetrical  form  constitutes  the  genus 
hiatella  (Bosc).  It  is  found  in  almost  all  parts 
of  the  world,  largest  in  the  arctic  seas,  in  crev 
ices  of  rocks  and  corals,  assuming  very  exactly 
the  shape  of  the  cavity  which  contains  it ;  it 
occurs  from  low-water  mark  to  the  depth  of 
140  fathoms  ;  it  is  found  fossil  in  the  miocene 
and  glacial  deposits.  It  has  been  questioned 
whether  saxicava  is  the  excavator  of  the  holes 
in  which  it  is  found,  and  the  subject  of  the 
mechanism  by  which  the  stone  borers  operate 
is  by  no  means  well  understood. — Sea  urchins 
also  may  in  many  instances  be  called  stone 
borers,  the  excavation  of  their  cavities  being 
effected  by  the  constant  action  of  their  spines, 
and  perhaps  also  by  the  vibratile  cilia  of -their 
ambulacral  tubes  and  suckers.  It  is  conceiv 
able,  if  not  probable,  that  the  continual  action 
of  soft  vibratile  cilia  may  excavate  holes  even 
in  the  hardest  rocks. 

STONE  CHAT  (saxicola  rulicola,  Bechst.),  a 
dentirostral  •  bird  of  the  warbler  family,  and 


STONE   CROP 


STONINGTON 


401 


subfamily  erythacince,  or  old  world  .robins. 
The  bill  is  short,  with  broad  gape,  furnished 
with  bristles;  wings  long  and  rounded,  with 
fourth  and  fifth  quills  equal  and  longest ;  tail 
short  and  broad;  tarsi  and  toes  slender,  and 


Stoae  Chat  (Saxicola  rubicola). 

hind  toe  long.  There  are  several  species.  The 
stone  chat,  resident  in  England  but  migratory 
on  the  continent,  is  about  4|  in.  long ;  the  head, 
throat,  and  back  black,  on  the  latter  edged 
with  whitish  red ;  sides  of  neck,  upper  part 
of  wings,  and  rump  white;  breast  orange 
brown;  lower  parts  reddish  white.  A  similar 
but  migratory  species  is  the  whin  chat  (S. 
rubetra,  Bechst.),  so  named  for  its  partiality 
for  furze  or  whin  bushes.  These  two  species 
belong  to  the  subgenus  pratincola  (Koch). 

STONE  CROP.     See  SEDUM. 

STONEHENGE,  a  collection  of  huge  stones  on 
Salisbury  plain,  Wiltshire,  England,  about  8  m. 
N.  of  Salisbury.  Its  name  is  old  Saxon,  and 
signifies  "hanging  stones."  Seen  from  a  dis 
tance,  they  appear  to  be  merely  an  irregular 


mass  of  stones,  but  a  closer  inspection  shows 
them  to  have  been  originally  arranged  to  form 
two  ovals  within  two  circles,  surrounded  by  a 
bank  of  earth  15  ft.  high  and  1,010  ft.  in  cir 
cumference.  There  are  altogether  about  140 
stones,  weighing  from  10  to  70 'tons.  They 


are  much  weather-worn,  but  in  many  of  them 
the  sharp  angles  and  the  tenons  and  mortices 
by  which  they  were  joined  are  well  preserved. 
The  outer  circle  has  17  stones  remaining  out 
of  30;  the  inner  has  but  8  stones  entire,  and 
fragments  of  12  others.  The  inner  oval  con 
sisted  of  about  20  smaller  stones,  of  which  11 
are  still  standing;  the  other  oval  consisted  of 
10  stones,  of  which  8  are  remaining.  Scat 
tered  over  the  plain  are  about  300  tumuli,  or 
barrows,  some  of  which  have  been  opened, 
and  found  to  contain  charred  human  bones, 
fragments  of  pottery,  and  British  and  Roman 
ornaments  and  weapons.  In  the  centre  is  a 
flat  slab  15  ft.  long,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  altar;  it  is  a  grained  calcareous 
sandstone,  which  strikes  'fire  with  steel.  On 
excavating  at  the  foot  of  this  altar,  remains 
of  oxen,  deer,  and  other  animals  were  found, 
intermixed  with  burnt  wood  and  fragments 
of  Roman  and  British  pottery.  According  to 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  Stonehenge  was  erect 
ed  by  order  of  Aurelianus  Ambrosius,  the 
last  British  king,  in  honor  of  400  Britons  slain 
by  Hengist  the  Saxon;  but  Polydore  Vergil 
argues  that  it  was  a  monument  to  the  mem 
ory  of  that  king.  Some  authorities  believe  it 
to  have  been  a  druidic  temple,  others  assert 
that  it  was  an  astronomical  observatory,  and 
others  that  it  was  a  place  both  of  worship  and 
of  council,  which  was  also  used  for  assemblies 
of  the  people.  Similar  stone  circles  have  been 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  Sir 
John  Lubbock  refers  them  all  to  the  bronze 
age,  while  other  antiquaries  and  geologists 
maintain  that  some  of  them  were  erected  10,- 
000  to  50,000  years  ago.  Nothing  has  as  yet 
been  brought  forward  to  establish  any  of  these 
theories  beyond  controversy  and  doubt. 

STOKE  RIVER,  Battle  of.     See  MI:RFREESBORO. 

STOMNGTOff,  a  town,  borough,  and  port  of 
entry  of  New  London  co.,  Conn.,  on  Long  Isl 
and  sound,  at  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  state ; 
pop.  of  the  town  in  1870,  6,313,  of  the  borough, 
1,501.  The  town  is  divided  into  five  voting 
districts,  Stonington  borough,  the  villages  of 
Mystic,  Mystic  Bridge,  and  Paucatuck,  and  the 
"Road."  The  borough  is  built  on  a  narrow 
rocky  point  extending  about  half  a  mile  into 
the  sound,  and  has  a  good  harbor  protected 
by  a  breakwater.  A  second  breakwater  is 
now  building  and  a  third  one  is  projected. 
Stonington  is  a  favorite  place  for  summer  re 
sort,  and  has  a  considerable  coasting  trade  and 
several  vessels  employed  in  sealing.  It  is  con 
nected  with  Providence  by  the  Stonington  and 
Providence  railway,  with  New  London  by  a 
branch  of  the  same,  and  with  New  York  by 
the  New  York  and  Stonington  steamboat  line. 
Mystic  Bridge  is  a  thriving  village,  chiefly  en 
gaged  in  ship  building.  There  are  in  the  sev 
eral  villages  four  banks,  a  savings  bank,  14 
churches,  10  public  schools,  three  woollen 
mills,  one  cotton  mill,  a  large  foundery  and 
machine  shop,  and  several  other  factories,  and 
a  weekly  newspaper.  On  June  30,  1874,  its 


402 


STONY  POINT 


STOPPAGE  IX  TRANSIT!! 


shipping  amounted  in  the  aggregate  to  119  ves 
sels  of  10,978  aggregate  tonnage. — The  town 
was  settled  in  1649,  and  the  borough  was  in 
corporated  in  1801.  On  Aug.  9  and  10,  1814, 
the  borough  was  attacked  by  the  British  fleet 
under  Sir  Thomas  Hardy,  but  it  was  compelled 
by  the  volunteers. and  militia  to  retire. 

STONY  POINT,  a  small  rocky  promontory  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  in  Rock- 
land  co.,  N.  Y.,  42  m.  N.  of  New  York,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Highlands,  and  opposite  Ver- 
planck's  Point.  On  both  these  points  forts 
were  built  by  the  Americans  during  the  revo 
lution,  which  were  captured  by  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  about  the  first  of  June,  1779,  strength 
ened,  and  garrisoned ;  but  that  on  Stony  Point 
was  retaken  by  a  bold  night  attack  under  Gen. 
Anthony  Wayne,  with  1,200  men,  July  16,  and 
the  garrison  of  543  officers  and  men  made 
prisoners.  The  Americans  had  15  killed  and 
83  wounded,  and  the  British  03  killed.  The 
simultaneous  attack  on  Verplanck's  Point  hav 
ing  failed,  the  works  on  Stony  Point  were 
destroyed  and  abandoned  on  the  18th. 

STOPPAGE  m  TRANSITU,  in  law,  the  arrest 
ing  by  the  seller  of  goods  on  their  passage  to  a 
distant  purchaser  who  has  become  insolvent. 
When  and  how  the  doctrine  of  stoppage  in 
transitu  became  a  part  of  our  law  cannot  be 
definitely  asserted.  Its  introduction  was  com 
paratively  recent.  The  right  exists  only  be 
tween  a  buyer  and  a  seller.  A  surety  for  the 
price  of  the  goods,  bound  to  pay  for  them  if  the 
buyer  does  not,  has  not  this  right ;  but  one  who 
is  substantially  a  seller  has.  Thus,  one  ordered 
by  a  foreign  correspondent  to  buy  goods  for 
him,  and  then  buying  them  in  his  own  name 
and  on  his  own  credit,  and  sending  them  as 
ordered,  may  stop  them  in  transitu.  So  may 
a  principal  who  sends  goods  to  his  factor,  or 
one  who  remits  money  for  any  particular  pur 
pose.  The  reception  and  negotiation  of  a  bill 
for  the  goods  does  not  defeat  the  right,  nor 
does  part  payment.  But  goods  cannot  be 
stopped  when  they  are  sent  to  pay  a  precedent 
and  existing  debt. — The  right  arises  only  upon 
actual  insolvency,  which  need  not  be  legal  or 
formal  bankruptcy  or  insolvency.  It  is  enough 
if  the  buyer  cannot  pay  his  debts,  and  also  that 
ho  refuses  to  comply  with  the  specially  agreed 
terms  of  the  sale,  for  this  is  insolvency  so  far 
as  the  seller  is  concerned.  "When  the  goods 
are  stopped,  the  buyer  may,  by  payment  of  the 
price  or  by  tender  of  security  if  they  were  sold 
on  credit,  defeat  the  stoppage  and  reclaim  the  ' 
goods.  If  the  seller  stop  the  goods  mali 
ciously,  and  without  actual  belief  of  the  insol 
vency  on  good  grounds,  he  would  doubtless  be 
ans  werable  for  any  damages  which  the  buyer 
might  sustain.  The  seller's  right  to  stop  the 
goods  cannot  be  defeated  by  any  sale  or  mort 
gage  thereof  by  the  buyer,  or  by  any  claim 
or  lien  or  attachment  of  any  other  person,  ex 
cept  such  lien  as  may  arise  in  favor  of  any  car 
rier  by  whom  they  have  been  conveyed. — Nice 
questions  have  arisen  in  respect  to  the  tran- 


situs.  Generally  speaking,  the  goods  are  in 
transit  when  they  are  not  in  the  actual  posses 
sion  either  of  the  buyer  or  of  the  seller.  But 
the  law  goes  sometimes  further  than  this,  and 
inquires  into  the  constructive  possession ;  for 
the  goods  may  be  in  the  actual  possession  of 
the  seller,  and  yet  so  far  constructively  in  the 
possession  of  the  buyer  that  the  seller  cannot 
retain  them  ;  or  they  may  be  in  the  actual  pos 
session  of  the  buyer,  but  under  such  circum 
stances  that  the  seller's  right  is  not  taken  away. 
It  becomes,  therefore,  very  important  in  many 
instances  to  ascertain  whether  the  transit  is 
complete.  A  carrier  of  goods,  by  land  as  well 
as  by  sea,  acquires  a  lien  on  the  goods  which 
lie  carries  for  the  freight  money.  The  goods 
are  still  in  transit,  and  may  be  stopped,  so  long 
as  the  carrier  withholds  them  from  the  buyer 
by  his  lien  for  the  freight,  and  a  seller  who  seeks 
to  stop  them  then  must  discharge  this  lien. 
In  general,  whenever  a  carrier  enters  into  a 
new  arrangement  with  the  consignee,  by  which 
he  agrees  to  hold  the  goods  as  the  property 
of  the  consignee  and  at  his  disposal,  there  is 
a  termination  of  the  transit.  Yet  all  acts  in 
reference  to  such  question  must  be  open  to  ex 
planation  by  existing  circumstances,  the  gen 
eral  inquiry  in  such  case  being  whether  the 
carrier,  warehouseman,  wharfinger,  or  other 
person  having  actual  possession  of  the  goods 
at  the  time  of  the  intended  stoppage  in  tran 
situ,  was  then  acting  as  the  agent  of  the  seller 
or  of  the  buyer ;  for  if  of  the  latter,  the  tran 
sit  was  terminated..  If  the  buyer  order  the 
goods  to  be  sent  to  some  other  person  by  any 
suitable  conveyance  without  designating  any 
one  especially,  or  by  a  designated  carrier  who 
is  not  specifically  his  agent  or  servant,  the  goods 
remain  in  transitu  until  they  reach  that  second 
person.  Questions  of  constructive  possession 
arise  very  frequently  in  respect  to  goods  in  the 
charge  of  warehousemen.  In  general,  every 
warehouseman  is  -the  agent  of  any  party  who 
puts  the  goods  in  his  warehouse  and  can  take 
them  out  at  his  pleasure ;  and  therefore  his 
possession  is  the  possession  of  such  party.  On 
this  point  it  is  a  material  question  whether  any 
thing  remains  to  be  done  by  the  seller ;  if  noth 
ing,  this  goes  far  to  make  the  warehousing  a 
delivery  to  the  buyer.  If  a  seller  of  goods  that 
are  warehoused  delivers  an  order  for  them  to  a 
buyer,  this  alone  may  not  transfer  the  posses 
sion  ;  but  if  the  buyer  delivers  the  order  to  the 
warehouseman,  this  in  general  transfers  the  pos 
session,  and  still  more  so  if  the  warehouseman 
enters  the  same  in  his  books  or  otherwise  ac 
cepts  the  order,  so  as  to  be  responsible  for  the 
goods  to  the  buyer.  If  the  buyer  sells  to  a 
third  party,  to  whom  the  warehouseman  certi 
fies  that  the  goods  are  transferred  to  his  ac 
count,  and  who  thereupon  pays  the  price,  the 
warehouseman  becomes  responsible  to  this 
third  party ;  and  if  the  original  seller,  though 
there  remained  something  material  to  be  done 
by  him  to  the  goods,  consented  to  the  ware 
houseman's  so  certifying,  he  would  be  held  to 


STOBAX 


STOEK 


403 


have  lost  his  right  of  stoppage  in  transitn. — 
The  effect  of  the  bill  of  lading  upon  the  right 
of  a  seller  to  stop  the  goods  in  transitu  is  very 
important.  The  law  regards  the  hill  of  lading, 
not  as  a  mere  receipt  which  the  carrier  gives 
for  the  goods,  but  rather  as  a  muniment  of 
title,  carrying  property  with  it,  and  being  it 
self  quasi  negotiable.  An  indorsement  and 
delivery  of  the  bill  for  value  operate  as  a  sym 
bolic  delivery  of  the  goods  mentioned  in  it. 
It  results  from  this  doctrine  that  a  consignee, 
who  sells  for  value  goods  to  arrive  and  indorses 
over  the  bill  of  lading,  confers  upon  the  pur 
chaser  a  title  and  property  which  destroy  the 
right  of  the  seller  of  the  goods  to  stop  them  in 
transitu.  But  if  the  party  buying  from  the 
consignee  knows  that  the  sale  is  in  fraud  of 
the  original  seller,  it  is  voidable  by  that  seller 
of  course;  and  if  he  knows  that  the  consignee 
is,  or  is  about  to  become,  insolvent,  this  knowl 
edge  would  probably  have  the  same  effect,  as 
would  also  knowledge  or  notice  of  any  circum 
stances  which  rendered  the  bill  of  lading  not 
properly  assignable.  If  the  bill  of  lading  be 
transferred  and  indorsed  by  way  of  pledge  to 
secure  the  consignee's  debt,  the  consignor  does 
not  lose  entirely  his  right  to  stop  the  goods, 
but  holds  it  subject  to  the  rights  of  the  pledgee ; 
that  is,  he  may  enforce  his  claim  to  hold  the 
surplus  of  the  goods  after  the  pledgee's  claim 
is  satisfied,  and  he  holds  this  surplus  to  secure 
the  debt  of  the  consignee  to  him. — The  insol 
vency  of  the  buyer,  however  complete  or  how 
ever  manifested,  will  not  operate  of  itself  as  a 
stoppage  in  transitu.  The  goods  must  be  ac 
tually  stopped,  in  some  way  which  the  law  rec 
ognizes  as  adequate,  by  the  seller  or  his  au 
thorized  agent.  An  actual  taking  possession 
by  the  seller  is  not  necessary,  at  least  not  in 
all  cases,  although  actual  possession  should  be 
taken  if  possible,  and  as  soon  as  possible.  A 
constructive  possession  may  be  acquired  by 
giving  notice  to  the  carrier  or  warehouseman, 
forbidding  him  to  deliver  the  goods  to  the 
buyer,  and  requiring  him  to  give  them  up  to 
the  seller  or  his  agent,  or  to  hold  them  subject 
to  his  order.  Delivery  in  disregard  of  this 
notice  does  not  defeat  the  seller's  right;  he 
has  still  a  constructive  possession,  and  the  car 
rier  is  responsible  to  him  for  all  the  injury  he 
may  sustain.  Or,  if  the  buyer  becomes  insol 
vent,  and  the  goods  pass  into  the  possession  of 
his  assignees,  the  seller  may  maintain  an  action 
of  trover  against  them.  What  the  consignor 
may  do  personally,  he  may  do  by  his  agent; 
and  if  the  demand  be  made  by  one  who  acts 
as  agent,  but  without  authority,  a  subsequent 
adoption  and  ratification  will  have  the  effect 
of  a  previous  authority,  provided  this  be  made 
before  the  goods  are  demanded  by  the  buyer. 

STORAX.     See  BALSAMS. 

STOREY,  a  W.  county  of  Xevada,  bounded  K 
by  Truckee  river  and  S.  by  the  Carson ;  area, 
420  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1875,  19,528,  of  whom  1,341 
were  Chinese.  The  valleys  of  the  rivers  con 
tain  small  tracts  of  arable  land,  but  the  county 


|  derives  its  importance  from  the  Comstock  lode, 
on  Mt.  Davidson  (7,000  ft.  high),  the  richest 
silver-bearing  lode  in  the  world.  According 
to  the  census  of  1870,  there  were  19  quartz 
mines  in  operation,  producing  gold  and  silver 
to  the  value  of  $7,751,331 ;  but  the  production 
has  since  very  greatly  increased.  There  were 
3  manufactories  of  boots  and  shoes,  3  of  car 
riages  and  wagons,  5  of  furniture,  3  of  iron 
castings,  3  of  jewelry,  4  of  machinery,  3  of 
saddlery  and  harness,  4  of  tin  ware,  8  brewer 
ies,  and  26  quartz  mills.  Capital,  Virginia. 

STORK,  a  wading  bird  of  the  heron  family, 
subfamily  ciconince,  and  genus  ciconia  (Linn.) ; 
other  allied  genera  are  the  jabiru  and  mara 
bou,  described  under  their  own  names.  In  the 
storks  the  bill  is  long,  straight,  strong,  gradu 
ally  tapering  to  a  sharp  tip ;  sides  compressed ; 
wings  long  and  ample,  the  third  and  fourth 
quills  the  longest  and  equal;  tail  short  and 
broad;  tarsi  long  and  scaled;  toes  short  and 
stout,  webbed  to  the  first  joint ;  hind  toe  ele 
vated,  partly  resting  on  the  ground.  They  are 
large,  most  abundant  in  warm  countries,  and 
performing  periodical  migrations  to  and  from 
the  marshy  regions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Afri 
ca;  like  vultures  and  other  carrion  feeders, 
they  eat  almost  any  kind  of  garbage  that  comes 
in  their  way,  and  are  hence  valuable  scaven 
gers  in  hot  climates ;  they  seek  their  food  on 
the  borders  of  streams ;  the  body  is  light  and 
well  balanced ;  during  flight  the  head  is  thrown 
back  and  the  legs  are  extended;  the  space 
round  the  orbits  is  destitute  of  feathers,  and 
in  some  the  whole  face  and  throat  are  naked. 
There  are  about  a  dozen  species,  of  which  the 
best  known  is  the  white  stork  ((7.  alia,  Briss.)  ; 


White  Stork  (Ciconia  alba). 

it  is  3|  ft.  long,  the  bill  7f  in. ;  the  general 
color  is  white,  with  the  quills  and  wing  coverts 
black,  and  bill  and  feet  red ;  around  the  eyes  a 
bald  blackish  circle;  it  is  the  cigogne  of  the 
French.  They  arrive  in  N.  Europe,  especially 
in  Holland  and  Germany,  in  the  spring,  return- 


404. 


STORMONT 


STORMS 


ing  in  the  autumn  to  Africa  by  night  and  in 
large  flocks;  the  only  noise  they  make  is  by 
clapping  the  mandibles  together  like  a  pair  of 
castanets ;  they  rest  sleeping  on  one  leg,  with 
the  neck  folded  and  head  turned  backward  on 
the  shoulder.  The  food  consists  of  reptiles, 
fish,  young  birds,  and  insects.  The  nest  is 
large,  coarsely  made  of  sticks  and  twigs,  placed 
on  housetops  (often  in  the  midst  of  crowded 
cities),  and  is  repaired  by  the  males  year  after 
year ;  the  eggs  are  three  or  four,  white  tinged 
with  buff,  2j}  by  2  in. ;  both  sexes  incubate, 
and  the  young  are  hatched  in  about  a  month  ; 
the  nestlings  are  tenderly  cared  for,  and  are  fed 
by  food  regurgitated  from  the  parents'  stom 
achs.  The  flight  is  very  high,  and  the  gait 
slow,  with  long  and  measured  steps;  the  dis 
position  is  gentle,  the  manner  familiar,  and  the 
docility  considerable ;  they  do  not  propagate 
in  captivity.  The  stork  was  considered  by  the 
ancients  as  the  personification  of  piety,  con 
jugal  and  filial  love,  gratitude,  and  temper 
ance;  it  was  supposed  to  bear  a  charmed  life, 
and  it  was  a  crime  to  offer  it  violence;  in 
some  places  it  was  even  an  object  of  worship, 
and  in  hieroglyphic  language  it  is  the  symbol 
of  piety  and  beneficence;  "pious"  or  "benefi 
cent  "  is  also  the  meaning  of  its  name  in  lie- 
brew  (hasidalt).  The  black  stork  (C.  nigra, 
Bechst.)  is  about  2J  ft.  long,  with  a  bill  of  5£ 
in. ;  the  color  above  is  black  with  green  and 
purplish  gloss,  and  white  below.  It  avoids  the 
vicinity  of  man,  nests  in  trees,  and  feeds  like 
the  herons  chiefly  on  fish;  it  is  found  in  many 
countries  of  Europe,  especially  in  the  Alps. 
The  American  stork  (C.  Americana,  Briss.)  is 
about  as  large  as  the  white  species ;  it  is  found 
in  South  America,  particularly  in  Brazil. 

STORJIOiW,  an  E.  county  of  Ontario,  Can 
ada,  bounded  S.  E.  by  the  St.  Lawrence  river; 
area,  409  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1871,  18,987,  of  whom 
6,229  were  of  Scotch,  4,191  of  Irish,  3,125  of 
German,  2,233  of  French,  1,621  of  English,  and 
1,322  of  Dutch  origin  or  descent.  It  is  watered 
by  several  small  streams,  and  is  traversed  by 
the  Grand  Trunk  railway.  Capital,  Cornwall. 

STORMS,  violent  atmospheric  disturbances. 
(See  WIXD.)  Storm  areas  are  in  general  char 
acterized  by  low  barometric  pressure  at  their 
centres ;  winds  increasing  in  force  toward  the 
central  region,  and  by  their  directions  show 
ing  the  lower  portion  of  the  atmosphere  to 
be  moving  spirally  in,  toward  and  around  the 
centre;  heavy  masses  of  low  clouds  attended 
by  a  higher  stratum  that  moves  around  and 
out  from  the  centre ;  rain  or  snow  falling  es 
pecially  on  the  advancing  side  or  front  of  the 
storm  ;  temperatures  above  the  average  in 
front,  and  below  the  average  in  the  rear  of 
the  storm.  The  storm  area  with  its  attending 
features  moves  bodily  along  the  earth's  sur 
face  for  several  days.  A  map  showing  the 
average  number  of  centres  of  storms  that  pass 
over  the  eastern  portions  of  the  United  States 
is  published  in  the  "Statistical  Atlas"  of  the 
census  bureau  (1875),  and  is  here  reproduced. 


The  number  of  storm  centres  passing  over 
any  region  increases  as  we  go  from  the  low 
er  latitudes  toward  Hudson  bay,  being  great 
est  in  the  region  of  the  St.  Lawrence  valley 
and  the  great  lakes.  This  arises  from  the 
fact  that  while  on  the  one  hand  many  storms 
move  eastward  along  the  northern  limits  of 
our  field  of  observation,  on  the  other  hand 
the  storms  that  originate  in  the  lower  lati 
tudes  tend  to  move  northward.  Nine  tenths  of 
the  storm  tracks  on  which  this  map  is  based 
have  moved  toward  and  over  New  England 
and  Lower  Canada.  The  chart  also  shows  in 
Nebraska  a  region  of  specially  numerous  storm 
tracks,  from  the  fact  that  the  storms  coming 
both  from  Texas  and  from  Dakota  frequently 
move  respectively  N.  E.  and  S.  E.  toward  this 
region;  and  frequently  we  find  here  also  the 
first  trace  of  a  class  of  storms  that  appear  to 
originate  on  the  spot.  The  peculiarities  in 
the  distribution  of  storms  are  apparently  fully 
explained  by  the  topography  of  the  continent. 
When  we  consider  that  at  any  station  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  the  winds  veer  from  S.  E. 
to  S.  W.  and  N.  W.  as  a  storm  centre  passes  N. 
of  it,  we  perceive  from  this  map  that  through 
out  the  United  States  E.  of  the  Rocky  moun 
tains  the  veering  of  the  wind  will  be  more  fre 
quent  than  its  backing,  in  the  proportions  indi 
cated  by  the  relative  number  of  storm  centres 
that  pass  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  station. 
For  the  ocean,  it  has  in  general  not  yet  been  pos 
sible  to  compile  any  general  map  of  the  aver 
age  paths  of  the  storms  ;  but  from  the  logs  of 
vessels  a  great  mass  of  information  relative  to 
the  frequency  of  gales  and  stormy  winds  has 
been  compiled,  and  this  information  is  very 
nearly  related  to  that  given  by  the  accom 
panying  chart.  The  first  map  of  this  kind  was 
compiled  at  the  United  States  naval  obser 
vatory  by  M.  F.  Maury;  and  the  work  of  col 
lecting  such  data  has  been  actively  pursued  by 
the  meteorological  officers  of  all  nations,  es 
pecially  England  and  Holland.— Within  20°  of 
the  equator  storm  winds  are  exceedingly  rare, 
but  their  number  increases  rapidly  as  we  ap 
proach  the  latitude  of  50°  N.  or  S.  During  our 
northern  summer  the  percentage  of  stormi- 
ness  diminishes  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  in 
creases  in  the  South  Atlantic  ocean.  In  ei 
ther  hemisphere,  winter  is  its  stormy  season. 
Within  the  limits  of  our  observations,  viz.,  up 
to  the  parallel  of  40°  on  either  side  of  the  equa 
tor  and  in  mid-ocean,  the  southern  winter  is 
sensibly  as  stormy  as  the  northern  ;  but  beyond 
these  parallels,  and  especially  near  the  coast 
of  North  and  South  America,  the  northern 
hemisphere  is  far  more  stormy  than  the  south 
ern  ;  the  probable  cause  is  the  greater  mass 
of  dry  land,  and  consequently  of  dry  cold  air, 
contiguous  to  the  North  Atlantic,  as  compared 
with  the  little  land  bordering  the  South  Atlan 
tic.  Among  the  regions  most  frequently  passed 
over  by  vessels  of  all  nations,  the  neighbor 
hoods  of  Cape  Horn  and  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope  are  next  in  importance  to  the  great 


NIVKM 


UN  1  V  I- 


STORMS 


405 


highway  between  Europe  and  America.  The 
charts  of  the  ocean  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Cape  Horn,  published  by  the  London  meteo 
rological  office  (1871),  do  not  give  the  per 
centages  of  storms ;  but  for  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope,  the  charts  of  Cornelissen  (1874),  of 
the  meteorological  institute  of  the  Nether 
lands,  show  that  during  the  southern  summer 
the  storms  in  this  region  are  comparatively 
few  and  feeble.  In  winter  severe  westerly 
gales  are  exceedingly  abundant  to  the  south 
of  the  cape.  In  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  continent,  and  on  either  side,  the  influ 
ence  of  the  land  is  shown  in  the  frequency  of 
storm  winds  blowing  ofi.  shore  during  winter, 
and  on  shore  during  summer. — Storm  Warn 
ings.  Suggestions  for  storm  warnings  were 
broached  even  in  the  18th  century,  before  the 
introduction  of  the  electric  telegraph  had  ren 
dered  the  undertaking  practicable.  The  Euro 
peans  were  the  first  to  engage  systematically  in 
storm  warning ;  but  in  the  early  demonstration 
of  the  feasibility  of  the  idea,  the  merchants  and 
the  individual  meteorologists  of  the  United 
States  took  the  lead.  If  we  pass  by  that  which 
Franklin,  Espy,  Bache,  Redfield,  Loomis,  Mau- 
ry,  and  others  did  to  advance  our  knowledge  of 
atmospheric  phenomena,  and  consider  merely 
the  steps  taken  to  establish  national  systems 
of  storm  warnings,  we  shall  note  that  in 
1835  the  joint  meteorological  committee  of 
the  Franklin  institute  and  the  American  phil 
osophical  society  at  Philadelphia  appointed,  at 
the  suggestion  of  Bache  and  Espy,  a  sub-com 
mittee  to  memorialize  congress  upon  the  sub 
ject  of  a  national  weather  bureau  for  the  study 
and  prediction  of  storms.  When  the  success 
of  the  Morse  telegraph  was  beyond  all  question, 
Redfield 'in  1840,  and  Loomis  in  1847,  urged 
its  systematic  application  to  the  problem  in 
hand.  This  idea  was  greatly  furthered  by  Prof. 
Joseph  Henry,  who  as  secretary  of  the  Smith 
sonian  institution  had  just  removed  to  Wash 
ington.  In  1847,  in  behalf  of  that  institution, 
he  organized  a  system  of  volunteer  meteoro 
logical  observations  and  reports.  Through  the 
liberality  of  the  National  telegraph  line,  Prof. 
Henry  was  in  1857  able  to  begin  the  publica 
tion  of  a  telegraphic  weather  bulletin,  and  to 
make  successful  weather  predictions.  Mean 
while,  the  appointment  of  Espy  as  meteorolo 
gist  successively  to  the  war  and  navy  depart 
ments,  and  the  publication  (1850  and  1857)  of 
his  famous  reports  on  meteorology,  had  awa 
kened  a  universal  conviction  that  storm  pre 
dictions  were  practicable.  Already  many  mer 
chants  were  habitually  obtaining  at  their  own 
expense  weather  reports  from  distant  sections. 
The  Smithsonian  weather  bulletin  was  of  ne 
cessity  discontinued  in  18G1,  and  an  effort  to 
revive  it  in  1864  was  frustrated  only  by  a  con 
flagration  which  destroyed  a  portion  of  the 
Smithsonian  building  early  in  the  following 
year.  It  does  not  appear  that  anything  more 
was  done  in  America  in  the  prosecution  of 
the  subject  of  weather  predictions  until  in 


1868,  in  his  inaugural  report  as  director  of 
the  Cincinnati  observatory,  the  writer  proposed 
this  as  a  work  proper  for  one  branch  of  the  in 
stitution  which  he  proposed  to  build  up  in  that 
city.  A  few  months  after  this  date  the  Cin 
cinnati  chamber  of  commerce  authorized  him 
to  obtain  at  its  expense,  for  three  months,  the 
necessary  telegrams,  and  to  publish  daily  weath 
er  predictions.  This  system  went  into  opera 
tion  on  Sept.  1,  1869.  In  a  modified  form, 
and  pending  further  negotiations,  the  work 
was  continued  at  the  joint  expense  of  the  wri 
ter  and  the  Western  Union  telegraph  company 
from  December,  1869,  to  May,  1870,  and  after 
ward  entirely  at  the  expense  of  that  company, 
whose  manifold  weather  maps  were  in  much 
demand  until  the  commencement  in  Novem 
ber,  1870,  of  the  great  work  of  the  army  signal 
office.  (See  SIGNAL  SERVICE.) — Simultaneous 
ly  with  the  spread  of  the  telegraph  in  Europe 
began  the  publication  of  weather  bulletins, 
and  their  collation  and  study.  Ka'mtz  says 
that  even  in  1835  he  had  begun  to  study  the 
weather  reports  in  the  Berlin  papers,  but  it 
required  the  excitement  of  the  Crimean  war, 
in  1854,  to  force  the  importance  of  the  subject 
upon  the  attention  of  European  governments. 
In  that  year  Leverrier  as  director  of  the  Paris 
observatory  took  up  the  subject;  his  tele 
graphic  reports  began  in  1855,  and  his  inter 
national  bulletin  in  1858.  Weather  probabili 
ties  were  not  begun  till  1863  ;  these  were  dis 
continued  in  1865,  and  only  lately  have  been 
revived,  but  storm  warning  signals  have  been 
uninterruptedly  displayed  since  1860.  In  1861 
Admiral  Fitzroy,  of  the  meteorological  depart 
ment  of  the  board  of  trade,  began  the  display  of 
storm  signals  in  England,  and  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  year  the  publication  of  weather  fore 
casts  ;  his  system  of  warnings  consisted  rather 
of  a  series  of  signals  announcing  the  presence 
of  storms,  than  of  any  real  prediction  of  their 
advent.  The  Fitzroy  system  ceased  in  1866, 
shortly  after  his  death,  but  was  renewed  in 
1867.  Since  that  time  the  British  ports  have 
regularly  received  storm  warnings,  but  the  dis 
play  of  the  storm  signal  and  storm  drum  was 
only  revived  in  March,  1875.  The  French  and 
English  systems  of  storm  warnings  were  in. 
some  respects  preceded  by  the  system  organ 
ized  in  Holland  by  Buys-Ballot,  who  in  1854 
had  announced  his  famous  rule  for  that  coun 
try  in  regard  to  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
as  depending  on  barometric  disturbance.  In 
1860  he  began  the  communication  to  the  ship 
ping  ports  of  storm  warning  despatches,  and 
was  in  fact  by  his  signals  the  first  to  utilize 
the  despatches  contained  in  the  telegraphic 
weather  bulletins  of  Leverrier.  The  organ 
ization  of  the  French,  English,  and  Dutch 
systems  suffices  to  furnish  for  other  European 
nations  such  storm  predictions  as  are  needed 
|  for  their  respective  ports.  Thus  Spain,  Italy, 
Sweden,  Hanover,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Tur 
key  receive  regularly  from  Paris  and  London 
announcements  of  the  condition  of  the  weath- 


406 


STORES 


STORY 


er,  especially  of  impending  storms.  Every  na 
tion  of  the  civilized  world,  including  China  and 
Japan,  now  has  national  offices  for  collecting 
and  utilizing  meteorological  observations.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  warning  signal,  whether 
it  be  the  drum  or  cone  as  in  England,  or  the 
flags  and  lights  adopted  in  other  countries,  is 
intended  to  announce  merely  that  the  chances 
are  that  there  will  soon  be  a  dangerous  high 
wind  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  station. 

STORES,  Richard  Salter,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  in  Braintree,  Mass.,  Aug.  21,  1821. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  college  in  1839,  and 
at  Andover  theological  seminary  in  1845,  and 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Harvard  Congrega 
tional  church,  Brookline,  Mass.  In  1846  he 
became  pastor  of  the  church  of  the  Pilgrims, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  which  post  he  still  retains 
(1876).  He  was  associate  editor  of  the  "In 
dependent''  newspaper  from  its  commence 
ment  in  1848  to  1861.  He  has  published  a 
report  on  the  revision  of  the  English  version 
of  the  Bible  undertaken  by  the  American  Bible 
society;  "Graham  Lectures,  on  the  Wisdom, 
Power,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested 
in  the  Constitution  of  the  Human  Soul "  (New 
York,  1856) ;  and  lectures  on  "  The  Conditions 
of  Success  in  Preaching  without  Notes1'  (1875). 

STORY,  a  central  county  of  Iowa,  intersected 
by  Skunk  river ;  area,  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  11,651.  The  surface  is  undulating  and 
the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  131,022  bushels  of  wheat,  390,395  of  In 
dian  corn,  97,938  of  oats,  25,066  of  potatoes, 
13,730  tons  of  hay,  8,918  Ibs.  of  wool,  132,249 
of  butter,  and  5,751  gallons  of  sorghum  mo 
lasses.  There  were  1,580  horses,  2,253  milch 
cows,  4,021  other  cattle,  3,185  sheep,  and 
5,388  swine.  The  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
railroad  passes  through  the  capital,  Nevada. 

STORY,  I.  Joseph,  an  American  jurist,  born 
in  Marblehead,  Mass.,  Sept.  18,  1779,  died  in 
Cambridge,  Sept.  10,  1845.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1798,  and  studied  law  in 
Marblehead.  In  1801  he  removed  to  Salem 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  lie  soon  ac 
quired  a  lucrative  practice  and  the  warm  friend 
ship  of  some  of  the  leading  federalists,  though 
he  was  a  republican.  In  1804  he  published  a 
volume  of  poems  containing  "The  Power  of 
Solitude  "  and  some  smaller  pieces,  but  it  was 
not  successful.  From  1805  to  1808  he  was  a 
member  of  the  lower  house  of  the  legislature 
of  Massachusetts,  and  took  a  very  active  part 
as  the  principal  leader  on  the  republican  side ; 
but  in  two  of  the  measures  which  he  espoused, 
he  acted  upon  purely  independent  grounds. 
The  iirst  was  a  bill  to  increase,  and  to  estab 
lish  on  a  permanent  basis,  the  salaries  of  the 
justices  of  the  supreme  judicial  court,  which 
was  passed  by  his  exertions  in  1807.  The 
other  was  a  bill  (1808)  to  establish  a  court  of 
chancery  for  the  state ;  but  this  did  not  suc 
ceed.  In  the  same  year  he  defended  the  em 
bargo  as  the  only  measure  which  the  adminis 
tration  of  Jefferson  could  have  adopted,  short 


of  a  declaration  of  war,  without  submitting  to 
the  ignominious  restrictions  on  American  com 
merce  by  the  belligerent  powers.  He  had  writ 
ten  in  1806  the  celebrated  "  Memorial  of  the 
Inhabitants  of  Salem  relative  to  the  Infringe 
ments  on  the  Neutral  Trade  of  the  United 
States,"  addressed  to  the  president  and  to  con 
gress.  In  the  autumn  of  1808  he  was  elected 
to  congress  from  the  Essex  district.  In  op 
position  to  the  administration  he  exerted  him 
self  to  procure  a  repeal  of  the  embargo,  upon 
the  ground  that  he  had  originally  supported  it 
as  a  temporary  measure,  and  that  it  had  ac 
complished  its  real  purpose.  He  left  congress 
before  the  repeal  was  consummated,  but  not 
before  he  had  largely  contributed  to  bring 
it  about,  and  Jefferson  attributed  the  repeal 
almost  wholly  to  his  exertions.  Declining  a 
reelection  to  congress,  he  was  again  chosen  to 
a  seat  in  the  state  legislature  in  1810,  and  in 
January,  1811,  he  was  elected  speaker  of  the 
house.  On  Nov.  18,  1811,  he  received  the  ap 
pointment  of  associate  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States;  and  on  Jan.  17, 
1812,  ho  resigned  the  office  of  speaker.  In 
1820  he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  for 
the  revision  of  the  state  constitution.  His 
principal  services  in  that  body  related  to  the 
tenure  and  the  compensation  of  the  judiciary, 
the  apportionment  of  the  house  of  representa 
tives,  and  the  property  basis  of  the  senate. 
The  original  constitution  contained  a  clause 
authorizing  the  legislature  to  increase  the  sala 
ries  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  judicial  court. 
A  motion  was  made  and  suddenly  carried  to 
insert  the  words  "  or  diminish."  The  recon 
sideration  and  rejection  of  this  amendment 
were  produced  by  a  powerful  and  brilliant 
argument  by  Judge  Story,  which  commanded 
the  assent  of  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  con 
vention.  In  1829  Judge  Story  was  appointed 
professor  of  law  in  Harvard  university,  on  a 
foundation  established  by  Nathan  Dane,  for 
the  delivery  of  lectures  on  the  law  of  nature, 
the  law  of  nations,  commercial  and  maritime 
law,  federal  law,  and  federal  equity ;  and  for 
the  rest  of  his  life  he  resided  in  Cambridge. 
The  law  school  of  which  he  now  became  the 
head  immediately  attracted  students  from  all 
parts  of  the  United  States.  In  his  consti 
tutional  views  he  was  of  the  school  of  Wash 
ington  and  Marshall,  upholding  what  he  con 
sidered  as  the  just  powers  of  the  Union,  with 
out  encroaching  upon  the  rights  of  the  states. 
His  works  comprehend  "  Commentaries  on 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  "  (3 
vols.  8vo,  1833);  "Commentaries  on  the  Con 
flict  of  Laws  "  (1834) ;  "  Commentaries  on 
Equity  Jurisprudence"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1836)  and 
"Equity  Pleadings"  (1838);  and  treatises  on 
the  law  of  bailments,  agency,  partnership,  bills 
of  exchange,  and  promissory  notes.  All  of 
these  works  have '  passed  through  many  edi 
tions.  Judge  Story  was  gifted  with  great 
colloquial  powers,  and  his  social  qualities  in 
private  life  largely  added  to  the  influence  of 


STOTHARD 


STOWE 


40Y 


his  learning,  talents,  and  public  positions.  A 
life  of  him  by  his  son,  William  W.  Story,  was 
published  at  Boston  in  1851  (2  vols.  8vo). 
There  is  'also  a  collection  of  his  "  Miscella 
neous  Writings"  (8vo,  1852).  His  decisions 
as  a  circuit  court  judge  are  contained  in  13 
vols.  8vo,  being  the  reports  of  Gallison,  Ma 
son,  Simmer,  and  Story.  His  judgments  in 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  may 
be  found  in  the  reports  of  Cranch,  Wheaton, 
Peters,  and  Howard,  from  1811  to  1845.  II. 
William  Wetmore,  an  American  sculptor  and  au 
thor,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Salem,  Feb. 
12,  1819.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1838,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston. 
In  1844  he  published  a  "Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Contracts,"  and  in  1847  a  "  Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Sales  of  Personal  Property."  He  also 
published  three  volumes  of  u  Reports  of  Cases 
argued  and  determined  in  the  Circuit  Court  of 
the  United  States  for  the  First  Circuit "  (1847). 
In  1847  he  published  a  small  volume  of  poems ; 
in  1851  a  life  of  his  father  (2  vols.  8vo) ;  and 
in  1856  a  second  volume  of  poems.  Among 
his  subsequent  publications  are :  "  Roba  di  Ro 
ma,  or  Walks  and  Talks  about  Rome  "  (2  vols., 
London,  1862;  New  York,  18G4;  new  ed., 
1875);  "Proportions  of  the  Human  Figure" 
(1866);  "Graffiti  d'ltalia"  (Edinburgh,  1869); 
"  A  Roman  Lawyer  in  Jerusalem  "  (1870)  ;  and 
"Nero,  an  Historical  Play"  (1875).  Since 
1848  Mr.  Story  has  resided  in  Rome,  devoting 
himself  to  sculpture,  for  which  he  early  showed 
a  strong  inclination.  Among  his  works  are  a 
sitting  statue  of  his  father,  in  marble,  in  the 
chapel  at  Mt.  Auburn ;  statues  of  George  Pea- 
body,  Josiah  Quincy,  and  Edward  Everett ; 
busts  of  James  Russell  Lowell  and  Theodore 
Parker;  and  many  ideal  works  of  great  merit, 
among  which  are  a  "  Shepherd  Boy,"  "  Little 
Red  Riding-Hood,"  "Sappho,"  "Cleopatra," 
"Jerusalem"  (an  allegorical  female  figure  rep 
resenting  the  desolation  of  the  city  after  the 
destruction  of  the  temple),  a  "  Sibyl,"  and 
"  Semiramis."  The  last  is  owned  in  New  York. 
STOTHARD,  Thomas,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  London,  Aug.  17,  1755,  died  there,  April  27, 
1834.  At  the  age  of  14  he  was  apprenticed  to 
a  designer  of  patterns,  then  became  a  designer 
for  illustrated  books,  and  studied  painting  at 
the  royal  academy,  of  which  he  was  elected  a  j 
member  in  1794  and  librarian  in  1812.  He  is 
known  by  his  contributions  to  "BoydelFs  j 
Shakespeare,"  his  "  Canterbury  Pilgrims,"  the  j 
"Flitch  of  Bacon,"  the  Wellington  shield,  and 
his  illustrations  of  Rogers's  "Poems"  and 
"  Italy."  The  number  of  his  designs  is  esti 
mated  at  5,000,  of  which  3,000  have  been  en 
graved. —  His  son  CHARLES  ALFRED  (1786- 
1821),  draughtsman  to  the  society  of  antiqua 
ries,  published  a  work  on  the  "Monumental 
Effigies  of  Great  Britain  "  (13  parts,  fol.,  1811- 
'23),  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  wife, 
afterward  Mrs.  Bray,  and  his  brother-in-law 
A.  G.  Kempe.  The  former  wrote  his  life  and  \ 
that  of  his  father.  (See  BEAT,  AXNA  ELIZA.)  | 


STOVE.     See  WARMIXG  AND  VENTILATION. 

STOW,  Baron,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Croydon,  N.  H.,  June  16,  1801,  died  in  Bos 
ton,  Dec.  27,  1869.  He  graduated  at  Columbian 
college,  D.  C.,  in  1825,  and  in  1825-^27  edited 
the  "  Columbian  Star."  On  Oct.  24,  1827,  he 
was  ordained  pastor  of  a  Baptist  church  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  II.,  and  in  1832  became  pastor 
of  the  Baldwin  place  Baptist  church  in  Bos 
ton,  and  in  1848  of  the  Rowe  street  church. 
He  was  recording  secretary  of  the  board  of 
the  general  missionary  convention  from  1838 
to  1846.  He  published  "Memoir  of  Harriet 
Dow"  (1832);  "History  of  the  English  Bap 
tist  Mission  to  India  "  (1835) ;  "  History  of  the 
Danish  Mission  on  the  Coast  of  Coromandel " 
(1837)  ;  "  Daily  Manna  for  Christian  Pilgrims  " 
(1842);  "The  Whole  Family  in  Heaven  and 
Earth  "  (1845) ;  "  Question  Book  of  Christian 
Doctrine"  (1848);  "The  Psalmist,"  with  the 
Rev.  S.  F.  Smith  (1849);  "Christian  Broth 
erhood"  (1859);  and  "First  Things,  or  De 
velopment  of  Church  Life  "  (1859).  His  life 
has  been  written  by  R.  II.  Keale  (Boston,  1870). 

STOW,  John,  an  English  antiquary,  born  in 
London  in  1525,  died  April  5,  1605.  He  was 
bred  a  tailor,  but  from  1560  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  antiquities  of  English  history. 
He  made  an  extensive  collection  of  papers, 
many  of  them  Catholic  records,  which  occa 
sioned  suspicion,  and  he  was  cited  before  an 
ecclesiastical  commission  on  charges  preferred 
by  his  own  brother,  but  was  acquitted.  His 
works  are:  a  "  Summarie  of  Englysh  Chron 
icles"  (12mo,  1561);  "Annales,  or  a  Generall 
|  Chronicle  of  England"  (4to,  1580);  "A  Sur- 
|  vey  of  London  "  (4to,  1598 ;  continued  by  John 
Strype,  2  vols.,  1720 ;  new  eds.,  1842  and  1846)  ; 
and  "The  Successions  of  the  History  of  Eng 
land,  from  the  Beginning  of  Edward  VI.  to  the 
End  of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth"  (1638). 

STOWE.  I.  Calvin  Ellis,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  at  Natick,  Mass.,  April  6,  1802.  He 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  college  in  1824,  and  at 
Andover  theological  seminary  in  1828,  and  in 
1828-'30  was  assistant  professor  at  Andover. 
In  1830  he  became  professor  of  languages  in 
Dartmouth  college,  and  in  1833  of  Biblical 
literature  in  Lane  theological  seminary,  Cin 
cinnati.  In  May,  1836,  lie  visited  Europe  to 
examine,  in  behalf  of  the  state  of  Ohio,  the 
public  school  system  of  the  German  states, 
and  published  "Elementary  Education  in  Eu 
rope,"  which  was  distributed  in  every  district 
of  Ohio  by  the  legislature.  He  also  published 
reports  on  the  "Education  of  Immigrants,"  on 
"The  Course  of  Instruction  in  the  Primary 
Schools  of  Prussia,"  and  on  "Elementary  In 
struction  in  Prussia."  In  1850  he  became  di 
vinity  professor  at  Bowdoin  college,  and  in 
1852  professor  of  sacred  literature  in  Andover 
theological  seminary.  He  resigned  this  office 
in  1864,  and  has  since  resided  in  Hartford, 
Conn.  His  remaining  works  are :  a  "  History 
of  the  Hebrew  Commonwealth,"  translated 
from  the  German  of  Jahn  (Andover,  1828;  2 


408 


STOWELL 


STRAFFORD 


vols.,  London,  1829);  "Lectures  on  the  Sa 
cred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,"  from  the  Prcelec- 
tiojies  of  Lowth,  with  notes  (Andover,  1829) ; 
"Introduction  to  the  Criticism  and  Interpre 
tation  of  the  Bible"  (vol.  i.  only  published, 
Cincinnati,  1835);  and  "Origin  and  History 
of  the  Books  of  the  Bible  "  (part  i.,  the  New 
Testament,  Hartford,  1867).  II.  Harriet  Elizabeth 
Beecher,  wife  of  the  preceding.  See  BELCHER. 
STOWELL,  William  Scott,  baron,  an  English 
jurist,  born  in  He  worth,  Durham,  Oct.  17, 
1745,  died  Jan.  28,  1836.  He  graduated  at 
Oxford  in  1764,  and  was  elected  a  fellow,  and 
soon  after  a  college  tutor.  In  1774  he  became 
Camden  professor  of  ancient  history  in  the 
university.  In  1779  he  was  admitted  at  doc 
tors'  commons  into  the  faculty  of  advocates, 
and  in  1780  was  called  to  the  bar.  lie  made  a 
specialty  of  ecclesiastical  and  admiralty  prac 
tice,  and  within  a  few  years  was  appointed 
successively  registrar  of  the  court  of  faculties, 
judge  of  the  consistory  court,  vicar  general  of 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  advocate 
general.  In  1798  he  was  made  judge  of  the 
high  court  of  admiralty,  which  office  he  occu 
pied  for  30  years.  Ho  was  elected  a  member 
of  parliament  for  Downton  in  1790,  and  was 
one  of  the  members  for  the  university  of  Ox 
ford  from  1801  to  1821,  when  he  was  made  a 
peer.  lie  was  a  brother  of  Lord  Eldon. 

STRABISMUS.     See  SQUINTING. 

STRABO,  a  Greek  geographer,  born  at  Ama- 
sia,  in  Pontus,  Asia  Minor,  about  54  B.  C.,  died 
about  A.  I).  24.  He  studied  rhetoric  under 
Aristodemus  at  Nysa  in  Curia ;  was  a  pupil  at 
Ami.sus  in  Pontus  of  Tyrannio  the  gramma 
rian,  and  at  Seleucia  in  Cilicia  of  Xt-narchus, 
a  peripatetic  philosopher.  At  Alexandria  he 
studied  under  Boethus  of  Sidon,  also  a  peri 
patetic  ;  and  at  Tarsus  under  Athenodorus,  a 
stoic.  lie  travelled  in  Syria,  Egypt,  Crete, 
Greece,  and  Italy.  He  wrote  "Historical  Me 
moirs,"  which  are  lost,  and  a  "  Geography." 
This  work,  which  embodies  all  the  geograph 
ical  knowledge  of  the  age,  is  divided  into  17 
books;  the  lirst  2  treat  of  cosmography,  or  the 
description  of  the  earth  in  general,  and  the 
other  15  give  accounts  of  particular  countries. 
Fragments  of  the  8th  and  9th  books  w,ere  dis 
covered  in  1875.  Among  the  best  editions  are 
those  of  Casaubon  (1597),  Kramer  (1844-'52), 
and  Meineke  (3  vols.,  1852;  new  ed.,  1864). 
There  is  an  English  translation  by  Falconer  and 
Hamilton  (3  vols.,  1854-' 7).  (See  GEOGRAPHY.) 

STRADELLA,  Alessandro,  an  Italian  musician, 
born  in  Naples  about  1645,  assassinated  in 
Genoa  in  1678.  lie  was  a  singer,  violinist, 
and  composer.  At  Venice  he  was  employed 
to  teach  Ilortensia,  a  noble  Roman  lady  of 
great  beauty,  with  whom  a  Venetian  noble 
man  was  in  love.  Stradella  and  Ilortensia  fell 
in  love  and  eloped  to  Rome.  Assassins  hired 
by  the  Venetian  found  them  there,  but  were 
so  moved  by  Stradclla's  music  and  singing  at 
the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  where  he  was 
directing  the  performance  of  his  oratorio  "St. 


John  the  Baptist,"  that  they  informed  him  of 
their  purpose,  and  that  they  had  abandoned 
it.  Stradella  and  Ilortensia  fled  to  Turin, 
where  they  were  favorably  received  by  the 
duchess  regent,  and  were  married.  The  Ve 
netian  hired  other  assassins,  who  finally  suc 
ceeded  in  wounding  Stradella,  but  he  recov 
ered.  The  next  year  he  and  his  wife  went  to 
Genoa  to  arrange  for  the  performance  of  an 
opera  which  he  had  composed  at  the  request 
of  the  city.  Here  other  assassins  rushed  into 
their  chamber  and  murdered  them  both.  His 
principal  works  are  the  Oratorio  di  San  Gio 
vanni  Battista  and  Laforza  deW  amor  pater- 
no,  opera  seria  (Genoa,  1678). 

STRADIVARI,  or  Stradivarius,  Antonio,  an  Ital 
ian  violin  maker,  born  in  Cremona  in  1644, 
died  there,  Dec.  17,  1737.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Nicold  Amati,  and  his  first  violins,  made  when 
lie  was  23  years  old,  as  well  as  those  which 
he  made  during  the  succeeding  20  years,  were, 
in  form  and  style,  reproductions  of  the  works 
of  that  master.  As  early  as  1668  he  began 
to  use  a  label  with  his  own  name,  as  follows : 
"Antonius  Stradiuarius  Cremonensis  facicbat, 
A.  D.  16 — ."  For  many  years  the  form  of 
his  instruments  varied  ;  but  about  1686  he  ac 
quired  his  peculiar  style,  which  is  very  mani 
fest  in  all  his  subsequent  works ;  although  he 
had  three  manners  and  three  periods,  during 
one  of  which,  the  middle,  he  produced  what 
is  known  as  the  "long"  pattern.  His  pro 
ductions  consist  mostly  of  violins,  violas,  and 
violoncellos,  though  he  also  made  some  viols 
of  six  and  seven  strings,  as  well  as  mandolins, 
guitars,  and  lutes.  His  instruments  are  distin 
guished  alike  by  their  external  beauty  and  the 
superiority  of  their  tone.  He  was  the  first  to 
finish  his  instruments  neatly  on  the  inside. 
He  generally  selected  and  cut  his  wood  with 
great  care,  and  studied  the  proportions  of 
thickness  and  breadth  most  conducive  to  so 
nority,  the  form  of  the  outside  line  and  of  the 
sound  holes  (in  which  he  attained  great  ele 
gance),  and  the  lustre  and  durability  of  his 
varnish,  and  thus  produced  works  that  no 
subsequent  maker  has  been  able  to  rival.  So 
precious  are  these  instruments  in  the  estima 
tion  of  connoisseurs  that  the  possessors  of  the 
finest  of  them  are  well  known.  One,  carefully 
preserved  under  glass,  has  never  been  touched 
by  the  bow,  and  is  known  as  la  puccllc.  The 
"Dolphin,"  so  called  from  the  richness  and 
variety  of  the  veined  wood  of  its  back,  for 
merly  belonged  to  the  marquis  de  la  Rosa. 
The  fineness  of  the  wood  and  the  perfection  of 
its  form  render  it  the  most  beautiful  work 
extant  of  this  maker.  Others  of  his  famous 
violins  were  owned  by  the  late  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany,  M.  Allard,  Viotti,  Artot,  and  Count 
Cepol.  Several  were  in  the  collections  of  Mr. 
Goding  and  Mr.  Joseph  Gillott  in  England. 
Superior  specimens  command  in  the  market 
prices  ranging  from  $1,000  to  $3,000. 

STRAFFORD,  a  S.  E.  county  of  New  Hamp 
shire,  bordering  on  Maine;  area,  about  675  sq. 


STRATFORD 


STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS        409 


m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  30,243.  It  has  an  uneven 
surface,  watered  by  numerous  streams.  The 
soil  of  the  valleys  is  fertile.  Several  railroads 
traverse  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  5,122  bushels  of  wheat,  59,761  of  Indian 
corn,  13,938  of  oats,  13,531  of  barley,  248,681 
of  potatoes,  15,752  Ibs.  of  wool,  302,149  of  but 
ter,  42,667  of  cheese,  and  28,903  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  1,983  horses,  4,227  milch  cows, 
2,602  working  oxen,  3,666  other  cattle,  4,627 
sheep,  and  1,775  swine;  21  manufactories  of 
boots  and  shoes,  4  of  cotton  goods,  2  of  iron 
ware,  5  of  cotton  and  woollen  machinery,  1  of 
floor  oil  cloths,  1  of  paper,  1  of  sand  and  emery 
paper  and  cloth,  7  of  woollen  goods,  2  cloth- 
printing  establishments,  2  planing  mills,  15 
saw  mills,  1  flour  mill,  3  tanneries,  and  1  cur 
rying  establishment.  Capital,  Dover. 

STRATFORD,  Thomas  Wentwortb,  earl  of,  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  London,  April  13, 
1593,  executed  on  Tower  hill,  May  12,  1641. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  travelled 
abroad,  at  the  age  of  21  inherited  large  fami 
ly  estates,  and  in  1614  was  elected  to  parlia 
ment  for  the  county  of  York.  He  was  at 
first  a  leading  member  of  the  opposition,  but 
in  1628  he  was  created  by  Charles  I.  Baron 
and  Viscount  Wentworth,  joined  the  court 
party,  and  soon  became  the  king's  most  trust 
ed  counsellor.  He  was  appointed  lord  presi 
dent  of  the  council  of  the  north,  and  in  1632 
made  governor  of  Ireland.  His  administra 
tion  here  was  severe  and  unjust.  He  main 
tained  that  Ireland  was  a  conquered  country, 
and  treated  it  as  such.  His  object  was  to  make 
his  master  an  absolute  monarch  by  means  of  an 
executive  system  which  he  called  "thorough," 
and  he  boasted  that  in  Ireland  the  king  was 
"  as  absolute  as  any  prince  in  the  whole  world." 
It  is  generally  admitted,  however,  that  the 
material  condition  of  the  people  improved 
under  his  government,  in  spite  of  his  despotic 
measures.  In  January,  1640,  he  was  created 
earl  of  Strafford  and  appointed  lord  lieutenant 
of  Ireland.  Later  in  the  same  year  Charles 
put  him  in  command  of  the  army  against  the 
insurgent  Scots,  before  whom  the  royal  troops 
fled  panic-struck,  after  the  rout  at  Newburn 
(Aug.  28) ;  and  contrary  to  the  strenuous  ad 
vice  of  Strafford,  the  king  accepted  the  terms 
imposed  by  the  Scots.  Dreading  the  meeting 
of  the  parliament  which  the  king  at  this  time, 
under  compulsion,  determined  to  summon, 
Strafford  implored  permission  to  return  to 
Ireland.  But  Charles,  pledging  his  royal  word 
that  "not  a  hair  of  his  head  should  be  touched 
by  parliament,"  prevailed  upon  him  to  brave 
the  issue.  The  assembly  met  on  Nov.  3.  On 
the  llth  Pym  appeared  on  the  part  of  the 
commons  at  the  bar  of  the  house  of  lords, 
with  a  message  of  impeachment.  The  articles 
of  impeachment  accused  Strafford  of  an  at 
tempt  to  subvert  the  liberties  of  the  country. 
His  guilt  is  placed  beyond  a  doubt  by  evidence 
which  has  come  to  light  since  his  death ;  but 
it  was  never  proved  by  his  accusers,  and  his 


defence,  which  he  conducted  himself  with  great 
eloquence  and  ability,  was  so  strong  that  the 
house  abandoned  the  original  impeachment. 
A  bill  of  attainder,  brought  into  the  lower 
house,  was  passed  by  a  great  majority.  The 
lords,  in  a  panic,  complied ;  and  the  bill  was 
sent  to  Charles  for  his  approval.  The  king 
made  some  endeavors  to  save  him,  but  appre 
hended  popular  violence  if  he  refused  a  war 
rant  for  the  execution ;  and  Strafford  advised 
him  by  letter,  for  the  sake  of  the  public  peace, 
to  sacrifice  a  life  which  would  be  resigned 
cheerfully  to  a  master  who  had  bestowed  such 
"  exceeding  favors."  He  moved  from  his  prison 
to  Tower  hill  with  dignity.  "I  lay  down  my 
head,"  said  he,  after  declaring  his  innocence, 
"as  cheerfully  as  ever  I  did  when  going  to 
repose."  His  attainder  was  reversed  under 
Charles  II.  His  "Letters  and  Despatches" 
were  edited  by  Dr.  Knowler  (2  vols.  fol.,  Lon 
don,  1739).  His  life  has  been  written  by  Eliz 
abeth  Cooper  (London,  1874). 

STRAITS  SETTLOIEKTS,  a  British  colony  in 
Asia,  consisting  of  islands  in  the  strait  of 
Malacca  and  detached  portions  of  territory 
adjoining  it.  It  is  divided  for  administra 
tive  purposes  into  three  provinces,  Singapore, 
Malacca,  and  Wellesley,  the  last  including 
the  island  of  Penang,  which  will  be  found 
described  under  their  owTn  names.  The  area, 
and  the  population  according  to  the  census  of 
1871,  are  as  follows  : 


PROVINCES. 

Area  in  sq.  m. 

Population. 

Singapore  .            ... 

224 

97,111 

658 

77  75G 

Wellesley  (mainland). 

236 

71,433 

"         (Penang)  

107 

61,797 

Total         

1,225 

308,097 

Of  the  total  population  in  1871,  200,433  were 
males  and  107,664  females;  103,936  were 
Chinese,  1,730  Europeans,  and  the  remainder 
Malays  and  other  East  Indians.  The  Straits 
Settlements  is  a  crown  colony,  and  is  ruled  by 
a  governor,  resident  in  Singapore,  who  is  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  home  government. 
Subordinate  to  him  are  two  sub-governors, 
resident  at  Malacca  and  Penang,  who  have 
charge  respectively  of  the  provinces  of  Malacca 
and  Wellesley.  The  colony,  which  is  free  com 
mercially,  had  no  public  debt  in  1871.  The 
gross  public  revenue  in  that  year  was  £298,- 
712  ;  expenditure.  £266,499.  The  total  value 
of  imports  in  1871  was  £10,161,563,  of  which 
£2,374,106  were  from  the  United  Kingdom;  of 
exports,  £9,416,642,  of  which  £2,119,732  were 
to  the  United  Kingdom. — In  1851  the  provinces 
now  included  in  the  Straits  Settlements,  which 
previously  had  been  subordinate  to  the  presi 
dency  of  Bengal,  were  made  a  dependency  of 
the  crown  under  the  governor  general  of  In 
dia;  and  in  April,  1867  (by  act  of  Aug.  10, 
1866),  they  were  separated  from  India  and 
created  an  independent  crown  colony. 


410 


STRALSOTD 


STRASBUEG 


STRALSFM),  a  strongly  fortified  seaport  town 
of  Prussia,  in  Pomerania,  capital  of  a  district 
of  its  own  name,  on  the  strait  which  separates 
the  island  of  Riigen  from  the  mainland,  125 
m.  X.  by  W.  of  Berlin;  pop.  in  1871,  26,731. 
The  town  is  situated  on  an  insular  site,  sur 
rounded  by  the  strait  and  several  ponds,  and 
can  only  be  approached  by  bridges  which  con 
nect  it  with  its  three  suburbs  on  the  mainland. 
It  has  a  gloomy  appearance,  but  is  clean  and 
well  paved.  The  churches  of  St.  Nicholas  and 
St.  Mary  are  fine  specimens  of  the  pointed 
style  of  architecture.  The  gymnasium  has 
both  a  museum  and  a  library.  The  manufac 
tures  include  linen  and  woollen  goods,  starch, 
sugar,  tobacco,  soap,  and  leather.  The  town 
owns  nearly  300  vessels,  of  about  70,000  tons. 
The  chief  exports  are  wheat,  malt,  timber, 
wool,  and  linen.  The  harbor  is  large,  but 
shoals  prevent  vessels  drawing  more  than  15 
ft.  from  entering  it. — Stralsund  was  built  by 
Jaromar  I.,  prince  of  Riigen,  about  1209,  and 
in  the  14th  century  was  one  of  the  most  im 
portant  Hanse  towns.  It  successfully  resisted 
a  memorable  siege  'by  Wallenstein  in  1628. 
The  Swedes  gained  possession  of  it  by  the 
peace  of  Westphalia,  and  Frederick  William, 
elector  of  Brandenburg,  captured  it  from 
them  in  1678,  but  restored  it  in  1679.  Stral 
sund  surrendered  to  the  Prussian,  Danish,  .and 
Saxon  forces  in  1715,  but  was  restored  to 
Sweden  in  1720.  In  1807  it  surrendered  to 
the  French,  who  destroyed  part  of  the  forti 
fications.  By  the  treaty  of  Kiel  in  1814  it 
was  ceded  to  Denmark,  and  in  1815  Denmark 
surrendered  it  to  Prussia. 

STRAMONIUM.     See  DATURA. 

STRAXGE,  Sir  Robert,  an  English  engraver, 
born  in  Pomona,  one  of  the  Orkney  isles, 
July  14,  1721,  died  in  London,  July  5,  1792. 
While  an  apprentice  in  Edinburgh  he  joined 
the  forces  of  the  young  pretender,  and  after 
the  battle  of  Culloden  took  refuge  in  the  high 
lands.  He  studied  abroad  for  some  years,  and 
in  1751  settled  in  London  as  a  historical  en 
graver.  During  a  visit  to  the  continent  in 
17GO  he  executed  many  plates  after  the  old 
masters.  He  was  also  a  picture  dealer,  amassed 
a  fortune,  and  was  knighted  in  1787.  He 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  Progress  of  Engra 
ving,"  never  published.  There  is  a  memoir  of 
him  by  James  Deunistoun  of  Dennistoun  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1855). 

STRASBURG,  or  Strasslrorg  (Fr.  Strasbourg),  a 
city  of  Germany,  capital  of  Alsace-Lorraine, 
formerly  of  the  French  department  of  Bas- 
Rhin,  on  the  111,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine, 
about  a  mile  from  the  latter  river,  90  m.  S. 
S.  W.  of  Frankfort,  and  250  m.  E.  by  S.  of 
Paris;  pop.  in  1876/94,000,  two  fifths  Prot 
estants.  It  stands  on  level  ground,  is  nearly 
6  m.  in  circuit,  and  is  defended  by  a  wall 
with  bastions,  ditches,  and  outworks,  and  a 
strong  citadel  constructed  by  Vauban.  It  is 
entered  by  seven  gates,  and  the  Rhine  is  crossed 
by  a  bridge  of  boats  opposite  Kehl.  The  111 


flows  through  the  town  in  a  N.  E.  direction, 
has  many  branches,  and  is  crossed  by  several 
wooden  bridges.  The  streets  are  generally 
crooked  and  narrow,  but  the  principal  ones 
are  broad,  and  there  are  several  fine  squares. 
The  houses  are  well  built  and  rather  lofty, 
with  steep  roofs.  The  cathedral,  one  of  the 
finest  Gothic  buildings  in  Europe  (see  CATHE 
DRAL),  was  much  damaged  during  the  siege 
of  1870,  but  soon  restored.  It  has  a  famous 
astronomical  clock,  constructed  by  Isaac  Ha- 
brecht  about  1570,  one  of  the  greatest  works  of 
its  kind.  Of  the  other  churches  the  most  in 
teresting  are  those  of  St.  Stephen,  St.  Thomas, 
the  Temple  Neuf,  and  St.  Pierre  le  Jeune ;  and 
there  is  a  fine  synagogue.  The  city  library, 
dating  from  1531,  was  burned  in  1870,  du 
ring  the  war,  with  its  200,000  volumes ;  but 


Strasburg  Cathedral. 

it  has  since  been  restored,  and  in  1874  con 
tained  300,000  and  in  1875  350,000  volumes. 
The  university,  founded  in  1621,  was  reopened 
May  1,  1872,  by  the  Germans,  and  in  1875  had 
more  than  700  students.  The  military  estab 
lishments  are  on  an  extensive  scale.  The  man 
ufactures  include  woollen,  linen,  and  cotton 
goods,  sail  cloth,  jewelry,  clocks  and  watches, 
cutlery,  hardware  and  cast-iron  articles,  porce 
lain,  earthenware,  soap,  leather,  straw  goods, 
hosiery,  paper,  and  cards.  There  are  numer 
ous  bleach  fields,  dye  works,  sugar  refineries, 
breweries,  and  printing  offices ;  and  the  town 
is  celebrated  for  its  pates  de  Foie  gras.  The 
trade  of  Strasburg  is  extensive,  and  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  the  navigation  of  the  Rhine. — 
Strasburg  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Ar- 


STRATFORD 


STRATFOKD-UPON-AVON       411 


gentoratum,  which  after  the  Roman  conquest 
was  made  a  frontier  fortress  against  the  Ger 
mans.  It  was  a  free  city  of  the  empire  during 
the  middle  ages,  and  was  a  Protestant  city  till 
seized  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1681.  A  Catholic 
bishopric  of  Strasburg,  however,  at  the  same 
time  ruled  a  considerable  territory  on  both 
sides  of  the  Rhine.  After  about  one  month's 
siege  and  bombardment,  the  commander,  Gen. 
Uhrich,  capitulated  to  the  Germans  in  the  night 
of  Sept.  27-28,  1870 ;  and  the  city  was  finally 
incorporated  with  the  German  empire  by  the 
treaty  of  May  10,  1871.  The  fortifications  as 
well  as  the  town  have  since  been  much  en 
larged. — See  Friese,  VaterlandiscJie  GescJnchte 
der  Stadt  Strasburg  (4  vols.,  Strasburg,  1791- 
'5) ;  Hermann,  Notices  Tiistoriques,  statistiques 
et  Utteraires  sur  la  mile  de  Strasbourg  (2  vols., 
1819);  Documents  relatifs  au  siege  de  Stras 
bourg,  by  Gen.  Uhrich  (Paris,  1872) ;  Geschichte 
der  Belagerung  von  Strasslurg  im  Jahre  1870, 
from  German  official  sources,  by  Reinhard  Wag 
ner  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1874) ;  and  the  account  of 
the  siege  in  vol.  ix.  of  the  history  of  the  war 
published  by  the  German  general  staff  (1875). 

STRATFORD,  a  town,  port  of  entry,  and  the 
capital  of  Perth  co.,  Ontario,  Canada,  on  the 
Avon  river,  at  the  junction  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
railway  with  the  Buffalo  branch,  88  m.  W.  by 
S.  of  Toronto;  pop.  in  1871,  4,313.  It  has 
good  water  power,  and  contains  manufactories 
of  iron  castings,  mill  machinery,  agricultural 
implements,  woollens,  steam  engines,  leather, 
boots  and  shoes,  &c.,  and  several  flouring  mills, 
distilleries,  and  breweries.  The  railroad  shops 
are  very  extensive.  There  are  three  branch 
banks,  three  weekly  (one  German)  newspa 
pers,  a  monthly  periodical,  and  Baptist,  Con 
gregational,  Episcopal,  Methodist,  Presbyte 
rian,  and  Roman  Catholic  churches.  The  val 
ue  of  imports  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1874,  was  $1,026,038;  of  exports,  $247,244. 

STRATFORD  DE  REDCLIFFE,  Stratford  Canning, 
viscount,  better  known  as  Sir  Stratford  Can 
ning, -an  English  diplomatist,  born  in  .London, 
Jan.  6,  1788.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  sec 
retary  of  embassy  at  Constantinople,  in  1814 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  Switzerland,  in 
1820  a  special  commissioner  at  "Washington, 
and  in  1824  at  St.  Petersburg.  lie  was  am 
bassador  to  Constantinople  from  1825  to  1827, 
and  again  from  1841  to  1858;  and  his  diplo 
matic  activity  was  very  conspicuous  both  du 
ring  the  negotiations  which  resulted  in  the 
intervention  of  the  western  powers  in  favor 
of  Greece,  and  during  the  opening  period  of 
the  Crimean  war.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of 
Reshid  Pasha,  and  many  important  reforms  in 
Turkey,  particularly  those  affecting  the  con 
dition  of  the  Christian  population,  were  at 
tributed  to  his  efforts.  He  was  ennobled  in 
1852.  He  has  published  "Why  am  I  a  Chris 
tian?"  (1873),  and  a  play  entitled  "  Alfred  the 
Great  in  Athelney"  (1876). 

STRATFORD-UPON-AVON,  a  town  of  War 
wickshire,  England,  on  the  right  side  of  the 


river  Avon,  8  m.  S.  W.  of  Warwick,  and  82  m. 
N.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  3,863.  The 
town  exhibits  the  architecture  of  the  16th  and 


Shakespeare's  Birthplace. 

17th  centuries.  Annual  fairs  are  held  for  the 
sale  of  horses,  cattle,  corn,  and  cheese.  Strat 
ford  was  a  place  of  some  consequence  as  early 
as  the  middle  of  the  8th  century,  but  derives 


Shakespeare's  Tomb. 

its  chief  interest  now  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
the  birthplace  of  Shakespeare,  his  abode  in 
youth  and  age,  and  the  place  of  his  death  and 


412 


STRAUBING 


STRAUSS 


burial.  A  part  of  the  ancient  house  in  which 
he  is  said  to  have  been  born,  and  which  he  re 
tained  to  the  time  of  his  death,  is  still  standing 
in  Henley  street;  it  has  been  purchased  for 
the  nation  by  subscription  at  a  cost  of  about 
£4,000,  and  is  as  far  as  possible  kept  in  the 
same  condition  as  in  his  lifetime.  A  church 
near  the  river,  a  handsome  cruciform  struc 
ture  with  a  fine  tower  and  spire,  contains  his 
remains  and  those  of  his  wife,  in  the  vicinity 
of  a  monument,  the  distinguishing  feature  of 
which  is  the  celebrated  portrait  bust  of  Shake 
speare  in  marble.  This  edifice  was  thorough 
ly  restored  in  1810.  The  grammar  school, 
in  which,  according  to  tradition,  the  great 
dramatist  was  educated,  is  established  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  ancient  guildhall.  In  1709 
a  Shakespeare  "jubilee"  was  celebrated  in 
Stratford  under  the  direction  of  Garrick,  on 
which  occasion  the  present  town  hall,  which 
contains  a  statue  of  the  poet,  was  erected. 
The  tercentenary  of  Shakespeare's  birth  was 
celebrated  hero,  April  23,  1864. 

STRAUBIXG,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the  dis 
trict  of  Lower  Bavaria,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube,  25  m.  S.  E.  of  Ratisbon ;  pop. 
in  1871,  11,150.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns 
of  the  kingdom.  It  has  an  ancient  town  hall, 
a  Gothic  church  with  line  pictures,  and  one 
with  a  celebrated  monument  of  Duke  Albert 
II.,  and  a  palace  where  Duke  Albert  III.  re 
sided  with  his  wife  Agnes  Bernauer.  (See 
BEBNATJER.)  Straubing  has  many  breweries 
and  tanneries. 

STRAUSS,  the  name  of  four  German  musicians, 
father  and  three  sons.  JOHAXX,  the  father, 
was  born  in  Vienna,  March  14,  1804,  and  died 
there,  Sept.  24,  1849.  In  early  life  he  was  a 
member  of  Lanner's  orchestra,  afterward  or 
ganized  a  band  of  his  own,  gave  concerts  in 
tire  chief  cities  of  Germany,  and  soon  rivalled 
Lanner  as  a  composer  and  conductor.  The 
eldest  son,  JOIIAXX,  born  in  Vienna  in  1825, 
has  been  for  many  years,  by  appointment  of 
the  emperor,  music  director  of  the  court  balls. 
Before  the  death  of  his  father  he  had  organ 
ized  a  band,  whose  playing  has  created  the 
greatest  enthusiasm  in  the  chief  capitals  of 
Europe.  In  1872  Strauss  (without  his  band) 
visited  the  United  States,  and  conducted  the 
orchestra  of  1,000  performers  in  his  own  com 
positions  at  the  so-called  world's  peace  jubilee 
in  Boston.  Before  returning  he  gave  three 
concerts  in  New  York.  Besides  nearly  400 
compositions  of  dance  music,  he  has  published 
four  operettas  which  have  met  with  consider 
able  success:  Indigo  (1871),  Der  Garneval  in 
Rom  (1873),  Die  Pledermaus  (1874),  and  Co- 
ffliostro  (1875).  JOSEF,  who  was  born  in  Vienna 
in  1827  and  died  there  in  1870,  left  nearly  300 
compositions  of  dance  music.  The  youngest 
brother,  EDUARD,  is  the  leader  of  an  orchestra 
in  Vienna,  and  has  published  nearly  200  com 
positions.  The  published  compositions  of  the 
four  Strausses  are  about  1,100  in  number,  all  of 
which,  excepting  a  few  marches  and  the  ope 


rettas  above  mentioned,  are  music  for  dancing. 
Between  300  and  400  are  waltzes,  many  of 
which  are  classed  as  the  best  productions  of 
this  kind  of  music. 

STRAUSS,  David  Friedrich,  a  German  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Ludwigsburg,  Wurtemberg,  Jan. 
27,  1808,  died  in  Berlin,  Feb.  9,  1874.  He  was 
educated  at  Blaubeuren  and  Tubingen,  was 
curate  in  1830  and  professor  at  Maulbronn  in 
1831,  and  in  1832  became  Repetent  in  the  theo 
logical  seminary  at  Tubingen,  where  he  also 
lectured  on  the  Hegelian  philosophy  in  the 
university.  His  name  was  unknown  when  he 
published  Das  Lclien  Jesu  (2  vols.,  Tubingen, 
1835 ;  translated  by  Marian  Evans,  now  Mrs. 
Lewes,  3  vols.,  London,  184G ;  new  ed.,  2  vols., 
New  York,  I860),  which  was  republished  by 
him  in  1864,  after  the  appearance  of  Renan's 
work  on'  Jesus,  under  the  title  Das  Lcbeu  Jesu 
filr  das  deutsche  Volk  Itearbcitet  (latest  ed., 
1874).  Its  design  is  to  critically  establish  for 
Christianity  a  mythical  instead  of  a  historical 
basis,  to  resolve  the  Gospels  into  popular  le 
gends,  and  the  miracles  into  significant  poetry. 
It  supposes  the  existence  of  Jesus,  an  exemplary 
and  reformatory  rabbi  of  Galilee ;  that  he  lived 
and  died  an  enthusiastic  and  admired  teacher 
and  innovator;  that  after  his  death  many  mar 
vellous  incidents  concerning  him  gradually 
gained  currency ;  that  some  of  these  were  ex 
aggerations  of  actual  events,  and  others  sym 
bolical  forms  in  which  his  disciples  clothed  his 
doctrines  and  precepts ;  that  these  wonderful 
narratives  were  not  produced  by  single  persons, 
but  were  the  spontaneous  outgrowth  of  poet 
ical  and  philosophical  tendencies  in  the  early 
church,  of  which,  after  being  circulated  orally 
for  about  a  century,  various  compilations  were 
written.  The  second  part  of  the  work  as 
signs  a  new  meaning  to  the  New  Testament. 
The  career  of  Christ  symbolizes  the  moral  his 
tory  of  mankind.  Humanity  is  God  manifest 
in  the  flesh,  sinless,  working  miracles,  dying, 
rising,  and  ascending  to  heaven.  Thus  the 
narrative  applies  not  to  an  individual,  but  to 
the  race;  the  dogmas  are  true,  though  the  his 
tory  is  false.  Strauss  was  deprived  of  his  po 
sition  as  Repetent,  and  became  a  teacher  at 
Ludwigsburg,  and  afterward  in  Stuttgart.  In 
1837  he  replied  to  his  critics  by  three  volumes 
of  Streitschriften,  and  in  1838  by  Zirei  fried- 
liclie  Blatter,  but  subsequently  availed  himself 
of  the  new  editions  of  his  work  to  controvert 
his  opponents.  In  1839  he  went  to  Zurich  as 
professor  of  dogmatics  and  church  history,  but 
was  soon  dismissed  with  a  pension,  and  his 
nomination  resulted  in  the  speedy  downfall  of 
the  local  radical  government.  In  1840  he  mar 
ried  the  vocalist  Agnes  Schebest,  but  was  sepa 
rated  from  her.  In  1848  he  was  an  unsuccess 
ful  candidate  for  the  Frankfort  parliament,  but 
was  elected  to  the  diet  at  Stuttgart,  from  which 
he  withdrew  in  December  on  account  of  the 
unpopularity  of  his  political  conservatism.  In 
1872  he  returned  to  his  native  town  after  a 
long  residence  at  Darmstadt.  His  other  prin- 


U  N 


STRAW 


413 


cipal  works  are:  Die  christliche  GlaubensleJire 
in  Hirer  gescliichtlichen  Entwickelung  und  in 
ihrem  Kampfe  mit  der  tnodernen  WissenscJiaft 
(2  vols.,  Tubingen,  1840-'41) ;  Der  Romantiker 
auf  dem  Throne  der  Casaren,  oder  Julian  der 
Abtrilnnige  (Mannheim,  1847)  ;  Ulrich  Ton 
Hutten  (3  vols.,  1858-'60;  2d  ed.,  1871;.  Eng 
lish  translation  by  Mrs.  Sturge,  London,  1874)  ; 
Voltaire  (1870;  3d  ed.,  1872);  Krieg  und 
Friede,  his  correspondence  with  Renan  on  the 
Franco-German  war  (1870) ;  and  Der  alte  und 
der  neue  Glaube,  ein  Behenntniss  (1872),  show 
ing  the  contrast  between  liberty  of  thought 
and  ecclesiastical  domination,  and  adhering  to 
the  latest  results  of  scientific  investigations 
and  to  materialistic  views  of  the  universe. 
This  last  of  his  works  created  a  no  less  pro 
found  sensation  than  his  first.  Charles  Bitter 
has  published  a  selected  French  translation  of 
his  minor  essays,  under  the  title  of  Essais 
d'histoire  religieuse  et  melanges  litteraires, 
with  an  introduction  by  Renan  (Paris,  1872). 
— See  David  Friedrich  Strauss  in  seinem  Le- 
ben  und  seinen  Schriften  geschildert,  by  Edu- 
ard  Zeller  (Leipsic,  1874;  English  translation, 
London,  1874). 

STRAW,  the  stem  of  cereal  grasses.  On  the 
farm  it  is  used  as  fodder,  for  littering  animals, 
as  manure,  and  for  thatching  outhouses  and 
stacks  of  hay  and  grain.  It  is  much  used  for 
mattresses  called  palliasses  (Fr.  paillasse,  from 
paille,  straw).  It  is  employed  to  some  extent 
for  ornamental  purposes,  as  for  picture  frames 
and  baskets  for  cut  flowers.  The  Japanese 
use  many-colored  straws  in  ornamenting  the 
exterior  of  cabinets,  work-boxes,  &c.  In  the 
arts  the  chief  uses  of  straw  are  for  paper 
making  (see  PAPEE)  and  for  the  manufacture 
of  hats  and  bonnets.  The  art  of  plaiting  straw 
and  similar  materials  is  very  ancient,  and  is 
found  in  various  stages  of  perfection  in  every 
quarter  of  the  globe.  In  Europe  it  remained 
in  a  comparatively  rude  state  down  to  the  end 
of  the  16th  century,  when  it  began  to  attain 
commercial  importance  in  France  and  northern 
Italy.  James  I.  introduced  it  into  England. 
The  Leghorn  plait  of  Tuscany  began  to  ac 
quire  a  European  celebrity  late  in  the  18th 
century;  it  is  still  unsurpassed.  In  that  por 
tion  of  Italy  a  peculiar  variety  of  wheat  (triti- 
cum  turgiduni)  is  grown  solely  for  the  straw, 
which  is  distinguished  for  its  slenderness  and 
strength.  The  seed  grain  is  grown  in  the 
Apennines,  and  the  straw  crop  on  the  low 
lands,  for  which  it  is  sown  very  thickly.  The 
plant  is  cut  before  maturity,  and  left  on  the 
ground  to  dry  in  the  sun,  and  then  tied  in 
bundles  and  stacked.  It  is  afterward  spread 
out  on  the  ground  again  to  be  bleached  in  the 
sun  and  dew,  and  is  finally  steamed  and  fumi 
gated  with  sulphur.  In  Tuscany  the  straws 
are  sorted  by  women,  who  can  instantly  by 
the  touch  detect  the  slightest  shades  of  differ 
ence  in  their  thickness.  In  other  countries  the 
sorting  is  done  by  means  of  a  series  of  gradu 
ated  sieves.  The  Tuscan  straw,  owing  to  its 


fineness,  is  plaited  as  it  comes  from  the  hands 
of  the  sorter ;  other  kinds  must  be  split  into 
splints  for  fine  work.  At  first  the  splitting 
was  done  with  a  knife,  but  it  is  now  done  by 
passing  into  each  straw  a  wTire  with  several 
cutting  edges,  or  more  cxpeditiously  by  draw 
ing  the  whole  straw  over  a  sharp  steel  comb. 
As  the  split  straw  when  plaited  presents  alter 
nately  its  inner  and  outer  surface,  the  work 
lacks  that  uniformity  of  appearance  produced 
by  the  whole  straw.  To  secure  this,  the  plan 
was  devised,  in  the  plait  called  the  "patent 
Dunstable,"  of  laying  two  splints  with  their  in 
ner  surfaces  together,  which  also  increases  its 
durability.  The  plaits  are  of  various  widths, 
depending  on  the  number  and  thickness  of  the 
straws.  The  usual  length  in  Italy  is  about  50 
metres  (54  yards),  in  England  20  yards.  In 
Tuscany  the  plaits  are  coiled  spirally  into  a 
fiat,  the  edges  being  knit  together  and  held 
fast  by  a  thread  concealed  within  the  fabric ; 
elsewhere  they  are  usually  wound  around  a 
block  of  the  shape  required,  the  edges  over 
lapping  and  the  successive  coils  stitched  to 
gether.  The  first  straw  bonnet  braided  in  the 
United  States  is  said  to  have  been  made  in  1798 
by  Miss  Betsey  Metcalf,  of  Providence,  R.  I. 
Large  numbers  of  women  and  children  were 
employed  at  one  time  in  this  country  in  plait 
ing  straw,  but  now  almost  all  the  braid  used 
is  imported.  Straw  hats  and  bonnets  are  sewn 
in  the  United  States  almost  entirely  by  the 
13osworth  straw-sewing  machine,  on  which 
when  run  by  steam  100  ordinary  hats  can  be 
made  in  a  day.  There  are  four  companies  in 
Massachusetts  and  one  in  Connecticut  each  of 
which  employs  about  100  of  these  machines, 
and  they  are  also  used  by  several  smaller 
companies.  The  hats  are  pressed  by  another 
machine,  also  of  American  invention,  which 
smooths  them  ready  for  trimming  at  the  rate 
of  four  a  minute.  The  value  of  the  straw  goods 
manufactured  in  the  United  States  in  1870,  as 
reported  in  the  census,  was  $7,282,080,  distrib 
uted  among  nine  states:  California,  $60,700; 
Connecticut,  $1,026,000  ;  Massachusetts,  $4,- 
869,514  ;  New  Jersey,  $54,530 ;  New  York, 
$1,006,000. ;  Pennsylvania,  $189,242  ;  Rhode 
Island,  $40,000;  Vermont,  $1,600;  Wisconsin, 
$34,500.  The  number  of  men  employed  was 
1,988;  women,  12,594;  youths  under  16,  343. 
During  the  year  1874-'5  the  value  of  the  prod 
uct  of  Massachusetts  increased  about  25  per 
cent.,  while  that  of  most  of  the  other  states 
has  remained  nearly  the  same. — In  Ecuador, 
Colombia,  and  other  parts  of  South  and  Cen 
tral  America,  a  straw  is  obtained  from  the 
Carludovica  palmata,  called  by  the  natives 
jipijape  or  portorico,  which  is  largely  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  hats  known  as 
Panama  hats,  from  the  principal  port  of  their 
shipment,  cigar  cases,  &c.  The  leaves  of  the 
plant,  which  resembles  a  palm,  are  gathered 
before  they  unfold,  and  after  the  ribs  and 
coarser  veins  have  been  removed  are  cut  into 
shreds.  These  are  exposed  to  the  sun  for  a 


414 


STRAWBERRY 


day  and  then  tied  into  a  knot  and  immersed  in 
boiling  water  until  they  become  white,  when 
they  are  hung  up  in  the  shade  and  afterward 
bleached  for  several  days.  The  straw  is  then 
distributed  through  the  districts,  especially  in 
Peru,  where  the  manufacture  is  carried  on. 
Whole  colonies  of  Indians  are  engaged  in  this 
manufacture.  The  men,  women,  and  children 
plait  the  straw  upon  a  block  of  wood  which 
they  hold  between  their  knees,  finishing  an 
ordinary  hat  in  two  or  three  days;  but  the 
finest  hats  occupy  several  months  to  complete 
them,  and  require  especial  care  in  the  selection 
of  the  straw  and  the  plaiting.  The  best  are 
made  in  Ecuador. 

STRAWBERRY,  a  well  known  wild  and  culti 
vated  fruit,  the  Anglo-Saxon  name  of  which, 
streawlerige  or  streowberie,  was  probably  de 
rived  from  the  straw-like  stems  of  the  plant 
or  from  the  berries  lying  strewn  on  the  ground. 
The  several  species  belong  to  the  genus  fr(ig<i- 
ria  (from  the  ancient  Latin  name  fraga),  of 
the  rose  family ;  they  are  stemless  perennial 
herbs,  with  compound  leaves  of  three  obovate, 
wedge-shaped,  coarsely  serrate  leaflets,  and 
multiply  by  runners,  which  are  long  weak 
branches,  forming  a  bud  at  the  end  which  soon 
develops  roots  and  leaves,  and  by  the  decay  of 
the  branch  connecting  it  with  the  parent  be 
comes  an  independent  plant.  The  flowers  are 
in  a  cyme  at  the  end  of  an  erect  scape,  with  a 
five-lobed,  spreading,  persistent  calyx,  and  as 
many  bractlets  alternating,  and  thus  appearing 
ten-cleft;  petals  (mostly  white)  five ;  stamens 
numerous ;  pistils  simple,  seated  upon  a  convex 
receptacle,  which  when  the  ovaries  are  ripe 
is  greatly  enlarged,  becoming  pulpy  and  edible, 
and  is  popularly  regarded  as  the  fruit ;  it  is 
really  the  much  altered  end  of  the  stem  (see 
PLANT),  while  the  true  fruits  are  the  small 
seed-like  akenes,  the  ripened  ovaries,  which 
are  scattered  over  its  surface  or  sunk  in  little 
depressions.  By  abortion  of  the  stamens  some 
of  the  species  become  more  or  less  dioecious. — 
The  strawberry  is  found  in  all  temperate  parts 


I 

w 

Section  of  Flower  and  Fruit. 

of  the  northern  hemisphere  and  in  the  moun 
tains  of  South  America.  While  Bentham  and 
Hooker  state  that  there  are  not  more  than 
three  or  four  well  defined  species,  a  dozen  or 
more  have  been  described,  the  plants  being, 
even  in  the  wild  state,  very  variable,  while  the 
varieties  in  cultivation  resulting  from  hybrid 
izing,  crossing,  and  sporting  are  innumerable. 
Two  species  are  widely  distributed  throughout 
the  United  States,  and  one  is  peculiar  to  the 


Pacific  coast.  The  Virginian  or  common  wild 
strawberry  (fragaria  Virginiana)  is  found 
from  arctic  America  to  Florida,  and  west  to 
the  Rocky  mountains.  Its  leaves  are  rather 
thick,  smooth  on  the  upper  surface,  often  shi 
ning  ;  the  hairs  silky  and  appressed  ;  the  calyx 
erect  after  fiowering;  fruit  mostly  globular, 
with  a  narrow  neck,  and  the  akenes  (seeds) 
sunken  in  deep  pits  in  the  surface  of  the  re 
ceptacle.  This  has  been  described  under  many 


Alpine  Strawberry  (Fragaria  vesca). 

different  names,  as  it  varies  greatly,  and  the 
western  forms  appear  very  different  from  the 
eastern.  The  Alpine  strawberry  (F.  vesca), 
the  common  species  of  Europe,  is  indigenous 
to  this  country,  especially  far  northward,  ex 
tending  to  Oregon  and  the  N.  W.  coast ;  it  is 
found  throughout  Europe  and  northern  and 
central  Asia.  It  has  thin  pale  green  leaves, 
the  upper  surface  strongly  marked  by  veins ; 
flower  stalks  longer  than  the  leaves ;  calyx  re 
maining  open  after  flowering;  receptacle  con 
ical  or  elongated,  with  the  akenes  attached 
to  the  surface,  and  not  as  in  the  preceding 
sunk  in  pits.  A  taller  form  is  known  as  the 
wood  strawberry.  This  was  the  earliest  spe 
cies  cultivated,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  street 
cries  of  London  of  over  400  years  .ago  ;  the 
garden  of  the  bishop  of  Ely  at  Ilolborn  was 
in  1483  celebrated  for  its  strawberries,  a  fact 
alluded  to  by  Shakespeare  in  "  Richard  III." 
A  number  of  varieties  of  this  are  cultiva 
ted,  but  they  are  more  popular  in  Europe 
than  in  this  country.  The  Chilian  strawberry 
(F.  Chilensis,  the  F.  grandiflora  of  some)  is 
found  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  Oregon  south 
ward;  it  is  very  robust,  with  leathery,  thick 
leaflets  of  a  dark  green,  and  sometimes  silky 
on  both  surfaces,  or  only  below ;  the  flowers 
are  larger  than  in  any  other  species,  and  the 
large  yellowish  white  or  rose-colored  fruit, 
sometimes  as  large  as  a  small  hen's  egg,  erect. 
This  was  introduced  into  the  south  of  Erance 
in  1712,  and  many  valuable  varieties  resulted 


STRAWBERRY 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS     415 


from  hybridizing  it  with  other  species.  The 
Indian  strawberry  (F.  Indica)  is  from  upper 
India,  and  is  naturalized  in  the  southern  states ; 
it  differs  so  much  from  the  other  species  that 
it  was  formerly  placed  in  a  distinct  genus  (Du- 
chesnea) ;  it  has  yellow  flowers,  and  is  a  showy 
house  plant,  especially  for  window  baskets, 
but  the  fruit. is  dry  and  tasteless. — Of  the  cul 
tivated  American  varieties,  some  are  pistillate 
only,  and  must  be  planted  near  perfect  flowered 
varieties,  in  order  that  they  may  be  fertilized 
and  bear  fruit.  The  present  tendency  of  cul 
tivators  is  to  discard  all  unisexual  kinds.  The 
great  step  in  their  improvement  was  in  the 
production  of  "Hbvey's  seedling,"  raised  by 
0.  M.  Ilovey  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  over  40 
years  ago ;  it  is  a  nearly  pure  Virginian,  and 
has  not  been  excelled  if  equalled  in  quality ;  it 
is  a  pistillate,  and  needs  careful  cultivation. 
The  next  great  step  was  in  the  production  of 
"  Wilson's  Albany,"  or  "  Wilson  "  as  it  is  gen 
erally  called,  a  most  hardy  and  productive  va 
riety,  with  perfect  flowers.  Besides  the  above, 
the  leading  American  varieties  are  "Agricul 
turist,"  "Seth  Boyden,"  "Charles  Downing," 
"Donner's  Prolific,"  "Kentucky,"  "Nicanor," 
and  "  Monarch  of  the  West."  Among  the  Eu 
ropean  kinds  which  succeed  here  on  suitable 
soils  are  "Triomphe  de  Gand,"  "Jucunda," 
and  "La  Constante." — The  cultivation  of  the 
strawberry  is  now  an  important  branch  of 
horticulture,  the  fruit  being  sent  to  the  city 
markets  from  great  distances,  especially  by 
water.  In  New  York  city  the  first  supplies 
come  from  Georgia  arid  the  Carolinas ;  then 
Virginia,  Maryland,  and  Delaware  send  large 
quantities  before  the  New -Jersey  season  be 
gins  ;  this  lasts  three  or  four  weeks,  and  then 
the  later  fruit  comes  from  Connecticut  and 
Massachusetts.  The  culture  requires  a  well 
fertilized  soil ;  the  plants  are  formed  by  run 
ners  as  already  described;  they  may  be  set 
in  autumn  or  spring,  but  the  plants  must 
grow  one  year  in  place  before  they  give  a 
crop.  The  method  of  planting  and  cultiva 
tion  varies.  In  the  annual  method,  the  plants 
are  set  in  rows  two  feet  apart  and  a  foot 
apart  in  the  rows;  one  crop  is  taken  and 
the  plants  are  ploughed  under,  another  field 
being  ready  to  come  into  bearing  to  take  its 
place.  Another  method  is  to  plant  in  the  same 
manner,  let  the  plants  run,  and  the  next  spring, 
when  the  spaces  or  paths  between  the  rows 
are  filled  with  new  plants,  to  plough  out  other 
paths,  turning  under  the  old  plants  and  allow 
ing  the  new  ones  to  bear  fruit ;  if  the  alternate 
spaces  are  well  manured,  this  method  may  be 
continued  indefinitely.  Still  another  plan  is 
to  cut  off  all  runners  as  they  start,  and  induce 
the  plants  to  form  large  clumps  or  stools ; 
some  varieties  do  better  in  this  manner  than 
others ;  it  is  the  best  plan  for  gardens,  as  the 
plants  continue  in  bearing  three  or  four  years. 
In  northern  localities  the  ground  is  covered 
with  straw  or  leaves  to  prevent  injury  by  fre 
quent  freezing  and  thawing,  and  this  is  left  on 
VOL.  xv. — 27 


until  the  fruit  is  picked,  to  keep  it  from  being 
soiled.  New  varieties  are  produced  from  seed, 
from  flowers  carefully  cross-fertilized  or  not, 
sown  as  soon  as  ripe ;  the  seedlings  come  up 
in  four  or  six  weeks,  and  if  protected  during 
the  winter  and  transplanted  the  next  spring, 
they  will  bear  fruit  the  following  year. 

STRAYS.     See  ESTEAYS. 

STREET,  Alfred  Billings,  an  American  poet, 
born  in  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  18,  1811. 
A  lawyer  by  profession,  in  1839  he  settled  in 
Albany,  where  for  a  number  of  years  he  was 
state  librarian.  He  has  published  "  The  Burn 
ing  of  Schenectady,  and  other  Poems"  (1842); 
"Drawings  and  Tintings,"  poems  (1844) ;  col 
lected  poems  (1846);  "Frontenac,"  his  longest 
poem  (1849) ;  "  The  Council  of  Revision,"  con 
taining  the  vetoes  of  the  council,  a  history 
of  the  courts  of  New  York,  and  biographical 
sketches  of  governors  and  judges  from  1777  to 
1821  (8vo,  1860);  "Woods  and  Waters,  or  the 
Saranacs  and  Racket,"  a  description  of  a  tour 
in  the  great  northern  wilderness  of  New  York 
(1860) ;  "  Forest  Pictures  in  the  Adirondacks  " 
(1864);  and  "The  Indian  Pass"  (1869). 

STRELITZ.     See  MECKLENBURG. 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS,  the  resistance  of 
fered  by  the  materials  of  construction  to  change 
of  form  or  to  fracture.  1.  The  resistance  of 
materials  to  external  forces  tending  to  over 
come  their  cohesion  is  classified,  according  to 
their  forms,  as  follows  : 

Longitudinal     -|  Compressing  resisting  pulling  asunder. 
•    |  Tensile,  resisting-  crushing. 

(  Bending,  resisting  cross  breaking. 
Transverse... .  •<  Shearing,  resisting  cutting  across. 

(  Torsional,  resisting  twisting  or  wrenching. 

Two  or  more  of  these  forms  of  resistance  are 
sometimes  called  into  action  simultaneously, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  crank  of  a  steam  engine, 
which  tends  to  break  the  shaft  both  by  a 
transverse  strain  and  by  torsion.  2.  The  "  ul 
timate  strength"  is  the  maximum  resistance 
offered  to  rupture.  The  "  proof  strength  "  is 
a  less  degree  of  resistance,  which  the  body 
may  safely  offer  when  tested.  The  "working 
load  "  is  some  fractional  part  of  the  ultimate 
strength  which  may  be  selected  as  giving  per 
fect  safety  against  anticipated  strains  for  an 
indefinite  period.  3.  The  "factor  of  safety" 
is  the  ratio  of  the  ultimate  strength  to  the 
working  load.  The  following  are  minimum 
values  of  this  quantity  adopted  in  what  is  gen 
erally  considered  good  practice,  under  "dead" 
and  "  live  "  loads,  and  where  the  latter  are' lia 
ble  to  be  accompanied  by  heavy  shocks  : 


MATERIAL. 

Dead  load.  \ 

Live  load. 

Shock. 

Wrought  iron  

3 

3 

\ 

5 
6 

8 
8 
10 

8 
8 
10 
10 

Steel  

Cast  iron 

Timber 

Masonry.                    

4.  The  proof  strength  is  usually, 
always,  below  the  elastic  limit,  i. 

and  should  be 
e.,  the  point  at 

416 


STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS 


which  set  becomes  proportional,  or  nearly  so, 
to  the  distortion  produced  by  the  applied  force. 
It  is  generally  about  one  half  or  one  third  the 
ultimate  strength.  5.  Tensile  resistance,  or 
tenacity,  is  determined  by  experiment  for  each 
material.  The  ultimate  strength  or  breaking 
load  of  any  piece  is  measured  by  "the  product 
of  the  area  of  fractured  section  into  the  te 
nacity  of  the  material  of  which  it  is  composed ; 

i.  <?.,  P— TK,  and  K=^,  where  P  represents 

the  breaking  force,  T  the  tenacity  of  the  ma 
terial,  and  K  the  area  of  section.  Values  of 
T  are  given  in  the  accompanying  table  of  co 
efficients  of  resistance.  The  very  best  grades 
should  have  values  20  per  cent,  higher.  P 
and  T  are  taken  in  pounds  upon  the  square 
inch.  0.  When  thin  cylinders  are  exposed 
to  internal  pressure,  as  in  steam  boilers,  steam 
cylinders,  <fcc.,  the  bursting  pressure  may  be 
determined  by  multiplying  the  thickness  of 
the  shell  by  the  tenacity  of  the  material,  as 
given  above,  and  dividing  by  the  semi-diame 
ter.  To  ascertain  the  thickness,  the  pressure 
and  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  being  given, 
multiply  the  pressure  by  the  semi-diameter, 
and  divide  by  the  tenacity  of  the  material  as 

given  in  the  table;  or  P=— ,  and  t=-,£-1  where 

P  =  pressure,  t  =  thickness,  T  =  tenacity,  and 
r  =  radius  of  the  cylinder.  If  d  =  diameter, 

P=2-t/-',    and   i=^T-     Where    the    joints   are 

double-riveted,  the  strength  at  the  joints  is 
usually  about  0'7  that  of  the  solid  plate  ;  sin 
gle-riveted  joints  have  0'5G  the  strength  of  a 
solid  plate.  The  mean  strength  of  single-riv 
eted  boilers,  where  the  joints  are  properly 
shifted,  or  "  broken,"  is  nearly  or  quite  five 
eighths  that  of  solid  plate.  A  sphere  will  bear 
twice  as  much  internal  pressure  as  a  cylin 
der  of  the  same  diameter.  A  thick  cylinder 
is  not  as  strong  relatively  as  a  thin  cylinder 
of  the  same  material,  and  no  cylinder,  how 
ever  thick,  can  withstand  an  internal  pressure 
exceeding  its  limit  of  tenacity,  T,  as  given 
above.  The  rule  for  calculating  the  strength  of 
a  thick  cylinder  is  expressed  algebraically  thus : 

-TV          rpK'2-?'2  T       R  ,/T  +  P\  T 

P=T  — -,  and  --  =.  V(^p),  where  r  =  in 
ternal  radius,  R  =  the  external  radius,  and 
other  values  as  before.  For  thick  spheres, 

P=T-,L~"'.,    and  —  =  \>'  (  ;.„,--_-  I.      7.    The 


stayed  surfaces  are  usually  the  strongest  parts 
of  a  steam  boiler.  The  following  formula 
gives  the  proper  distance  between  stays, 
where  t  —  thickness  of  plate,  P  =  the  pros- 
sure  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  F=  the 

factor  of  safety:   d=-—.     P=F(— *Y.     8. 

Bolts,  rivets,  and  lugs  are  usually  exposed  to 
shearing  strain.  The  resistances  to  shearing 
of  the  most  commonly  used  materials  are  to 
be  taken  as  equal  to  the  tensile  strength. 


Where  shearing  is  to  be  resisted,  the  parts 
should  be  fitted  witlr  great  care,  to  avoid  the 
possibility  of  cutting,  and  to  insure  that  all 
parts  of  the  cross  section  attacked  shall  resist 
the  shearing  force  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
gether.  Where  a  pin  is  fitted  but  not  forced 
into  its  socket,  the  resistance  to  shearing  is 
taken  as  three  fourths  of  that  due  the  sec 
tion  exposed  to  rupture.  9.  Crushing  is  re 
sisted  by  any  given  material  with  a  force  that 
varies  very  greatly  with  the  form  given  it. 
Very  short  columns  or  compact  masses  resist 
very  high  crushing  strains,  in  consequence  of 
the  resistance  offered  by  their  particles  to  dis 
persion,  as  well  as  by  their  cohesion.  Tall 
columns  first  bend  and  then  break  under  a 
comparatively  slight  force.  The  figures  in  col 
umn  C  of  the  table  give  the  resistance  to  crush 
ing  when  bending  does  not  occur.  Seasoned 
timber  has  nearly  twice  as  great  resistance  to 
crushing  as  green.  Steel  should  not  be  used 
under  pressure  exceeding  its  compressive  elas 
ticity,  which,  in  tool  steel,  is  about  50,000  Ibs. 
to  the  square  inch.  Wrought  iron  should  not 
be  used  under  pressure  exceeding  25,000  Ibs. 
to  the  square  inch.  10.  For  tall  columns,  the 
following  formulas  were  proposed  by  Prof. 
Eaton  llodgkinson : 


MATERIALS.                 Rounded  ends. 

Flat  ends. 

Solid  cylindrical  )                  -03.70 
cast-iron   cul-  >   W=14-9     l 
umns  f                    •"  ' 
Hollow  cylindri-  i               ~[)3-io_^y.iG 
cal     cast-iron  -,  "W=;13  •      _  — 
columns  U 
Solid  cylindrical  1  i             7^3.  76 
wrought-  iron  >  .  W  —  42      „ 
columns  |                  •" 
Solid  square  pil 
lar  of  Dantzic  >    

T)3.55 

W=^2XTT 
L1-7 

1)3-55 

W=183-7-IJ- 

oak  }  . 
Solid  square  pil-  i  > 
lar      of      rcdl    
pine  } 

L- 
W=7-8^ 

In  these  formulas  W  =  crushing  weight  in  tons, 
I)  =  outside  diameter  in  inches,  d  =  inside 
diameter  in  inches,  L  =  length  in  feet,  and  1) 
<'4L;  i.  c.,  the  columns  are  more  than  30 
diameters  in  length.  Prof.  Rankine  gives 
/s 


P  = 


for  tall  columns.      P  =  crushin 


load  in  pounds  ;  S  =  sectional  area  in  square 
inches  ;  I  =  length  and  D  =  external  diame 
ter,  both  being  in  the  same  units  of  measure, 
whether  feet  or  inches.  The  following  are 
the  values  of  /and  a: 


MATERIALS. 

Value  of/. 

Value  of  a. 

Forms  of  column. 

Cast  iron 

80  000 

_1 

Wrought  iron  

86,000 

SSoo 

Solid  rectangle. 

u            u  

36.000 
36.000 

cBoo 

Thin  square  tube. 
Solid  cylinder. 

i. 

86,000 
86.001) 

45V5 

Thin  cylinder. 
An<:le  iron. 

Best        American 

36,000 

Ts'oo 

+  shaped. 

wrought  iron  .  .  . 
Timber...  

50.000 
6,500 

ViV 

For  all  shapes. 
Solid  rectangle. 

STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS 


417 


This  formula  is  frequently  designated  as  Gor 
don's,  having  been  deduced  by  Gordon  from 
Hodgkinson's  experiments.  Multiply  the  value 
of  a,  as  given  in  the  table,  by  4  for  columns 
rounded  or  jointed  at  both  ends,  and  by  2 
where  fixed  at  one  end,  rounded  at  the  other. 
Connecting  rods  of  steam  engines  are  calcula 
ted  as  pillars  rounded  at  both  ends.  Piston  and 
pump  rods  are  considered  as  fixed  at  one  end, 
free  at  the  other.  11.  The  collapsing  of  boiler 
flues  was  made  the  subject  of  a  series  of  ex 
periments  by  Mr.  Fairbairn,  and  the  following 

formula  was  deduced:  P=806, 000  ^,  where 

P  =  collapsing  pressure  in  pounds  per  square 
inch,  t  =  thickness  of  iron  in  flues,  L  =  length 
of  flue  in  feet,  and  d  —  its  diameter  in  inches. 
When  the  flue  is  strengthened  by  angle-iron 
rings,  as  is  sometimes  done  with  long  flues,  L 
is  taken  as  the  distance  between  the  rings. 
This  formula  has  not  been  verified  for  short 
flues  of  great  diameter,  or  for  exceptional  pro 
portions.  A  slight  deviation  from  a  truly  cy 
lindrical  form  considerably  reduces  the  strength 
of  the  flues;  t~  is  generally  taken  instead  of 
£2'19.  Elliptical  flues,  having  a  major  diameter 
a  and  a  minor  diameter  5,  are  of  equal  strength 

with  a  cylindrical  flue  of  the  diameter  2-^. 

12.  The  transverse  strength  of  beams  may  be 
calculated  by  the  following  formulas  : 

KM1*  KAfZ  for  beams  fixed  at  one  end  and 

--  -L-  i    d  \V  =-j-       loaded  at  tbe  other> 

.  where  fixed  at  one  end  and  uni 
formly  loaded. 

where  supported  at  both  ends 
and  loaded  at  centre. 

where  fixed  at  both  ends  and 
loaded  at  centre. 


beam,  TF,  1,000.     14.  For  the  wrought-iron 

fL^T-^.^ 

beam,  when  supported  at  both  ends  and 
uniformly  loaded,  the  formula  TV  =  — i iZ. 


0 

=2  -  L-  and  W=2- 


KAc^  where  supported  at  both  ends 
'    L         and  uniformly  loaded. 

Ttr_10K^c/2  KAd,  where  fixed  at  both  ends  and 

v         ~C~~  '  L         uniformly  loaded. 

Here  TV  =  breaking  weight  in  pounds,  K  =  a 
coefficient  which  varies  with  every  change  in 
form  of  cross  section  of  the  beams,  d  =  depth 
of  beam  in  inches,  &  =  breadth  in  inches,  A  = 
area  of  cross  section  of  the  beam  at  point  of 
rupture  in  square  inches,  and  L  =  length  be 
tween  supports  in  feet.  The  values  of  K  given 
in  the  table,  where  the  beams  are  of  rectangu 
lar  section,  fixed  at  one  end  and  loaded  at  the 
other,  are  obtained  from  various  sources.  13. 
For  other  than  rectangular  sections  the  follow 
ing  may  be  taken  as  the  values  of  K  for  cast 

iron :  Shape,  ©  ;  value,  K  =  500.  Shape,  T? 
equal  flanges  ;  value,  K  =  520.  Fairbairn, 
j  ;  value,  K  =  580.  Hodgkinson,  T  ; 
v#lue,  K  =  850.  The  following  values  are 
given  for  wrought  iron:  rolled  rails, 

600 ;  Fairbairn's  riveted  beam,  jjT ,  900  ;  box 


is  used  by  some  American  manufacturers. 
D=  depth  in  feet;  a=  area  of  flange  in  inch 
es,  a=  that  of  "stem"  or  web;  -S=  stress 

per  square  inch  of  area,  #  +  4-,  in  tons.     The 

.OOOWL3 

deflection,  S— 7 ^vT^  where  the  load  is  ap- 

.004WL3  - 

plied  at  the  middle,  and  S'=7 ^\~t  when 

applied  uniformly.  The  depth  D  is  measured 
between  the  centres  of  gravity  of  the  flanges. 
In  such  beams  it  is  customary  to  allow  as 
maxima  10,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  in  ten 
sion  and  6,000  to  8,000  in  compression.  De 
flection  should  not  exceed  ^  of  an  inch 
per  foot  of  length,  in  any  structure.  15. 
Torsional  strength  is  computed  by  the  for 
mula  TV  =  S;—  ;  D  =  |/T!? ;  where  TV  = 

iv  O 

breaking  weight  in  pounds,  D  =  diameter  of 
shaft  in  inches,  and  II  =  length  of  lever  arm 
in  feet.  The  coefficient  S7  is  very  nearly  pro 
portional  to  the  tenacity  of  the  material,  where 
the  torsion  is  equal  in  degree.  16.  Resilience 
is  a  term  introduced  by  Dr.  Young.  It  is 
measured  by  the  amount  of  work  performed 
in  producing  the  maximum  strain  which  a 
given  body  is  capable  of  sustaining,  and  is  the 
quality  of  primary  importance  where  shocks 
are  to  be  sustained.  Mallet's  coefficient  of  re 
silience  is  the  half  product  of  the  maximum 
resistance  into  the  maximum  extension.  But 
for  tough  metals  it  is  equal  approximately  to 
two  thirds  the  product  of  the  ultimate  strength 
of  the  material  by  the  distance  through  which 
the  body  yields  before  the  straining  force. 
For  very  brittle  materials  it  is  measured  by 
half  that  product.  No  material  can  resist  the 
shock  of  a  body  in  motion,  unless  it  is  capable 
of  offering  resilience  equal  to  the  amount  of 
work  performed  in  setting  that  body  in  motion 
at  the  given  velocity ;  i.  e.,  equal  to  the  amount 
of  energy  stored  in  the  moving  mass  at  the  in 
stant  of  striking.  In  predicting  the  effect  of 
shock,  therefore,  it  becomes  necessary  to  know 
the  amount  of  energy  stored  in  the  moving  body 
and  the  resilience  of  the  resisting  material. 
To  meet  a  violent  shock  successfully,  resilience, 
rather  than  mere  strength,  must  be  secured. 
As  an  instance,  it  is  found  that  wrought  iron 
of  comparatively  low  tenacity  but  grea-t  tough 
ness,  capable  of  stretching  considerably  before 
fracture,  is  far  superior  to  steel  for  armor  for 
iron-clad  ships;  the  latter  has  much  greater 
strength,  but  also  greater  brittleness.  Such 
calculations  are  not  usually  made  in  designing. 
Immunity  from  the  injurious  effect  of  shock  is 


418 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS 


secured  by  the  use  of  a  large  factor  of  safety 
in  proportioning  parts  exposed  to  them,  by 
care  during  construction  in  the  selection  of 
tough  resilient  materials,  and  in  management 
by  carefully  adjusting  all  parts,  and  applying 
the  load  so  as  to  avoid  jarring  action  as  far  as 
possible.  17.  If  a  weight,  acting  as  a  steady 
load,  produces  a  given  deflection  or  change  of 
dimensions,  it  will  require  but  half  that  weight 
suddenly  applied  to  produce  a  similar  effect, 
whether  it  be  fracture  or  a  stated  alteration  of 
form.  The  extension  of  ordinary  wrought  iron 
within  its  limit  of  elasticity  is  about  '0001  per 
ton  per  square  inch  of  section.  The  amount 
of  extension  before  fracture  by  tension  is  given, 
with  the  finest  quality  of  wrought  iron,  at  20 
per  cent.,  with  medium  quality  16  per  cent., 
and  it  runs  in  some  irons  as  low  as  4  per  cent. 
Cast  iron  of  fair  quality  is  elongated  but  a 
fraction  of  1  per  cent.  18.  The  extension  of 
steel  varies  with  the  amount  of  carbon,  and 
nearly  inversely  as  its  tenacity.  The  follow 
ing  table  is  taken  in  part  from  Trautwine's 
"Engineer's  Pocket  Book:1' 

ULTIMATE  TENSILE  STRENGTH  IX  POUNDS  PER  SQ.  IX., 
AX1)  ELONGATION  IN  INCHES,  BEFORE  BREAKING. 

NOTE. — The  specimens  tested  were  steel  bars  of  different 
grades  made  from  puro  Swedish  iron,  and  each  bar  was 
turned  to  a  diameter  of  one  iueh  for  a  length  of  14  inches. 


SPECIMENS. 

Per  rent,  of 

Breaking 

weight. 

Elongation. 

Resilience. 

No  1 

0-33 

GS  100 

G'093 

4  450 

No.  2  

No  3 

0-43 

0-48 

7<).lfl() 
84.000 

0-0^9 
0-OS9 

4,970 

5  040 

No.  4  

No.  5 

0-53 
0'53 

9.V200 
9'2.%0 

O'OSO 
0  '  058 

5,080 

3  GOO 

No  (') 

0-03 

100,800 

Q-071 

4  770 

No.  7  
No.  8  
No.  9  
No.  10  

0-74 
0-84 
1-00 
1-25 

101,  9'20 
1  '23,200 
134.400 
154,500 

O'OoO 
0-080 

0-071 
0'044 

3,400 
G.r.M) 
6.3(10 
4.530 

In  the  larger  table,  tho  ultimate  resilience  of 
metals  is  given  as  tested  in  the  Stevens  insti 
tute  of  technology,  Iloboken,  N".  J.  Phosphor 
bronze  considerably  exceeds  ordinary  bronze  in 
ductility  and  resilience.  19.  Heating  wrought 
iron  within  certain  limits,  and  then  cooling 
under  stress,  increases  its  strength  by  relieving 
internal  strain.  Cold  rolling  and  wire-draw 
ing  increase  it,  in  some  cases,  100  per  cent. 
Mr.  Dean  of  Boston  and  Uchatius  of  Vienna 
have  similarly  increased  the  strength  and  elas 
ticity  of  bronze.  Overheating,  annealing,  and 
cold  hammering  decrease  its  strength.  Cast 
iron  of  open  structure  and  low  density  is 
increased  in  strength  by  successive  remelt- 
ings,  sometimes  to  the  amount  of  100  per 
cent.,  over  pig  metal.  Casting  under  a  head, 
or  under  considerable  pressure,  similarly  bene 
fits  both  cast  iron  and  cast  steel.  Sir  Joseph 
Whitworth  produced  a  steel  of  extraordinary 
strength  and  toughness  by  casting  under  heavy 
pressure.  The  internal  strain  consequent  upon 
sudden  cooling,  or  upon  cooling  awkwardly 
shaped  castings,  seriously  reduces  their  strength 
and  sometimes  produces  actual  fracture.  The 


character  of  cast  iron  is  largely  determined 
by  its  density,  7'2  to  7'3  representing  the  best 
limits  for  ordinary  practice.  Cold  wrought 
iron  is  more  than  twice  as  strong  as  red-hot. 
Strength,  ductility,  and  resilience  increase  with 
diminishing  temperatures,  when  the  materials 
are  of  good  quality.  Cold-blast  cast  iron  is 
usually  stronger  than  hot-blast  iron  made  from 
the  same  ores.  Copper  loses  25  per  cent,  .of 
its  tenacity  at  550°  F.,  50  per  cent,  at  810°, 
and  67  per  cent,  at  1,000°,  the  diminution  of 
tenacity  varying  nearly  as  the  square  root  of 
the  third  power  of  the  temperature.  Metals 
in  large  masses  have  usually  less  density  and 
strength  than  when  worked  into  sheets,  bars, 
or  wire.  Wrought  iron  is  particularly  liable 
to  loss  of  strength  in  large  forgings.  Bars 
two  inches  in  diameter  being  made  of  the 
same  metal  as  other  bars  one  inch  in  diame 
ter,  the  latter  are  sometimes  found  to  have  20 
per  cent,  more  strength.  Steel  exhibits  even 
greater  differences.  20.  Indentation  is  resist 
ed  by  wrought  iron  nearly  in  proportion  to  its 
thickness.  Fairbairn  found  the  force  neces 
sary  to  push  a  blunt  point  or  a  ball  3  in.  in 
diameter  through  boiler  plate,  one  quarter  of 
an  inch  thick,  to  be  17,000  Ibs.,  and  nearly 
equal  to  that  required  to  drive  the  same  in 
strument  through  a  three-inch  oak  plank.  Re 
sistance  of  armor  plate  to  penetration  by  shot 
varies,  if  the  plate  be  well  backed,  as  the 
square  of  thickness,  within  the  limit  of  mod 
erate  thickness.  The  material  should  be  strong 
and  ductile.  21.  Generally,  in  designing  ma 
chines  or  parts  of  machines,  they  should  be  so 
proportioned  that  all  parts  will  have  factors 
of  safety  of  nearly  equal  value.  Economy 
of  material  is  thus  secured,  and  also  the  very 
important  advantage,  where  exposed  to  severe 
shock  or  sudden  strains,  of  utilizing  the  resili 
ence  of  the  whole  machine  in  resisting  them. 
Forms  of  uniform  strength  should  therefore  be 
used  wherever  possible.  Suspension  rods  of 
uniform  strength  must  have  a  greater  section 
at  the  point  of  support  than  at  the  point  of 
attachment  of  tho  load,  as  the  upper  portions 
carry  not  only  the  load  but  the  weight  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  rod.  Pump  rods  and  wire 
ropes  for  deep  mines  are  for  this  reason  made 
tapering,  with  the  largest  section  at  the  top. 
Care  should  always  be  taken  that  the  pieces 
connected  and  their  fastenings  are,  when  pos 
sible,  equally  strong.  Tall  columns  are  slightly 
swollen  at  the  middle  portion  in  order  that  they 
may  be  equally  liable  to  break  at  all  points,  and 
the  Hodgkinson  form  of  cast-iron  beams,  and 
the  Fairbairn  (I)  form  of  section  of  wrpught- 
iron  beams,  are  given  their  peculiar  shapes  in 
order  that  no  surplus  material  may  exist  in 
either  top  or  bottom  flange.  Beams  of  uniform 
strength,  when  fixed  at  one  end  and  loaded  at 
the  other,  if  of  uniform  depth,  are  triangular 
in  plan.  If  uniformly  loaded,  they  represent 
in  plan  a  pair  of  parabolas  whose  vertices  touch 
at  the  outer  end.  When  of  uniform  breadth, 
their  vertical  sections  are  parabolic  in  the  first 


STRENGTH  OF  MATEEIALS 


419 


case,  and  triangular  in  the  second.  Beams  of 
uniform  depth,  supported  at  the  ends  and  load 
ed  at  the  middle  point,  are  in  plan  a  pair  of 
triangles  with  a  common  base  at  the  load.  If 
uniformly  loaded,  the  plan  is  a  pair  of  parabo 
las  with  their  bases  at  the  middle  of  the  beam. 
When  supported  at  the  ends  and  uniform  in 
breadth,  they  are  in  vertical  section  a  pair  of 
parabolas,  in  the  first  case  with  vertices  at  the 
ends  and  bases  meeting  at  the  load,  and  in  the 
last  case  semi-ellipses  extending  between  the 
points  of  support.  In  building  bridge  girders, 
economy  of  material  is  secured  by  the  use  of 
isosceles  bracing  set  at  angles  of  45°.  In  ver 
tical  and  diagonal  bracing,  the  proper  angle  for 
diagonals  is  55°  measured  between  the  diago 
nal  and  the  vertical.  The  amount  of  resistance 
of  a  cylinder  to  rupture  by  torsion  is  nearly 
double  that  to  breaking  across.  Bolts  exposed 
to  shocks  and  sudden  strains,  as  when  used 
as  armor-plate  fastenings,  are  found  to  resist 
much  more  effectually  where  resilience  is  se 
cured  by  turning  down  the  shank  to  the  diam 
eter  of  the  bolt  at  the  bottom  of  the  thread,  or 
otherwise  creating  a  uniform  area  of  section 
between  head  and  nut.  Punching  rivet  holes 
weakens  plates  of  hard  iron  and  steel.  The 
latter  are  injured  so  seriously  that  steel  plates 
are  never  punched  by  careful  engineers.  (See 
STEEL.)  In  hard  iron  the  reduction  of  strength 
is  often  considerable  (15  per  cent,  as  shown 
by  some  experimenters) ;  and  in  many  cases,  in 
boiler  work,  for  this  reason,  the  rivet  holes  are 
all  drilled,  notwithstanding  the  increased  cost. 
Where  the  iron  is  very  soft  and  ductile,  punch 
ing  produces  less  injury.  22.  Elasticity  is  that 
quality  by  the  possession  of  which  the  strain, 
or  distortion  of  form,  produced  in  any  body  by 
stress,  is  wholly  or  partially  removed  on  the  re 
moval  of  the  stress.  All  bodies  have  more  or 
less  elasticity,  and,  when  perfectly  homogene 
ous  and  free  from  internal  strain,  are  perfectly 
elastic  within  a  certain  limit,  which  is  called 
the  limit  of  elasticity.  Within  this  limit,  the 
displacement  produced  by  any  force  is  directly 
proportional  to  that  force.  Beyond  the  limit  of 
elasticity,  the  strain  produced  by  stress  is  not 
wholly  removed  on  the  cessation  of  the  stress. 
The  permanent  change  of  form  so  produced  is 
called  the  "set."  This  set  takes  place  on  the 
application  of  the  slightest  force  where  the 
material  is  not  uniform  in  character  and  free 
from  internal  strain.  Hodgkinson  found  that 
in  iron,  far  within  the  elastic  limit,  the  lightest 
loads  produced  slight  set.  Beyond  the  elastic 
limit  the  set  becomes  nearly  proportional  to 
the  distortion,  the  resistance  also  increasing  up 
to  the  point  at  which  rupture  begins,  but  in  a 
far  higher  ratio.  Repeatedly  straining  a  piece 
beyond  its  elastic  limit  produces  "  fatigue  "  and 
ultimate  fracture.  This  may  occur  by  the  ap 
plication  of  force  far  less  than  that  producing 
immediate  rupture.  23.  The  modulus  of  elas 
ticity,  sometimes  called  the  coefficient  of  elas 
ticity,  is  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the 
measure  of  the  force  producing  distortion  by 


the  measure  of  the  distortion  produced  by  it. 
Its  value  varies  with  every  material.  The  or 
dinary  values  of  the  modulus  are  given  in  the 
table.  Those  values,  as  is  proved  by  auto 
graphic  strain  diagrams,  are  liable  to  variation, 
within  very  wide  limits,  by  every  circumstance 
which  affects  the  physical  character  of  the  ma 
terials.  It  has  no  fixed  relation  to  the  ulti 
mate  strength.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  quan 
tity  may  be  defined  as  the  measure  of  that 
force  which,  supposing  no  limit  to  elasticity, 
would  shorten  or  lengthen  a  bar,  originally  a 
unit  in  length,  to  the  extent  of  one  unit.  Thus, 
a  bar  of  ordinary  forged  iron,  one  foot  long, 
would  be  altered  in  length  -^  i-^  by  a  force 
equal  to  ^°T°TO-  =2500  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
of  section.  24.  Testing^  Machines.  The  strength 
of  materials  is  determined  by  means  of  testing 
machines.  25.  Fig.  1  represents  a  machine  for 
determining  longitudinal  resistance,  as  built 
by  the  Messrs.  Riehle  of  Philadelphia.  It  con 
sists  of  a  weigh-beam,  accurately  made  and 


, 


FIG.  1. — Eiehle's  Longitudinal  Testing  Machine. 

nicely  poised  upon  knife  edges.  At  its  outer 
end  it  sustains  a  scale  pan  upon  which  weights 
measuring  2,000  or  4,000  Ibs.  are  placed.  In 
termediate  weights  are  measured  by  a  poise, 
not  shown  in  the  figure,  which  traverses  the 
beam,  the  latter  being  divided  into  parts  of 
10  Ibs.  each,  similarly  to  the  steelyard  bal 
ance.  The  specimen  is  secured  at  the  upper 
end  by  wedges  or  clamps,  in  a  strong  collar 
which  is  hung  from  two  knife  edges,  one  on 
each  side  the  knife  edge  carrying  the  scale  beam. 
These  knife  edges  are  placed  at  slightly  differ 
ent  distances  from  the  knife  edge  supporting 
the  beam,  thus  making  the  latter  a  "  differen 
tial  lever,"  and  permitting  the  measurement  of 
a  very  great  force  without  compelling  the  use 
either  of  large  weights  or  of  a  series  of  levers. 
A  similar  collar  below  takes  the  lower  end  of 
the  specimen  to  be  tested.  This  second  collar 
is  secured  to  the  head  of  a  hydraulic  press 
which  is  placed  within  the  lower  part  of  the 
frame  of  the  machine.  A  small  pump,  worked 


420 


STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS 


by  a  hand  lever,  is  used  to  force  oil  into  the 
press.  The  breaking  force  is  thus  applied  from 
below,  and  is  measured  upon  the  lever  above. 
26.  With  the  autographic  recording  testing 
machine  of  Prof.  R.  II.  Thurston,  fig.  2,  near 
ly  all  of  the  essential  qualities  as  well  as  the 
strength  of  ma 
terials  are  deter 
mined  by  the  au 
tomatic  production 
of  a  strain  diagram. 
This  diagram  is  an 
exact  graphical  rep 
resentation  of  all 
circumstances  at 
tending  the  distor 
tion  and  fracture  of 
the  specimen.  No 
system  of  personal 
observation  yields 
results  as  trustwor 
thy  or  with  such 
precision  as  an  au 
tographic  registry. 
No  other  method 
gives  simultaneous 
ly,  and  at  every 
instant  during  the 
test,  the  intensity  of 
the  distorting  force 
and  the  magnitude 
of  the  coincident 
distortion.  In  this 
machine  two  strong  wrenches  are  carried  by 
the  A  frames,  and  depend  from  axes  which  are 
both  in  the  same  line,  but  which  are  not  con 
nected  with  each  other.  The  arm  of  one  of 
these  wrenches  carries  a  weight  at  its  lower  end. 
The  other  arm  is  designed  to  be  moved  by  hand 
in  the  smaller  machines  and  by  a  worm  gear  in 
larger  ones.  The  heads  of  the  wrenches  are 
fitted  to  take  the  head  on  the  end  of  the  test 
pieces,  which  are  usually  given  the  form  shown 
in  fig.  3.  A  guide  curve  of  such  form  that  its 


FIG.  2.— Thurston's  Testing 
Machine. 


FIG.  3.— Test  Piece. 

ordinates  are  precisely  proportional  to  the  tor- 
sional  moments  exerted  by  the  weighted  arm 
while  moving  up  an  arc  to  which  the  corre 
sponding  abscissas  of  the  curve  are  propor 
tional,  is  secured  to  the  frame  next  the  weight 
ed  arm.  The  pencil  holder  is  carried  on  this 
arm,  and  as  the  latter  is  forced  out  of  the 
vertical  position,  the  pencil  is  pushed  forward 
by  the  guide  curve,  its  movement  being  thus 
made  proportional  to  the  force  which,  trans 
mitted  through  the  test  piece,  produces  deflec 
tion  of  the  weighted  arm.  The  guide  curve. is 
a  curve  of  sines.  The  other  arm  carries  the 
cylinder  upon  which  the  paper  receiving  the 
record  is  clamped,  and  the  pencil  makes  its 


mark  on  the  table  thus  provided.  This  table 
having  a  motion,  relatively  to  the  pencil,  which 
is  precisely  the  angular  relative  motion  of  the 
two  extremities  of  the  test  piece,  the  curve  de 
scribed  upon  the  paper  is  always  of  such  form 
that  the  abscissa  of  any  point  measures  the 
amount  of  the  distortion  which  the  force  pro 
duces.  27.  The  vertical  scale  of  the  diagrams 
produced  is  a  scale  of  torsional  moments,  and 
the  horizontal  scale  is  one  of  total  angles  of 
torsion.  Since  the  resistance  to  shearing,  in 
a  homogeneous  material,  varies  with  the  resis 
tance  to  longitudinal  stress,  the  vertical  scale 
is  also  for  such  materials  a  scale  of  direct  re 
sistance;  and  with  approximately  homogene 
ous  substances  this  scale  is  approximately  ac 
curate,  where,  as  here,  all  specimens  compared 
are  of  the  same  dimensions.  28.  By  tig.  4  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  first  portion  of  the  line 
rises  at  a  slight  inclination  from  the  vertical, 
and  very  nearly  straight.  The  amount  of  dis 
tortion  here  is  seen  to  be  approximately  pro 
portional  to  the  distorting  force,  illustrating 
Ilooke's  law,  Ut  tensio  sic  vis.  After  a  degree 
of  distortion  which  is  determined  by  the  spe 
cific  character  of  each  piece,  the  line  becomes 
curved,  the  change  of  form  having  a  rate  of 
increase  which  varies  more  rapidly  than  the 
applied  force.  When  this  change  begins,  the 
molecules,  which  up  to  that  point  retain  gen 
erally  their  original  distribution,  while  varying 
their  relative  distances,  begin  to  change  their 
positions  with  respect  to  each  other,  moving 
upon  each  other  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
action  described  by  II.  Tresca,  and  called  the 
"  flow  of  solids."  This  point,  at  which  the  line 
begins  to  become  concave  toward  the  base, 
is  considered  as  marking  the  torsional  limit  of 
elasticity.  It  is  well  defined  in  experiments 
upon  woods;  is  less  marked,  but  still  well  de 
fined,  in  the  fibrous  irons  and  the  less  homoge 
neous  specimens  of  other  metals ;  and  becomes 
quite  indeterminable  with  the  most  homoge 
neous  materials,  as  with  the  best  qualities  of 
well  worked  cast  steel.  This  point  does  not 
indicate  the  first  set,  since  a  set  occurs  with 
every  degree  of  distortion,  however  small.  It 
is  at  this  elastic  limit  that  the  sets  begin  to  be 
come  proportional  to  the  degree  of  distortion. 
The  inclination  of  the  straight  portion  of  the 
line  from  the  vertical  measures  the  stiffness  of 
the  specimen.  This  rigidity  is  very  closely, 
if  not  precisely,  proportional  to  the  hardness, 
in  homogeneous  substances  ;  and  this  quan 
tity  is  taken,  for  practical  purposes,  as  a  mea 
sure  of  the  hardness  of  the  metals  and  of  their 
elastic  resistance  to  compression.  After  pass 
ing  the  elastic  limit,  the  line  becomes  more 
and  more  nearly  parallel  to  the  base  line,  and 
then,  with  the  woods  invariably,  and  in  somo 
cases  with  the  metals,  begins  to  fall  before 
fracture  becomes  evident  in  the  specimen. 
With  the  more  ductile  substances,  nearly  all 
the  particles  are  brought  up  to  a  maximum  in 
resistance  before  fracture  occurs,  and  this  cir 
cumstance  has  an  important  influence  in  deter- 


STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS 


421 


mining  the  resistance  to  rupture.  The  hard 
est  and  most  brittle  materials  break  with  a 
snap  before  any  flow  is  perceptible,  before  the 
line  of  the  diagram  begins  to  deviate  from  the 
direction  taken  at  the  commencement,  and  be 
fore  the  approach  to  the  elastic  limit  is  indica 
ted.  The  elasticity  of  the  material  is  deter 
mined  by  relaxing  the  distorting  force,  and  al 
lowing  the  specimen  to  relieve  itself  from  dis 
tortion  so  far  as  its  elasticity  will  permit.  In 
suoh  cases,  the  pencil  traces  a  line  e,  O,  re 
sembling,  in  its  general  form  and  position  in 
respect  to  the  coordinates,  that  forming  the 
initial  portion  of  the  diagram,  but  almost  abso 
lutely  straight,  and  more  nearly  vertical.  The 
degree  of  inclination  of  this  line  indicates  the 
elasticity,  precisely  as  the  initial  straight  line 
gives  a  measure  of  the  original  stiffness  of  the 
test  piece.  The  homogeneity  of  the  material 
tested  is  hardly  less  important  than  its  strength. 
The  degree  of  depression  of  the  line  immedi 
ately  after  passing  the  elastic  limit  exhibits  the 
greater  or  lesshomogeneousness  of  the  material. 
The  resilience  of  the  specimen  is  measured  by 
the  area  included  within  the  curve,  this  being 
the  product  of  the  mean  force  exerted  into  the 
distance  through  which  it  acts  in  producing 
rupture ;  i.  e.,  it  is  proportional  to  the  work 
done  by  the  test  piece  in  resisting  fracture, 
and,  taken  up  to  the  ordinate  of  the  limit  of 
elasticity,  measures  the  capacity  for  resisting 
shock  without  serious  distortion  or  injurious 
set.  The  ductility  of  the  specimen  is  deduced 
from  the  value  of  the  total  angle  of  torsion, 
and  its  measure  is  the  elongation  of  a  line  of 
surface  particles,  originally  parallel  to  the  axis, 
which  line  assumes  a  helical  form  as  the  test 
piece  yields,  and  finally  parts  at  or  near  the 
point  where  the  maximum  resistance  is  ob 
served.  29.  The  strain  diagrams  exhibit  the 
characteristic  differences  of  various  materials. 
The -woods  have  a  structure  which  differs  in  a 
distinguishing  degree,  both  in  the  distribution  of 
the  substance  and  in  the  action  of  those  molec 
ular  forces  capable  of  resisting  rupture,  fr<3m 
that  of  the  metals,  the  latter  being  far  more  ho 
mogeneous  than  the  former.  Wood  consists  of 
an  aggregation  of  strong  fibres,  lying  parallel, 
or  approximately  so,  and  held  together  often 
by  a  comparatively  feeble  force  of  lateral  cohe 
sion.  The  metals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  nat 
urally  homogeneous,  both  in  structure  and  in 
the  distribution  and  intensity  of  the  molecular 
forces.  Well  worked  and  thoroughly  annealed 
cast  steel,  as  an  example,  is  equally  strong  in 
all  directions,  is  perfectly  uniform  in  its  struc 
tural  character,  and  is  almost  absolutely  homo 
geneous  as  to  strain.  Wrought  iron,  as  usually 
made,  has  a  somewhat  fibrous  structure,  which 
is  produced  by  particles  of  cinder  originally 
left  in  the  mass  by  the  imperfect  work  of  the 
puddler  while  forming  the  ball  of  sponge  in 
his  furnace,  which,  not  having  been  removed 
by  the  squeezers  or  by  hammering  the  puddle 
ball,  are,  by  the  process  of  rolling,  drawn  out 
into  long  lines  of  non-cohering  matter,  and 


produce  an  effect  upon  the  mass  of  metal 
which  makes  its  behavior  under  stress  some 
what  similar  to  that  of  the  stronger  and  more 
thready  kinds  of  wood.  In  the  low  steels  also, 
in  which,  in  consequence  of  the  deficiency  of 
manganese  accompanying  almost  of  necessity 
their  low  proportion  of  carbon,  this  fibrous 
structure  is  produced  by  cells  and  bubble  holes 
in  the  ingot,  refusing  to  weld  up  in  work 
ing,  and  drawing  out  into  long  microscopic, 
or  less  than  microscopic,  capillary  openings. 
In  consequence  of  this  structure,  a  depression 
indicating  this  heterogeneousness  of  structure 
interrupts  the  regularity  of  their  curves,  im 
mediately  after  passing  the  limit  of  elasticity. 
30.  The  presence  of  internal  strain  constitutes 
an  essential  peculiarity  of  the  metals  which  dis 
tinguishes  them  from  organic  materials.  The 
latter  are  built  up  by  the  action  of  molecular 
forces,  and  their  particles  assume  naturally  and 
invariably  positions  of  equilibrium  as  to  strain. 
The  same  is  true  of  all  naturally  formed  or 
ganic  substances.  The  metals,  however,  are 
given  form  by  external  and  artificially  produced 
forces.  Their  molecules  are  compelled  to  assume 
certain  relative  positions,  and  these  positions 
may  be  those  of  equilibrium,  or  they  may  be 
such  as  to  strain  the  cohesive  forces  to  their 
very  limit.  This  peculiar  condition  is  of  seri 
ous  importance  where  the  metal  is  brittle,  as  is 
illustrated  by  the  behavior  of  cast  iron,  and  par 
ticularly  in  ordnance.  Even  in  ductile  metals, 
it  produces  a  reduction  in  the  power  of  the 
material  to  resist  external  forces.  This  con 
dition  of  internal  strain  may  be  relieved  by 
annealing  hammered  and  rolled  metals,  and  by 
cooling  castings  very  slowly,  so  that  the  par 
ticles  may  naturally  assume  positions  of  equi 
librium.  In  tough  and  ductile  metals,  internal 
strain  may  be  removed  by  heating  to  a  high 
temperature  and  then  cooling  under  the  action 
of  a  force  approximately  equal  to  the  elastic  re 
sistance  of  the  substance.  This  process,  called 
"thermo-tension,"  was  first  used  by  Prof.  W. 
E.  Johnson  in  1836.  The  cause  of  this,  which 
he  terms  an  anomalous  condition  of  the  metal, 
was  not  then  discovered.  Ductile  metals  may 
be  strengthened  in  a  considerable  degree  by 
this  relief  of  internal  strain,  and  also  by  sim 
ply  straining  them  while  cold  to  the  elastic 
limit,  and  thus  dragging  all  their  particles 
into  extreme  positions  of  tension,  from  which 
when  released  from  strain  they  may  all  spring 
back  into  their  natural  and  unstrained  posi 
tions  of  equilibrium.  This  fact  was  noted  by 
Prof.  Thurston,  and  soon  after  independently 
by  Commander  Beardslee,  U.  S.  K  It  has  an 
important  bearing  upon  the  resisting  power 
of  materials,  and  upon  the  character  of  all 
formulas  in  which  it  may  be  attempted  to 
embody  accurately  the  law  of  resistance  of 
such  materials  to  distorting  or  breaking  strain. 
The  initial  portion  of  the  diagram,  when 
the  material  is  free  from  internal  strain,  is 
a  straight  line  up  to  the  limit  of  elasticity. 
This  line,  with  strained  materials,  becomes  con- 


422 


STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS 


vex  toward  the  base  line.  The  initial  portion 
of  the  diagram,  therefore,  determines  whether 
the  material  tested  has  been  subjected  to  inter 
nal  strain,  or  whether  it  is  homogeneous  as 
to  strain.  This  is  exhibited  by  the  direction 
of  this  part  of  the  line,  as  well  as  by  its  form. 
The  existence  of  internal  strain  causes  a  loss 
of  stiffness,  which  is  shown  by  the  Deviation 
of  this  part  of  the  line  from  the  vertical  to  a 
degree  which  becomes  observable  by  compar 
ing  its  inclination  with  that  of  the  line  of 
elastic  resistance.  31.  In  fig.  4,  the  strain 
diagram  A  is  that  of  zinc.  The  concave  form 
at  the  commencement  indicates  its  inelastic 
nature,  its  slight  altitude  shows  its  weakness, 
and,  breaking  at  65°,  it  is  shown  to  lack  duc 
tility.  Tin,  T,  is  vastly  more  ductile,  but  is  still 
less  tenacious.  B  and  C  are  the  diagrams  given 
by  cast  and  forged  copper,  the  latter  twisting 
500°,  and  its  fibres  stretching  to  three  times 
their  original  length.  Cast  copper  is  compara 
tively  weak  and  brittle.  Wrought  iron  gives 
the  strain  diagram  D.  It  indicates  the  elastici 
ty  of  the  metal,  its  ductility,  and  its  strength. 
The  elastic  limit  is  plainly  indicated.  The  con- 


240  220    200 .     130      160     HO     120      100      BO     >  GO      40       20 
FIG.  4. — Strain  Diagrams. 

cavity  of  the  initial  portion  of  the  line  indi 
cates  some  internal  strain,  and  the  horizontal 
portion  immediately  above  the  elastic  limit 
shows  that  the  metal  was  "  seamy "  and  not 
perfectly  homogeneous.  The  lines  e  and  O  are 
"  elasticity  lines."  They  differ  slightly  in  direc 
tion  from  the  initial  portion  of  the  diagram, 
confirming  the  previously  indicated  presence  of 
internal  strain.  E  is  the  terminal  portion  of 
the  diagram  of  a  soft  ductile  iron.  F  is  that 
given  by  a  very  strong  and  ductile  and  excep 
tionally  homogeneous  iron,  a  very  smooth  and 
symmetrical  curve.  G  is  a  soft  Bessemer  steel. 
H  is  somewhat  harder,  the  one  containing  0'4 
and  the  other  0'5  per  cent,  of  carbon.  I  and  J 
are  tool  steels  containing  1  per  cent,  of  carbon. 
K  is  medium,  ~L  spring,  and  M  double  shear 
steel.  N  and  P  are  obtained  from  white  and 
gray  cast  iron.  One  is  stiff,  hard,  and  brittle, 
the  other  weaker,  soft,  and  comparatively 
tough.  O  is  a  malleableized  cast  iron  made 
from  N";  it  has  lost  no  strength,  and  has 
gained  considerable  ductility.  Strain  diagrams 
may  be  produced  by  plotting  data  obtained 
by  observation  in  the  usual  manner  and  simi 
larly  interpreted.  32.  An  examination  of  the 


fracture  in  each  case  assists  in  determining  the 
character  of  the  material,  and  in  interpret 
ing  the  strain  diagram.  The  following  fig 
ures  exhibit  the  characteristics  of  various 
qualities  of  iron 
and  steel.  Fig. 
5  resembles  that 
which  gave  the 
diagram  marked 
D.  The  metal  is 
good  and  tough, 
but  seamy,  and 
not  thoroughly 
worked,  as  is 
shown  by  the 
cracks  extending 
around  the  neck 
and  by  the  irreg 
ularly  distributed 
tlaws  on  its  end. 
Fig.  6  exhibits  the 
appearance  of  the 
sample  F.  The 
surface  of  the 
neck  was  originally  smoothly  turned,  polished, 
and  fitted  to  gauge.  Under  test  it  be- 
'"  came  curiously  altered  and  assumed  a 
rough,  striated  appearance.  The  end 
a  has  the  peculiar  appearance  character 
istic  of  tough  and  ductile  metals,  and 
0  the  uniformly  bright  appearance  of 
the  fractured  section  shows  that  all 
o  held  together  up  to  the  instant  of  rup 
ture,  and  that  fracture  finally  took 
3  place  by  shearing.  Fig.  T  represents 
the  appearance  of  low  steels.  The 
peculiarities  of  the  finest  tool  steels 
are  exhibited  in  fig.  8.  In  this  the 
fracture  is  ragged  and  splintery,  and 
the  separated  surfaces  have  a  beauti 
fully  fine,  even  grain,  which  proves  the  excel 
lence  of  the  material.  The  surface,  which 
was  turned  and  polished  in  bringing  the  metal 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  I. 


to  size,  remains  as  perfect  as  before  the  speci 
men  was  broken.  By  an  inspection  of  the  bro 
ken  test  pieces  in  this  manner,  the  grade  of 
the  steel,  and  by  the  practised  eye  the  slightest 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS 


4.23 


TABLE   OP   COEFFICIENTS    OF   RESISTANCE. 


MATERIAL. 

W. 

Weight  per 
cubic  foot. 

T. 

Tension. 

c. 

Crushing. 

K. 

Trans 
verse. 

S. 
Torsion. 

E. 

Coefficient  of 
elasticity. 

R. 

Resilience. 

METALS. 

Antimony  

2SO 

1.000 

15 

1 
• 

Bismuth.                    .         ....             

613 

3  000 

50 

Brass: 
Copper  10,  zinc  1  

535 

22  000 

50  000 

200 

8  000  000 

6  000 

6,    "     1  
8,     "    1  

525 
525 

30.000 

23,000 

160,000 

240 

500 

9,000,000 
8  000  000 

8,000 
4  000 

Fine  drawn  
Bronze  : 
Aluminum  10,  copper  90  

535 
4SO 

80,000 
70.000 

105,000 
135  000 

1,000 
400 

14,000,000 
10  000  000 

15,000 

Copper  10,  tin  1  

535 

3fi  000 

500 

11  000  000 

8  000 

"        8    "    1 

523 

40  000 

700 

j.»  iHjD  yyy 

6  000 

6,   "   1 

540 

40,000 



2  000 

Copper: 
Cast  

540 

20,000 

350 

3  000  000 

200 

Boiled  

550 

80  000 

100  000 

400 

Drawn  

555 

60,000 

100  000 

750 



Forged  

552 

40  000 

100000 

220 

600 

8  750  000 

40  340 

Gold  wire  

1,210 

20,000 

35,000 

Iron  : 
Cast,  pig  

440 

20000 

100  000 

500 

400 

1  3  000  000 

15 

"     hard  

450 

30.000 

125000 

700 

600 

2~>  000000 

5 

"     touch..  . 

450 

25000 

120000 

600 

500 

15  000  000 

25 

"     gim  iron 

455 

30  000 

125  000 

700 

700 

25  (100  000 

50 

Wrought,  bar  

4S6 

60  000 

50000 

900 

750 

99000000 

20  000 

'•          sheet 

480 

50000 

60  000 

700 

650 

95  ooo  000 

15'  ooo 

"          tank  

480 

45  000 

65  000 

500 

600 

25'000'000 

lo'ooo 

"          wire  ^  inch. 

485 

80  000 

60000 

900 

1  000 

2s  ooo  000 

40  000 

"          large  forging 

475 

40,000 

40000 

500 

500 

20  000  000 

lo'ooo 

Lead,  cast  

710 

1,800 

7,000 

20 

20 

1  000  000 

'•      rolled  

712 

2,500 

30 

30 

Platinum 

1.340 

55  000 

700 

Silver  .  .  . 

054 

40,000 

500 

Steel: 
Carbon  0  •  0033  

48S 

65,000 

80000 

800 

POO 

25  000  000 



35  000 

"       0-00.50. 

4S7 

90  000 

125000 

1  500 

1  200 

27  000  000 

15  000 

"       0  •  0075  

436 

100.000 

150,000 

2,000 

l'o50 

2'.'  OWO'OOO 

10000 

"       0-0100  

435 

140.000 

225  000 

3  000 

1  800 

30  000  000 

10  000 

"       0-0125. 

4S5 

160000 

250  000 

5  000 

9  000 

81  000  000 

5  000 

Hardened  in  oil  . 

200.000 

350  000 

7,000 

3*000 

3^000000 

Eails 

433 

70  000 

100000 

900 

900 

30  COO  ' 

Plate  

4^7 

80.000 

120,000 

1.200 

1  100 

Blister  

4^8 

100  000 

150000 

2000 

1  500 

Shear  

486 

120,000 

1SO.OOO 

2,500 

2  000 

5000 

Tin,  block. 

455 

4  000 

15500 

50 

60 

4  500  000 

2  500 

"    wire  

400 

7000 

80 

90 

Zinc,  cast 

437 

2500 

80 

30 

13  000  000 

500 

"     rolled 

440 

15  000 

200 

200 

MINERALS. 

Brick,  red  

130 

150 

1  000 

5 

135 

300 

2  000 

10 

"'14 

1 

Cement,  1  week  

120 

100 

20 



"        1  year  

120 

400 

2,000 

5 

'"69 

Chalk.. 

117 

384 

Glass,  plate,.  

153 

9420 



Granite         * 

105 

1  000 

10  000 

•    25 

0^0 

Limestone 

105 

500 

6000 

40 

100 

95  000  000 

Marble 

Ig5 

q  000 

40 

25  000  000 

Sandstone  . 

150 

200 

5  000 

15 

300 

Mortar  

107 

50 

'l80 

TIMBER. 

Acacia 

47 

1C  000 

140 

1  159  000 

Apple  tree  

50 

19,000 

Ash.. 

45 

16  000 

9  000 

1  50 

120 

1  500  000 

Beech.... 

50 

16000 

8  000 

120 

110 

1  400000 



Birch  

50 

15  000 

5  000 

130 

1  500  000 

Box  

60 

18000 

10000 

130 

'  125 

Cedar  

55 

•  11  500 

6  000 

100 

100 

Elm  .  .  . 

37 

13  000 

10  000 

75 

700  000 

Fir,  X.  E  

35 

12  000 

6000 

80 

"'75 

2.000000 

Larch  

35 

9  000 

10000 

100 

80 

1  000000 

Lancewood  .  .  , 

60 

23  000 

150 

120 

Lignumvitas  

75 

12  000 

10000 

160 

150 

Locust  

60 

20000 

250 

220 

Mahogany  

50 

16.000 

8,000 

120 

180 

Maple...:  

50 

10000 

Oak  

55 

17  000 

10  000 

150 

140 

1  500  000 

Pine  

40 

10  000 

•8000 

100 

65 

1  750000 

Spruce. 

30 

17  000 

6  000 

l^O 

1  600  000 

Teak  '   i'i 

45 

15000 

12,000 

180 

150 

2  400  000 

Walnut,  white.  ... 

42 

8000 

7000 

100 

200 

'•        black 

40 

8000 

8000 

150 

180 

424:     STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS 


STRICKLAND 


possible  variations,  are  readily  distinguished. 
Fig.  9  is  white  cast  iron.  Its  surface,  where 
fractured,  has  the  general  appearance  of  broken 
tool  steel,  but  the  color  and  texture  of  themet- 


FIG.  8. 

al  are  distinctive;  it  has  none  of  the  "steely 
grain."  Fig.  10  represents  dark  foundery  iron. 
Its  color,  its  granular  structure,  and  coarse  grain 
are  markedly  characteristic.  33.  Good  iron 
plates  should,  in  ad 
dition  to  the  above 
tests,  be  subjected 
to  the  following : 
When  red-hot,  they 
should  be  capable 
of  being  bent  sharp 
ly  to  a  right  angle 
without  cracking, 
up  to  an  inch  in 
thickness.  Ordina 
ry  boiler  plate  of 
good  quality  should 
bend  double.  When 
cold,  they  should 
bend  along  the  grain 
without  cracking, 
as  follows  :  1  in. 
thick,  15°;  f  in.  thick,  25°;  £  in.  thick,  35°; 
-J  in.  thick,  00°.  Across  the  grain  they  should 
at  least  bend  half  as  far.  They  should  be 
bent  on  a  slab  rounded  on  the  corners  with 
a  radius  of  £  in.  Steel  plates  should  be  50 
per  cent,  more  ductile.  34.  Testing  within 
the  Limit  of  Elasticity.  In  determining  the 
value  of  materials  of  construction,  it  is  usu 
ally  more  necessary  to  determine  the  position 
of  the  limit  of  elasticity,  and  the  behavior  of 
the  metal  within  that  limit,  than  to  ascertain 
ultimate  strength  or  resilience.  It  should  be 
possible  to  test  every  piece  of  material  which 
goes  into  an  important  structure,  and  then  to 
use  it  with  confidence  that  it  has  been  proved 
capable  of  carrying  its  load  with  a  sufficient 
and  known  margin  of  safety.  It  is  common 
to^  test  bridge  rods  to  a  limit  of  strain  deter 
mined  by  specification,  and  to  compel  their  re 
jection  when  they  are  found  to  take  a  consid- 


FIG.  10. 


erable  permanent  set  under  that  strain.  Spe 
cification  now  frequently  (and  it  should  inva 
riably)  makes  the  limit  of  elasticity  the  basis 
of  calculation  and  test. — See  Fairbairn,  "Cast 
and  Wrought  Iron  "  (London,  1865);  Haswell, 

!  "  Engineers'  and  Mechanics'  Pocket  Book " 
(New  York,  1868);  Trautwine,  "Civil  Engi 
neers'  Pocket  Book"  (Philadelphia,  1872); 
Rankine,  "Useful  Rules  and  Tables"  (Lon 
don,  1872);  Thurston,  "Strength,  Elasticity, 
Ductility,  and  Resilience  of  Materials  of  Con 
struction"  (Philadelphia,  1874);  and  Wood, 
"Resistance  of  Materials"  (New  York,  1875). 
STRICKLAND,  A^nes,  an  English  authoress, 
born  at  Rcydon  hall,  Suffolk,  July  19,  1796, 
died  in  London,  July  13,  1874.  She  was  care 
fully  educated  under  the  personal  supervision 

|  of  her  father.  Her  works  are:  "Worcester 
Field,  or  the  Cavalier,"  a  poem  (1812);  "De 
metrius,"  a  poetical  romance  (1833);  "The 
Pilgrims  of  Walsinirham,"  a  series  of  tales 
(1835);  "Alda,  the^British  Captive"  (1841); 
with  her  sister  Elizabeth,  "  Lives  of  the  Queens 
of  England"  (12  vols.,  l840-'49;  abridged  and 
edited  by  Caroline  G.  Parker,  1  vol.  12mo, 
New  York,  1867),  and  "Lives  of  the  Queens 
of  Scotland"  (8  vols.,  1850-'59) ;  "  Queen  Vic 
toria,  from  her  Birth  to  her  Bridal"  (2  vols., 
1840);  "Historic  Scenes  and  Poetic  Fancies" 
(1850)  ;  "  Old  Friends  and  New  Acquaint 
ances"  (1850);  "Lives  of  the  Bachelor  Kings 
of  England"  (1861);  "  How  will  it  End?"  a 
novel  (1865);  "Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops 
committed  to  tho  Tower  in  1688  "  (1866) ;  and 
" Lives  of  the  Tudor  Princesses"  (1868).  She 
edited  an  edition  of  the  letters  of  Mary,  queen 
of  Scots,  and  thus  brought  to  public  notice 
many  documents  of  much  historic  value.  In 
1871  she  received  an  annual  pension  of  £100. 
—The  sisters  of  Miss  Strickland,  JANE  MAR 
GARET,  CATHARINE  PARR  (Mrs.  Trail),  and  Su- 
SANXATI  (Mrs.  Moodie),  besides  assisting  her  in 
her  historical  works,  published  several  books 
under  their  own  names.  Mrs.  Trail  and  Mrs. 
Moodie  are  residents  of  Canada,  and  their  chief 
works  have  been  upon  life  in  that  country. 

STRICKLAND,  William  Peter,  an  American  cler 
gyman,  born  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa,,  Aug.  17,  1809. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Ohio  university,  Ath 
ens,  O.,  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Metho 
dist  Episcopal  church  in  1832,  labored  sev 
eral  years  in  Cincinnati,  and  then  became 
agent  of  the  American  Bible  society.  In  1850 
the  Ohio  university  conferred  on  him  the  de 
gree  of  D.  D.  In  1856  he  removed  to  New 
York,  where  he  engaged  in  literary  labor, 
mostly  in  connection  with  the  Methodist  book 
concern.  In  1862  he  was  chaplain  of  the  48th 
New  York  regiment,  stationed  at  Port  Royal, 
S.  C.  Since  1866  he  has  been  pastor  of  the 
Presbyterian  church  in  Bridgehampton,  L.  I. 
His  principal  publications  are:  "History  of 
the  American  Bible  Society "  (New  York, 
1849  ;  new  ed.,  with  history  continued,  1856) ; 
"History  of  Methodist  Missions"  (1850); 
"Genius  and  Mission  of  Methodism"  (1851); 


STRINGHAM 


STRONTIUM 


425 


"Christianity  Demonstrated"  (1852);  "Me 
moir  of  the  Rev.  James  B.  Finley"  (1853); 
"A  Manual  of  Biblical  Literature"  (1853); 
"  The  Light  of  the  Temple  "  (Cincinnati, 
1854);  "The- Astrologer  of  Chaldea"  (1856); 
"Pioneers  of  the  West"  (New  York,  1856); 
"Life  of  the  Rev.  Francis  Asbury"  (1858); 
"Life  of  Jacob  Gruber  "  (1859);  and  "Old 
Mackinaw"  (Philadelphia,  1860). 

STRINGHAM,  Silas  Horton,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  Middletown,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  7, 
1798,  died  in  Brooklyn,  Feb.  7,  1876.  He  en 
tered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1809,  became 
lieutenant  in  1814,  and  served  in  Decatur's 
squadron  in  the  Algerine  war.  Subsequently 
he  assisted  in  the  capture  of  slavers  off  the 
coast  of  Africa.  In  command  of  the  Ohio  in 
1846  he  took  part  in  the  bombardment  of  Vera 
Cruz.  He  was  in  constant  service  on  sea  or 
shore  duty  till  1861,  when  he  became  flag*  offi 
cer  of  the  Atlantic  blockading  squadron,  and 
in  August  cooperated  in  the  capture  of  Forts 
Hatteras  and  Clark  on  the  coast  of  North  Caro 
lina.  He  was  promoted  to  rear  admiral  on  the 
retired  list  in  1862,  was  commandant  of  the 
Charleston  navy  yard  in  1864-r'6,  and  was  made 
port  admiral  of  New  York  in  1867. 

STRISORES,  a  suborder  of  insessorial  or  perch 
ing  birds,  without  song,  comprising  such  as 
have  the  hind  toe  capable  of  being  turned 
more  or  less  laterally  forward,  having  appa 
rently  all  four  of  the  toes  in  front.  It  includes 
the  families  of  the  humming  birds,  swifts,  and 
goatsuckers.  (See  ORNITHOLOGY.) 

STRONG,  Caleb,  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  Northampton,  Mass.,  Jan.  9,  1745,  died 
there,  Nov.  7,  1819.  lie  graduated  at  Har 
vard  college  in  1764,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1772.  During  the  revolution  he  was  a 
member  of  the  general  court  and  of  the  North 
ampton  committee  of  safety.  He  held  several 
state  offices,  was  a  member  of  the  convention 
for  framing  a  national  constitution,  was  elected 
one  of  the  first  United  States  senators  from 
Massachusetts  in  1789,  was  reflected  in  1793, 
and  resigned  in  1796.  From  1800  to  1807  he 
was  governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  again  from 
1812  to  1816.  As  a  federalist  he  was  opposed 
to  the  war  with  England,  and  believed  him 
self  justified  on  constitutional  grounds  in  dis 
regarding  the  president's  requisition  for  troops, 
while  amply  providing  for  the  defence  of  the 
state.  (See  MILITIA,  vol.  xi.,  p.  541.) 

STRONG,  James,  an  American  author,  born 
in  New  York,  Aug.  14,  1822.  He  graduated 
at  "Wesleyan  university,  Middletown,  Conn.,  in 
1844,  and  in  1844-' 6  was  a  teacher  in  the  Troy 
conference  academy,  Poultney,  Vt.  In  1847 
he  settled  at  Flushing,  Long  Island,  where  he 
held  several  local  offices,  projected  and  as  pres 
ident  constructed  the  Flushing  railroad,  laid 
6ut  a  cemetery  and  two  suburban  villages,  and 
taught  Greek  and  Hebrew  to  private  pupils. 
In  1856,  although  a  layman,  he  received  the  de 
gree  of  S.  T.  D.  from  Wesleyan  university.  In 
1858-'61  he  was  professor  of  Biblical  literature 


and  acting  president  of  the  Troy  university; 
and  in  1868  he  became  professor  of  exegetical 
theology  in  Drew  theological  seminary,  Madi 
son,  N.  J.  In  1874  he  made  an  extended  tour 
in  the  East.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Anglo- 
American  commission  for  the  revision  of  the 
authorized  English  Bible,  and  of  the  Palestine 
exploration  society,  and  president  of  the  ori 
ental  topographical  corps.  His  chief  literary 
I  work  is  the  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical,  Theologi- 
I  cal,  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature,"  projected 
'  by  him  and  Dr.  John  McClintock  in  1853,  in 
which  he  had  charge  of  the  department  of 
Biblical  literature,  and  Dr.  McClintock,  to  the 
time  of  his  death  in  1870,  of  theological  and 
ecclesiastical  literature.  Since  that  date  Dr. 
Strong  has  been  supervising  editor  of  the 
whole  work,  assisted  by  Prof.  J.  II.  Worman. 
The  first  volume  appeared  in  1867,  and  the 
sixth  in  1875 ;  and  it  is  to  be  completed  in  ten 
volumes.  Dr.  Strong  has  also  published  "Har 
mony  and  Exposition  of  the  Gospels"  (New 
York,  1852);  "Greek  Harmony  of  the  Gos 
pels  "  (1854) ;  brief  manuals  of  Greek  and  He 
brew  grammar;  and  articles  on  Biblical  topics 
and  on  ministerial  education,  the  latter  elicit 
ing  much  controversy;  and  he  prepared  the 
part  on  Daniel  for  the  English  translation  of 
Lange's  "Commentary"  (New  York,  1875). 

STRONTIUM,  one  of  the  three  metals  of  the 
alkaline  earths,  barium  and  calcium  being  the 
other  two.  It  was  first  obtained  from  the  na 
tive  carbonate  of  strontium  by  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  in  1808,  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  for 
barium.  The  pure  metal  may  be  more  readily 
obtained  from  the  fused  chloride  by  electro 
lysis  according  to  the  method  of  Matthiessen. 
A  small  porcelain  crucible,  having  a  porous 
cell  in  the  middle,  is  filled  with  anhydrous 
chloride  of  strontium  mixed  with  a  little  sal 
ammoniac.  The  negative  electrode,  consisting 
of  a  thin  iron  wire  wound  round  a  thicker 
one,  and  all  but  about  TV  of  an  inch  covered 
with  a  piece  of  tobacco-pipe  stem,  is  placed  in 
the  porous  cell.  The  positive  electrode,  in  the 
form  of  an  iron  cylinder,  is  placed  in  the  cru 
cible  round  the  porous  cell.  The  heat  is  so 
regulated  that  a  crust  shall  form  in  the  cell, 
under  which  the  metal  collects  during  the  pas 
sage  of  the  galvanic  current.  The  pure  metal 
has  a  pale  yellow  color  and  a  specific  gravity 
of  2'54.  Its  symbol  is  Sr ;  its  atomic  weight, 
87'6.  When  heated  in  the  air  it  burns  with 
a  crimson  flame,  emitting  sparks,  and  decom 
poses  water  with  evolution  of  hydrogen  gas. 
It  is  about  as  hard  as  gold,  very  ductile,  and 
may  be  hammered  into  very  thin  plates.  With 
oxygen  it  forms  two  anhydrous  oxides:  stron 
tium  monoxide,  SrO,  and  strontium  dioxide, 
SrO2,  each  of  which  unites  with  water  to  form 
a  hydrate.  The  oxide,  called  strontia,  has  the 
same  relation  to  the  metal  that  lime  has  to 
calcium ;  and,  like  lime,  one  of  its  most  im 
portant  compounds  is  the  carbonate,  or  stron- 
tianite,  which  was  discovered  in  1787  at  Stron- 
tian  in  Argyleshire,  Scotland,  whence  the 


426 


STROSSMAYER 


STROUSBERG 


name.  The  mineral  was  then  regarded  as  a 
carbonate  of  barium,  but  Crawfurd's  supposi 
tion  that  it  contained  a  peculiar  earth  was  con 
firmed  by  Hope  in  1792,  and  by  Klaprotb  in 
tfQ3.— Principal  Salts.  The  chloride  (SrCla), 
the  iodide  (Srla),  and  the  bromide  (SrBr2)  are 
all  easily  soluble  in  water  and  decomposable 
by  heat.  The  nitrate  (Sr2NO3)  is  extensively 
used  in  producing  the  crimson  lights  of  fire 
works.  A  mixture  of  40  parts  of  strontium 
nitrate  with  from  5  to  10  parts  of  potassic 
chlorate,  12  of  sulphur,  and  4  of  antimonious 
sulphide,  deflagrates  with  a  magnificent  crim 
son  color.  Its  preparation  is  dangerous,  in 
consequence  of  its  liability  to  ignite  spontane 
ously.  Nitrate  of  strontia  may  be  prepared 
by  treating  the  native  carbonate  with  dilute 
nitric  acid,  but  it  is  more  usual  to  employ 
the  native  sulphate,  which  is  reduced  to  a  sul 
phide  by  heating  it  with  charcoal,  and  then 
subjected  to  the  action  of  dilute  nitric  acid. 
It  crystallizes  from  hot,  concentrated  solu 
tions  in  anhydrous  octahedrons,  which  are  in 
soluble  in  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  half  their 
weight  of  boiling  water  and  in  five  parts  of 
cold  water.  From  the  cold  solution  it  may  be 
obtained  in  monoclinic  crystals,  having  four 
molecules  of  water.  Sulphate  of  strontium 
(SrS04)  is  found  native  as  the  mineral  celes- 
tine,  so  named  from  its  occasional  delicate 
blue  color,  although  it  occurs  white,  gray,  yel 
low,  and  red.  It  may  also  be  prepared  by  the 
action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  strontianite,  or  of  a 
soluble  strontia  salt,  as  the  nitrate,  on  another 
metallic  sulphate.  Its  crystals  are  modifica 
tions  of  the  right  rhombic  prism,  being  iso- 
morphous  with  the  sulphates  of  barium  and 
calcium.  The  mineral  is  usually  associated 
with  limestone,  or  sandstone  of  the  Silurian, 
Devonian,  and  other  formations.  It  is  also 
found  in  beds  of  gypsum,  rock  salt,  and  clay, 
and  sometimes  in  trap  rocks,  and  with  volcanic 
sulphur.  Splendid  crystals  are  found  at  Gir- 
genti,  Sicily,  associated  with  sulphur  and  gyp 
sum.  It  is  found  at  Bex  in  Switzerland,  at 
Dornburg  in  Saxe-Weimar,  in  Tyrol,  in  rock 
salt  at  Ischl  in  Austria,  and  in  trap  rocks  near 
Tantallan  in  East  Lothian,  Scotland.  Beauti 
ful  bluish  crystals  occur  in  Trenton  limestone 
about  Lake  Huron,  particularly  on  Strontian 
island,  and  at  Kingston,  Canada.  Fine  speci 
mens  have  been  found  at  Schoharie  and  at 
Lockport,  N.  Y.  A  blue,  fibrous  celestine  is 
found  near  Frankstown,  Huntingdon  co.,  Pa. ; 
on  Drummond  island,  Lake  Erie,  it  occurs 
mixed  with  barium. 

STROSSMA1ER,  Joseph  George,  a  Croato-Slavo- 
nian  prelate,  born  in  Eszek,  Feb.  4,  1815.  He 
was -educated  at  Pesth,  Vienna,  and  Padua, 
and  became  bishop  of  the  united  sees  of  Bos 
nia  and  Sirmia,  May  20,  1850.  At  the  Vatican' 
council  he  strenuously  maintained  the  inop- 
portunoness  of  defining  the  doctrine  of  pon 
tifical  infallibility.  He  was  represented  as 
having  delivered  a  violent  opposition  speech  in 
one  of  the  sessions,  the  text  of  which  was  re 


produced  by  several  journals;  but  in  1872  he 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  Franfais  denying  the 
authenticity  of  this  speech,  and  affirming  that 
he  "never  said  one  word  during  the  entire 
council  which  could  in  any  way  diminish  the 
authority  of  the  holy  see,  or  tend  to  promote 
discord  in  the  church."  He  is  known  as  a 
zealous  champion  of  Slavic  autonomy,  and  a 
munificent  promoter  of  Slavic  culture.  In 
1875  he  published  a  pastoral  letter  on  the 
occasion  of  his  25th  anniversary  as  bishop, 
declining  a  public  manifestation  in  his  honor, 
"  while  the  fellow  countrymen  of  the  Croats 
across  the  frontier  are  shedding  their  blood 
for  liberty,  and  Christian  charity  makes  it  a 
duty  to  aid  the  widows  and  orphans  of  the 
fallen." 

STROTHER,  David  Hunter,  an  American  artist, 
born  in  Martinsburg,  Va.,  Sept.  26,  1816.  He 
studied  drawing  and  painting,  in  1845  went  to 
New  York,  learned  to  draw  on  wood  and  il 
lustrated  some  books,  and  in  1849  returned  to 
Virginia.  From  1853  till  1861  he  published, 
under  the  pseudonyme  of  Porte  Crayon,  a 
scries  of  illustrated  papers,  mostly  relating  to 
Virginia  and  the  south,  some  of  which  were 
collected  in  his  "Virginia  Illustrated"  (New 
York  and  London,  1857).  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war  ho  volunteered  in  the  United 
States  service,  was  a  colonel  of  cavalry,  and 
at  the  close  retired  as  a  brevet  brigadier  gen 
eral.  Since  1866  he  has  resided  at  Berkeley 
Springs,  "W.  Va.,  and  continues  his  illustrated 
papers  on  southern  subjects. 

STROISBERG,  Betljel  Heiiry,  known  as  doctor, 
a  German  adventurer,  born  of  Jewish  parents 
at  Neidenburg,  East  Prussia,  Nov.  20,  1823. 
His  original  name  was  Baruch  Hirsch  Straus- 
berg.  In  1835'  ho  entered  the  commission 
house  of  his  uncles  in  London,  became  a 
Christian,  and  married  an  English  woman. 
He  finally  engaged  in  the  insurance  business, 
incurred  losses  in  1847,  taught  languages  at 
New  Orleans  in  1848,  returned  in  1849  to 
London  with  money  made  by  trading  in  dam 
aged  goods,  and  was  interested  in  publishing 
"The  Chess  Player,"  "Lawson's  Merchant's 
Magazine,"  and  "  Sharpe's  London  Magazine." 
In  1855  he  settled  in  Berlin  as  agent  for  an 
insurance  company,  and  in  1861  obtained  for 
English  capitalists  the  concession  of  an  East 
Prussian  railway.  After  building  other  rail 
ways  for  different  companies,  he  built  many 
on  his  own  account,  chiefly  in  northern  Ger 
many,  Hungary,  and  Roumania,  and  became 
the  owner  of  vast  establishments  for  produ 
cing  all  the  materials  required  for  them,  as 
well  as  of  beet-sugar,  porcelain,  and  other  fac 
tories,  mines,  the  Berlin  cattle  yard,  the  An 
twerp  south  citadel  grounds,  and  the  great 
Zbirow  domain  in  Bohemia.  At  one  time  h.e 
employed  more  than  100,000  persons,  and  was 
engaged  in  speculations  involving  several  hun 
dred  millions  of  dollars.  He  eclipsed  princes 
in  his  luxurious,  living  and  ostentatious  char 
ities,  and  was  popularly  known  in  Berlin  as 


STRUENSEE 


STRUYE 


427 


Der  Wunder doctor.  He  lost  heavily  during 
the  war  of  1870-71,  became  inextricably  in 
volved  in  1872  after  a  ruinous  settlement  with 
the  Roumanian  government  on  account  of  un 
fulfilled  railway  contracts,  failed  in  1875,  and 
in  November  was  imprisoned  at  Moscow  for 
alleged  fraudulent  transactions  with  a  bank. 

STRCMSEE,  Johann  Friedricli,  count,  a  Danish 
statesman,  born  in  Halle,  Aug.  5,  1737,  exe 
cuted  at  Copenhagen,  April  28,  1772.  He  be 
came  in  1768  the  physician  and  favorite  of 
King  Christian  VII. ,  and  subsequently  of  his 
queen,  Carolina  Matilda.  The  king  gave  him 
self  up  to. vicious  indulgence,  while  the  queen 
dowager  led  by  Count  Bernstorff,  and  the 
party  of  the  queen  led  by  Struensee,  strove  for 
power.  The  latter  triumphed,  and  Struensee 
was  appointed  prime  minister.  After  insti 
tuting  important  reforms,  he  became  obnox 
ious  on  account  of  his  arbitrary  measures  and 
his  alleged  illicit  relations  with  the  queen,  and 
his  enemies  finally  procured  his  ruin.  (See 
CHRISTIAN  VII.,  and  CAROLINA  MATILDA.) 

STRUTT,  Joseph,  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  Springfield,  Essex,  Oct.  27,  1742,  died  in 
London,  Oct.  16,  1802.  He  studied  painting 
and  engraving,  afterward  engaged  in  antiqua 
rian  researches  in  the  British  museum,  and 
published  "The  Regal  and  Ecclesiastical  An 
tiquities  of  England,  containing  the  most  au 
thentic  Representations  of  the  English  Mon- 
archs  from  Edward  the  Confessor  to  Henry 
VIII."  (4to,  1773 ;  new  ed.  by  J.  R.  Planche, 
1842) ;  "  Horda-Angel-Cynnan,  or  a  Complete 
View  of  the  Manners,  Customs,  Arms,  Habits, 
&c.,  of  the  Inhabitants  of  England  from  the 
arrival  of  the  Saxons  till  the  Reign  of  Henry 
VIII."  (3  rols.  4to,  !774-'6)  ;  "The  Chronicle 
of  England"  (2  vols.  4to,  l777-'8),  intended 
to  comprise  6  vols.,  but  terminated  with  the 
Norman  conquest ;  "  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  Engravers"  (2  vols.  4to,  l785-'6)  ;  "Com 
plete  View  of  the  Dress  and  Habits  of  the 
People  of  England,  from  the  Establishment 
of  the  Saxons  in  Britain  to  the  present  Time" 
(2  vols.,  1796-'9;  new  ed.,  1875);  and  "The 
Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the  People  of  Eng 
land"  (4to,  1801),  well  known  by  Hone's  edi 
tion  (Svo,  1830 ;  latest  ed.,  illustrated,  1875). 
He  left  a  fragment  of  a  romance  entitled 
"  Queen  Hoo  Hall,"  edited  by  Sir  Walter  Scott 
(1808),  and  other  writings  published  posthu 
mously.  Strutt  engraved  a  series  of  plates 
illustrating  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress." 

STRIVE.  I.  Friedricli  Georg  Willielm  YOU,  a 
Russian  astronomer,  born  in  Altona,  April  15, 
1793,  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  Nov.  23,  1864. 
He  was  educated  at  Dorpat,  and  in  November, 
1813,  was  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of 
mathematics  and  astronomy  there,  two  years 
later  becoming  ordinary  professor.  His  duty 
in  that  office  was  not  only  to  attend  to  the 
observatory,  but  also  to  lecture  on  astronomy 
and' mathematics;  but  in  1822  the  two  offices 
were  separated,  and  Struve  was  henceforth 
free  to  work  exclusively  as  an  astronomer.  In 


1839  he  was  made  director  of  the  observatory 
of  Pulkova,  which  had  been  built  under  his 
direction,  and  not  long  after  he  was  made 
councillor  of  state.  He  confined  his  labors  as 
an  astronomer  principally  to  the  observation 
of  fixed  and  double  stars,  and  made  large  addi 
tions  to  the  knowledge  of  these  bodies.  He 
also  conducted  the  triangulation  of  Livonia,* 
and  measured  the  degrees  of  latitude  in  the 
Baltic  provinces,  and  an  arc  of  the  meridian 
between  Norway  and  southern  Russia.  In 
1857  Struve  visited  England  to  organize  and 
arrange  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  .parallel 
through  the  entire  breadth  of  Europe,  from 
Orsk  at  the  foot  of  the  Ural  mountains  to  Va- 
lentia  at  the  western  extremity  of  Ireland. 
This  work  he  fairly  initiated,  but  in  1858  he 
was  attacked  by  a  malady  which  prevented 
him  from  cooperating  further  in  it  save  by  ad 
vice  and  calculation  ;  and  in  December,  1861, 
he  was  compelled  to  resign  his  active  duties 
as  director  of  the  observatory.  His  most  im 
portant  works  are:  Olservationes  Dorpatemcs 
(8  vols.,  Dorpat,  18l7-'39);  Catalogue  NOTUS 
Stellarum  buplicium  (1827)  ;  Stellarum  Du- 
plicium  Mensurce  Micrometricm  (St.  Peters 
burg,  1827)  ;  Description  de  Conservatoire  as- 
tronomique  central  de  Eussie  (1845,  with  36 
plates) ;  Etudes  d\istronomie  stellaire  sur  la 
i-oie  lactee  et  la  distance  des  etoiles  fixes  (1847); 
and  Stellarum  Fixarum  imprimis  Duplicium 
et  Multiplicium  Positioner  Media  pro  Epoclui 
1830,  &c.  (fol.,  1852). — See  a  memoir  by  Prof. 
Cleveland  Abbe,  in  the  appendix  to  the  report 
for  1869  of  the  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
institution.  II.  Otto  Willielm,  son  of  the  prece 
ding,  born  at  Dorpat,  May  7,  1819.  He  became 
his  father's  assistant  at  Pulkova  in  1839,'  and 
succeeded  him  as  director  in  1862.  From  1847 
to  1862,  as  consulting  astronomer,  he  had  the 
oversight  of  all  investigations  conducted  by  the 
Russian  army  and  navy.  His  labors  relate 
chiefly  to  nebulrc,  double  stars,  faint  satellites, 
and  comets,  and  include  a  new  determination 
of  the  constant  of  precession,  the  discovery  of 
about  500  new  double  stars  and  of  a  satellite 
of  Uranus,  the  determination  of  the  mass  of 
Neptune,  investigations  in  regard  to  Saturn 
and  his  rings  and  to  the  parallax  of  various 
fixed  stars,  and  observations  of  the  nebula  of 
Orion.  He  first  showed  that  the  red  promi 
nences  visible  in  a  total  solar  eclipse  belong  to 
the  sun's  surface.  Besides  numerous  papers  in 
the  Memoircs  of  the  academy  of  St.  Petersburg, 
he  has  published  UelersicTit  cler  TMtigkeit  der 
Nikolai-IIaupUternicarte  icdTirend  der  ersten 
25  Jahre  ihres  Besteliens  (St.  Petersburg,  1865). 
STRITE.  I.  Georg  Adam,  a  German  jurist, 
born  in  Magdeburg,  Sept.  26,  1619,  died  in 
Jena,  Dec.  15,  1692.  He  studied  law  at  Jena 
and  Helmstedt,  and  in  1646  was  appointed 
professor  of  law  af  Jena,  and  in  1648  assessor 
to  the  high  court  of  the  circle  of  Saxony.  In 
1667  he  was  appointed  privy  councillor  to  the 
duke  of  "Weimar,  and  was  selected  as  his  ad 
vocate  in  the  case  of  the  succession  to  the 


428 


STRYCHNIA 


duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg.  In  1674  he  re 
turned  to  Jena  as  professor  of  canon  law  and 
ordinarius  of  the  judicial  college,  and  in  1680 
was  appointed  president  of  the  regency  of 
Weimar,  the  duke  being  a  minor.  He  pub 
lished  13  elaborate  treatises  on  law,  of  which 
,the  most  important  are :  Syntagma  Juris  Feu- 
dalis  (Jena,  1653);  Syntagmata  Jurispruden- 
tm  Civil  is  (1665)  ;  and  Jurisprudentia  Ro 
mano-  Germanica  Forensis  (1670).  II.  BUEK- 
HAED  GOTTIIELF,  a  German  jurist,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Weimar,  May  26,  1671,  died 
in  Jena,"  May  24-,  1738.  He  studied  at  Jena 
and  various  other  German  and  Dutch  univer 
sities,  and  in  1692  engaged  at  Jena  with  his 
brother  io  the  pursuit  of  the  philosopher's 
stone,  in  which  they  soon  beggared  them 
selves.  In  1704  he  became  professor  of  histo 
ry,  and  in  1712  extraordinary  professor  of  law. 
The  most  important  of  his  numerous  works  is 
his  Corpus  Juris  Gentium  (Jena,  1743). 

STRYCHNIA,  or  Strychnine,  a  poisonous  vege 
table  alkaloid,  discovered  in  1818  by  Pelletier 
and  Caventou  in  the  seed  of  the  strychnos 
multiflora  or  St.  Ignatius'  bean,  and  the  strych- 
nos  nux-vomica.  (See  Nux  VOMICA.)  It  is 
associated  with  brucia,  an  alkaloid  having  sim 
ilar  poisonous  properties,  but  of  much  less 
strength.  (See  BEUCIA.)  Strychnia  is  also 
said  to  be  contair^ed  in  larger  proportions  in 
th6  seeds  of  the  strycJinos  tieute,  a  native  of 
Java,  from  which  the  poison  called  upas  tieute 
is  extracted.  In  preparing  strychnia,  the  seeds 
of  the  plant  may  be  first  softened  by  steam 
and  sliced,  dried,  and  ground,  or  they  may  be 
reduced  to  a  pulp  by  beating.  The  following 
is  Merck's  process  for  extracting  the  alkaloid : 
The  seeds  are  boiled  for  24  or  36  hours  in  a 
closed  boiler  with  water  enough  to  cover 
them,  acidulated  with  one  eighth  of  its  weight 
of  sulphuric  acid.  They  are  then  beaten  into 
a  paste,  and  the  liquor  is  expressed.  Excess 
of  caustic  lime  is  added,  which  throws  down 
the  alkaloids.  The  precipitate  is  then  boiled 
in  alcohol  of  specific  gravity  0*850,  and  filtered 
hot.  Strychnia  and  brucia  arc  deposited  to 
gether  in  a  colored  and  impure  state,  and  may 
be  separated  by  cold  alcohol,  which  dissolves 
the  brucia.  The  remaining  strychnia  is  then 
boiled  in  alcohol  with  a  little  animal  charcoal, 
and  the  solution  filtered  boiling  hot.  On  cool 
ing,  the  strychnia  crystallizes  in  small  brilliant, 
colorless,  octahedral  crystals,  soluble  in  about 
7,000  parts  of  cold  and  2,500  parts  of  boiling 
water. — Strychnia  is  inodorous,  but  has  an 
exceedingly  bitter  taste,  which  is  perceptible 
wh<jn  the  drug  is  dissolved  in  1,000,000  parts 
of  water.  It  is  one  of  the  most  active  and 
powerful  poisons.  The  symptoms  it  produces 
are  difficulty  of  breathing  and  a  sense  of  suf 
focation,  twitching  of  the. limbs  and  tetanic 
convulsions,  the  body  becoming  arched  in  the 
back,  often  resting  on  the  head  and  heels,  a 
condition  known  as  opistJiotonos.  The  fea 
tures  are  convulsed,  attended  by  spasm  of  the 
jaws  and  choking.  The  attack  occurs  in  par 


oxysms,  between  which  the  intellect  is  often 
clear  at  first,  but  becomes  clouded  after  a  suc 
cession  of  paroxysms.  The  medical  properties 
of  strychnia  are  like  those  of  nux  vomica, 
which  was  employed  by  the  Arabian  physi 
cians.  In  small  doses  it  acts  as  a  tonic,  and 
it  is  often  given  as  an  adjunct  to  laxative  pills, 
particularly  to  dinner  pills,  in  debilitated  con 
ditions  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  intestines. 
When  given  in  larger  doses  its  action  is  direct 
ed  to  the  motor  nerves,  probably  through  the 
medium  of  the  spinal  marrow.  It  produces 
trembling  in  the  limbs,  and  a  tendency  to  in 
voluntary  muscular  contraction,  as  in  tetanus, 
and  frequent  starts  and  spasms  occur  as  from 
electric  shocks,  which  are  increased  in  inten 
sity  by  a  perseverance  in  the  medicine.  It 
sometimes  produces  pain  in  the  head,  vertigo, 
contracted  pupils,  and  dimness  of  vision.  The 
pulse  is  not  particularly  affected,  though  some 
times  slightly  accelerated.  It  has  been  em 
ployed  on  the  continent  of  Europe  as  an  an 
tidote  to  the  plague,  in  intermittent  fevers, 
and  as  a  remedy  in  mania,  hysteria,  rheuma 
tism,  and  hydrophobia.  It  is  said  to  have 
cured  spasmodic  asthma.  Its  peculiar  influ 
ence  upon  the  nerves  of  motion,  to  which 
attention  was  first  called  by  Magendie,  caused 
M.  Fouquier,  a  French  physician,  to  use  it  in 
paralytic  affections,  and  it  is  now  considered 
a  standard  remedy  in  palsy.  It  is  a  singular 
fact  that  its  action  is  directed  first  to  the  mus 
cles  of  the  paralytic  part.  Its  action  varies 
in  degree  with  different  animals,  being  partic 
ularly  marked  upon  the  canine  race.  Pelle 
tier  and  Caventou  killed  a  dog  in  half  a  min 
ute  with  one  sixth  of  a  grain.  One  grain 
might  prove  fatal  in  the  human  subject ;  in 
deed,  half  a  grain  proved  fatal  in  the  case  of 
Dr.  Warner.  One  twelfth  of  a  grain  every 
four  hours,  repeated  several  times,  will  cause 
decidedly  unpleasant  symptoms ;  but  a  great 
difference  in  its  effects  is  observed  in  differ 
ent  individuals,  some  being  affected  by  the 
administration  of  one  thirtieth  of  a  grain  two 
or  three  times  repeated,  while  others  have 
been  said  to  take  more  than  a  grain  at  a  time, 
and  as  much  as  three  grains  in  the  course  of 
24  hours. — Many  antidotes  have  been  proposed. 
According  to  M.  Duclos,  its  poisonous  effects 
subside  under  the  application  of  negative  elec 
tricity,  while  they  are  aggravated  by  positive. 
Kermes  mineral  has  been  recommended  by 
M.  Thorel,  being  thought  by  him  to  form  an 
insoluble  sulphuret,  and  he  recommends  the 
administration  at  the  same  time  of  an  emetic. 
Tannic  acid,  chlorine,  and  tinctures  of  iodine 
and  bromine  are  regarded  as  the  best  antidotes 
by  Prof.  Bellini.  The  indications  are  to  evac 
uate  the  stomach  as  quickly  as  possible,  and 
for  this  the  stomach  pump  is  the  most  effi 
cient  means.  In  its  absence  sulphate  of  zinc 
or  powdered  mustard  may  be  used.  To  re 
lieve  the  spasms  various  narcotics  have  been 
used,  as  conium,  opium,  and  cannalis  Indica, 
and  the  reports  of  their  effect  are  in  some 


STKYMON 


STUART 


429 


cases  decidedly  favorable.     Chloroform  is  said 
to  have  been  used  with  good  effects. 

STR1MON.     See  MACEDONIA. 

STRIPE,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  London,  Xov.  12,  1648,  died  Dec.  13,  1*737. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  school  and  at 
Cambridge,  and  from  1669  till  about  1732  he 
was  minister  of  Low  Leyton  in  Essex.  His 
works  include  "  Memorials  of  the  most  re 
nowned  Father  in  God,  Thomas  Cranmer, 
sometime  Lord  Archbishop  of  Canterbury" 
(fol.,  1694);  "The  Life  of  the  Learned  Sir 
Thomas  Smith"  (8vo,  1698)  ;  "  Historical  Col 
lections  relating  to  the  Life  and  Acts  of  Bishop 
Aylmer"  (8vo,  1701);  "Annals  of  the  Refor 
mation"  (4vols.  fol.,  1709-'31);  and  "Eccle 
siastical  Memoirs"  (3  vols.  fol.,  1721).  He 
published  an  edition  of  Stow's  "  Survey  of 
London"  (2  vols.  fol.,  1720),  with  important 
additions  of  his  own.  His  works  have  been 
reprinted  at  Oxford  (29  vols.  8vo,  1S22-'S). 

STUART,  or  Stewart,  the  name  of  a  royal  fam 
ily  of  Scotland  and  England.  According  to 
tradition,  Fleanchus,  son  of  Banquo,  on  the 
murder  of  his  father  by  Macbeth,  fled  into 
Wales  in  1055,  where  he  married  a  daughter 
of  a  chief  named  Griffithar  Llewellyn ;  the  son 
of  Fleanchus,  Walter  I.  (died  1113),  returned 
to  Scotland,  and  became  steward  of  the  house 
hold  of  Malcolm  III.,  which  office  was  made 
hereditary  in  his  family,  and  from  which  the 
surname  Stewart  was  derived.  Walter  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Alan,  he  by  another 
Walter,  and  the  latter  by  Alexander,  who  in 
1199  was  slain  in  a  battle  with  the  Danes, 
and  left  his  office  to  his  son  Walter  III.,  who 
conspired  against  King  Alexander  II.,  and 
was  subsequently  poisoned  by  his  wife  Alda 
of  Dembe.  Walter's  son  and  successor  Alex 
ander  was  regent  during  the  minority  of  Alex 
ander  III.  Ilis  son  James  was  regent  after 
the  death  of  that  king,  and  died  in  1309. 
Walter  IV.,  who  succeeded  his  father,  married 
Marjory,  daughter  of  Robert  Bruce,  in  1315, 
upon  whom,  in  failure  of  the  birth  of  an  heir 
male  to  her  father,  the  crown  was  settled  by 
act  of  parliament  at  Ayr,  April  26,  1315. 
Marjory  died  in  giving  birth  to  Robert,  after 
ward  Robert  II.  of  Scotland ;  but  David  II., 
son  of  Robert  Bruce  by  a  second  marriage, 
came  to  the  throne  in  1331  as  a  minor.  A 
succession  of  regencies  followed,  in  which  Rob 
ert  the  Stewart  and  the  earl  of  Murray  were 
distinguished,  the  former  at  intervals  till  1357, 
when  David,  captured  by  the  English  in  1346, 
was  released  and  resumed  his  throne.  On  the 
death  of  David,  Robert  was  unanimously  de 
clared  king  with  the  title  of  Robert  II.  (Febru 
ary,  1371).  His  licentiousness,  and  the  ques 
tioned  legitimacy  of  his  first  wife's  children, 
with  chronic  war  against  England,  rendered 
his  reign  and  that  of  his  son  Robert  III.  harass 
ing  and  unfortunate  for  the  people.  Robert 
II.  died  in  1390,  and  Robert  III.  in  1406.  The 
succeeding  monarchs  of  the  line  (all  of  whom 
are  treated  in  separate  articles)  were  James  I., 


assassinated  in  1437 ;  James  II.,  who  was  ac 
cidentally  killed  in  1460 ;  James  III.,  murdered 
in  1488  ;  James  IV.,  slain  in  the  battle  of  Flod- 
den  in  1513  ;  James  V.,  son  of  the  preceding 
and  of  Margaret  Tudor,  sister  of  Henry  VIII. 
of  England,  who  died  in  1542 ;  Mary,  executed 
in  England  in  1587;  her  son  James  VI.,  who 
succeeded  Queen  Elizabeth  as  James  I.  of  Eng 
land,  and  died  in  1625  ;  Charles  I.,  executed  in 
1649;  Charles  II.,  who  died  in  1685;  James 
II.,  who  died  in  1701,  and  was  the  last  reign 
ing  male  member  of  the  family,  though  his 
daughter  Mary,  wife  of  William  of  Orange, 
came  to  the  throne  after  his  expulsion  in  1688 
as  queen  regnant  with  her  husband,  and  his 
second  daughter  Anne  succeeded  her  in  1702, 
reigning  till  her  death  in  1714.  The  only  son 
of  James  II.,  James  Francis  Edward  Stuart, 
was  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of  England, 
and  died  in  Rome  in  1766.  Ilis  son  Charles 
Edward  Stuart  (born  in  1720,  died  in  1788) 
was  a  second  pretender.  Henry  Stuart,  Cardi 
nal  York,  brother  of  Charles  Edward,  was  the 
last  of  the  male  line  of  the  family,  and  with 
his  death  in  1807  it  became  extinct.  Its  chief 
branches  in  the  female  line  are  the  houses 
of  Savoy  and  Orleans,  both  descended  from 
Henrietta  Anna,  daughter  of  Charles  I.  The 
late  duke  of  Modena,  who  was  that  king's 
lineal  representative,  and  thus,  but  for  the 
act  of  settlement,  heir  to  the  crown  of  Eng 
land,  died  childless  in  November,  1875.  (See 
CHARLES  EDWARD,  JAMES  FRANCIS  EDWAED,  and 
STUART,  HENRY  BENEDICT  MARIA  CLEMENT.) 

STUART,  Arabella  or  Arbella,  often  called  the 
lady  Arabella,  the  only  child  of  Charles  Stu 
art,  earl  of  Lennox,  brother  of  Darnley  and 
uncle  of  James  I.,  born  about  1575,  died  in 
the  tower  of  London,  Sept.  27,  1615.  She 
was  related  to  Queen  Elizabeth  in  the  same 
degree  as  her  cousin  James,  the  successor  to 
the  throne;  and  this  relationship  made  her  the 
subject  of  constant  intrigues.  An  early  plan 
to  marry  her  to  her  relative  Lord  Esme  Stuart 
was  defeated  by  Elizabeth's  opposition ;  sever 
al  similar  schemes  failed  from  various  causes ; 
and  she  was  still  unmarried  when  in  1603  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  was  accused  of  a  plot  to  raise 
her  to  the  throne.  This  design  probably  never 
existed,  but  the  accusation  brought  her  into 
public  notice,  and  made  her  situation  still  more 
dangerous  ;  and  further  hostility  was  aroused 
against  her  by  the  discovery  in  1610  that  she 
had  been  secretly  married  to  William  Seymour, 
grandson  of  the  earl  of  Hertford.  Seymour 
was  at  once  committed  to  the  tower,  and  the 
lady  Arabella  placed  in  the  custody  first  of  Sir 
Thomas  Parry  at  Lambeth  and  afterward  of 
the  bishop  of  Durham.  While  on  the  journey 
to  Durham  she  escaped  by  feigning  illness 
(June,  1611),  and  made  her  way  to  a  French 
vessel  waiting  for  her  and  her  husband,  the 
latter  having  also  escaped  from  the  tower.  He 
did  not  get  to  the  ship,  which  sailed  without 
him ;  but  it  was  captured  before  reaching  the 
French  coast,  while  the  small  vessel  in  which 


430 


STUART 


he  took  passage  later  made  the  passage  safely. 
Lady  Arabella  was  thrown  into  the  tower, 
where  she  became  ill  from  neglect  and  ill  treat 
ment,  and  finally  insane  a  short  time  before 
her  death. 

STUART,  Gilbert,  a  Scottish  author,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1742  or  1746,  died  in  Mussel- 
burgh,  Aug.  13,  1786.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1767  pub 
lished  a  "  Historical  Disquisition  concerning 
the  Antiquity  of  the  British  Constitution," 
which  procured  him  the  degree  of  LL.  D., 
and  in  1768  "View  of  Society  in  Europe  in 
its  Progress  from  Rudeness  to  Refinement." 
He  failed  to  procure  a  professorship  in  Edin 
burgh  on  account  of  his  dissipation,  spent  sev 
eral  years  in  London,  and  in  1773  started  the 
"Edinburgh  Magazine  and  Review,"  in  which 
for  four  years  he  published  savage  attacks  upon 
prominent  Scottish  authors.  He  afterward 
again  lived  for  some  time  in  London.  His  re 
maining  works  are :  "  Observations  concerning 
the  Public  Law  and  Constitutional  History  of 
Scotland  "  (8vo,  Edinburgh,  1779),  an  attack 
on  Dr.  Robertson,  whom  he  especially  hated  ; 
"  History  of  the  Establishment  of  the  Reforma 
tion  of  Religion  in  Scotland"  (4to,  London, 
1780);  and  "History  of  Scotland  from  the 
Reformation  to  the  Death  of  Queen  Mary" 
(2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1782). 

STUART,  Gilbert  Charles,  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Narragansett,  R.  I.,  in  1756,  died  in 
Boston  in  July,  1828.  lie  received  his  first 
instructions  from  a  Scottish  painter  named 
Alexander,  by  whom,  when  about  18  years  of 
age,  he  was  taken  to  Edinburgh.  His  master 
died  soon  after  their  arrival  in  that  city,  and 
Stuart  worked  his  passage  home  before  the 
mast,  and  began  practice  as  a  portrait  painter 
at  Newport,  R.  I.  He  removed  successively  to 
Boston  and  New  York,  and  set  sail  in  1778  for 
London,  where  for  two  years  ho  made  little 
progress,  and  suffered  greatly  from  poverty ; 
but  becoming  acquainted  with  Benjamin  West, 
he  received  valuable  assistance  from  him,  and 
for  several  years  resided  in  his  family.  About 
1781  he  began  practice  in  London  on  his  own 
account,  and  soon  rose  to  great  eminence  as  a 
portrait  painter,  rivalling  Reynolds  and  the 
best  English  artists  of  the  day.  Subsequently 
he  resided  successively  in  Dublin  and  Paris, 
and  in  1793  returned  to  America.  He  went 
to  Philadelphia  to  paint  a  portrait  of  Washing 
ton,  and  destroyed  his  first  picture ;  but  at  the 
second  sitting  he  produced  the  well  known 
head  from  which  he  painted  all  his  other  por 
traits  of  Washington,  and  which  has  long  been 
regarded  as  the  standard  likeness.  The  origi 
nal  study,  together  with  a  head  of  Mrs.  Wash 
ington,  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Boston 
Athenomm.  After  residing  several  years  in 
Washington,  he  settled  in  1806  in  Boston.  As 
a  painter  of  heads  he  holds  the  first  place 
among  American  painters,  if  we  except  Cop 
ley,  and  his  flesh  coloring  rivals  the  finest 
modern  efforts.  Upon  accessories  he  bestowed 


little  labor,  and  they  are  sometimes  finished 
in  the  most  slovenly  manner. 

STUART,  Henry  Benedict  Maria  Clement,  Cardi 
nal  York,  the  last  of  the  Stuart  family  in  the 
male  line,  born  in  Rome  in  1725,  died  at  Fras- 
cati  in  1807.  He  was  the  son  of  the  pretend 
er  James  Francis  Edward,  who  created  him 
duke  of  York,  and  the  younger  brother  of  the 
"  young  pretender  "  Charles  Edward,  whom  he 
was  preparing  to  aid  with  a  body  of  French 
troops  assembled  at  Dunkirk  when  the  over 
throw  of  the  Jacobites  at  Culloden  ruined  the 
Stuart  cause  in  Britain.  He  subsequently  took 
orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  in 
1747  was  appointed  by  Benedict  XIV.  a  car 
dinal,  the  ducal  title  given  him  by  his  father, 
though  valueless  in  England,  being  recognized 
by  the  pope  in  the  style  of  his  nomination  as 
Cardinal  York.  On  the  death  of  his  brother 
in  1788  he  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Eng 
land  as  Henry  IX.,  gratia  Dei,  non  voluntate 
hominum,  as  the  medal  struck  on  the  occasion 
declared.  On  the  occupation  of  the  Papal 
States  by  the  French  he  retired  to  Venice,  and 
in  his  last  years  was  dependent  upon  the  Brit 
ish  court  for  the  means  of  subsistence. 

.STUART,  James,  sometimes  called  Athenian 
Stuart,  an  English  antiquary,  born  in  London 
in  1713,  died  Feb.  2,  1788.  In  early  life,  till 
about  1742,  he  painted  fans.  He  then  went 
to  Rome,  where  he  studied  art,  the  ancient 
languages,  and  archaeology.  In  1750  he  ac 
companied  Nicholas  Revett  on  an  antiquarian 
tour  to  Greece,  remaining  in  Athens  from 
March,  1751,  to  the  close  of  1753.  Returning 
to  London  in  1755,  he  engaged  in  the  practice 
of  architecture,  and  began,  at  first  in  conjunc 
tion  with  Revett,  a  work  on  the  "Antiqui 
ties  of  Athens."  The  work  was  completed  in 
4  vols.  imp.  fol.,  with  384  plates ;  the  first 
volume  appeared  in  1762,  and  the  other  three 
were  edited  respectively  by  Newton  (1787), 
W.  Reveley  (1794),  and  Joseph  Woods  (1816). 
A  second  edition  of  the  first  three  volumes 
with  smaller  plates,  and  a  supplementary  vol 
ume  with  50  plates,  were  published  by  Kin- 
nard  (1825-'30).  Among  other  editions  is  one 
in  French  (4  vols.  fol.  and  a  supplementary 
volume,  Paris,  1808-'32). 

STUART,  John,  earl  of  Bute.     See  BUTE. 

STUART,  Moses,  an  American  author,  born  at 
Wilton.  Conn.,  March  26,  1780,  died  in  Ando- 
ver,  Mass.,  Jan.  4, 1852.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
college  in  1799,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1802,  and  for  the  two  succeeding  years  was  a 
tutor  in  Yale  college.  He  afterward  studied 
theology,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  first 
Congregational  church  of  New  Haven,  March 
5,  1806.  From  1809  to  1848  he  was  professor 
of  sacred  literature  in  the  theological  semina 
ry  at  Andover.  He  published  a  "  Grammar  of 
the  Hebrew  Language  without  Points"  (An 
dover,  1813) ;  "  Letters  to  the  Rev.  William  E. 
Channing,  containing  Remarks  on  his  Sermon 
recently  preached  and  published  in  Baltimore" 
(1819)  ;  a  "  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language 


STUHL-WEISSENBUEG 


STURGEON 


431 


with  Points"  (1821);  "Letters  to  Dr.  Miller 
on  the  Eternal  Generation  of  the  Son  of  God" 
(1822) ;  "  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1827-'8);  "Hebrew 
Chrestomathy"  (2  vols.,  1829-'30);  "Exegeti- 
cal  Essays  upon  Several  Words  relating  to  Fu 
ture  Punishment  "  (1830);  "  Commentary  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans"  (1832);  "Is  the 
Mode  of  Christian  Baptism  prescribed  in  the 
New  Testament?"  (1833);  "A  Grammar  of 
the  New  Testament  Dialect"  (1834);  "Philo 
logical  View  of  Modern  Doctrines  of  Geology" 
(1836);  "Hints  on  the  Prophecies"  (2d  ed., 
1842) ;  "  Commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  "  (2 
vols.,  1845);  "Critical  History  and  Defence 
of  the  Old  Testament  Canon"  (1845);  "Com 
mentary  on  Daniel "  (1850) ;  "  Conscience  and 
the  Constitution"  (1851);  "Commentary  on 
Ecclesiastes  "  (New  York,  1851);  and  "Com 
mentary  on  Proverbs"  (1852).  He  also  pub 
lished  several  translations,  including  "  Ele 
ments  of  Interpretation,"  from  the  Latin  of 
Ernesti (Andover,  1822) ;  "Hebrew Grammar," 
from  the  German  of  Gesenius  (1825);  with 
Edward  Robinson,  "Greek  Grammar  of  the 
New  Testament,"  from  the  German  of  Wi 
ner  (1825);  and  "Discrepancies  between  the 
Sabellian  and  Athanasian  Methods  of  Repre 
senting  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity,"  from  the 
German  of  Schleiermacher  (1835). 

STUHL-WEISSENBURG.  I.  Properly  Weissen- 
burg  (Hung.  Fejer),  a  county  of  S.  W.  Hungary, 
bounded  E.  by  the  Danube ;  area,  1,605  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  196,234,  chiefly  Magyars.  The 
N.  part  of  the  county  is  mountainous,  while 
the  S.  is  level.  Among  the  products  are  to 
bacco,  wine,  and  marble,  and  there  are  sev 
eral  mineral  springs.  II.  A  city,  capital  of 
the  county  (Plung.  Szekes-Fejervdr ;  Lat.  Alba 
Reqici),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Csorgo,  near 
the  border  of  an  extensive  morass,  38  m.  S. 
W.  of  Buda  ;  pop.  in  1870,  22,683.  The  prin 
cipal  buildings  are  the  cathedral  and  the  epis 
copal  palace.  There  are  manufactures  of 
woollen  and  linen  goods,  hardware,  and  sev 
eral  other  articles.  The  kings  of  Hungary 
were  crowned  here  down  to  Ferdinand  I.,  and 
the  cathedral  contains  many  of  their  tombs. 
Four  tombs  dating  from  the  13th  century,  and 
other  relics,  were  excavated  in  1874,  including 
those  of  a  remarkable  chapel. 

STURGEON,  the  name  of  cartilaginous  fishes 
of  the  class  of  ganoids  and  family  sturionidw. 
The  body  is  elongated  and  fusiform,  covered 
with  a  rough  skin  protected  by  five  longitu 
dinal  rows  of  tubercular  plates ;  the  largest  of 
these  rows  is  along  the  back,  and  there  is  also 
one  on  each  side,  and  one  from  each  pectoral 
to  the  ventral  fins ;  the  plat.es  are  flattened, 
and  marked  with  radiating  strice.  The  head  is 
depressed,  and  ends  in  a  long  triangular  snout 
covered  with  bony  plates;  mouth  funnel- 
shaped  and  protrusible,  on  the  under  surface, 
without  teeth,  having  in  front  a  few  depend 
ing  barbels,  evidently  organs  of  touch ;  gill 
covers  very  large  and  gills  free ;  pseudo-bran- 
VOL.  xv.— 28 


chias  and  spiracles  are  present,  but  no  bran- 
chiostegal  rays ;  fins  well  developed,  the  dorsal 
and  anal  opposite  and  behind  the  ventrals; 
tail  heterocercal  or  unsymmetrical,  the  ver 
tebral  cord  being  prolonged  into  the  upper 
lobe  as  in  the  sharks,  and  strengthened  by 
fulcra  along  its  upper  margin;  a  soft  caudal 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail.  The  vertebral 
column  consists  of  an  undivided  soft  chorda 
dorsalis  ;  the  air  bladder  is  very  large,  com 
municating  freely  with  the  oesophagus  ;  there 
is  a  spiral  valve  in  the  intestine,  and  a  con 
glomerate  pancreas.  They  are  generally  large, 
and  inhabit  the  northern  temperate  seas  of 
both  coasts  of  America,  eastern  Europe,  and 
western  Asia,  from  which  they  ascend  the 
rivers  in  spring  to  spawn,  returning  to  the  salt 
water  in  autumn ;  species  are  also  found  in  the 
great  American  fresh- water  lakes,  which  never 
descend  to  the  sea.  They  are  oviparous ;  the 
food  consists  of  any  soft  substances  which 
they  stir  up  from  the  bottom  with  their  snouts, 
and  of  small  fish  ;  they  frequently  jump  out  of 
water. — The  genus  acipenser  (Linn.)  has  the 
characters  of  the  family.  The  common  stur 
geon  of  Europe  (A.  sturio,  Linn.)  attains  a 
length  of  6  to  10  ft.,  and  sometimes  more ;  it 
is  f  o.und  in  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas  and  the 
rivers  opening  into  them,  and  sometimes  on 
the  coasts  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Baltic ;  the 
flesh  is  delicate,  and  is  largely  consumed  in 


Common  European  Sturgeon  (Acipenser  sturio). 

Russia,  fresh,  salted,  and  pickled.  A  larger 
species,  also  found  in  the  seas  and  rivers  of 
S.  E.  Europe,  is  the  beluga  (A.  huso,  Linn.), 
attaining  a  length  of  12  to  15  ft.  and  a  weight 
of  1,200  Ibs.,  and  occasionally  much  larger;  it 
ascends  the  rivers  opening  into  the  Caspian 
and  Black  seas,  with  other  and  smaller  species. 
The  flesh  is  tough  ;  the  sound  or  air  bladder 
furnishes  an  abundant  supply  of  isinglass,  for 
which  great  numbers  are  caught  in  Russia. 
Caviare  is  also  made  from  the  roe  of  the  fe 
male,  which  sometimes  constitutes  one  third 
of  the  weight  of  the  fish  ;  the  skin  is  used  for 


432 


STUKGEON 


STUTTGART 


harness  leather,  and  the  dorsal  cord,  cut  in 
pieces  and  dried,  is  used  as  food.  The  sterlet 
(A.  Ruthenus,  Linn.),  found  in  the  Caspian, 
and  growing  to  a  length  of  2  or  3  ft.,  furnishes 
a  most  delicate  food  and  the  best  caviare.  In 
the  Volga  it  spawns  early  in  May,  on  rocky 
bottoms,  in  water  of  54°  F. ;  the  eggs,  which 
are  easily  fecundated  artificially,  soon  adhere 
to  any  object ;  they  are  hatched  in  about  seven 
days,  the  embryos  being  then  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  long;  in  ten  weeks  these  attain  a 
length  of  two  inches,  feeding  on  larva?  of  in 
sects  on  the  bottom.  Both  eggs  and  young  will 
safely  bear  a  journey  of  five  days,  and  have 
been  carried  to  W.  Eussia,  and  even  to  stock 
British  rivers;  the  young  live  only  in  fresh 
water.  The  color  in  these  species  is  brown 
of  various  shades,  the  plates  whitish,  and  the 
abdomen  silvery.  The  several  species  in  the 
Baltic  hybridize  freely,  and  are  probaby  only 
varieties  of  one. — In  North  America  sturgeons 
are  not  found  north  of  the  watersheds  between 
lat.  53°  and  54°  1ST.,  where  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  about  33°  F. ;  they  seldom  enter 
clear  cold  streams,  but  ascend  muddy  rivers  in 
such  numbers  that  many  large  Indian  tribes 
subsist  entirely  on  their  flesh  in  summer ;  each 
watershed  has  its  own  species,  varying  in 
some  minor  characteristics.  The  sharp-nosed 
sturgeon  (A.  oxyrhynchus,  Mitch.)  attains  a 


Sharp-nosed  Sturgeon  (Acipenser  oxyrhynchus). 

length  of  from  3  to  7  ft. ;  it  is  found  on  the 
coasts  of  New  England,  New  Brunswick,  and 
Nova  Scotia;  it  is  common  in  Long  Island 
sound  from  the  middle  of  June  to  October, 
and  is  taken  by  harpoon  and  in  nets ;  the 
smaller  specimens  are  esteemed  for  the  table ; 
it  is  grayish  brown  above,  silvery  on  the  sides, 
and  white  below.  The  short-nosed  sturgeon 
{A.  brevirostris,  Mitch.)  is  dusky  above  and 
white  below ;  the  snout  is  short  and  blunt ;  it 
attains  a  length  of  "2  to  5  ft.,  and  is  so  com 
mon  in  the  Hudson  that  its  flesh  in  the  market 
has  been  known  as 
sombles  the  A.  sturio  ot  Europe, 
cies  are  described  from  the  northern  waters, 
the  rivers  of  the  N.  W.  coast,  and  from  Lake 
Superior,  by  Kichardson  and  Agassiz. — The 
genus  polyodon  (Lace'p.)  or  spatularia  (Shaw) 
has  the  general  form  of  acipenser,  but  is  with 
out  the  bony  plates  on  the  body  and  head ; 
the  snout  is  very  much  elongated,  and  com 
pressed  into  a  thin  leaf -like  organ,  partly  bony 
and  partly  cutaneous,  sometimes  nearly  as  long 
as  the  body ;  gill  covers  very  large,  extending 
far  back  in  a  membranous  point;  the  mouth 
is  wide,  with  numerous  minute  teeth  in  the 
young  animal,  which  are  lost  with  age.  The 
spoon-bill  sturgeon  (P.  folium,  Lacep.)  is  steel- 
blue  above  and  white  below ;  it  attains  a  length 


3  Albany  beef ;  it  much  re- 
rio  of  Europe.     Other  spo 


of  5  ft.,  and  is  found  in  the  Mississippi,  Ohio, 
and  their  tributaries;  it  is  also  called  shovel 
fish  and  paddle  fish ;  the  flesh  is  tough ;  the 
singularly  shaped  snout  is  used  to  shovel  up 
the  mud  in  search  of  food.  The  genus  plati- 
rostra  (Les.)  is  probably  only  the  adult  of 
polyodon,  the  principal  difference  being  the 
absence  of  teeth. 

STURLESON.     See  SXOEEI  STUKLASON. 

STURT,  Sir  Charles,  an  English  explorer,  died 
in  Cheltenham,  June  16,  1869.  He  entered  the 
army  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1825  (being  then 
a  captain)  was  stationed  at  Sydney,  New  South 
Wales.  At  this  time  the  interior  of  Australia 
was  almost  entirely  unknown;  and  in  1828 
Gen.  Darling  organized  an  exploring  expedi 
tion.  Oxley  ten  years  before  had  been  stopped 
by  the  great  swamps  W.  of  the  Blue  moun 
tains,  and  this  expedition  was  to  penetrate  be 
yond  them  as  far  inland  as  possible.  Sturt  was 
attached  to  the  party,  and  soon  took  the  vir 
tual  lead  of  it.  He  discovered  the  Macquarie, 
Castlereagh,  and  Darling  rivers,  and  explored 
a  great  portion  of  their  valleys.  Later  he  led 
another  expedition,  explored  the  course  of  the 
Murrumbidgee,  discovered  (Juno  14,  1830)  the 
great  Murray  river,  followed  it  to  Lake  Alex- 
andrina,  and  returned  at  the  beginning  of  1831. 
The  account  of  these  journeys  was  published 
in  London  in  1833,  under  the  title  of  "  Two 
Expeditions  into  the  Interior  of  South  Aus 
tralia  during  the  years  1828-'31."  His  health, 
and  especially  his  eyesight,  had  suffered  great 
ly;  and  he  was  compelled  to  rest  for  several 
years  before  undertaking  his  next  expedition, 
which  was  overland  from  Sydney  to  Adelaide. 
At  Adelaide  he  was  made  surveyor  general 
of  South  Australia.  In  1844  he  undertook  a 
fourth  journey,  and,  after  the  greatest  hard 
ships  in  the  Stony  Desert,  reached  a  point  near 
the  centre  of  the  continent.  This  expedition 
he  described  in  a  report  published  in  London 
in  1849.  After  his  return  he  became  registrar 
general  arid  later  colonial  secretary  of  South 
Australia ;  but  the  injury  to  his  eyes  resulted 
in  total  blindness,  and  he  returned  to  England. 
He  was  knighted  a  few  days  before  his  death. 

STUTSMAN,  an  E.  central  county  of  Dakota, 
recently  formed  and  not  included  in  the  cen 
sus  of  1870;  area,  about  2,100  sq.  m.  It  is 
drained  by  the  head  waters  of  the  Dakota  or 
James  river.  The  W.  part  is  occupied  by  the 
Plateau  du  Coteau  du  Missouri.  The  North 
ern  Pacific  railroad  traverses  it  from  E.  to  W. 
The  surface  is  rolling. 

STUTTERING.     See  STAMMERING. 

STUTTGART,  a  city  of  Germany,  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg,  2  m.  S.  W.  of 
Canstatt  on  the  Neckar,  and  97  m.  S.  E.  of 
Frankfort;  pop.  in  1876,  over  107,000,  including 
9,000  in  several  villages.  It  stands  in  a  very 
beautiful  valley  surrounded  by  vine-clad  hills, 
with  wooded  mountains  in  the  distance.  The 
town  is  generally  well  built,  and  is  divided  by 
the  long  Konigsstrasse,  the  principal  street, 
extending  nearly  N.  and  S.  throughout  its  en- 


STUTTGART 


STY 


433 


tire  length,  and  bordered  by  the  chief  business 
buildings.  In  the  principal  square  is  a  fine 
old  Gothic  church,  with  a  high  tower  and 
many  ancient  sculptures  and  monuments  of 
the  princes  of  Wiirtemberg.  The  royal  (for 
merly  ducal)  palace,  begun  in  1746  and  finished 


The  Old  Palace. 

in  1806,' is  a  large  building  of  freestone  finely 
decorated  and  furnished  in  the  interior;  the 
old  palace,  completed  in  1570,  resembles  a 
mediaeval  castle,  and  is  now  occupied  by  offi 
cials  connected  with  the  government.  In  the 
same  square  is  a  monument  to  Schiller  by 
Thorwaldsen.  'The  hospital  church  is  a  Goth 
ic  building,  finely  decorated  in  the  interior, 
and  contains  the  original  model  of  Danneck- 
er's  "  Christ."  The  town  hall  was  built  in  the 
loth  century.  There  is  a  museum  of  natural 
history;  a  royal  library  of  450,000  volumes 
and  3,500  manuscripts ;  a  cabinet  of  medals 
containing  more  than  17,000  specimens  ;  a 
museum  of  the  fine  arts,  with  many  valuable 
statues  and  pictures ;  a  -bazaar,  and  a  theatre. 
Stuttgart  has  also  a  gymnasium,  military  acad 
emy,  polytechnic  school,  a  royal  school  of  art, 
attended  in  1874— '5  by  about  100  students,  and 
a  conservatory  of  music,  attended  in  January, 
1875,  by  576  male  and  female  pupils,  inclu 
ding  79  from  the  United  States  and  53  from 
England.  The  manufactures  include  woollen, 
silk,  linen,  and  cotton  goods,  jewelry,  musical 
and  philosophical  instruments,  leather,  and  tin 
ware.  The  book  trade  is  extensive,  and  con 
nected  with  it  are  numerous  paper  mills,  type 
founderies,  and  lithographic  establishments. 
The  town  is  the  central  point  of  the  Wurtem- 
berg  railways,  seven  lines  extending  from  it ; 
and  the  railway  station  is  perhaps  the  finest  in 
Germany.  There  is  a  horse  railway  between 
Stuttgart  and  Canstatt,  a  pleasant  suburb  and 
favorite  summer  resort.  Besides  the  public 
garden,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Germany, 
there  are  in  the  vicinity  numerous  parks  and 
gardens,  where  the  public  are  admitted ;  that 
of  Rosenstein,  the  king's  summer  palace,  and 
the  gardens  of  the  Wilhelma  palace  at  Can 
statt,  are  the  most  beautiful. — The  date  of 
the  foundation  of  Stuttgart  is  not  accurately 
known.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as  1229,  and 
was  selected  as  a  residence  by  Count  Eberhard 
in  1320.  In  1482  Count  Ulric  made  it  the 


capital  of  Wiirtemberg.  The  city  had  little  of 
its  present  beauty  until  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century;  after  that  time  it  was  greatly  im 
proved  during  seyeral  successive  reigns,  owing 
its  chief  embellishments  to  Kings  Frederick 
and  William.  The  population  and  prosperity 
of  Stuttgart  have  of  late  much  increased. — 
See  Wochner's  Stuttgart  seit  25  JaTircn  (Stutt 
gart,  1871). 

STCTVESMT,  Petrus,  the  last  Dutch  director 
general  of  New  Netherland  (New  York),  born 
in  Holland  in  1602,  died  in  New  York  city  in 
August,  1682.  He  served  in  the  war  in  the 
West  Indies,  was  director  of  the  colony  of  Cu- 
rac.oa,  lost  a  leg  in  battle,  and  returned  to  Hol 
land  in  1644.  In  1645  the  Dutch  Wrest  India 
company  appointed  him  director  general  of 
New  Netherland.  He  arrived  in  May,  1647, 
conciliated  the  savages,  who  had  been  provoked 
to  hostilities  by  his  predecessor  W7illiam  Kieft, 
and  restored  order  in  every  department.  In 
1650  he  arranged  at  Hartford  with  the  New 
England  commissioners  a  line  of  partition,  be 
fore  undefined  and  disputed,  between  the  Dutch 
and  English  territories.  In  1651  the  Dutch 
built  Fort  Casimir  on  the  Delaware,  which  was 
captured  by  Rising,  the  governor  of  New  Swe 
den,  in  1654.  Next  year  Stuyvesant  sailed 
into  the  Delaware  with  seven  vessels  and  600 
or  700  men,  and  took  the  whole  settlement. 
For  the  next  ten  years  there  was  nearly  un 
broken  peace.  In  1653  a  convention  of  two 
deputies  from  each  village  in  New  Netherland 
demanded  that  uno  new  laws  shall  be  enacted 
but  with  the  consent  of  the  people ;  that  none 
shall  be  appointed  to  office  but  with  the  appro 
bation  of  the  people ;  that  obscure  and  obsolete 
laws  shall  never  be  revived."  Stuyvesant 
commanded  the  separation  of  this  assembly  on 
pain  of  punishment,  telling  them  :  "  We  derive 
our  authority  from  God  and  the  company,  not 
from  a  few  ignorant  subjects."  The  spirit  of 
resistance  nevertheless  increased.  The  en 
croachments  of  the  New  England  colonies  in 
duced  Stuyvesant  to  remonstrate  before  a  con 
vention  of  the  united  colonies  at  Boston,  but 
he  met  with  little  favor ;  and  a  second  embassy 
to  Hartford  had  no  better  success.  In  1664 
Charles  II.  granted  to  his  brother,  the  duke  of 
York,  the  territory  from  the  Connecticut  river 
to  the  shores  of  the  Delaware,  and  an  English 
fleet  under  Richard  Nicolls  appeared  in  the 
bay  of  New  York  in  August  and  demanded  the 
surrender  of  the  city.  Stuyvesant  was  unwil 
ling  to  capitulate,  but  the  municipality,  seeing 
the  futility  of  resistance,  insisted  on  yielding; 
and  at  last  he  consented,  and  the  city  was  given 
up  on  Sept.  3,  1664.  Stuyvesant  went  in  1665 
to  report  to  his  superiors  in  Holland,  but  re 
turning,  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  on  his 
farm  or  bouwerij  (whence  the  name  of  the 
street  called  the  Bowery),  then  outside  the 
limits  of  the  city.  He  lies  buried  in  the  vaults 
of  St.  Mark's  church  in  10th  street. 

STY  (Lat.  Tiordeohim,  from  Jiordeum,  barley), 
a  small  inflammatory  tumor  on  the  edge  of  the 


4:34 


STYLE 


SUAKIN 


eyelid,  about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  barley.  Sty 
has  its  seat  in  the  cellular  tissue  at  the  margin 
of  the  lid,  involving  generally  the  roots  of  one 
or  more  of  the  eyelashes.  The  tumor  is  f urun- 
cular,  and  almost  invariably  goes  on  to  sup 
puration  ;  its  progress  is  sometimes  tedious 
and  the  suppuration  imperfect.  Sty  is  most 
common  in  persons  of  a  strumous  habit,  and 
often  has  for  an  exciting  cause  derangement  of 
the  digestive  organs.  When  the  little  tumor 
has  made  its  appearance,  it  is  best  to  promote 
its  maturation  by  warm  and  emollient  fomen 
tations.  It  is  commonly  advisable  to  leave  it 
to  burst  of  itself ;  but  when  maturation  has 
occurred,  if  it  occasion  much  uneasiness,  it 
may  be  punctured. 

STYLE,  Old  and  New.     See  CALENDAR. 

STYRAX.     See  BALSAMS. 

STYLITES  (Gr.  arvAir^j  belonging  to  a  pillar), 
a  class  of  anchorites  who  spent  their  lives  on 
pillars.  The  originator  of  this  mode  of  Chris 
tian  penance  was  Simeon  (known  as  St.  Simeon 
Stylites),  a  Syrian,  who  was  born  in  Sisan  or 
Sesan  about  390,  and  died  near  Antioch  in 
459.  lie  spent  several  years  in  convents,  but 
not  being  satisfied  with  the  severity  of  their 
discipline,  he  built  for  himself  on  Mt.  Tela- 
nissa  a  small  hut,  in  which  he  inflicted  upon 
himself  all  manner  of  bodily  pains,  in  the  hope 
of  thereby  attaining  to  spiritual  perfection. 
His  fame  drew  around  him  large  numbers  of 
admirers,  and  in  order  to  escape  their  constant 
intrusions  and  persistent  efforts  to  approach 
him  and  touch  his  garments,  he  decided  to  live 
on  top  of  a  pillar.  At  first  ho  maintained  him 
self  standing  upon  it  by  means  of  a  beam,  but 
ho  soon  learned  to  do  without  this  support, 
and  to  obtain  rest  by  leaning  against  the  low 
parapet.  His  pillar  was  at  first  only  about  10 
ft.  high,  but  he  had  it  repeatedly  increased  in 
height,  until  it  was  about  60  ft.  high.  On  this 
pillar,  the  top  of  which  is  said  to  have  mea 
sured  only  a  few  feet  in  circumference,  he  lived 
upward  of  30  years ;  and  when  he  died  the 
people  of  Antioch  received  his  body  into  their 
city  and  revered  him  as  their  patron  saint.  His 
example  found  numerous  imitators  in  the  East, 
but  his  peculiar  kind  of  asceticism  met  with 
little  favor  in  the  West,  lie  and  his  followers 
received  the  designation  of  stylites,  but  are 
known  also  as  air  martyrs,  pillarists,  and  pil 
lar  saints.  There  were  several  other  stylites 
called  Simeon.  One  died  in  595,  and  another, 
one  of  the  last  recorded  in  history,  lived  in  the 
12th  century.  It  is  related  of  one  Alypius 
that  he  maintained  himself  70  years  on  a  pillar 
near  Adrianople. 

STYKIA  (Ger.  SteiermarJc},  a  duchy  of  Aus 
tria,  bordering  on  Upper  and  Lower  Aus 
tria,  Hungary,  Croatia,  Carniola,  Carinthia,  and 
Salzburg;  area,  8,671  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,137,990.  It  is  divided  into  the  circles  of 
Gratz,  which  contains  the  capital  of  the  same 
name,  Marburg,  and  Bruck.  It  is  traversed  by 
three  chains  belonging  to  the  Noric  branch 
of  the  Alpine  system,  the  highest  summits  of 


which  are  on  the  oST.  W.  and  S.  W.  frontiers, 
rising  to  an  elevation  of  8,000  ft.  and  up 
ward.  The  N.  W.  part  is  known  as  Upper 
Styria,  and  the  country  in  the  opposite  direc 
tion  as  Lower  Styria.  The  surface  belongs  to 
the  basin  of  the  Danube.  The  most  important 
streams  are  the  Mur,  Enns,  Eaab,  Save,  and 
Drave,  all  of  which  except  the  Raab  are  navi 
gable  for  boats.  There  are  numerous  small  lakes, 
and  hot  and  mineral  springs.  Limestone,  sul 
phur,  alum,  rock  salt,  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper, 
cobalt,  zinc,  and  iron  ore  of  superior  quality  are 
found.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  generally 
fertile,  but  no  surplus  of  grain  is  produced. 
The  vine  thrives  well.  The  forests  cover  about 
half  the  surface.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly 
German,  but  the  Winds  or  Slovens  are  nu 
merous,  constituting  about  36  per  cent,  of  the 
population;  nearly  all  are  Roman  Catholics. 
Iron  is  extensively  manufactured,  and  linen, 
cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  to  some  extent ;  but 
the  most  important  branch  of  industry  is  tim 
ber.  Millions  of  jewsharps  are  annually  ex 
ported. — Under  the  Romans  the  eastern  part 
of  Styria  belonged  to  the  province  of  Pan- 
nonia,  and  the  western  to  Noricum.  Chris 
tianity  was  introduced  in  the  4th  century,  but 
the  northern  barbarians  afterward  overran  the 
province.  Styria  was  annexed  to  Austria  in 
1192,  was  subsequently  attached  to  Bohemia, 
and  in  1276  together  with  other  territories  sur 
rendered  by  King  Ottocar  II.  to  Rudolph  I.  of 
Hapsburg.  It  subsequently  belonged  to  va 
rious  branches  of  that  house,  until  the  Styrian 
line  became  the  ruling  one  with  the  succes 
sion  of  Ferdinand  II.  to  the  emperor  Matthias 
in  1619.  Ferdinand  exterminated  Protestant 
ism  in  the  duchy.  Under  the  constitution  of 
Cisleithan  Austria  the  Styrian  diet  elects  13 
members  to  the  Austrian  Reichsrath. — See 
Das  Volksleben  in  SteiermarJc  in  Charakter- 
und  SittenbUdern  dargestellt,  by  P.  K.  Roseg- 
ger  (2  vols.,  Gratz,  1875). 

STYX  (connected  with  Gr.  arvyeiv,  to  ab 
hor),  in  Greek  mythology,  the  chief  river  of 
the  lower  world,  around  which  it  flows  seven 
times.  The  name  was  said  to  be  derived  from 
the  nymph  Styx,  the  daugther  of  Oceanus, 
who,  when  Jupiter  prepared  to  wrest  the 
power  from  the  hands  of  Saturn  and  the  Ti 
tans,  was  the  first  of  the  immortals  to  answer 
to  his  call,  coming  with  her  children  to  his 
assistance.  He  made  her  children  his  constant 
attendants,  and  herself  the  oath-sanctioner  of 
the  gods.  In  the  Hesiodic  theogony  Styx  is 
called  the  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys. 
She  was  the  mother  of  Zelos  (zeal),  Nike  (vic 
tory),  Bia  (strength),  and  Cratos  (power). 

SUABIA.     See  SWABIA. 

SUAKIN,  or  Snakim,  a  seaport  town  of  Nubia, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Red  sea,  285  m.  N.  N. 
W.  of  Massowah;  lat.  19°  17'  K,  Ion.  37^  20' 
E. ;  pop.  about  6,000.  The  town  proper  is  on 
an  island  1£  m.  in  circumference,  which  is 
connected  by  a  bridge  with  a  suburb  on  the 
mainland.  It  is  defended  by  a  small  fort, 


SUAREZ 


SUBSCRIPTION 


435 


and  contains  several  mosques  and  public  build 
ings,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  governor's 
house,  custom  house,  and  bazaar.  The  harbor 
is  sheltered  from  all  winds,  but  is  too  shallow 
to  admit  large  vessels.  The  adjacent  country 
is  a  level  plain.  The  climate  is  very  hot. 
Suakin  is  fast  increasing  in  commercial  im 
portance,  and  has  a  considerable  trade  in  cat 
tle,  hides,  butter,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  gum 
arabic,  cotton,  and  coffee,  the  last  from  Abys 
sinia.  More  than  150  vessels  enter  its  port 
yearly.  It  was  formerly  subject  directly  to  the 
Turkish  power,  but  in  1865  was  surrendered 
to  the  viceroy  of  Egypt.  In  1870  telegraphic 
communication  was  established  with  the  Soo- 
dan,  an  attempt  to  effect  which  in  1865  had 
resulted  in  the  loss  of  the  engineers  and  8,000 
camels.  There  is  a  direct  caravan  route  from 
Suakin  to  Berber,  on  the  Nile,  and  to  Khar- 
toom,  and  great  numbers  of  pilgrims  pass  over 
it  yearly  on  their  way  to  Mecca. 

SUAREZ,  Francisco,  a  Spanish  theologian,  born 
in  Granada,  Jan.  5,  1548,  died  in  Lisbon,  Sept. 
25,  1617.  He  early  entered  the  order  of  Jes 
uits,  and  was  successively  professor  at  the 
universities  of  Alcala,  Salamanca,  Rome,  and 
Coimbra.  His  Defensio  Fidel,  &c.  (Coimbra, 
1613),  was  in  1614  ordered  by  the  parliament 
of  Paris  to  be  burned,  because  it  claimed  for 
the  pope  a  coercive  power  over  kings.  In  the 
same  year  and  subsequently  it  was  reprinted 
at  Cologne.  His  complete  works  appeared  at 
Lyons  and  Mentz  (23  vols.  fol.,  1630  et  seq.  ; 
new  eds.,  Venice,  1740,  and  Besanc.on,  1856- 
'62).  Francisco  Noel  prepared  an  abridged  edi 
tion  (2  vols.  fol.,  Geneva,  1732  ;  republished 
by  J.  P.  Migne,  Paris,  1858).  The  life  of  Sua- 
rez  has  been  written  in  Latin  by  Deschamps 
(Perpignan,  1671),  and  in  German  by  Werner 
(Ratisbon,  1861  et  seq.}. 

SUBLIMATION,  a  process  of  distillation  in 
which  the  vapors  condense  in  a  solid  form.  It 
takes  place  naturally  in  volcanic  fissures  and 
craters.  Deposits  thus  formed  are  terme'd  sub 
limates.  A  great  variety  of  mineral  substances 
are  subject  to  vaporize  by  heat  and  become 
solid  again  on  cooling ;  and  the  number  of 
such  increases  with  the  increased  degree  of 
heat  which  we  can  apply.  Some  vegetable 
substances  also  possess  the  same  property,  as 
camphor  and  benzoin.  Sublimation  is  much 
employed  as  a  means  of  separating  volatile 
from  fixed  bodies,  usually  for  obtaining  the 
former  in  a  purer  state.  The  vapor  is  some 
times  chemically  changed  by  contact  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  and  the  sublimate  is  then 
of  a  different  composition  from  the  original 
body,  as  when  oxide  of  zinc  is  produced  by 
subjecting  the  metal  or  its  ores  to  heat  ex 
posed  to  the  air. 

SUBLIME  PORTE  (Fr.,  lofty  or  magnificent 
gate;  Turk.  ~babi  Jiumayun ;  Ar.  ed-davlet  el- 
aliye),  the  title  officially  given  to  the  Ottoman 
government.  Orkhan  (1326-'GO)  erected  in  his 
capital  Brusa  a  palace  with  an  imposing  en 
trance,  on  which  he  bestowed  the  name  of 


"  Sublime  Porte,"  which  from  that  time  to 
the  present  has  been  applied  to  the  monarch 
and  government  of  the  Ottomans.  This  use  of 
the  term  is  partly  owing  to  the  oriental  cus 
tom  of  transacting  public  business  at  the  gate 
or  in  the  antechamber  of  the  palace. 

SUBPiENA,  a  judicial  process  directed  to  a 
witness  commanding  him  to  appear  at  the 
court,  to  testify  what  he  knows  in  the  case 
therein  described,  under  a  certain  penalty  (sub 
pcenci)  mentioned  in  the  process.  If  the  court 
wishes  to  examine  any  books  or  papers  which 
are  in  possession  of  the  witness,  a  clause  is 
inserted  bidding  him  to  bring  them  with  him  ; 
and  the  subpoena  is  thence  called  a  sulpcena 
duces  tecum.  The  subpoena  ought  to  be  served 
upon  the  witness  personally,  for  otherwise  he 
cannot  be  proceeded  against  as  for  a  contempt 
if  he  neglects  to  appear.  Service  may  be  made 
by  any  person,  and  is  proved  generally  by  affi 
davit,  or,  if  it  be  made  by  a  sheriff  or  his  offi 
cer,  by  a  simple  return  or  certificate  of  service. 
When  a  witness  has  been  duly  summoned,  and 
his  fees  have  been  paid  or  tendered,  or  pay 
ment  or  tender  has  been  waived,  he  is  guilty 
of  a  contempt  of  court  if  he  fails  to  appear 
at  the  appointed  time,  and  may  be  proceeded 
against  by  attachment,  for  the  double  purpose 
of  compelling  him  to  appear  and  testify,  and 
of  vindicating  the  dignity  of  the  court  by  the 
infliction  of  suitable  punishment.  The  party 
actually  injured  by  the  non-appearance  may 
also  have  an  action  for  all  damages  caused  by 
his  default. — The  office  of  the  subpoena  at  com 
mon  law  is  simply  to  bring  into  court  a  wit 
ness  whose  evidence  is  sought.  Chancery,  bor 
rowing  the  name  of  the  writ,  but  giving  it  a 
far  larger  scope,  issued  it  in  order  to  compel 
a  defendant  in  a  cause  to  appear  and  answer 
upon  oath  the  plaintiff's  allegations.  This  pro 
cess  in  chancery  answers  to  a  summons  in  the 
courts  at  law,  and  is  the  process  by  means  of 
which  the  defendant  is  constructively  brought 
before  the  court. 

SUBROGATION.  Where  one  person  becomes 
entitled  in  law  to  the  position  of  another  as 
creditor  or  as  the  holder  of  securities,  he  is 
said  to  be  subrogated  to  the  rights  of  the  oth 
er,  and  in  contemplation  of  law  there  is  a  sub 
stitution  or  subrogation.  W^hen  a  surety  pays 
the  debt  of  his  principal,  he  becomes  subro 
gated  to  the  rights  of  the  creditor  in  any  se 
curities  he  may  have  held,  with  the  right  to 
enforce  them  for  his  own  indemnity.  So  if 
one  having  a  lien  on  property  pays  off  a  prior 
lien  for  the  protection  of  his  own,  he  becomes 
entitled  to  hold  it  against  the  interest  of  those 
who  should  have  paid ;  and  so  would  one  ten 
ant  in  common  who  should  discharge  a  mort 
gage  upon  the  whole  title.  The  doctrine  rests 
on  principles  of  equity,  and  is  one  of  very  gen 
eral  application. 

SUBSCRIPTION,  in  law,  a  contract  by  which 
one  agrees  to  contribute  with  others  for  a  com 
mon  purpose.  The  word  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  sum  of  money  subscribed.  The  contract 


436 


SUCCINIC  ACID 


SUCKER 


of  subscription  depends  for  its  validity  upon 
the  same  principles  and  facts  as  other  contracts. 
The  subscribers  may  be  sued  for  their  sub 
scriptions  whenever  the  conditions  upon  which 
they  have  promised  to  pay  are  fulfilled,  if  the 
purpose  of  the  contract  is  legal  and  founded 
upon  a  good  consideration,  and  if  there  is  a 
party  capable  of  maintaining  the  action.  Sub 
scription  papers  are  often  hastily  drawn  up 
and  carelessly  expressed,  and  tha  difficulty  in 
the  way  of  enforcing  contracts  of  subscription 
has  arisen  chiefly  from  the  want  of  proper 
parties  and  of  a  valid  consideration  for  the 
promise.  In  their  disposition  to  uphold  this 
class  of  contracts,  if  they  can  be  upheld  con 
sistently  with  the  rules  of  law,  the  courts  have 
gone  in  some  cases  so  far  as  to  say  that  the 
subscribers  to  a  common  object  may  be  treated 
as  contracting  with  each  other,  the  considera 
tion  of  each  subscription  being  the  promises 
of  the  other  contributors,  each  subscriber  being 
thus  liable  to  a  suit  by  all  the  others.  There 
seems  to  be  some  difficulty  in  sustaining  this 
view,  and  to  avoid  it  subscriptions  are  usually 
made  payable  to  some  corporation  or  person 
who  is  to  act  as  treasurer  for  the  purpose  of 
collection,  and  perhaps  also  in  expending  the 
moneys.  Such  undertakings,  made  on  behalf 
of  educational  and  charitable  institutions  or 
other  public  objects,  or  even  for  public  cele 
brations,  have  frequently  been  sustained  and 
enforced,  and  there  seems  to  bo  no  sufficient 
reason  against  such  action.  If  by  the  subscrip 
tion  paper  the  promisee  expressly  undertakes 
to  apply  the  moneys  to  the  object  in  view,  the 
case  is  clear ;  and  certainly,  if  in  any  other  case 
the  subscription  be  accepted  and  acted  upon 
by  the  expenditure  of  moneys  or  otherwise  be 
fore  notice  that  subscriptions  are  withdrawn, 
it  should  bo  held  that  this  constitutes  a  con 
sideration  sufficient  to  support  the  promises, 
and  that  they  cannot  be  withdrawn  subse 
quently,  but  may  be  enforced.  And  such 
seems  to  be  the  tendency  of  decisions. 

SUCCLMC  ACID,  an  add  found  ready  formed 
in  amber  and  in  certain  lignites,  and  occasion 
ally  in  the  animal  organism.  It  may  be  ob 
tained  in  colored  crystals  by  heating  amber  in 
retorts.  It  is  formed  artificially  in  several 
ways,  as  by  the  action  of  hydriodic  acid  on 
malic  acid  or  tartaric  acid,  or  by  the  oxidation 
of  certain  fatty  acids.  It  is  most  conveniently 
prepared  by  the  fermentation  of  malic  acid,  the 
crude  malate  of  calcium  obtained  by  adding 
chalk  or  slaked  lime  to  the  juice  of  mountain 
ash  berries  being  used  for  the  purpose.  The 
nialate  is  mingled  with  water  and  yeast  or  de 
caying  cheese,  and  kept  for  a  few  days  at  80° 
or  100°  F.,  when  succinate  of  calcium  forms. 
This  salt  is  then  decomposed  by  sulphuric  acid, 
insoluble  sulphate  of  lime  being  thrown  down, 
while  succinic  acid  is  left  in  solution,  and  may 
be  obtained  by  evaporation  and  cooling  in  col 
orless  oblique  rhombic  prisms,  soluble  in  five 
parts  of  cold  and  three  parts  of  boiling  water. 
The  combinations  of  succinic  acid  with  bases 


arfc  called  succinates,  of  which  the  most  impor 
tant  are  the  calcium  succinate  above  mentioned 
and  succinate  of  ammonia.  Succinic  acid, 
though  formerly  officinal,  is  now  seldom  used  in 
medicine.  Succinate  of  ammonia  is  said  to  have 
been  used  with  success  in  delirium  trernens. 

SUCCORY.     See  CIIICCOEY. 

StCHET,  Louis  Gabriel,  duke  of  Albufera,  a 
French  soldier,  born  in  Lyons,  March  2,  1770, 
died  in  Marseilles,  Jan.  3,  1826.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1792,  was  at  the  siege  of  Toulon 
in  1793  as  chief  of  battalion,  and  was  then 
transferred  to  the  army  of  Italy.  He  was 
selected  as  one  of  the  commanders  in  the 
army  of  Egypt,  but  was  detained  by  Brune  as 
major  general  in  the  army  of  Italy,  in  which 
he  reestablished  order  and  discipline;  after 
ward  served  as  chief  of  staff  under  Massena  on 
the  Danube,  and  again  in  Italy  as  general  of 
division ;  and  in  1800  distinguished  himself 
in  the  defence  of  Genoa.  In  1805  he  com 
manded  the  left  wing  under  Lannes  at  Auster- 
litz,  and  in  1806  took  an  important  part  in 
the  battle  of  Jena,  In  1808  he  was  made 
commander  of  a  division  in  the  army  of  Spain, 
and  after  successive  victories  he  became  mar 
shal  in  1811.  He  afterward  took  Oropesa  arid 
Murviedro,  and  defeated  Blake  near  the  lagoon 
of  Albufera,  under  the  walls  of  Valencia,  and 
forced 'him  to  surrender  that  city,  Jan.  9,  1812, 
with  18,000  Spanish  troops  and  immense  stores. 
For  this  victory  he  was  rewarded  with  the  title 
of  duke  of  Albufera  and  a  large  revenue.  He 
gained  the  esteem  of  the  Spaniards  by  his  jus 
tice  and  moderation.  Louis  XVIII.  made  him  a 
peer  in  1814.  He  wrote  Memoirea  stir  In  guerre 
cVEtpagne,  1808-1814  (2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1829). 

SICKER,  the  popular  name  of  the  soft-rayed 
fishes  of  the  carp  family  (cyprinidce)  included 
in  the  genus  catostomus  (Lesueur).  They  are 
characterized  by  a  single  dorsal,  three  rays  in 
the  gill  membrane,  smooth  head  and  gill  cov 
ers,  jaws  without  teeth  and  retractile,  mouth 
beneath  the  snout,  and  lips  plaited  or  lobed 
suitable  for  sucking;  there  are  comb-like  teeth 
in  the  throat ;  the  intestine  is  very  long,  and 
the  air  bladder  divided  into  two  or  more  parts. 
There  are  about  30  species  in  the  fresh-water 
rivers  and  lakes  of  North  America;  they  rarely 
take  bait,  and  are  very  tenacious  of  life.  The 
common  sucker  (0.  Bostoniensis,  Les.)  is  8  to 


r 


Common  Sucker  (Catostomus  Bostoniensis). 

15  in.  long,  of  a  brownish  color,  olive  on  the 
head,  reddish  with  metallic  lustre  on  the  sides, 
and  white  below ;  it  is  common  in  New  Eng 
land  and  the  middle  states.  The  chub  sucker 


SUCKING  FISH 


SUCRE 


437 


(C.  gibbosus,  Les.)  is  7  to  12  in.  long,  dark 
brown  above,  golden  greenish  yellow  on  the 
sides,  anterior  part  of  abdomen  whitish,  and 
fins  dark ;  body  convex  in  front  of  dorsal,  and 
sides  of  head  sometimes  spiny  or  tuberculated ; 
it  is  common  in  the  ponds  of  the  New  Eng 
land  and  middle  states.  Large  species  from 
the  northern  regions  have  been  described  by 
Richardson  and  Agassiz.  Among  the  larger 
speoies  of  the  western  rivers  are  the  Missouri 
sucker  (C.  elongatus,  Les.),  2  to  3  ft.  long,  in 
the  Ohio  river,  black  on  the  back,  and  hence 
called  black  horse  and  black  buffalo ;  and  the 
buffalo  sucker  {C.  bubalus,  Raf.),  of  about  the 
same  size,  in  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  Missouri, 
and  their  tributaries,  brownish  above,  bronzy 
on  the  sides,  and  whitish  on  abdomen. 

SUCKING  FISH,  the  popular  name  of  the  re- 
mora,  a  spiny-rayed  fish  of  the  genus  echeneis 
(Linn.),  so  named  from  the  Greek  £jm>,  to 
hold,  and  vavc,  a  ship.  The  body  is  elongated, 
tapering  behind,  covered  with  very  small  scales ; 


Mediterranean  Sucking  Fish  (Echeneis  remora). 

there  are  four  perfect  branclme;  very  small 
teeth  on  jaws,  vomer,  and  palate,  crowded 
and  hardly  distinguishable  posteriorly ;  mouth 
small  and  horizontal,  the  lower  jaw  the  longer ; 
eyes  above  the  angles  of  the  mouth ;  ventrals 
thoracic,  narrow,  united  only  at  the  base ;  head 
flattened.  Above  the  head  and  anterior  dorsal 
vertebra  is  an  oval  disk,  presenting  from  the 
middle  to  both  sides  oblique  transverse  carti 
laginous  plates,  arranged  like  the  slats  of  a 
Venetian  blind;  on  the  middle  of  the  under 
surface  are  spine-like  projections  connected 
by  short  bands  with  the  skull  and  vertebra, 
and  their  upper  margin  is  beset  with  fine  teeth. 
According  to  De  Blainville,  this  organ  is  an 
anterior  dorsal  fin,  whose  rays  are  split  and 
expanded  horizontally  on  each  side  instead  of 
standing  erect  in  the  usual  way.  By  means  of 
this  apparatus,  partly  suctorial  and  partly  pre 
hensile  by  the  hooks,  these  fishes  attach  them 
selves  to  rocks,  ships,  and  the  bodies  of  other 
fishes,  especially  to  sharks.  The  dorsal  is  op 
posite  the  anal,  but  the  fins  are  weak,  and 
these  fishes  accordingly  adhere  to  sharks  and 
other  moving  bodies,  which  transport  them  to 
places  where  food  is  abundant,  and  often  from 


the  tropics  to  temperate  regions.  There  are 
six  or  eight  pyloric  appendages,  but  no  air  blad 
der.  The  common  sucking  fish  of  the  Medi 
terranean,  so  well  known  to  the  ancients  (E. 
remora,  Linn.),  is  from  12  to  18  in.  long,  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  herring,  dusky  brown  above 
and  lighter  below ;  it  has  17  or  18  plates  on 
the  head ;  it  occurs  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  on 
the  British  coasts,  and  has  even  wandered  to 
the  American  shores.  The  Indian  remora  (E. 
naucrates,  Linn.)  attains  a  length  of  21  ft. ;  it 
is  olive-brown  above  and  whitish  on  the  sides, 
and  has  22  to  24  plates  in  the  sucking  disk;  it 
is  found  in  the  Atlantic,  on  the  American  and 
African  coasts,  in  the  Red  sea,  Indian  ocean, 
and  even  around  Japan.  Peculiar  to  the  Amer 
ican  coast  is  the  white-tailed  remora  (E.  alli- 
cauda,  Mitch.) ;  it  is  from  1  to  2  ft.  long,  gray 
ish  slate  above,  Avith  dark  band  on  sides ;  the 
disk  has  21  plates ;  it  is  not  uncommon  on  the 
southern  shore  of  Massachusetts  and  in  Long 
Island  sound,  where  it  is  generally  called  shark 
sucker.  None  of  the  species  feed  upon  the 
fish  to  which  they  are  attached,  their  food  be 
ing  small  fishes  and  floating  animals.  (See 
LUMP  Fisn.) 

SUCKLUVG,  Sir  John,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Whitton,  Middlesex,  in  1609,  died  in  Paris 
probably  in  1042.  He  was  educated  at  Cam 
bridge,  inherited  an  immense  fortune  from  his 
father,  comptroller  of  the  royal  household,  and 
in  1631-'2  served  as  a  volunteer  under  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus.  He  was  afterward  a  mem 
ber  of  the  court  of  Charles  I.,  and  in  1639  he 
equipped  a  body  of  100  horse  for  the  royal 
service,  but  was  disgraced  by  pusillanimous 
conduct  in  an  encounter  with  the  Scots  near 
Dunse.  In  1640  he  was  elected  to  the  long 
parliament;  but  having  joined  in  a  plot  to 
rescue  Strafford  from  the  tower,  he  was  com 
pelled  to  take  refuge  in  France.  Ilis  literary 
remains  include  four  plays,  a  number  of  short 
poems,  chiefly  amatory,  and  a  treatise  on  "  Re 
ligion  by  Reason."  His  works  were  published 
by  Tonson  in  1709,  and  in  1836  appeared  "Se 
lections  from  his  "Works,"  with  a  memoir  by 
the  Rev.  Alfred  Suckling.  A  new  edition  of 
his  "Poems,  Plays,  and  Remains  "  was  pub 
lished  in  London  in  1874. 

SICRE,  or  Clmqnisaca,  the  capital  of  Bolivia 
and  of  the  department  of  Chuquisaca,  on  a 
plateau  above  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  about  10,000 
ft.  above  the  sea;  lat.  19°  20'  S.,  Ion.  64°  40' 
W. ;  pop.  in  1865,  26,064,  the  greater  part  of 
whom  were  Indians.  It  has  regular,  spacious, 
and  clean  streets,  with  well  built  houses,  gen 
erally  of  two  stories.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  cathedral,  in  the  Moresque  style,  the 
president's  palace,  the  churches  of  San  Miguel 
and  San  Francisco,  two  monasteries,  three  nun 
neries,  and  the  theatre.  It  is  the  see  of  an 
archbishop. 

SUCRE,  Antonio  Jose  de,  a  South  American 
j  soldier,  born  in  Cumana,  Venezuela,  in  1703, 
j  assassinated  near  Paste,  Ecuador,  in  June,  1830. 
I  He  joined  the  insurrectionary  army  in  1811, 


438 


SUDERMANIA 


SUEZ 


and  was  made  brigadier  general  in  1819,  and 
soon  afterward  commander  of  a  division.  In 
May,  1822,  he  won  the  victory  of  Pichincha, 
which  was  followed  by  the  capitulation  of 
Quito.  In  1823  he  led  a  Colombian  army  of 
3,000  men  to  Lima,  which  he  found  in  the 
hands  of  the  royalists,  and  retired  to  Callao, 
where  he  was  besieged  several  weeks  till  the 
successes  of  Gen.  Santa  Cruz  compelled  the 
royalists  to  evacuate  Lima.  In  1824  he  suc 
ceeded  Bolivar  in  command  of  the  liberating 
army,  and  on  Dec.  9  won  the  crowning  vic 
tory  of  Ayacucho.  (See  AYACUCHO.)  In  1825 
Bolivia  was  created  into  an  independent  re 
public,  and  on  Aug.  11  the  constitutional  as 
sembly  appointed  Sucre  president.  In  an  in 
surrection  in  1827  he  was  attacked  and  se 
verely  wounded.  In  1828  Gen.  Gamarra  forced 
him  to  quit  Bolivia.  He  went  to  Colombia, 
was  made  commander  of  the  Colombian  army 
of  the  south,  and  conducted  a  successful  series 
of  operations,  which  terminated  in  the  defeat 
and  capitulation  of  the  Peruvians  under  Gen. 
La  Mar  at  Tarqui,  Feb.  26,  1829.  In  1830  he 
was  a  member  of  the  constituent  congress,  and 
was  returning  to  Quito  from  a  session  of  that 
body  when  he  was  assassinated. 

SUDERMANIA.     See  SODERMANLAND. 

SUDETIC  MOUNTAINS.  See  GERMANY,  vol. 
vii.,  p.  744. 

SUDORIFICS.     See  DIAPHORETICS. 

SUE,  Marie  Joseph  Engene,  a  French  novelist, 
born  in  Paris,  Dec.  10,  1804,  died  in  Annecy, 
Aug.  3,  1857.  He  was  an  army  and  navy  sur 
geon  for  several  years  till  1829,  when  he  in 
herited  a  large  fortune,  and  commenced  wri 
ting  maritime  novels,  of  which  La  Salamandre 
(1832)  attracted  most  attention.  Under  the 
patronage  of  the  government  he  wrote  His- 
toire  de  la  marine  francaise  an  17e  siecle  (5 
vols.  8vo,  1835-'7),  which  was  a  failure.  In 
1835  appeared  Cecils  and  in  1841  Mathilde, 
two  of  his  best  novels,  and  in  1842  Le  morne 
au  diable  and  Tlierese  Dunoyer.  Les  mystercs 
de  Paris,  a  work  presenting  terrible  pictures 
of  vice  and  corruption  (10  vols.,  1842-'3),  and 
Le  Ju if  errant,  a  merciless  attack  upon  the  Jes 
uits  (10  vols.,  1844-'5),  had  a  prodigious  cir 
culation,  and  passed  through  many  editions  and 
translations.  His  other  works  include  Martin, 
I1  enfant  trouve  (12  vols.,  1847);  Les  sept  peches 
capitaux  (16  vols.,  1847-'9) ;  and  Les  mystercs 
flu  peuple,  a  narrative  of  the  sufferings  of  a  pro 
letarian  family  through  ages,  which,  after  being 
continued  serially  from  1849  to  1856,  was  sup 
pressed  on  account  of  its  alleged  immorality. 
He  failed  in  1848  as  a  candidate  for  the  con 
stituent  assembly,  but  the  socialistic  tendencies 
of  his  most  popular  works  gave  him  in  1850  a 
majority  in  a  metropolitan  district,  and  he  was 
a  silent  member  of  the  extreme  left  till  the  coup 
d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851.  which  drove  him  from 
France.  He  afterward  lived  at  Annecy,  con- 
tinuino;  his  remarkable  literary  activity. 

SUETONIUS  TRANQUILLUS,  Cains,  a  Roman 
historian,  born  about  A.  D.  72,  died  probably 


about  140.  He  was  the  son  of  a  military  tri 
bune,  and  the  younger  Pliny  helped  him  to  be 
come  magister  epistolarum.  From  this  posi 
tion  he  is  said  to  have  been  removed  by  Ha 
drian  about  121  in  consequence  of  an  indiscreet 
familiarity  with  the  empress  Sabina,  though 
many  historians  entirely  disbelieve  the  story, 
and  give  other  causes  for  his  dismissal.  From 
the  list  of  his  works  given  by  Suidas  he  must 
have  been  one  of  the  most  voluminous  of  -Ro 
man  authors.  His  chief  extant  work  is  the 
Vitas,  XII  Ccesarum,  in  eight  books,  which 
abounds  in  details  and  anecdotes  of  a  ques 
tionable  character ;  besides  which  the  treatises 
De  Illustrious  Grammaticis  and  De  Claris 
Rhetoribus,  and  some  brief  biographies  of  Te 
rence,  Horace,  Lucan,  Juvenal,  Persius,  and 
Pliny  the  Elder,  pass  under  his  name.  Fif 
teen  editions  of  Suetonius's  works  had  been 
published  previous  to  1500,  of  which  the  old 
est  with  a  date  is  that  of  Rome  (fol.,  1470). 
Among  the  best  subsequent  editions  are  those 
of  Burmann  (2  vols.  4to,  Amsterdam,  1736) 
and  Baumgarten-Crusius  (Leipsic,  1816),  re 
vised  by  Ilase  (2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1828),  and 
newly  edited  by  Roth  (1858).  All  the  frag 
ments  attributed  to  Suetonius  have  been  pub 
lished,  with  a  critical  commentary  by  Roth 
(1860).  The  first  English  translation  was  by 
Philemon  Holland  (fol.,  London,  1606),  and 
the  latest  by  Thomson  and  Forrester  (Bonn's 
"Classical  Library,"  1855).  On  the  sources 
from  which  Suetonius  drew  his  facts,  see  Cla- 
son,  Tacitus  und  Sueton  (Breslau,  1871). 

SUEVI,  a  powerful  group  of  migratory  Ger 
man  tribes,  who  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  are  said  by  ancient  writers  to 
have  occupied  the  larger  part  of  Germany. 
Cresar  describes  them  as  dwelling  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Weser.  According  to  Strabo, 
they  extended  across  the  central  parts  of  mod 
ern  Germany,  between  the  Rhine  and  the 
Oder,  and  as  far  S.  as  the  head  waters  of  the 
Danube.  Tacitus  seems  to  designate  by  the 
name  Suevi  the  tribes  of  eastern  Germany 
from  the  Danube  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic. 
In  the  2d  century  the  collective  appellation  dis 
appears,  the  single  tribes  of  the  group  being 
designated  by  their  distinctive  names.  Later, 
however,  other  Suevi,  an  adventurous  German 
people  of  mixed  origin,  appear  upon  the  banks 
of  the  Neckar,  where  they  gave  rise  to  the 
modern  name  Swabia,  and  also  in  northern 
Spain,  where  they  conquered  Galicia  early  in 
the  •  5th  century.  Their  Galician  realm  was 
destroyed  by  the  Visigoths  in  585. 

SUEZ.  I.  An  isthmus  separating  the  Medi 
terranean  and  Red  seas,  and  connecting  the 
continents  of  Asia  and  Africa.  From  the  most 
northerly  part  of  the  gulf  of  Suez  in  the  Red 
sea  to  the  gulf  of  Pelusium  or  Tineh  in  the 
Mediterranean  the  distance  is  a  little  more 
than  72  m. ;  on  the  line  of  the  Suez  canal  it  is 
about  100  m.  The  surface  has  a  general  ele 
vation  of  only  5  to  8  ft.  above  the  adjoining 
seas,  but  there  are  several  ridges  of  from  20 


SUEZ 


SUFFOLK 


439 


to  65  ft.,  and  a  few  depressions,  lakes,  and  salt 
marshes  which  have  become  lakes  since  the 
construction  of  the  canal.  With  the  excep 
tion  of  places  that  have  been  made  fertile  by 
irrigation,  it  is  a  barren,  sandy  desert,  unin 
habited.  Fresh  water  is  found  in  but  a  few 
places.  The  surface  soil  is  generally  sand  and 
gravel,  underlaid  with  sandstone  and  varieties 
of  limestone  and  conglomerate  containing  fos 
sil  remains  and  shells.  It  is  probable  that  the 
whole  isthmus  was  once  under  water,  and  that 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Eed  sea  were  con 
nected.  Since  the  opening  of  the  canal  the 
climate  has  undergone  a  considerable  ameliora 
tion,  the  temperature  having  become  lower  in 
summer  and  higher  in  winter.  The  change  is 
attributed  to  the  infiltration  of  water  from  the 
canal,  and  to  the  vegetation  which  has  sprung 
up  along  its  banks.  (See  CAXAL.)  II.  A  gulf 
forming  the  IS".  W.  arm  of-  the  Red  sea,  lying 
between  Egypt  and  the  Sinai  peninsula.  It  is 
about  180  m.  long,  and  has  an  average  breadth 
of  20  m.  In  ancient  times  it  was  called  the 
Heroopolite  gulf.  The  Israelites  are  supposed 


to  have  crossed  the  Eed  sea  on  their  exodus 
from  Egypt  a  few  miles  below  the  head  of 
the  gulf.  (See  EXODUS,  and  RED  SEA.)  III.  A 
town  of  Ecrypt,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Suez, 
77  m.  E.  of  Cairo;  lat.  29°  57'  30"  K,  Ion.  32° 
35'  E. ;  pop.  in  1872,  13,500,  of  whom  2,400 
were  foreigners.  The  old  town  is  walled  on 
the  three  landward  sides,  but  open  toward  the 
sea.  It  stands  on  the  border  of  a  sandy  plain 
where  rain  seldom  falls,  and  previous  to  the 
opening  of  the  fresh-water  canal  from  the 
Nile  in  1863  it  depended  for  water  on  supplies 
brought  from  a  distance.  Suez  was  a  mere 
fishing  village  until  the  building  of  the  rail 
way  from  Cairo,  when  it  began  to  increase  in 
size  and  importance ;  and  the  construction  of 
the  Suez  canal,  with  its  quays,  docks,  and 
other  works,  soon  made  it  a  large  and  busy 
place.  The  new  quays  and  harbors,  with  the 
railway  station  and  dry  dock,  are  about  2  m. 
S.  of  the  town,  with  which  they  are  connected 
by  railway.  Among  the  principal  buildings  at 
Suez  are  the  storehouses  of  the  Peninsula  and 
Oriental  steamship  company  and  of  the  messa- 


Suez. 


geries  maritimes,  the  water  works  which  sup 
ply  the  town  from  the  fresh-water  canal,  the 
English  hospital,  and  the  chalet  of  the  khedive 
on  the  heights  overlooking  the  town  and  har 
bor.  Suez  is  connected  by  railway  with  Cairo 
and  Alexandria,  but  derives  its  principal  im 
portance  from  the  Suez  canal,  of  which  it  is 
the  southern  terminus.  From  the  opening  of 
the  canal  in  November,  1869,  to  Dec.  31,  1874, 
4,781  vessels,  of  6,643,368  total  tonnage,  had 
passed  through,  of  which  2,588  entered  from 
the  Mediterranean  and  2,193  from  the  Red  sea. 
Of  the  whole  number,  3,286  were  British,  394 
French,  281  Austrian,  235  Italian,  121  Otto 
man,  109  Dutch,  85  Egyptian,  83  German,  61 
Spanish,  and  the  remainder  of  other  national 
ities,  only  8  being  American.  The  number  of 
passengers  during  the  same  period  was  278,- 
231,  including  34,197  Moslem  pilgrims  and 
many  troops  of  various  nations.  The  total 
amount  of  tolls  received  during  this  time  was 
77,728,838  francs.  In  1874,  1,264  vessels,  of 
2,421,803  gross  tonnage,  passed  through  the 
canal,  of  which  679  entered  from  the  Medi 


terranean  and  585  from  the  Red  sea.  The 
total  receipts  for  tolls  in  1874  were  24,748,900 
francs.  In  November,  1875,  all  the. shares  of 
the  Suez  canal  stock  belonging  to  the  khedive 
of  Egypt,  177  out  of  400,  were  purchased  by 
the  British  government  for  £4,000,000.  See 
Lettres  et  documents  pour  sermr  a  Vhistoire  du 
canal  de  Suez,  by  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  (Paris, 
1875). — Suez  occupies  probably  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Clysma,  the  Kolzum  of  the  Arabs.  In 
the  8th  century,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
canal  connecting  with  the  Nile,  it  fell  into  de 
cay.  In  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  it 
became  a  naval  depot  for  the  Turkish  fleet  in 
the  Red  sea,  but  soon  lost  its  importance  again 
with  the  decline  of  navigation  in  that  sea  in 
consequence  of  the  discovery  of  the  route  to 
India  by  the  cape  of  Good  Hope. 

SUFFOCATION.     See  ASPHYXIA. 

SUFFOLK.  I.  An  E.  county  of  Massachu 
setts,  bordering  on  Massachusetts  bay ;  area, 
about  44  sq.  m.  It  comprises  the  cities  of 
Boston  and  Chelsea  and  the  towns  of  Revere 
and  Winthrop.  The  population  as  returned 


440 


SUFFOLK 


SUGAR 


by  the  census  of  1870  was  270,802;  the  sub 
sequent  annexation  of  the  to\vn  of  West  Rox- 
bury  from  Norfolk  co.  and  the  town  of  Brigh 
ton  and  city  of  Charlestown  from  Middlesex 
co.  to  Boston  added  41,973  inhabitants,  ma 
king  the  population  within  the  present  limits 
of  Suffolk  co.  in  1870,  312,775;  in  1875,  ac 
cording  to  the  state  census,  364,880.  The 
number  of  manufacturing  establishments,,  ac 
cording  to  the  census  of  1870,  was  2,540; 
number  of  hands  employed,  43,550  ;  amount 
of  capital  invested,  $47,311,906;  value  of  ma 
terials  used  during  the  year,  $59,384,305;  an 
nual  value  of  products,  $111,380,840.  Almost 
every  variety  of  articles  is  produced.  Capital, 
Boston,  which  is  also  the  capital  of  the  state. 
II.  A  S.  E.  county  of  New  York,  comprising 
the  E.  part  of  Long  Island,  bounded  N.  by 
Long  Island  sound  and  E.  and  S.  by  the  At 
lantic,  drained  by  the  Peconic  river  and  sev 
eral  smaller  streams,  and  traversed  by  the  Long 
Island  and  other  railroads;  area,  1,200  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1875,  52,088.  The  surface  is  hilly  and 
uneven  in  the  north,  but  nearly  level  in  the 
south;  the  soil  is  generally  sandy,  but  fertile 
along  the  sound.  The  coast  is  indented  by 
numerous  harbors  and  inlets,  and  the  county 
includes  several  small  islands.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  184,564  bushels  of  wheat, 
35,436  of  rye,  515,099  of  Indian  corn,  322,069 
of  oats,  20,800  of  buckwheat,  557,935  of  pota 
toes,  43,006  tons  of  hay,  47,168  Ibs.  of  wool, 
and  564,766  of  butter.  There  were  7,112  horses, 
9,269  milch  cows,  9,704  other  cattle,  14,412 
sheep,  and  12,624  swine  ;  6  manufactories  of 
brick,  21  of  carriages  and  wagons,  3  of  cotton, 
16  of  fish  oil,  3  of  paper,  10  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  3  of  sails,  12  flour  mills,  1  woollen 
mill,  and  19  ship  yards.  Capital,  Riverhead. 

SUFFOLK,  a  S.  E.  county  of  England,  border 
ing  on  the  counties  of  Norfolk,  Cambridge,  and 
Essex,  and  the  North  sea;  area,  1,481  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  348,479.  The  coast  line  extends 
about  50  m.,  and  a  great  part  of  it  is  low  and 
marshy.  .The  principal  streams  are  the  Stour, 
Orwell,  Lark,  and  Waveney ;  and  there  are 
several  small  lakes.  The  surface  is  undulating, 
with  some  flat  and  marshy  tracts,  and  the  soil 
is  generally  a  rich  alluvial  loam.  The  manu 
factures,  with  the  exception  of  agricultural 
implements,  are  trifling.  Fishing  is  actively 
carried  on.  There  are  many  remains  of  an 
tiquity,  including  the  Roman  castle  of  Burgh, 
the  walls  of  which  are  still  standing.  Suffolk 
contains  two  county  towns,  Ipswich  and  Bury 
St.  Edmunds  ;  other  chief  towns  arc  Eye,  Aid- 
borough,  Orford,  and  Sudbury. 

SUFIS  (Arab,  suf,  wool,  from  the  dress  of 
the  devotees),  a  peculiar  sect  of  Mohamme 
dans,  who  claim  supernatural  intercourse  with 
the  Supremo  Being,  a  mystical  identity  and 
union  with  him,  and  miraculous  powers.  Said 
Abul  Khair  first  gathered  them  into  an  organ 
ized  body  about  820,  and  they  have  numbered 
among  them  some  of  the  most  eminent  Mo 
hammedan  scholars  and  poets. 


SUGAR,  a  name  used  in  nearly  all  languages, 
in  various  forms,  to  designate  a  limited  num 
ber  of  sweet  products  of  plants,  which  is  made 
by  the  chemist  to  include  several  organic  com 
pounds,  many  of  which  may  be  artificially  pro 
duced  from  similarly  constituted  organic  bod 
ies.  Sugars  are  therefore  divided  into  natu 
ral  and  artificial.  In  general  terms  they  are 
now  included  among  a  group  of  compounds 
called  hexatomic  alcohols.  Two  of  the  natural 
sugars,  mannite  and  dulcite,  having  the  com 
position  Cell^Oe,  are  saturated  hexatomic  al 
cohols,  derived  from  the  saturated  hydro 
carbon  C6Hi4.  Several  others,  called  glucoses, 
have  the  formula  CelliaOe,  and  maybe  regard 
ed  as  aldehydes  of  these  alcohols.  It  may  be 
remarked  that  ordinary  glucose  or  grape  sugar 
is  converted  into  mannito  by  the  action  of 
nascent  hydrogen,  just  as  acetic  aldehyde, 
CalLO,  is  converted  into  common  alcohol, 
C2HoO.  There  are  also  diglucosic  alcohols, 
CiolIjoOi,,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
cane  sugar  and  milk  sugar. — Mannite,  CoIIuOe, 
is  the  chief  component  of  manna,  an  exudation 
from  a  species  of  ash.  It  is  also  found  in  sev 
eral  sea  weeds  and  in  mushrooms.  It  may  be 
prepared  by  dissolving  manna  in  boiling  alco 
hol  and  filtering  while  hot.  It  crystallizes  on 
cooling  in  tufts  of  slender,  needle-like,  four- 
sided  prisms.  It  may  be  formed  artificially  by 
the  action  of  sodium  amalgam  on  glucose,  the 
latter  taking  up  two  atoms  of  hydrogen.  By 
oxidation  with  nitric  acid  mannite  is  converted 
into  saccharic  acid,  CeJIioO*,  and  ultimately 
oxalic  acid.  The  boiling  point  is  329°  F.  Dul 
cite,  or  dulcose,  having  the  same  formula,  is 
obtained  from  a  crystalline  substance  of  un 
known  origin,  imported  from  Madagascar, 
by  boiling  water.  Crystals  belonging  to  the 
monoclinic  system  form  on  cooling  the  solu 
tion.  It  thus  differs  from  mannite,  the  crys 
tals  of  which  are  trimetric,  and  also  in  its 
boiling  point,  which  is  360°. — The  glucoses 
are  a  group  of  sugars  having  the  common  for 
mula  CeHiaOe,  and  consisting,  as  far  as  known, 
of  eight  members  :  1.  Ordinary  glucose  or 
dextro-glucose,  so  named  from  its  power  of 
rotating  a  ray  of  polarized  light  to  the  right, 
is  made  by  hydration  of  starch  by  the  action 
of  dilute  acids  or  of  diastase.  It  is  found 
in  honey  and  various  fruits,  especially  grapes, 
and  therefore  also  called  grape  sugar.  (See 
FERMENTATION.)  Its  rotatory  power  is  +  56°  at 
all  temperatures.  2.  Maltose  is  produced  by 
the  limited  action  of  diastase  on  starch,  and 
differs  from  ordinary  glucose  only  in  'its  power 
of  rotating  a  ray  of  polarized  light,  having  a- 
dextro-rotatory  power  three  times  as  great  as 
that  of  ordinary  glucose.  It  is  converted  into 
ordinary  glucose  by  boiling  with  dilute  acids. 
3.  Lrcvulose  is  isomeric  with  the  others,  but 
distinguished  from  them  by  turning  the  plane 
of  polarization  to  the  left.  It  also,  unlike 
other  sugars,  has  its  rotatory  power  changed  by 
varying  the  temperature,  the  power  diminish 
ing  with  increase  of  temperature,  being  —106° 


SUGAR 


at  57°  R,  -79-5°  at  125-5°  F.,  and  -53°  at 
194°  F.  It  occurs,  associated  with  dextro-glu- 
cose,  in  honey  and  many  fruits.  A  mixture  of 
Ia3vnlose  and  dextro-glucose  constitutes  fruit 
sugar,  fructose,  or  invert  sugar,  which  is  also 
Ia3vo-rotatory,  because  the  specific  rotatory 
power  of  kevulose  at  ordinary  temperature  is 
greater  than  that  of  dextro-glucose.  4.  Man- 
nitose,  produced  by  the  oxidation  of  mannite, 
is  uncrystallizable  and  fermentable,  but  has 
no  action  on  polarized  light.  5.  Galactose, 
formed  by  the  action  of  acids  on  milk  sugar, 
crystallizes  more  readily  than  ordinary  glu 
cose,  has  a  dextro-rotatory  power  of  83-8°, 
and  is  easily  fermentable.  6.  Inosite  occurs 
in  the  muscular  substance  of  the  heart  and 
other  organs  of  the  animal  body,  in  green 
kidney  beans,  and  in  other  plants.  It  forms 
prisms  resembling  gypsum,  soluble  in  water, 
but  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  does  not 
ferment  with  yeast,  but  in  contact  with  cheese, 
decaying  liesh,  or  membrane,  with  chalk, 
it  undergoes  lactous  fermentation,  producing 
lactic,  butyric,  and  carbonic  acids.  It  has  no 
optical  rotatory  po.wj^r-  7.  Sorbine  occurs  in 
the  juice  of  the  mountain  ash  berryr.  The 
juice  on  standing  deposits  brown  crystalline 
matter,  which  by  recrystallization  forms  crys 
tals  belonging  to  the  trimetric  system.  It 
dissolves  easily  in  water,  and  has  'a  very  sweet 
taste.  It  is  converted  by  hot  nitric  acid  into 
oxalic  acid,  and  does  not  ferment  with  yeast, 
but  like  inosite  undergoes  lactous  fermenta 
tion.  It  has  a  rotatory  power  of  about  —47°. 
8.  Eucalyne  is  found  with  other  kinds  of  sugar 
in  the  so-called  Australian  manna,  which  falls 
in  opaque  drops  from  various  species  of  euca 
lyptus.  Its  optical  rotatory  power  is  about 
+  50°. — Besides  these  glucoses,  there  are  su 
gars  which  may  be  regarded  as  formed  by  the 
combination  of  two  or  more  molecules  of 
glucose  with  the  elimination  of  a  number  of 
molecules  of  water.  These  sugars  have  been 
called  polygluccsic  alcohols,  having  the  for 
mula  CiallaaOii.  1.  The  most  important  mem 
ber,  as  well  as  the  most  important  of  all  the 
sugars,  is  cane  sugar,  or  saccharose,  which  is 
found  in  the  juice  of  many  of  the  grasses  and 
the  sap  of  several  forest  trees,  particularly  the 
hard  mnple,  in  the  roots  of  the  beet,  pars 
nip,  mallow,  and  several  other  plants,  and  in 
most  sweet  fruits,  associated  with  Ia3vulose 
and  dextro-glucose  (currant  sugar,  fructose). 
Walnuts,  hazelnuts,  and  almonds  contain  only 
cane  sugar.  Honey  and  the  nectaries  of 
flowers  contain  cane  sugar  together  with  in 
vert  sugar.  Pure  cane  sugar  separates  from  a 
solution  by  slow  evaporation  in  large  trans 
parent  colorless  crystals,  having  the  figure  of 
a  modified  monoclinic  prism.  From  hot  sat 
urated  solutions  it  is  obtained  in  masses  of 
smaller  crystals  (loaf  sugar).  Its  optical  rota 
tory  power  is  +73-8°;  its  sp.  gr.  TO,  unchange 
able  in  the  air.  When  heated  a  little  above 
320°  it  is  converted,  without  loss  of  weight, 
into  a  mixture  of  dextro-glucose  and  Isevo- 


lusan,  the  anhydride  of  Isevulose  (Ci2n220n  = 
CelliijOe-l-CeHioOs  or  lasvolusan).  It  changes 
with  loss  of  water  into  other  substances  as  the 
temperature  rises,  until  at  410°  a  brown  sub 
stance  called  caramel  is  formed,  which  consists 
of  a  mixture  of  several  compounds,  all  result 
ing  from  the  elimination  of  the  elements  of 
water  from  sugar.  As  the  temperature  rises 
gases  are  evolved,  consisting  of  carbonic  oxide, 
marsh  gas,  and  carbonic  acid,  and  a  distillate 
is  obtained  consisting  of  brown  oils,  acetic 
acid,  acetone,  and  aldehyde,  a  quantity  of 
charcoal  remaining  in  the  retort.  By  pro 
longed  boiling  with  water,  cane  sugar  is  con 
verted  into  invert  sugar,  the  transformation 
being  accelerated  by  the  presence  of  acids,  es 
pecially  sulphuric.  It  is  not  directly  ferment 
able,  but  by  the  action  of  yeast  is  resolved 
into  dextrose  and  Ia3vitlose,  which  then  enter 
into  fermentation.  It  is  a  reducing  agent, 
capable  of  readily  taking  the  oxygen  from  sev 
eral  oxides  and  metallic  salts.  It  forms  with 
chlorate  of  potassium  a  mixture  which  deto 
nates  on  percussion,  and  burns  vividly  in  con 
tact  with  oil  of  vitriol.  It  is  distinguished 
from  glucose  by  not  turning  brown  when 
triturated  with  alkalies ;  but  it  combines  with 
the  alkalies,  forming  compounds  called  su- 
crates.  2.  Parasaccharose,  Ci2H22On,  is  pro 
duced  by  the  spontaneous  fermentation  of  a 
solution  of  cane  sugar  containing  ammonium 
phosphate.  Its  rotatory  power  is  +108°.  3. 
Melitose,  CioII22On,  is  found  in  the  Australian 
manna,  associated  with  mannitose.  The  crys 
tals  which  are  deposited  from  the  aqueous 
solution  are  hydrated,  tlie  formula  being 
Ci2H22Oii  +  3II26.  At  212°  F.  they  give  off 
two  molecules  of  water,  and  at  286°  become 
anhydrous.  Its  rotatory  power  is  +102°. 
Melitose  ferments  by  the  action  of  yeast,  but 
is  first  resolved  into  glucose  and  eucalyne.  4. 
Melezitose,  Ci2H22Oii,  is  a  kind  of  sugar  found 
in  the  so-called  manna  of  Briancon,  which 
exudes  from  the  young  shoots  of  the  larch. 
It  is  not  as  easily  acted  on  by  reagents  as  the 
foregoing.  Its  rotatory  power  is  about  +94°. 
5.  Trehalose,  C12H22Oii,  2H2O,  is  obtained 
from  trehala  manna,  the  produce  of  a  species 
of  ecJiinops  growing  in  the  East.  It  forms 
rhombic  crystals,  which  when  heated  below 
212°  F.  slowly  give  off  their  molecules  of 
water.  Its  rotatory  power  is  +199°.  With 
strong  nitric  acid  it  forms  a  detonating  nitro- 
compound.  It  is  not  readily  acted  on  by  re 
agents.  G.  Mycose,  isomeric  with  trehalose, 
and  also  containing  two  molecules  of  water, 
is  obtained  from  the  ergot  of  rye  by  precipi 
tating  the  aqueous  extract  of  the  fungus  with 
basic  acetate  of  lead,  removing  the  lead  from 
the  filtrate  by  hydrosulplmric  acid,  evaporating 
to  a  sirup,  and  leaving  the  liquid  to  crystallize. 
Its  rotatory  power  is  +192-5°.  7.  Milk  sugar, 
or  lactose,  contains  one  molecule  of  water,  the 
formula  being  Ci2II22Oii  +  H2O.  It  is  an  im 
portant  constituent  of  milk,  and  is  obtained  by 
evaporating  the  whey  to  a  sirup,  from  which 


442 


SUGAR 


on  standing  it  separates  in  impure  crystals,  and 
may  be  purified  by  redissolving  in  water  and 
filtering  through  animal  charcoal.  It  forms 
white,  translucent,  four-sided,  trimetric  prisms 
of  great  hardness.  It  dissolves  slowly  in  cold 
water,  requiring  five  or  six  times  its  weight. 
Its  optical  rotatory  power  is  +59'3°.  Very 
strong  nitric  acid  converts  milk  sugar  into 
nitro-lactine.  It  is  brought  very  slowly  into 
alcoholic  fermentation  by  the  action  of  yeast, 
but  when  cheese  or  rennet  is  used  it  is  read 
ily  converted  into  lactic  acid,  alcohol  being 
formed  at  the  same  time.  A  kind  of  sugar 
called  glycyrrhizine  or  liquorice  sugar,  having 
the  formula  CaJIseOg,  is  found  in  liquorice 
root  (glycyrrMza).  It  has  a  peculiar  sweet 
taste,  but  cannot  be  made  to  ferment.  Ac 
cording  to  Gorup-Besanez,  when  boiled  with 
dilute  acids,  it  splits  up  into  a  resinous  body 
called  glycyrretine,  CisI^eO^  and  glucose. — 
Saccharimetry .  There  are  various  methods  of 
estimating  the  proportion  of  sugar  in  a  given 
solution,  which  are  embraced  under  the  gene 
ric  term  saccharimetry.  They  are  usually  em 
ployed  for  the  estimation  of  cane  sugar.  There 
are  four  principal  methods:  1,  by  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  solution ;  2,  by  the  amount  of 
carbonic  anhydride  or  of  alcohol  it  will  yield 
in  fermentation ;  3,  by  the  amount  of  suboxide 
of  copper  precipitable  from  a  solution  by  the 
action  of  grape  sugar,  into  which  the  cane 
sugar  present  is  first  converted ;  4,  by  the  de 
gree  of  rotation  given  to  a  beam  of  polarized 
light  in  passing  through  the  solution.  In  the 
first  and  fourth  methods  instruments  called 
saccharometers  are  employed,  the  term  sac- 
charimeter  being  often  applied  to  the  polari 
zing  instrument.  The  specific  gravity  or  hy- 
drometric  saccharometer  is  used  by  brewers 
for  determining  the  amount  of  saccharine  mat 
ter  which  has  been  produced  in  wort  by  the 
fermentation  of  malt.  (See  BREWING,  and  HY 
DROMETER.)  The  instrument  is  also  employed 
by  sugar  makers  and  distillers.  The  brew 
er's  saccharometer  is  usually  graduated  so 
as  to  indicate  the  excess  of  weight  of  1,000 
parts  of  a  liquid  by  volume  over  that  of 
the  same  volume  of  distilled  water.  For  this 
purpose  the  hydrometer  is  marked  1000  upon  its 
stem  at  the  point  to  which  it  sinks  in  water, 
and  with  increasing  numbers  below  this  point. 
If  the  tested  solution  is  dense  enough  to  float 
the  instrument  till  the  number  1005  is  at  the 
surface,  it  is  said  to  have  a  specific  gravity  of 
G5  ;  if  only  to  1020,  its  gravity  is  said  to  be  20. 
Tables  are  used  by  which  the  quantity  of  sugar 
may  be  estimated  from  the  specific  gravity  thus 
ascertained,  and  the  tables  may  be  adapted  to 
differently  graduated  instruments,  but  the  one 
above  described  (Baume's)  is  usually  employed. 
As  beer  wort  holds  other  substances  besides 
sugar  in  solution,  the  method  is  not  exact,  but 
in  experienced  hands  it  answers  all  the  pur 
poses  of  the  brewer.  When  the  solution  is 
purely  saccharine,  or  nearly  so,  as  in  clarified 
cane  juice,  the  process  is  more  nearly  accu- 


I  rate ;  but  when  other  substances  are  pres- 
I  ent  the  precise  amount  of  sugar  may  be  de- 
i  termined  by  the  second  method,  that  of  pro- 
|  ducing  fermentation  and  estimating  the  quan- 
j  tity  of  carbonic  anhydride  or  of  alcohol 
which  is  thereby  formed.  The  third  meth 
od,  that  by  precipitation  of  suboxide  of  cop 
per  from  an  alkaline  solution  of  tartrate 
of  copper  and  potash,  is  briefly  as  follows: 
A  standard  solution,  known  as  Fehling's,  is 
prepared  with  1  oz.  of  crystallized  sulphate 
of  copper,  3  oz.  of  bitartrate  of  potash,  -J 
oz.  of  pure  carbonate  of  potash,  and  14  or  16 
oz.  of  a  solution  of  caustic  potash  of  sp. 
gr.  1-12,  with  sufficient  water  to  make  the 
solution  weigh  15,160  grs. ;  200  grs.  of  this  so 
lution  contain  an  amount  of  copper  which  is 
completely  precipitated  by  1  gr.  of  grape  sugar. 
In  using  Fehling's  solution  a  temperature  ap 
proaching  the  boiling  point  should  be  main 
tained,  and  the  saccharine  solution  should  be 
slowly  added  from  a  graduated  burette.  It  is 
necessary  before  testing  to  convert  the  cane 
sugar  into  glucose,  which  is  done  by  adding 
sulphuric  acid  and  boiling.  The  method  by 
polarized  light  is  performed  by  employing  an 
instrument  first  devised  by  Biot,  but  since  modi 
fied  and  improved  by  Soleil.  In  the  article 
LIGHT,  vol.  x.,  pp.  449,  450,  it  is  shown  that 
several  substances  have  the  property  of  rota 
ting  the  plane  of  a  polarized  ray,  some  to  the 
right  and  some  to  the  left,  and  also  that  sub 
stances  having  the  same  chemical  composition 
may  rotate  the  ray  in  both  directions.  A  so 
lution  of  dextrose  (grape  sugar  or  glucose)  has 
the  property  of  right-handed  rotation,  while 
lasvulose,  having  the  same  chemical  composi 
tion  (CellisOfi),  turns  the  plane  of  polarization 
to  the  left.  Quartz  also,  by  reason  of  a  differ 
ence  in  its  molecular  structure,  is  in  some  spe 
cimens  right-handed  and  in  others  left-handed 
in  its  power  of  rotation.  The  original  appa 
ratus  devised  by  Biot  employed  a  tube  con 
taining  the  solution  of  sugar  to  be  examined, 
the  depth  of  the  liquid  producing  a  certain  de 
gree  of  rotation  indicating  the  proportion  of 
glucose  it  contained,  and  therefore  the  amount 
of  cane  sugar,  this  being  first  converted  into 
glucose.  The  saccharimeter  devised  by  !M. 
Soleil  does  not  measure  the  degree  of  rotation 
produced  directly,  as  in  Biot's  instrument,  but 
employs  the  principle  of  compensation,  and 
furthermore  employs  a  comparison  of  color, 
using  therefore  white  instead  of  homogeneous 
light.  The  amount  of  compensation  is  mea 
sured  by  an  attachment  called  a  compensator, 
which  is  made  of  two  wedge-shaped  pieces  of 
quartz  whose  combined  thickness  may  be  varied 
by  sliding  them  over  each  other.  A  copper 
tube,  m,  figs.  A  and  B,  tinned  on  the  inside  and 
containing  the  solution  to  be  tested,  is  closed 
at  both  ends  by  two  glass  plates,  and  rests 
upon  the  support  /',  which  also  bears  at  its 
ends  the  tubes  a  and  r.  These  tubes  contain 
the  analyzers  and  polarizers,  which  are  repre 
sented  in  section  at  B.  The  lij'ht  of  a  com- 


SUGAR 


443 


mon  lamp  is  passed  through  the  aperture  S 
and  the  double-refracting  prism  r,  the  polari 
zer  which  transmits  the  ordinary  ray,  the  ex 
traordinary  being  thrown  out  of  the  field  of 
vision.  (See  LIGHT,  vol.  x.,  pp.  445,  446.) 
The  prism  is  so  placed  that  the  plane  of  polari- 


Soleil's  Saccharimeter. 

zation  is  in  the  axis  of  the  instrument  and  also 
vertical.  After  passing  through  the  double- 
refracting  prism  the  polarized  ray  meets  a  re 
fracting  plate  q,  shown  in  section  at  E,  com 
posed  of  two  pieces  of  quartz  placed  side  by 
side,  one  having  right-handed  and  the  other 
left-handed  polarizing  powers.  These  plates 
are  each  3*75  millimetres  thick,  producing  a 
rotation  of  90°  and  a  rose-violet  tint,  called 
the  transition  tint.  These  two  quartz  plates, 
having  equal  powers  of  rotation,  turn  the  ray 
in  opposite  directions,  and  therefore  when 
viewed  through  a  double-refracting  prism  they 
appear  of  the  same  tint  when  the  plane  of  the 
ray  is  perpendicular;  but  if  it  has  been  turned 
by  passing  through  a  rotating  solution,  a  dif 
ference  of  tint  will  be  produced.  After  pass 
ing  through  the  double  quartz  plate  §-,  the  ray 
traverses  the  solution  in  the  tube  w,  and  a  sin 
gle  quartz  plate  i,  fig.  13,  of  any  thickness  and 
either  right-handed  or  left-handed.  The  com 
pensator  ?i,  composed  of  two  wedge-shaped 
pieces  of  quartz,  shown  in  section  at  C,  both 
either  right-handed  or  left-handed,  but  of  op 
posite  rotation  to  the  plate  «',  is  next  traversed 
by  the  ray.  This  compensator  can  be  varied 
in  thickness '  and  therefore  in  rotating  power 
so  as  to  balance  exactly  the  degree  of  rotation 
produced  by  the  solution.  Its  thickness  is 
regulated  by  means  of  a  rackwork  and  pinion 
turned  by  the  milled  head  screw  5,  figs.  A  and 
B.  A  scale  and  vernier  shown  at  D  is  affixed 
to  the  plates,  by  which  the  thickness  of  the 
compensation  may  be  read,  the  vernier  point 
ing  to  zero  when  the  thickness  of  the  two 
plates  is  equal  to  that  of  i.  A  double-refracting 
prism  c,  fig.  B,  is  placed  next  behind  the  com 
pensator  to  act  as  an  analyzer  which  has  been 


acted  upon  by  the  solution  and  the  various 
plates.  When  the  liquid  in  the  tube  is  inac 
tive  and  the  compensator  is  not  at  zero,  the 
plate  i  and  the  compensator  will  neutralize 
each  other's  'effect,  arid  the  two  parts  of  the 
double  quartz  q  will  have  the  same  tint ;  but 
when  the  tube  m  contains  a  solution  having  a 
rotatory  power,  like  sugar,  this  power  added  to 
that  of  one  of  the  plates  will  rotate  the  plane 
of  polarization  of  the  transmitted  ray  either  to 
the  right  or  to  the  left.  If  the  solution  con 
tains  cane  sugar  or  dextrose,  or  a  certain  excess 
of  either,  it  will  rotate  it  to  the  right ;  if  it  con 
tains  Ia3vulo%e  or  a  certain  excess,  it  will  rotate 
it  to  the  left?  and  therefore  a  difference  in  tint 
will  be  observed  in  the  two  halves  of  the  double 
quartz  plate  q,  one  half  perhaps  being  red  and 
the  other  blue.  The  thickness  of  the  compen 
sator  is  then  adjusted  by  turning  the  milled 
head  5  until  the  tints  become  the  same,  and  the 
increase  or  decrease  in  the  thickness  of  the  two 
plates  will  indicate  the  rotatory  power  of  the 
solution,  either  right-handed  or  left-handed,  and 
may  be  read  upon  the  scale.  The  following 
standard  of  comparison  is  employed  :  If  16-471 
grs.  of  pure  cane  sugar  is  dissolved  in  sufficient 
water  to  make  100  cubic  centimetres,  this  solu 
tion  placed  in  a  tube  20  centimetres  long  will 
produce  the  same  degree  of  rotation  as  a  right- 
handed  quartz  plate  one  millimetre  thick.  Or 
if  a  tube  exactly  3V'6o  in.  long  is  filled  with  a 
solution  containing  10  per  cent,  of  pure  cane 
sugar  (crystallized  sugar  candy),  and  a  polar 
ized  ray  from  the  middle  of  the  yellow  band 
of  the  spectrum  is  passed  through  it,  the  ro 
tation  of  the  plane  will  be  Y3'8°.  This,  com 
pared  to  the  rotation  produced  by  a  solution 
of  pure  cane  sugar  of  a  different  strength,  will 
show  the  relative  proportion  it  contains;  or 
if  the  depth  of  the  solution  is  less,  the  rota 
tion  will  be  less  in  the  same  proportion.  If 
the  solution  contains  left-handed  sugar,  the 
result  will  be  vitiated  and  corrections  have  to 
be  made.  This  may  be  done  by  converting  all 
the  sugar  into  left -handed  sugar  by  the  action 
of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  making  a  second  ob 
servation,  when  by  a  comparison  of  the  results 
obtained  at  both  observations  the  amount  of 
cane  sugar  may  be  estimated.  The  optical  ro 
tatory  power  of  the  various  sugars  mentioned 
in  this  article  has  been  determined  according 
to  the  standard  of  comparison  here  given.  The 
arrangement  of  prisms  and  lenses  placed  behind 
the  double-refracting  prism  c  forms  what  M. 
Soleil  calls  the  producer  of  sensible  tints.  The 
particular  tint  which  allows  the  most  delicate 
difference  in  the  color  of  the  two  halves  of  the 
double  quartz  to  be  distinguished  is  not  the 
same  for  all  eyes.  This  effect  is  produced  by 
placing  in  front  of  the  prism  c  a  quartz  plate 
o  cut  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  then  a  small 
Galilean  telescope,  consisting  of  a  double  con 
vex  lens  g  and  a  double  concave  lens  /,  with 
adjustable  focal  distance.  The  double-refract 
ing  prism  c  acts  as  polarizer  to  the  quartz  0, 
while  the  prism  a  is  the  analyzer,  and  on  being 


444 


SUGAR 


turned  to  the  right  or  left  may  be  made  to 
produce  that  tint  to  which  the  eye  of  the  ob 
server  is  the  most  sensitive. — Sugar  Cane. 
Commercial  cane  sugar  is  made  from  species 
of  saccJiarum,  especially  S.  officinarum,  a  genus 
of  grasses  of  the  tribe  andropogonecv,  of  which 
subdivision  the  cultivated  sorghum  and  broom 
corn  are  familiar  examples.  Sugar  cane  is  a 
perennial  grass,  with  solid  stems  from  6  to  20 
ft.  high,  the  older  plants  throwing  up  numer 
ous  stems  or  suckers  from  the  root ;  the  leaves, 
3  ft.  or  more  long  and  3  in.  broad,  have  thin 
sheaths,  usually  glaucous  with  a  bloom  or 
waxy  exudation,  which  is  also  found  upon  the 
stem,  especially  in  the  dark-coloi*ed  varieties; 
the  flowers  are  in  a  large,  ample,  and  showy 
panicle,  about  2  ft.  long,  the  ultimate  branches 
of  which  are  notched  or  jointed,  bearing  at 
each  joint  two  flowers,  one  of  which  is  sessile 
and  neutral,  the  other  on  a  short  pedicel  and 
perfect ;  both  kinds  of  flowers  are  surrounded 


Sugar  Cane  (Saccharum  officinale). 

by  a  tuft  of  long  hairs,  which  gives  the  cluster 
a  soft  silvery  appearance.  The  sap  or  juice  of 
the  plant  contains  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of 
sugar.  It  has  not  been  found  in  the  wild  state 
in  any  part  of  the  world ;  and  while  there  is 
much  doubt  as  to  its  native  country,  the  most 
careful  investigations  point  to  Bengal  as  the 
origin  of  S.  officinarum,  and  it  was  there  that 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  commenced.  If,  as 
botanists  are  disposed  to  admit,  the  sugar  cane 
of  China  is  a  distinct  species  (S.  Sinense),  it 
would  appear  that  the  cultivation  of  related 
plants  for  the  extraction  of  sugar  was  under 
taken  separately  in  two  distinct  and  widely 
separated  countries.  While  'the  product  was 
anciently  referred  to  as  "honey  of  canes,"  and 
by  other  names,  sugar  as  we  know  it  is  not 
mentioned  before  the  commencement  of  the 
present  era.  Dioscorides,  about  A.  D.  100,  men 
tions  mccharon.  In  the  9th  century  the  culti 
vation  had  extended  to  Persia,  and  in  the  10th 


and  llth  centuries  Avicenna  and  other  eastern 
physicians  used  sugar  in  medicine.  Its  culti 
vation  was  carried  on  in  Spain  in  the  10th 
century,  at  which  time  sugar  was  an  article  of 
trade,  especially  by  the  Venetians,  through 
whom  the  English  received  their  supply.  The 
cane  was  introduced  into  Madeira  in  1420,  and 
some  time  after  into  the  Canaries.  With  the 
discovery  of  America,  its  distribution  was  very 
rapid,  Santo  Domingo,  Brazil,  Mexico,  Guade 
loupe,  and  other  countries  undertaking  its  cul 
ture  in  quick  succession.  Meanwhile  it  spread 
to  Africa  arid  the  Indian  archipelago.  In  1852 
it  was  taken  to  New  South  Wales;  it  had  long 
previously  been  cultivated  in  most  of  the  isl 
ands  of  the  Pacific.  Several  early  writers 
mention  the  sugar  cane  as  one  of  the  indige 
nous  products  of  the  United  States,  and  it  was 
said  to  grow  in  Virginia  and  in  Louisiana ;  of 
course  some  other  large  grass  was  mistaken  for 
the  sugar  cane;  both  the  common  reed  (phrag- 
mites)  and  the  southern  cane  (arundinarid) 
have  a  sufficiently  near  resemblance  to  sugar 
cane  to  lead  a  careless  observer  into  this  error. 
The  plant  appears  to  have  been  cultivated  in 
this  country  for  the  first  time  about  1751,  near 
the  site  of  New  Orleans,  by  some  Jesuits  from 
Santo  Domingo.  In  1758  the  first  sugar  mill 
was  built,  a  little  further  down  the  river,  by 
M.  Dubreuil.  According  to  a  statement  of 
E.  J.  Forstall  in  Do  Bow's  "Industrial  Re 
sources,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  275,  the  manufacture  of 
cane  into  sugar  does  not  seem  to  have  com 
menced  before  1764  ;  but  sugar  is  said  to  have 
been  one  of  the  staple  products  of  the  colony 
in  1770.  After  the  revolutionary  war  it  was 
prosecuted  so  successfully  by  emigrants  from 
the  United  States  that  in  1803  there  were  81 
sugar  estates  on  the  Mississippi  delta  alone. 
The  cession  of  Louisiana  to  Spain  seems  to 
have  arrested  the  industry,  as  no  accounts  of 
sugar  making  are  found  until  1701,  when  the 
first  sugar  house  under  the  Spanish  govern 
ment  was  erected  by  a  Mr.  Solis  at  Terre  aux 
Bornfs,  in  the  parish  of  St.  Bernard.  The  next 
was  established  in  1706  on  a  plantation  where 
now  stands  Carrollton.  The  success  of  this 
enterprise  was  the  foundation  of  the  sugar  cul 
ture  in  Louisiana.  In  1818  the  production 
was  25,000  hogsheads,  and  the  cane  was  ground 
altogether  by  cattle,  steam  power  not  being 
introduced  till  1822.  The  sugar-growing  dis 
trict  in  Louisiana  is  on  both  sides  of  the  Mis 
sissippi,  from  57  m.  below  New  Orleans  to 
nearly  190  m.  above ;  on  the  Red  river  and  its 
tributaries;  and  on  many  of  the  bayous.  But 
even  Louisiana  is  rather  too  far  north  to  allow 
of  the  perfect  ripening  of  the  plant,  which  is 
sometimes  killed  by  the  frost  in  the  spring, 
and  also  injured  in  October  and  November. 
In  Texas  the  crop  is  important,  and  cane  is 
grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  several  of 
the  other  gulf  states,  especially  in  Florida,  and 
to  a  limited  extent  in  South  Carolina,  Tennes 
see,  and  Kentucky.  In  the  more  northern 
localities  it  is  profitably  cultivated  mainly  for 


SUGAR 


445 


the  manufacture  of  sirup. — It  is  not  definitely 
settled  whether  the  sugar  cane  from  China  (/Sr. 
Sinense)  is  really  a  distinct  species,  but  all 
others  formerly  so  regarded  are  now  consid 
ered  as  only  forms  of  S.  saccharatum,  of  which 
each  sugar-growing  country  has  several  varie 
ties.  The  country  or  Creole  cane,  the  kind 
first  introduced  into  the  West  Indies  and  Lou 
isiana,  and  regarded  as  the  original  form  of  the 
species,  was  at  one  time  much  esteemed,  but 
has  greatly  deteriorated.  The  ribbon  cane,  so 
called  from  the  yellow  and  purple  stripes  upon 
the  stem,  is  inferior  to  the  following  varieties. 
The  Otaheite  or  Bourbon  cane  was  introduced 
into  Georgia  in  1805,  and  is  also  a  favorite 
variety  in  some  parts  of  the  West  Indies,  its 
stem  being  thicker  than  that  of  the  others.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  this  was  a  native  of 
Otaheite  or  Tahiti.  The  violet  or  Batavian 
cane  has  a  purple  stem,  varying  in  depth  of 
color  with  the  nature  of  the  soil;  its  leaves 
are  luxuriant  and  of  a  dark  green  color,  and 
the  flowers  are  purplish ;  it  has  been  described 
as  a  distinct  species,  8.  violaceum,  but  there  is 
nothing  to  warrant  its  separation  from  the 
ordinary  cane.  Besides  these  leading  varie 
ties,  there  are  the  claret,  imperial,  Mont  Blanc, 
and  others,  with  numerous  local  subvarieties. 
The  dark-colored  canes  are  found  to  resist  the 
attacks  of  disease  much  better  than  the  light- 
colored  ones,  a  peculiarity  of  which  there  are 
numerous  other  illustrations  among  plants  and 
animals. — In  none  of  the  sugar-producing  coun 
tries  does  the  sugar  cane  ever  perfect  seeds, 
and  it  is  quoted  as  an  illustration  of  the  fact 
that  plants  which  have  long  been  propagated 
by  other  methods  lose  the  power  of  producing 
seeds.  The  cane  is  always  propagated  by  cut 
tings,  and  as  the  lower  portion  of  the  stem  is 
the  richest  in  sugar,  the  upper  and  compara 
tively  worthless  portions  are  used  for  cuttings, 
a  practice  to  which  the  deterioration  of  varie 
ties  is  ascribed.  The  details  of  cultivation 
vary  in  different  countries ;  in  the  cooler  cane 
regions  there  is  a  season  when  growth  must 
cease,  while  in  others  it  is  continuous ;  in  some 
prolonged  rains  modify  the  culture,  and  in 
others  irrigation  must  supply  the  needed  mois 
ture.  But  wherever  it  is  grown,  it  must  have 
a  fertile  soil ;  it  is  a  plant  which  quickly  ex 
hausts  the  soil,  and  unless  manure  is  used,  the 
land  is  fallowed,  or  the  crop  forms  part  of  a 
rotation,  the  soil  is  soon  run  down.  In  some 
sugar-growing  countries  the  ground  is  prepared 
by  penning  cattle  upon  the  fields;  in  others 
some  crop  is  grown  which,  with  the  Aveeds,  is 
turned  under ;  and  in  the  British  West  Indies 
fertilizers  of  various  kinds  are  used.  The  dis 
tance  between  the  rows  varies  from  2$  to  8  ft., 
the  latter  distance  giving  a  better-  crop  than 
closer  rows.  In  the  best  culture  the  land  is 
well  ploughed,  and  then  thrown  up  into  ridges 
with  the  plough,  at  the  desired  distance  apart ; 
a  trench,  3  in.  or  more  deep,  is  opened  upon 
the  top  of  the  ridge,  in  which  the  cuttings, 
about  2  ft.  long,  are  laid  in  a  single  and  some 


times  a  double  row;  the  cane  is  then 'covered 
by  hoes,  or  by  a  cane  coverer  drawn  by  horses, 
which  will  cover  10  acres  in  a  day.  After  the 
shoots  appear  they  are  kept  clear  of  weeds 
until  they  shade  the  ground,  and  prevent  all 
other  growth.  In  dry  countries  it  is  customary 
to  "trash"  the  cane  when  it  gains  a  sufficient 
size ;  the  lower  leaves  are  broken  off  and  laid 
upon  the  earth  to  prevent  evaporation.  The 
shoots  produced  the  first  year  from  the  cut 
tings  are  called  "plant  canes;"  it  is  known  to 
have  attained  its  full  growth  by  "arrowing;" 
the  lower  joints  are  usually  about  3  in.  long, 
but  above  they  increase  in  length  while  they 
diminish  in  diameter  and  are  much  less  rich  in 
sugar,  until  finally  a  long  joint  (in  tropical 
countries  6  or  8  ft.  long)  shoots  up,  which  if 
permitted  would  bear  the  flower  cluster;  this 
shoot  is  termed  the  "  arrow,"  and  its  appear 
ance  indicates  that  the  cane  should  be  topped, 
or  cut  up  at  once,  else  the  accumulated  sugar 
in  the  juices  of  the  plant  would  be  expended 
in  the  production  of  flowers.  In  climates  where 
the  season  is  short  the  cane  does  not  arrow, 
and  the  time  for  cutting  is  governed  by  the 
probable  appearance  of  frost.  In  Louisiana 
it  begins  to  ripen  at  the  bottom  in  August; 
as  each  joint  ripens  the  leaf  belonging  to  it 
withers,  and  when  it  is  time  to  harvest  the 
upper  part  of  the  cane  is  cut  back  to  a  joint 
upon  which  the  leaf  is  dry,  and  the  crop  is  cut 
off  close  to  the  ground ;  if  frost  is  apprehended, 
the  cane  is  "mattressed,"  the  product  of  three 
rows  being  so  laid  together  that  the  leaves  of 
one  armful  will  cover  the  buts  of  the  prece 
ding;  being  thus  thatched,  the  canes  are  pro 
tected  from  frost  and  will  keep  in  this  state 
for  several  weeks  without  injury.  The  second 
year  after  planting  numerous  shoots  start  up 
from  the  old  plants;  these  are  called  "rat- 
toons"  (Fr.  rejetons),  and  the  crop  is  there 
after  a  rattoon  crop,  the  value  of  which,  though 
less  than  that  of  the  plant  cane,  depends  upon 
the  original  fertility  of  the  soil,  or  the  manner 
in  which  this  has  been  maintained.  In  Louisi 
ana  but  one  or  two  rattoon  crops  are  taken, 
requiring  a  replanting  every  second  or  third 
year;  while  in  some  of  the  West  Indies  the 
plantation  lasts  from  six  to  ten  years,  and  in 
the  East  even  longer ;  but  when  thus  long 
continued,  the  yield  is  small  and  the  impov 
erishment  of  the  soil  correspondingly  great. 
— Manufacture  of  Cane  Sugar.  As  soon  as 
the  canes  are  cut  they  are  ground  in  a  mill. 
There  are  many  forms  of  mills,  and  those  in 
use  in  the  East  Indies  from  the  earliest  times 
are  exceedingly  rude,  slow,  and  inefficient, 
and  very  rude  mills  are  still  used  by  small 
planters  in  the  West  Indies  ;  but  powerful 
mills  driven  by  steam  are  employed  upon  the 
larger  estates,  the  crushing  apparatus  usual 
ly  consisting  of  three  heavy  cast-iron  rollers. 
The  canes  are  usually  passed  twice  through  the 
mill.  About  two  thirds  of  all  the  juice  is  ex 
tracted,  and  the  crude  liquor  contains,  besides 
sugar,  woody  fibre,  soluble  salts,  albumen, 


446 


SUGAR 


caseine,  wax,  &c.  In  the  hot  climate  of  the 
sugar  plantations  the  juice  if  left  to  itself  be 
gins  to  ferment  in  the  course  of  an  hour ;  it  is 
therefore  immediately  treated  with  from  ^-oVo 
to  -g-i^-  of  its  weight  of  lime,  and  heated  to 
140°  in  large  flat-bottomed  copper  pans  or 
clarifiers  holding  from  300  to  400  gallons  each. 
This  coagulates  the  albuminous  portions,  which 
rise  to  the  surface  as  scum.  Some  planters 
treat  the  juice  with  sulphurous  acid,  by  which 
fermentation  is  delayed.  The  clear  liquid,  after 
cooling  for  an  hour  or  two,  is  drawn  off  for 
concentration  by  boiling.  The  fuel  used  is 
usually  the  dried  crushed  canes,  the  ashes  of 
which  are  returned  to  the  soil.  By  the  old 
method  practised  in  Asia  a  series  of  11  kettles 
or  earthen  boilers  is  set  in  a  line  in  a  rudely 
constructed  range,  at  one  end  of  which  is  the 
fire,  with  a  large  iron  boiler  over  it,  and  at  the 
other  the  chimney.  The  juice  is  first  put  into 
the  boiler  furthest  from  the  fire,  and  is  grad 
ually  transferred  to  the  others,  as  the  process 
goes  on,  until  the  final  concentration  is  effected 
in  the  iron  boiler.  The  product  is  afterward 
drained  and  the  sugar  is  clarified  by  boiling 
again  with  water,  an  alkaline  lye,  and  milk.  A 
somewhat  similar  arrangement  of  kettles,  to 
the  number  of  four,  five,  or  six,  has  been  em 
ployed  in  this  country  and  the  West  Indies, 
each  kettle  having  its  own  fire,  and  the  defeca 
tion  or  partial  purifying  being  effected  during 
the  boiling  by  "tempering"  the  liquor  with 
slaked  lime.  This,  when  used  in  small  quan 
tity,  causes  the  glutinous  matters  present  to 
coagulate  and  rise  upon  the  surface  in  a  scum, 
which  may  be  continually  removed  by  skim 
ming.  It  also  neutralizes  any  acid  that  may 
have  formed.  In  Louisiana  it  has  been  the 
practice  to  concentrate  the  sirup  to  42°  Baume 
in  the  last  kettle,  called  the  battery,  and  then 
transfer  it  to  large  wooden  vats,  called  cool 
ers,  for  granulation ;  but  the  operations  have 
been  variously  modified  there,  and  different 
methods  too  have  been  pursued  in  the  West 
Indies.  Instead  of  kettles,  each  one  requiring 
a  separate  fire,  large  copper  caldrons  arc  heated 
by  steam,  either  by  being  enclosed  in  a  steam 
jacket  or  by  containing  a  coil  of  steam  pipe. 
The  clarification  is  effected  as  before  by  means 
of  lime  added  to  the  sirup  diffused  through  a 
portion  of  juice,  or  in  the  form  of  milk  of  lime 
of  known  strength  and  carefully  graduated,  so 
that  exact  quantities  may  be  used.  Just  enough 
should  be  used  to  neutralize  exactly  the  sirup, 
which  may  be  known  when  litmus  paper  in 
dicates  neither  an  acid  nor  alkaline  reaction. 
An  excess  of  lime  should  be  particularly  guard 
ed  against,  as  it  involves  a  loss  of  sugar ;  and 
when  it  occurs  the  effect  should  be  corrected 
by  careful  addition  of  alum,  or  better  of  sul 
phate  of  alumina,  which  contains  no  potash. 
The  heat  employed  in  clarifying  should  not 
reach  the  boiling  point  of  the  sirup.  At  a  less 
degree  a  scum  gathers  upon  the  surface,  and 
when  this  breaks  up  into  white  froth,  the  clari 
fication  is  completed.  The  heat  is  then  stopped, 


and  the  liquor  is  left  to  repose  for  an  hour, 
when  it  is  drawn  away  from  the  scum,  and  is 
seen  as  it  flows  into  the  first  of  the  evaporating 
pans  to  be  of  a  clear  bright  wine-yellow  color. 
These  pans,  to  the  number  of  three  or  more, 
are  set  in  succession  over  a  flue  heated  by  a 
fire  at  one  end.  The  liquor  is  gradually  trans 
ferred  to  the  smaller  pans,  and  as  it  boils  away 
the  scum  that  rises  is  taken  off.  It  is  the 
skimmings  in  these  operations  that  furnish  the 
best  materials  for  distillation,  and  the  manu 
facture  of  rum  is  very 'generally  carried  on  in 
connection  with  that  of  sugar.  In  the  small 
est  and  last  pan,  to  which  sometimes  the  term 
"teache"  is  exclusively  applied,  the  sirup  is 
finally  collected ;  and  when  it  is  judged  to  be 
sufficiently  concentrated  for  granulating,  it  is 
transferred  into  the  coolers,  and  thence  into 
the  vessels,  also  called  coolers,  in  which  the 
granulating  takes  place.  These  are  of  wood 
with  thick  sides,  about  V  ft.  in  length,  5 
or  0  ft.  in  width,  and  not  less  than  a  foot 
deep.  This  depth  and  the  thick  sides  are  re 
quisite  to  secure  slow  cooling,  without  which 
the  grains  could  not  be  coarse.  In  about  24 
hours  the  graining  takes  place,  the  crystals 
forming  a  soft  mass  in  the  midst  of  the  liquid 
portion  or  molasses.  The  separation  of  the 
two  products  is  effected  by  drainage  in  what 
is  called  the  curing  house.  This  is  a  large 
building  covering  an  open  reservoir.  Frames 
are  provided  for  hogsheads  so  that  the  drip 
pings  from  these  shall  flow  into  the  reservoir. 
In  the  bottom  of  each  hogshead  several  holes 
are  bored,  and  into  each  hole  is  put  a  crushed 
cane  or  the  stalk  of  a  plantain  leaf,  the  lower 
end  projecting  several  inches  below  the  bot 
tom.  The  hogsheads  being  filled  with  the  soft 
sugary  mixture,  the  molasses  gradually  drains 
away  from  it,  dripping  from  the  stalks.  The 
operation  goes  on  for  three  to  six  weeks,  till, 
the  sugar  is  considered  sufficiently  dry  for 
shipping.  It  still  retains  considerable  molas 
ses,  and  in  the  moist  hold  of  the  ship  the-  sep 
aration  continues,  the  molasses  leaking  away 
and  involving  a  serious  loss.  The  "Julius 
Robert  diffusion  process"  for  extracting  sugar 
from  cane  is  in  use  at  the  sugar  establishment 
of  Messrs.  Koch,  in  Bayou  Lafourche,  Louisi 
ana.  A  series  of  tall  cylinders  connected  by 
pipes  are  filled  with  thinly  sliced  canes  and 
water.  The  diffusion  allows  the  hydraulic 
pressure  to  carry  off  the  dissolved  sugar.  The 
water  is  heated  by  steam  to  about  190°  by  a 
boiler  through  which  the  diffusion  juice  passes. 
It  is  said  that  a  much  greater  proportion  of 
the  sugar  is  extracted  by  this  method,  and 
that  the  clarifying  process  is  much  simplified 
and  abridged. — Sugar  Refining.  The  prepara 
tion  of  the,  purest  varieties  of  sugar  diet  not 
originate  in  the  sugar-producing  countries,  but 
the  art  was  applied  first  by  the  Venetians  to 
the  crude  sugars  brought  from  Egypt.  It  was 
practised  in  Antwerp  in  the  IGth  century,  and 
was  thence  introduced  into  England.  At  pres 
ent  it  is  an  important  branch  of  manufacture 


SUGAR 


447 


in  most  of  the  principal  commercial  cities  of 
the  United  States  and  of  Europe.  As  for 
merly  practised,  raw  sugar  was  dissolved  with 
lime  water  in  a  large  open  boiler,  and,  when 
warm,  bullock's  blood  was  added,  which  as  it 
coagulated  on  boiling  collected  most  of  the 
lighter  impurities  and  carried  them  to  the  sur 
face  in  the  form  of  a  thick  scum.  This  being 
removed,  the  liquor  was  partially  evaporated 
by  boiling,  filtered  through  woollen  cloth,  then 
concentrated  and  grained  on  the  general  plan 
already  described.  The  best  sugar  refiners  do 
not  now  use  blood  or  any  other  coagulating 
substance  to  collect  suspended  matters,  but 
separate  them  entirely  by  filtration.  The  pro 
cess,  in  the  best  establishments  is  substantially 
as  follows :  On  the  ground  floor  the  raw  sugar 
is  dissolved  in  hot  water  in  large  cisterns. 
Water  enough  is  added  to  produce  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  1*25,  or  29°  Baume.  By  a 
large  pump  near  each  cistern  at  the  same  level 
the  solution  is  drawn  off  through  a  connecting 
pipe  provided  with  a  coarse  wire  strainer, 
which  prevents  all  except  the  smaller  solid 
particles  from  entering  the  pump.  The  sac 
charine  solution  is  pumped  up  into  the  highest 
story,  which  is  usually  the  seventh  or  eighth, 
it  being  cheaper  as  well  as  more  convenient  to 
elevate  the  sugar  in  solution  than  in  a  solid 
state.  It  is  pumped  into  vessels  called  "  blow 
up  pans,"  because  steam  was  formerly  blown 
into  them  to  heat  them.  They  are  now  heated 
with  close  coils  to  about  208°  or  210°  F.  Milk 
of  lime  is  added  to  the  solution  in  these  pans 
for  the  purpose  of  neutralizing  any  acid  which 
it  may  contain.  From  these  pans  the  sirup 
passes  down  to  the  next  floor  and  into  filters 
by  which  it  is  completely  deprived  of  all  sus 
pended  solid  particles.  These  filters  consist  of 
a  great  number  of  bags  4  or  5  in.  in  diameter 
and  8  or  10  ft.  long,  made  of  two  thicknesses  of 
cloth,  an  outer  of  coarse  and  an  inner  of  fine 
material.  They  are  enclosed  in  sets  of  about 
200,  in  boxes,  to  prevent  cooling.  After  a  time 
they  become  foul,  when  they  are  turned  inside 
out  and  washed.  After  leaving  the  bag  filters, 
which  it  does  at  a  temperature  of  from  170° 
to  180°,  the  sirup  is  run  through  filters  of 
animal  charcoal  or  bone  black.  These  are  im 
mense  cylinders,  6  or  8  ft.  in  diameter  and 
usually  from  20  to  25  ft.  high,  filled  with  pul 
verized  bone  black,  which  substance  has  the 
property  of  absorbing  all  the  coloring  matter 
in  the  sirup,  which  runs  from  the  bag  filters  of 
a  sherry  wine  color.  After  a  time  the  char 
coal  becomes  foul  and  loses  its  property  of 
absorbing  coloring  matter,  when  it  is  taken  to 
a  neighboring  room  and  reburned  in  kilns. 
The  sirup  which  runs  from  the  charcoal  filters 
at  a  temperature  of  about  150°,  and,  in  a  per 
fectly  colorless  condition,  is  now  pumped  into 
vacuum  pans. and  concentrated  to  the  granu 
lating  or  crystallizing  point.  These  vacuum 
pans  were  invented  by  Howard  and  patented 
in  1812.  They  are  large  conical  or  ovoid  ves 
sels  heated  by  steam  and  exhausted  with  air 
VOL.  xv. — 29 


pumps,  by  which  the  air  and  vapor  arc  rapidly 
removed.  In  the  later  stages  of  the  process 
the  pressure  is  reduced  to  only  3  in.  or  less 
of  mercury.  The  pans  are  sometimes  supplied 
with  an  apparatus  for  condensing  the  steam 
by  a  cold  spray.  In  making  hard  sugars,  at 
the  commencement  the  evaporation  is  con 
ducted  at  a  temperature  of  170°  to  180°  F., 
but  as  soon  as  granulation  begins  it  i* lowered 
to  160°,  and  just  before  the  evaporation  is 
j  completed  it  is  reduced  to  1-40°,  this  being  the 
i  lowest  temperature  at  which  crystallizing  sugar 
!  boils  at  a  pressure  of  3  in.  of  mercury.  An 
ingeniously  devised  sliding  tube,  by  which  a 
"  proof  "  may  be  taken  without  admitting  air, 
is  attached  to  the  vacuum  pan.  In  making 
soft  sugar  the  temperature  is  kept  rather  low 
er.  As  soon  as  crystallization  begins  the  sugar 
is  run  off,  and  if  it  is  to  be  made  into  soft 
sugar,  the  sirup  is  discharged  by  means  of 
centrifugal  mills.  If  it  is  for  hard  sugar,  it 
is  run  into  a  vat  which  has  a  gate  in  its  bot 
tom ;  from  this  it  is  run  into  conical  moulds 
placed  upon  carriages,  which  are  drawn  under 
the  gate.  In  the  bottom  of  each  mould  there 
is  an  orifice  which  is  kept  closed  by  a  stopper 
for  several  hours,  until  the  sugar  crystallizes, 
when  it  is  removed  and  the  sirup  allowed  to 
drain  away.  The  loaf  which  remains  has  a 
slight  yellow  tint,  which  is  removed  by  allow 
ing  a  colorless  solution  of  sugar  to  pass  through 
it.  The  loaves  are  then  taken  out  of  the 
moulds  and  dried  in  ovens  at  a  temperature  of 
about  160°.  The  sirup  which  drains  from  the 
moulds  still  contains  a  small  percentage  of  cane 
sugar,  but  too  small  to  recover  with  profit. 
It  is  therefore  sold  as  sirup.  It  may  be  here 
remarked  that  raw  molasses  contains  enough 
cane  sugar  to  make  it  profitable  for  some  es 
tablishments  to  make  a  specialty  of  extracting 
it.  The  muscovado  molasses  from  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  and  Antigua  is  esteemed  the  best. — Beet 
Sit  gar.  In  1747  Marggraf,  a  Berlin  chemist, 
found  that  the  white  beet  yielded  6*2  per  cent, 
and  the  red  beet  4'G  per  cent,  of  sugar,  but  the 
manufacture  was  not  developed  till  the  close  of 
the  year  1800.  (See  BEET.)  The  beets  pre 
ferred  in  Europe  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
are  varieties  of  the  white  Silesian,  yielding  a 
juice  richer  in  sugar  and  more  free  from  salts 
than  that  of  other  kinds  of  beet.  The  weight 
of  the  larger  ones  is  about  5  Ibs.  each;  and 
the  yield  per  acre  in  France  and  Belgium  is  14 
or  15  tons,  and  about  Magdeburg  10  to  12  tons 
of  beets.  The  crop  is  successful  over  the- 
greater  part  of  Europe,  but  more  particularly 
1ST.  of  lat.  45°,  and  upon  light  dry  soils,  in  a 
dry  atmosphere.  The  richness  of  the  juice  is 
injured  by  direct  application  of  manures  to 
the  growing  crop,  and  it  is  less  in  large  beets 
than  in  small  ones.  When  the  leaves  begin  to 
die,  the  beets  are  dug,  the  heads  cut  off,  and: 
the  roots  are  thrown  together  and  covered  to 
protect  them  from  light  and  frost.  They  may 
be  thus  kept  for  some  time,  though  there  is 
always  risk  of  portions  of  the  sugar  passing 


448 


SUGAR 


into  the  uncrystallizable  variety.  The  propor 
tion  of  sugar  contained  in  the  fresh  root  varies 
from  5  to  12  per  cent.,  and  the  product  in  a 
large  way  is  usually  about  6  per  cent.,  some 
times  7-| r."  The  other  contents  of  the  root  are : 
water,  83  to  94  per  cent. ;  ligneous  fibre  and 
albumen,  2'5  to  5  per  cent.  ;  together  with  a 
small  proportion  of  what  is  supposed  to  be 
pectine,  and  a  trace  of  mineral  substances.  In 
the  factory  the  beets  are  first  washed  clean  in 
a  cage  revolving  on  a  horizontal  axis,  and 
partly  immersed  in  water ;  and  when  washed 
they  are  discharged  by  the  action  of  the  ma 
chine  itself.  As  the  juice  cannot  be  forced 
out  from  the  cells  by  compression  alone,  it  is 
found  necessary  to  tear  open  the  cellular  tis 
sue,  and  this  is  done  by  a  grating  machine  of 
the  form  of  a  rotating  drum,  the  inner  surface 
of  which  is  studded  with  teeth.  The  pulp  is 
then  subjected  to  powerful  hydraulic  pressure. 
Maceration  has  also  been  employed  to  separate 
the  juice.  For  this  purpose  the  beets  are  cut 
into  thin  slices  and  put  into  a  cistern  with 
about  their  own  bulk  of  hot  water.  In  half 
an  hour  the  liquor  is  let  down  upon  other 
slices  in  another  cistern,  and  so  on  through 
three  to  five  vessels,  until  it  acquires  a  density 
of  5^-°  to  7°  B.  By  this  process  the  juice  is 
rendered  very  weak  and  apt  to  ferment,  and 
requires  much  fuel  to  concentrate  it.  Perhaps 
the  best  method  is  to  expel  the  juice  by  cen 
trifugal  force.  Another  method  practised  near 
Heidelberg  is,  as  soon  as  the  beets  are  gathered 
and  washed,  to  cut  them  into  small  rectangular 
pieces  and  dry  them  upon  floors.  Their  bulk 
is  thus  reduced  about  84  per  cent.,  leaving  10 
of  dry  matter,  which  may  be  kept  for  any  time 
and  transported  to  any  distance.  The  sugar  is 
then  extracted  by  infusion  or  by  maceration 
through  a  long  series  of  vessels.  The  factory 
where  this  operation  is  carried  on  at  "Waghau- 
sel  is  of  immense  extent,  the  buildings,  former 
ly  a  Benedictine  monastery,  covering  12  acres 
of  land.  The  infusing  vessels,  20  in  num 
ber,  are  12  to  14  ft.  deep  and  7  ft.  wide.  The 
beets  when  dried  produce  about  46  per  cent, 
of  sugar.  The  juice,  however  obtained,  is  ren 
dered  alkaline  by  the  addition  of  lime  water, 
and  is  then  boiled.  Excess  of  lime  is  removed 
by  the  chemical  process  of  converting  it  into 
carbonute  by  passing  a  current  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  into  it,  .which  may  be  generated  by  a  coke 
furnace  according  to  the  method  proposed  by 
Barruel  of  Paris  in  1811,  or  the  gas  may  be 
generated  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on 
chalk,  as  since  proposed  by  Michaelis.  This 
process  is  called  de-liming,  and  it  may  also  be 
effected  by  filtering  the  solution  through  ani 
mal  charcoal.  Several  other  methods  have 
been  employed  or  proposed.  Dubrunfaut  and 
Massey  patented  a  method  with  caustic  baryta, 
which  forms  with  cane  sugar  at  the  boiling 
point  an  insoluble  saccharate,  Ci2II220ii,BaO, 
sufficient  baryta  being  used  to  throw  down  all 
the  sugar.  The  supernatant  fluid,  which  con 
tains  all  the  impurities,  is  then  run  off,  when 


the  sugar  is  recovered  by  treating  with  car 
bonic  acid,  by  which  the  baryta  is  withdrawn 
in  the  form  of  insoluble  carbonate,  the  sugar 
dissolving.  The  subsequent  processes  of  filtra 
tion,  concentration,  and  granulation  are  similar 
to  those  already  described.  The  manufacture 
of  beet  sugar  has  been  attempted  in  the  United 
States,  but  as  yet  with  little  success  except  in 
California,  where  it  promises  to  become  an  im 
portant  industry.  (See  CALIFORNIA,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
605.) — Maple  Sugar.  Several  species  of  the 
maple  afford,  when  the  sap  begins  to  flow 
in  the  spring,  a  juice  containing  crystallizable 
sugar.  That  yielding  the  richest  juice  is  the 
acer  saccharinum,  the  rock  or  sugar  maple. 
The  swamp  or  river  maple,  known  also  as 
the  white  or  soft  maple,  produces  a  juice 
of  inferior  quality,  but  which  is  sometimes 
employed  in  sugar  making.  The  manufac 
ture  is  said  to  have  originated  in  New  Eng 
land  about  the  year  1752.  It  thence  extended 
throughout  the  wooded  portions  of  the  coun 
try  where  the  sugar  maple  abounds,  particu 
larly  New  York,  Michigan,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Ohio,  and  on  the  range  of  the  Alleghanies 
further  south.  It  is  carried  on  in  Canada  both 
by  whites  and  Indians.  (See  MAPLE.) — Pro 
duction  and  Trade.  Louisiana  produces  the 
great  bulk  of  the  cane  sugar  crop  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  the  only  state  which  exports 
sugar,  the  other  can«-growing  states  producing 
scarcely  sufficient  for  local  consumption.  The 
product  of  Louisiana  from  1860  to  1873  is  giv 
en  under  LOUISIANA.  The  crop  of  1874  is  esti-  ' 
mated  at  125,000  hhds.,  and  of  1875  at  135,000 
hhds.  The  total  exports  of  sugar  from  Havana 
and  Matanzas  from  Jan.  1  to  Nov.  23,  1875, 
were  1,018,296  boxes,  249,331  hhds.,  or  332,- 
105  tons,  of  which  344,187  boxes,  204,061 
hhds.,  or  184,455  tons  went  to  the  United 
States.  The  imports  of  sugar  from  all  sources, 
from  Jan.  1  to  Dec.  1,  1875,  were:  at  New 
York,  408,981  tons;  Boston,  111,192  tons; 
Philadelphia,  34,630  tons;  Baltimore,  63,141 
tons ;  total  for  the  Atlantic  coast,  617,944  tons, 
against  611,124  tons  in  1874,  and  598,995  tons 
in  1873,  or  an  average  of  609,354  tons  for  three 
years.  The  imports  at  San  Francisco  from 
Jan.  1  to  Oct.  1,  1875,  were:  from  Manila, 
10,503  tons;  Hawaiian  islands,  6,679  tons; 
China,  2,038  tons;  Central  America,  324  tons; 
total,  19,544  tons,  against  27,438  tons  in  1874, 
and  21,132  tons  in  1873.  or  an  average  of  22,705 
tons  for  three  years.  The  consumption  of  cane 
sugar  on  the  Atlantic  coast  in  1874  was  710,- 
369  tons;  on  the  Pacific  coast,  30,046  tons; 
of  sugar  made  from  molasses,  43,600  tons;  of 
maple  sugar,  15,000  tons;  total,  799,015  tons, 
against  738,525  tons  in  1873,  and  720,873  tons 
in  1872,  an  increase  in  1874  of  8  per  cent,  over 
1873,  and  11  per  cent,  over  1872.  In  nine 
months  ending  Sept.  30,  1875,  the  Atlantic 
ports  exported  of  refined  sugar  13,688  tons, 
against  3,030  tons  in  1874,  and  3,412  tons  in 
1873.  The  imports  at  the  principal  European 
depots  in  1873,  1874,  and  for  nine  months 


SUGAR   OF  LEAD 


SULLA 


449 


ending  Sept.  30,  1875,  are  shown  in  the  fol 
lowing  table  : 

DEPOTS. 

IMPORTS. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

Holland  tons. 

77.400 
6,130 
34,700 
157,033 
980 
7,950 
18,900 

82,850 
8,540 
35,000 
136,542 
1,890 
9,730 
21,000 

46,750 
9.580 
17,000 
180,000 
31840 
9,330 
17,500 

Antwerp  " 
Hamburg                                " 

France  li 
Bremen  '• 
Trieste  " 
Genoa  " 

On  the  continent  ll 

303,093 

053,588 

295,552 

676,483 

284,000 

760,652 

In  Great  Britain  " 
Total  .  .                     . 

956,681 

972,040 

1,044,652 

The  imports  from  all  sources  into  Great  Brit 
ain  were:  in  1872,  784,000  tons;  1873,  833,- 
500  tons;  1874,  835,000  tons.  The  consump 
tion  in  the  same  years  was  715,000,  786,000, 
and  836,000  tons.  The  importations  of  for 
eign  refined,  mainly  beet  sugar  from  France, 
were:  in  1872,  87, 700  tons;  1873, 118,000  tons; 
1874,  136,000  tons.  The  production  of  beet 
sugar  holds  the  balance  of  power  in  the  sugar 
markets  of  the  world.  In  the  ten  crop  years 
from  1864-'5  to  1874-'5  the  production  in 
creased  from  545,000  to  1,054,000  tons.  The 
principal  producing  countries  are  France,  about 
450,000  tons,  and  Germany,  about  280,000 
tons ;  the  remainder  is  produced  in  Austria, 
Eussia,  and  Holland. — Among  the  treatises  on 
cane  culture  and  the  manufacture  of  sugar  are  : 
Champomier,  "Statement  of  the  Sugar  Crop 
made  in  Louisiana"  (annual  reports,  New 
Orleans,  1845-'57)  ;  Evans,  "  Sugar  Planter's 
Manual"  (London,  1847;  Philadelphia,  1848); 
Wray.  "Practical  Sugar  Planter"  (London, 
1848 ;'  latest  ed.,  1871) ;  Leon,  "  Sugar  Culti 
vation  in  Louisiana,  Cuba,  and  the  British 
Possessions  "  (London,  1848);  Kerr,  "Practi 
cal  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Sugar 
Cane,  and  the  Manufacture  of  Sugar  "  (Lon 
don,  1851) ;  Burgh,  "  Manufacture  of  Sugar  and 
the  Machinery  Employed"  (London,  1866); 
Reed,  "  History  of  Sugar  and  Yielding  Plants  " 
(London,  1866) ;  and  Soames,  "  Treatise  on 
the  Manufacture  of  Sugar"  (London,  1872). 
The  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  is  described  by 
Dumas  in  his  Traite  de  cliimie  appliquee  aux 
arts,  vol.  vi. ;  see  alsoDureau,  De  la  fabrication 
du  sucre  de  letterave  (Paris,  1858) ;  Grant, 
"  Beet-Root  Sugar  and  Cultivation  of  Beet " 
(Boston,  1867);  and  Crooks,  "Manufacture  of 
Beet-Root  Sugar"  (London,  1870). 

SUGAR  OF  LEAD.     See  LEAD,  vol.  x.,  p.  246. 

SUGAR  OF  MILK.     See  MILK,  SUGAR  OF. 

SUICIDE.     See  FELO  DE  SE. 

SUIDAS,  a  Greek  lexicographer,  supposed  to 
have  lived  shortly  after  the  10th  century  A.  D. 
His  "Lexicon"  contains  articles  on  geography, 
biography,  and  history,  under  proper  names, 
which  are  given  coordinately  with  the  words 
of  the  Greek  language,  and  contains  many  ex 
tracts  from  ancient  Greek  writers,  the  works 
of  some  of  whom  are  lost.  It  appears  to  have 


received  additions  from  various  hands.  The 
first  edition  was  published  by  Demetrius  Chal- 
condyles  (fol.,  Milan,  1499) ;  the  best  are  those 
of  T.  Gaisford  (3  vols.  fol.,  Oxford,  1834)  and 
Bernhardy  (4  vols.,  Halle,  1834-'53). 

SULIOTES,  a  people  of  mixed  Albanian  and 
Greek  descent,  who  formerly  dwelt  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  pashalik  of  Janina,  the 
ancient  Epirus.  They  derive  their  origin  from 
a  number  of  families  who  in  the  17th  century 
fled  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Turks  and  took 
possession  of  the  ridge  of  the  Suli  mountains 
and  the  valleys  on  both  sides  of  it.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  18th  century  the  popula 
tion  numbered  about  10,000,  half  Parasuliotes 
(subjugated  people  of  different  origin),  and 
dwelt  in  70  villages,  Kako-Suli,  1,200  ft.  above 
the  river  Acheron,  being  the  chief.  Near  this 
village  they  erected  the  castle  of  Suli  on  a 
semilunar  mountain,  which  terminates  in  so 
narrow  a  ridge  as  hardly  to  leave  a  path  from 
one  fortification  to  another.  The  Suliotes  be 
longed  to  the  Greek  church,  and  their  language 
was  Albanian,  although  they  also  spoke  Greek ; 
their  form  of  government  was  a  mixture  of 
oligarchy  and  democracy.  They  were  divided 
into  about  30  tribes  or  clans.  In  war  they 
usually  fought  as  skirmishers,  each  clan  having 
its  captain,  subject  to  an  officer  called  pole- 
march,  who  was  elected  by  vote.  In  the  war 
of  1787-'92  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  the 
Suliotes  strongly  supported  the  former  power, 
defeated  in  1789  the  troops  of  All  Pasha  of 
Janina,  ravaged  Acarnania  to  the  Achelous  in 
1790,  and  afterward  invaded  Arta  and  Janina, 
and  aided  the  corsair  Lambro  Canzani  with 
men  and  money.  Deserted  by  the  Russians 
after  the  peace  of  1792,  they  fought  desperately 
and  successfully  against  the  troops  of  Ali  Pasha, 
who  sought  to  exterminate  them,  and  secured 
a  truce  for  a  few  years.  But  in  May,  1801, 
Ali  renewed  the  war  and  put  large  numbers 
to  the  sword ;  the  women  threw  themselves 
into  the  river  rather  than  be  captured.  Most 
of  the  survivors,  about  4,000,  in  1803  retired 
to  Parga.  Compelled  by  Ali  to  leave  this  place, 
they  went  to  the  Ionian  islands.  Many  after 
ward  enlisted  in  the  Greek  regiments  raised 
by  the  English  during  the  war,  which  were 
disbanded  in  1814.  When  in  1820  Ali  Pasha, 
in  revolt  against  the  Porte,  was  hard  pressed 
by  the  Turks  under  Kurshid  Pasha,  and  de 
serted  by  the  Albanians,  he  recalled  the  Suli 
otes.  The  tyrant  of  Janina  fell  in  1822,  but 
the  Suliotes  remained  hostile  to  the  Porte,  ad 
hering  to  the  cause  of  Grecian  liberty.  In 
spite  of  the  heroic  efforts  of  their  leader, 
Marco  Bozzaris,  the  Suliotes  were  hemmed  in 
in  their  inaccessible  valley;  and  at  last,  Suli 
being  taken,  Sept.  4,  1822,  they  accepted  the 
offer  of  an  asylum  from  the  governor  of  the 
Ionian  islands.  About  2,000  were  carried  in 
English  ships  to  Cephalonia,  the  remainder 
dispersing  among  the  mountains. 

SULLA,  or  Sylla,  Ludns  Cornelius  (Felix),  a  Ro 
man  dictator,  born  in  138  B.  C.,  died  in  78. 


450 


SULLA 


SULLIVAN 


The  family  was  originally  called  Bufinns  and 
belonged  to  the  great  Cornelia  gens.  He  ac 
quainted  himself  with  Greek  and  Roman  liter 
ature,  and  was  said  to  have  all  the  accomplish 
ments  and  all  the  vices  of  the  day.  Inheriting 
the  property  of  his  stepmother  and  of  a  cour 
tesan,  he  aspired  to  the  honors  of  state.  In 
107  13.  C.  he  was  elected  quaestor,  and  was 
sent  with  cavalry  to  Africa  to  aid  Marius  in 
the  Jugurthine  war.  Marius  regarded  him  as 
a  profligate  patrician  ignorant  of  war,  but  Sul 
la's  conduct  soon  won  his  esteem  and  the  affec 
tion  of  his  soldiers,  lie  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  battle  of  Cirta  and  in  the  transactions 
which  ended  in  the  betrayal  of  Jugurtha.  In 
104  he  was  legate  under  Marius  during  the 
threatening  invasion  of  the  Cinibri  and  Teu 
tons;  in  103  he  was  military  tribune;  in  102 
he  left  Marius,  who  had  become  jealous  of 
him,  to  serve  under  Q.  Catulus,  who  made 
him  chief  manager  of  affairs;  and  in  101  he 
was  engaged  in  the  great  battle  which  com 
pletely  destroyed  the'  Cimbri.  In  93,  by  a  lib 
eral  distribution  of  money  among  the  people, 
he  gained  the  proctorship.  In  92  he  was  sent 
as  proprietor  to  Cilicia  to  restore  Ariobarzanes 
to  his  kingdom  of  Cappadocia,  from  which 
Mithridates  had  expelled  him.  His  success  at 
tracted  the  attention  of  Arsaces,  king  of  Par- 
thia,  who  sent  an  embassy  to  Sulla  to  solicit 
an  alliance  with  the  Romans.  On  his  return 
to  Rome  both  ho  and  Marius,  representatives 
of  the  aristocratic  and  popular  parties  respec 
tively,  desired  the  command  of  the  army  in 
the  impending  war  against  Mithridates;  but 
the  breaking  out  of  the  social  war  checked 
their  private  feuds  and  united  the  two  gener 
als  against  the  common  foe.  In  this  war  Sul 
la's  successes  far  outshone  those  of  Marius; 
but  his  most  brilliant  exploits  were  in  89, 
when  as  legato  of  the  consul  L.  Cato  he  de 
stroyed  Stabia),  subjugated  the  llirpini,  de 
feated  the  Samnites,  and  captured  their  chief 
town,  Bovianum.  In  88  he  became  consul, 
and  was  appointed  to  the  command  against 
Mithridates.  Marius  conspired  with  the  tri 
bune  P.  Sulpicius  Rufus  and  with  the  lately 
enfranchised  Italians  to  wrest  this  command 
from  Sulla,  and  succeeded  in  driving  him  out 
of  the  city.  He  hastened  to  the  army  then 
besieging  N"ola,  persuaded  six  legions  to  march 
under  him  against  Rome,  entered  the  city,  and 
drove  out  Marius.  Early  in  87  he  joined  his 
troops  at  Capua,  embarked  for  Greece,  and  be 
gan  the  war  against  Mithridates.  In  86,  after 
a  long  siege,  he  took  and  plundered  Athens, 
and  from  this  time  till  his  return  to  Rome  in 
the  spring  of  83  he  enjoyed  almost  uninter 
rupted  success.  In  the  mean  time  Marius  and 
L.  Cinna  returned  to  Rome  and  were  elected 
consuls.  Sulla  was  declared  a  public  enemy, 
and  against  both  him  and  Mithridates  was  sent 
an  army,  which  in  85,  under  Fimbria,  gained 
several  victories  over  the  armies  of  Mithrida 
tes  in  Asia,  while  Sulla  in  the  same  year  de 
feated  his  army  in  Greece.  In  84  Sulla  made 


peace  with  Mithridates,  and  turning  his  atten 
tion  to  Fimbria,  then  at  Thyatira,  he  defeated 
him.  Fimbria,  deserted  by  his  soldiers,  com 
mitted  suicide.  Sulla  exacted  enormous  sums 
from  Asiatic  cities,  and  then  set  sail  with  his 
army  for  Athens,  from  which  he  carried  to 
Rome  the  celebrated  library  of  Apellicon.  Al 
though  both  Marius  and  Cinna  were  dead,  the 
Marian  party  were  still  strong  against  Sulla ; 
but  by  victories,  by  intrigues,  and  by  seducing 
their  soldiers  to  join  his  own  army,  Sulla  suc 
ceeded  in  shutting  up  the  younger  Marius  in 
Preeneste,  and  leaving  a  force  to  besiege  the 
place,  he  hastened  with  the  bulk  of  his  army 
to  Rome,  which  was  threatened  by  the  Sam 
nites  and  Lucanians.  Both  armies  arrived  al 
most  simultaneously,  and  before  the  Colline 
gate  was  fought,  Xov.  1,  82,  the  great  battle 
in  which  50,000  men  on  each  side  are  said  to 
have  fallen.  The  victorious  Sulla  massacred 
all  his  Samnite  prisoners.  Prameste  soon  sur 
rendered;  the  Pra?nestines  and  Samnites  were 
slaughtered,  and  the  younger  Marius  killed 
himself.  This  ended  the  Marian  war.  The 
next  step  of  Sulla,  now  master  of  Rome,  was 
to  extirpate  the  popular  party.  At  the  close 
of  82  the  dictatorship,  which  had  been  in  abey 
ance  for  about  130  years,  was  revived,  and 
Sulla  as  dictator  had  absolute  power  over  the 
lives  and  property  of  all  citizens.  A  reign  of 
terror  followed.  Sulla  posted  in  the  forum  a 
list  called  a  proscrijjfio  of  persons  to  be  con 
sidered  as  outlaws,  who  might  be  killed  by  any 
one,  and  their  confiscated  property  was  to  be 
sold  at  auction.  Fresh  lists  constantly  ap 
peared,  till  Sulla  was  rid  of  his  enemies,  while 
their  property  helped  to  enrich  his  friends. 
But  he  did  not  intend  to  abolish  the  republic, 
and  in  80  he  was  elected  consul,  still  holding 
the  dictatorship.  In  80-79  he  introduced  his 
reforms  in  the  constitution  and  established 
military  colonies  throughout  Italy.  All  his 
reforms  were  by  leges,  including  the  laws  re 
lating  to  the  constitution,  to  the  religious 
corporations,  to  the  administration  of  justice, 
and  to  the  improvement  of  public  morals. 
Having  effected  these  reforms,  he  voluntarily 
resigned  the  dictatorship  in  79,  and  retired  to 
his  estate  at  Puteoli,  where  he  devoted  him 
self  to  literary  and  sensual  enjoyments.  His 
excesses  shortened  his  life  ;  the  immediate 
cause  of  his  death  was  the  rupture  of  a  blood 
vessel.  He  had  just  completed  the  22d  book 
of  his  memoirs,  which  have  not  come  down  to 
us,  but  were  largely  used  by  Plutarch.  The 
senate  gave  him  a  public  funeral,  which  was  a 
gorgeous  pageant.  His  monument  in  the  Cam 
pus  Martius  bore  an  inscription,  said  to  have 
been  composed  by  himself,  to  the  effect  that 
none  of  his  friends  ever  did  him  a  kindness, 
and  none  of  his  enemies  a  wrong,  without  be 
ing  fully  repaid.  His  constitutional  reforms 
endured  but  a  few  years,  and  only  paved  the 
way  for  the  advent  of  the  Cresars. 

SULLIVA1V,  the  name  of  six  counties  in  the 
United  States.     I.  A  W.  county  of  Xew  Ilamp- 


SULLIVAN 


451 


shire,  drained  by  small  tributaries  of  the  Con 
necticut  river ;  area,  about  820  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870, 18,058.  The  valley  of  the  Connecticut 
is  level  and  contains  much  excellent  land  ;  the 
rest  of  the  county  is  broken  and  sometimes 
hilly.  It  is  traversed  by  several  railroads.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  16,864  bushels 
of  wheat,  138,071  of  Indian  corn,  124,819  of 
oats,  13,945  of  barley,  280,721  of  potatoes, 
206,629  Ibs.  of  wool,  576,725  of  butter,  100,429 
of  cheese,  342,398  of  maple  sugar,  and  54,583 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,615  horses,  6,832 
milch  cows,  3,122  working  oxen,  8,631  other 
cattle,  39,078  sheep,  and  2,829  swine  ;  9  manu 
factories  of  woollen  goods,  5  of  wooden  ware, 

3  of  paper,  5  of  machinery,  2  of  cotton  goods, 
2  of  boots  and  shoes,  5  flour  mills,  6  tanneries, 

4  currying  establishments,  and  24  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Newport.     II.  A  S.  county  of   New 
York,    separated    from   Pennsylvania  by  the 
Delaware  river,  and  watered  by  several  streams ; 
area,  about  880  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1875,  34,935. 
The  surface  is  elevated  and  intersected  N.  E. 
and  S.  W.  by  several  ridges.     The  valleys  are 
generally  wide  and  fertile.     It  is  traversed  by 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal  and  several 
railroads.    The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
5,136  bushels  of  wheat,  49,025  of  rye,  181,551 
of  Indian  corn,  231,954  of  oats,  130,421  of 
buckwheat,  236,881  of  potatoes,  22,011  Ibs.  of 
wool,  1,183,642  of  butter,  and  65,992  tons  of 
hay.     There  were  4,168  horses,  13,987  milch 
cows,  4,369  working  oxen,  12,568  other  cattle, 
12,352  sheep,  and  5,471  swine ;    18  manufac 
tories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  15  flour  mills, 
34  tanneries,  8  currying   establishments,  and 
45  saw  mills.     Capital,  Monticello.     III.  A  N. 
E.  county  of  Pennsylvania,  drained  by  tribu 
taries  of  the  Susquehanna  river ;   area,  about 
450  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,191.     The  surface 
is  generally  rolling  and  hilly.     The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  16,360  bushels  of  wheat, 
5,678  of  rye,  42,942  of  Indian  corn,  76,141  of 
oats,  34,453  of  buckwheat,  52,507  of  potatoes, 
21,219  Ibs.   of  wool,   20,700  of   maple  sugar, 
229,972  of  butter,  and   13,446   tons   of  hay. 
There  were  1,074  horses,  2,705  milch  cows,  3,990 
other  cattle,  6,976   sheep,  and  1,982  swine ; 
1  flour  mill,    5    tanneries,    2   currying  estab 
lishments,  and  6  saw  mills.     Capital,  Laporte. 
IV.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Tennessee,  bordering  on 
Virginia  and  intersected  by  the  Ilolston  river ; 
area,  300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,136,  of  whom 
857  were  colored.     The  surface  is  very  hilly 
and  well  timbered,  and  the  soil  fertile.     Iron 
ore  and  coal  are  found.     The  East  Tennessee, 
Virginia,  and  Georgia  railroad  passes  through 
it.     The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  132,- 
647  bushels  of  wheat,  302,227  of  Indian  corn, 
176,387  of  oats,  16,307  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  27,026 
of  wool,  171,872  of  butter,  7,785  of  flax,  12,360 
of  maple  sugar,  18,120  of  honey,  and  20,077 
gallons    of    sorghum    molasses.      There   were 
3,384  horses,  3,405  milch  cows,  5,535  other 
cattle,    15,634   sheep,   and   18,478   swine;    13 
flour  mills,  and  3  saw  mills.     Capital,  Blounts- 


ville.  V.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Indiana,  separated 
from  Illinois  by  the  W abash  river;  area,  480 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,453.  The  surface  is 
generally  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  297,452  bushels  of 
wheat,  766,801  of  Indian  corn,  93,736  of  oats, 
43,692  of  potatoes,  9,305  tons  of  hay,  4,125  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  67,640  of  wool,  176,279  of  butter, 
42,250  of  maple  sugar,  and  39,166  gallons  of 
sorghum  molasses.  There  were  6,912  horses, 
4,892  milch  cows,  7,027  other  cattle,  27,246 
sheep,  and  32,030  swine;  4  cooperages,  8  flour 
mills,  and  19  saw  mills..  The  Evansville  and 
Crawfordsville  railroad  passes  through  the 
capital,  Sullivan.  YL  A  N.  county  of  Mis 
souri,  drained  by  tributaries  of  Grand  river; 
area,  648  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,907,  of  whom 
42  were  colored.  The  surface  is  rolling,  about 
two  thirds  being  prairie  and  one  third  tim 
bered.  The  soil  is  productive  ;  coal  is  found. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  61,467 
bushels  of  wheat,  15,826  of  rye,  412,624  of  In 
dian  corn,  164,614  of  oats,  38,754  of  potatoes, 
26,619  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  70,094  of  wool,  234,065 
of  butter,  and  14,569  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
6,171  horses,  665  mules  and  asses,  5,024  milch 
cows,  9,926  other  cattle,  25,369  sheep,  and 
17,770  swine;  11  flour  mills,  5  saw  mills,  and 
3  wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing  establish 
ments.  Capital,  Milan. 

SULLIVAN,  Arthur  S.,  an  English  composer, 
born  in  London  in  1844.  He  was  instructed 
by  his  father,  a  music  teacher,  and  sang  for 
three  years  when  a  boy  at  the  chapel  royal. 
At  the  age  of  14  he  gained  the  Mendelssohn 
scholarship,  and  continued  his  studies  at  the 
royal  academy  under  John  Gloss  and  Sir  Stern- 
dale  Bennett.  He  then  studied  under  Eietz, 
Hauptmann,  and  Moscheles,  in  Leipsic,  and 
composed  the  incidental  music  to  Shakespeare's 
"  Tempest,"  performed  for  the  first  time  at  the 
crystal  palace  in  1862.  He  soon  after  composed 
an  opera,  never  played,  with  the  libretto  by 
Chorley,  entitled  "The  Sapphire  Necklace." 
He  has  written  three  cantatas,  "Kenilworth," 
"  On  Sea  and  Land,"  and  "  The  Bride  of  Neath 
Valley;"  a  symphony  performed  at  Liverpool 
in  1866 ;  several  overtures ;  three  operettas, 
"Thespis,"  "  Contrabandista,"  and  "Box  and 
Cox ;"  and  two  oratorios,  "  The  Prodigal  Son," 
produced  at  the  Worcester  festival  in  1868, 
and  "The  Light  of  the  World,"  produced  at 
the  Birmingham  festival  in  1873.  He  has  also 
composed  songs  and  piano  music,  including 
"The  Songs  of  the  Wrens,"  for  which  the 
words  were  written  by  Alfred  Tennyson. 

SCLLIVAtf.  I.  John,  an  American  general, 
born  in  Berwick,  Me.,  Feb.  17,  1740,  died  in 
Durham,  N.  II.,  Jan.  23,  1795.  He  practised 
law  in  Durham.  In  1774  he  was  a  member  of 
the  first  general  congress,  and  in  December 
of  that  year,  with  John  Langdon,  led  a  force 
against  Fort  TfaHiam  and  Mary,  near  Ports 
mouth,  and  seized  100  barrels  of  gunpowder 
(afterward  used  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill), 
15  cannon,  all  the  small  arms,  and  other  stores. 


SULLIVAN 


SULLIVANT 


This  was  the  first  act  of  armed  hostility  com 
mitted  in  the  colonies.  In  June,  1775,  he  was 
appointed  by  congress  a  brigadier  general,  and 
commanded  on  Winter  hill  at  the  siege  of  Bos 
ton.  After  its  evacuation  he  was  sent  to  re- 
enforce  the  army  in  Canada,  where,  after  the 
death  of  Gen.  Thomas,  he  took  command,  June 
2,  1776,  and  conducted  the  retreat  from  the 
province.  He  was  commissioned  by  congress 
aa  major  general,  Aug.  10,  acted  under  Putnam 
on  Long  Island,  and  by  a  combat  of  two  hours 
in  the  woods  (Aug.  27)  contributed  to  the 
preservation  of  the  American  army.  He  was 
taken  prisoner,  but  was  exchanged  for  Gen. 
Prescott.  After  Gen.  Lee's  capture  Sullivan 
took  command  of  his  division,  and  led  the  right 
at  Trenton  on  Christmas  night,  1776.  On 
Aug.  22,  1777,  he  made  a  bold  descent  on 
Staten  Island,  the  entire  success  of  which  was 
prevented  by  misconstruction  of  his  orders,  but 
he  was  justified  by  a  court  of  inquiry  and  by 
a  vote  of  congress.  He  commanded  the  right 
wing  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine.  He  defeat 
ed  the  British  left  at  Germantown,  but  mis 
takes  on  the  American  left,  occasioned  by  fog, 
changed  a  victory  into  a  repulse.  In  August, 

1778,  he  commanded  in  Rhode.  Island,  and  pre 
pared  to  attack  the  British  lines  at  Newport, 
but  was  deprived  of  tho  cooperation   of  the 
French  fleet  under  D'Estaing,  and  was  obliged 
to  raise  the  siege ;  but  at  Butt's  hill,  on  the 
29th,  he  repulsed  the  enemy,  and  withdrew 
from  the  island  with  slight  loss.     On  Aug.  29, 

1779,  he  defeated  the  Indians  under  Brant  and 
tories  under  Sir  John  Johnson,  at  Newtown, 
near  the  present  site  of  Elmira,  N.  Y.     He 
then  resigned  his  commission  on  account  of  ill 
health.     In  the  autumn  of  1780  he  again  took 
his  seat  as  a  member  of  congress.   In  1782-'6  he 
was  attorney  general  of  New  Hampshire,  and  in 
1786-'9  president  of  the  state.     In  the  troubles 
of  1786  he  saved  the  state  from  anarchy  by  his 
intrepidity  and  good  management,  and  in  1788 
secured  the  ratification  of  the  federal  constitu 
tion.     In  1789  he  was  appointed  federal  judge 
of  New  Hampshire,  which  office  he  held  till  his 
death.     His  life  has  been  written  by  O.  "W.  B. 
Peabody,  in  Sparks's  "American  Biography," 
2d  series,  vol.  iii.,  and  by  Thomas  C.  Amory 
(1868).— His  son  GEORGE  (1774-1838)  was  an 
eminent  lawyer,  and  was  several  times  a  mem 
ber  of  the  legislature,  of  congress  1811-'13, 
and  attorney  general  of  the  state  1805-'7  and 
1816-'35.     II.  James,  governor  of  Massachu 
setts,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Ber 
wick,  Me.,  April  22,   1744,  died  in   Boston, 
Dec.   10,   1808.      He  was  king's  attorney  for 
York  co.,  Me.,   but  joined  the  revolutionary 
movement.      He  was  a  member  of  the  pro 
vincial   congress   of  Massachusetts  (of  which 
Maine  then  formed  a  part)  in  1775,  and  with 
two  others  executed  a  difficult;  commission  to 
Ticonderoga.      In  1776   ho  was  appointed   a 
judge  of  the  superior  court,  and  in  1779-'80 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  framed 
the  constitution  of  the  state.     In  1783  he  was 


chosen  a  member  of  congress;  and  lie  was 
repeatedly  elected  a  representative  of  Bos 
ton  (to  which  place  he  had  removed)  in  the 
legislature.  In  1787  he  was  a  member  of  the 
executive  council  and  judge  of  probate  for 
Suffolk  co.,  from  1790  to  1807  was  attorney 
general  of  the  state,  and  was  elected  governor 
in  1807  and  1808.  He  was  one  of  the  com 
missioners  for  settling  the  boundaries  between 
the  United  States  and  the  British  provinces. 
He  published  a  "  History  of  the  District  of 
Maine"  (1795),  and  "History  of  Land  Titles 
in  Massachusetts"  (1801).  III.  William,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Saco,  Me.,  Nov.  30, 1774, 
died  in  Boston,  Sept.  3,  1839.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1792,  studied  law,  and 
was  long  president  of  the  association  of  the 
Suffolk  bar.  He  was  constantly  a  member  of 
one  or  the  other  branch  of  the  state  legisla 
ture,  lie  published  "  Familiar  Letters  on  Pub 
lic  Characters  and  Events  from  1783  to  1815  " 
(12mo,  Boston,  1834);  "Historical  Causes 
and  Effects,  from  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em 
pire  to  the  Reformation  in  1517"  (8vo,  1838) ; 
and  "The  Public  Men  of  the  Revolution," 
published  with  a  biographical  sketch  by  his 
son,  J.  T.  S.  Sullivan  (8vo,  Philadelphia,  1847). 
IV»  John  Langdoii,  an  American  engineer,  broth 
er  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Saco,  Me.,  April 
9,  1777,  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  9,  1865. 
Ho  travelled  in  Europe,  studying  the  con 
struction  of  canals  in  France  and  England, 
and  in  1804  was  appointed  agent  and  engineer 
of  the  Middlesex  canal,  which  was  completed 
in  seven  years.  He  invented  the  steam  tow- 
boat,  for  which  he  received  a  patent  in  1814, 
in  preference  to  Robert  Fulton,  who  applied 
for  it  at  the  same  time,  his  priority  of  discov 
ery  being  fully  sustained.  In  1824  he  was  ap 
pointed  associate  civil  engineer  of  the  United 
States  board  of  internal  improvements,  which 
post  he  resigned  the  next  year,  after  making 
a  report  on  the  practicability  of  a  canal  across 
the  Alleghanies.  He  then  studied  medicine, 
in  1837  commenced  practice  in  New  Haven, 
afterward  adopted  the  homoeopathic  system, 
and  in  1847  removed  to  New  York. 

SULLIVAN'S  ISLAND.     See  MOULTRIE,  FOKT. 

SULLIVANT,  William. Starling,  an  American  bot 
anist,  born  at  Franklinton,  near  the  site  of 
Columbus  O.,  Jan.  15,  1803,  died  in  Columbus, 
April  30,  1873.  He  graduated  at  Yale  college 
in  1823,  and  settled  in  Columbus  as  a  sur 
veyor.  In  1840  he  published  a  "Catalogue  of 
Plants,  Native  or  Naturalized  in  the  Vicinity 
of  Columbus,  Ohio,"  and  in  1842  an  article  on 
three  new  plants  discovered  in  that  district. 
He  made  a  journey  in  1843  from  Maryland  to 
Georgia,  and  published  "Musci  Alleghanien- 
ses  "  (55  sets,  of  2  vols.  4to  each,  1845  ;  new  ed., 
printed  privately,  1855).  lie  wrote  papers  on 
bryology  and  hepaticology  for  the  "  Memoirs 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sci 
ences"  (1846-'9),  and  contributed  the  "Musci 
and  Hepaticns  of  the  United  States  East  of  the 
Mississippi  River "  to  the  second  edition  of 


SULLY 


SULPHATES 


453 


Gray's  "Manual  of  Botany"  (185G);  tins  was 
afterward  published  separately.  A  second  vol 
ume  of  this,  his  most  important  work,  has  ap 
peared  since  his  death.  Alusci  Boreali-Ameri- 
cani,  consisting  of  350  species  and  varieties 
of  dried  mosses,  was  the  joint  work  of  him 
self  and  his  associate  L.  Lesquereux  (1856). 
He  also  published  "Mosses  brought  home  by 
"VVilkes's  Exploring  Expedition,  1838-'42  " 
(with  26  fol.  plates,  1859)  ;  "  Mosses  and 
Hepaticse  collected  mostly  in  Japan"  (with 
18  4to  plates,  1860);  Musci  Cubenses  (1861); 
and  Icones  Muscorum  (with  129  plates,  1864). 
The  genus  Sullivantia  was  founded  by  Torrey 
and  Gray  upon  a  rare  plant  of  the  saxifrage 
family  discovered  by  him. 

SULLY,  a  S.  central  county  of  Dakota,  re 
cently  formed  and  not  included  in  the  census 
of  1870 ;  area,  about  1,300  sq.  m.  It  is  bound 
ed  W.  by  the  Missouri  and  watered  by  its  afflu 
ents.  The  surface  is  mostly  undulating  prai 
ries.  The  Missouri  bottom  is  very  productive. 

SULLY,  Maximiliea  de  Betlmue,  baron  de  Eosny, 
duke  of,  a  French  statesman,  born  at  Eosny, 
near  Mantes,  Dec.  13,  1560,  died  near  Chartres, 
Dec.  22,  1641.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  Prot 
estant  family,  and  followed  King  Henry  of 
Navarre  in  all  his  wars,  and  became  his  chief 
adviser.  When  his  master,  on  the  death  of 
Henry  III.,  claimed  the  throne  of  France,  Eos- 
ny  advised  him  to  turn  Catholic  in  order  to 
reconcile  the  majority  of  the  nation  to  his 
cause.  On  a  secret  mission  to  Queen  Eliza 
beth  of  England,  he  secured  her  assistance  to 
Henry  IV.,  and  he  was  instrumental  as  an  en 
gineer  in  taking  Dreux  in  1593,  Laon  in  1594, 
La  Fere  in  1596,  and  Amiens  in  1597.  In  1597 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  finance, 
and  became  in  fact  the  chief  minister  of  Henry 
IV.  He  reformed  the  financial  system,  and 
cancelled  the  public  debt,  which  amounted  to 
332,000,000  livres,  remitting  20,000,000  taxes 
in  arrears,  alleviating  the  annual  taxation,  and 
gathering  a  reserve  of  17,000,000,  which  was 
deposited  in  the  Bastile.  He  fostered  agricul 
ture,  made  the  grain  trade  free,  suppressed 
tolls  and  prohibitions,  built  or  improved  high 
ways  and  roads,  constructed  canals,  and  en 
couraged  drainage  and  mining.  He  had  re 
ceived  the  title  of  marquis  of  Eosny  in  1601, 
and  was  created  duke  of  Sully  in  1606.  At 
the  death  of  Henry  IV.  in  1610  the  reserve 
in  the  Bastile  amounted  to  42,000,000.  Sully 
remained  as  chief  minister  some  time  longer, 
but  his  severity  and  rigid  principles  becoming 
obnoxious  to  Maria  de'  Medici  and  her  advisers, 
he  left  the  court  in  1611,  and  resigned  most  of 
his  offices  and  dignities.  Cardinal  Eichelieu 
in  1634  made  him  marshal  of  France.  During 
iiis  retirement  he  composed  his  personal  me 
moirs,  Memoires  des  sages  et  royales  economies 
tfEtat  de  Henry  le  Grand  (4  vols.  fol.,  1634- 
'62,  several  times  reprinted;  English  transla 
tion  by  Mrs.  Lennox,  3  vols.  4to,  London,  1756 ; 
new  ed.,  5  vols.  8vo,  1854-'6). — See  Eloge  his- 
torique  de  Sully,  by  Perrens  (Paris,  1871). 


SULLY,  Thomas,  an  American  painter,  born 
at  Horncastle.  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  June, 
1783,  died  in  'Philadelphia,  Nov.  5,  1872.  He 
was  brought  to  the  United  States  by  his  pa 
rents,  who  were  players,  in  1792.  In  1803  he 
settled  as  a  portrait  painter  in  Eichmond,  Va., 
removed  a  few  years  later  to  New  York,  and 
in  1809  settled  in  Philadelphia.  Among  his 
large  works  are  full-length  portraits  of  George 
Frederick  Cooke  as  Eichard  the  Third,  Dr. 
Benjamin  Bush,  Commodore  Decatur,  Thom 
as  Jefferson,  Lafayette,  and  Queen  Victoria, 
painted  during  a  visit  to  England.  His  well 
known  picture  of  "Washington  crossing  the 
Delaware  "  is  now  in  the  Boston  museum. 

SULPHATES,  salts  formed  by  the  union  of 
sulphuric  acid  with  bases.  The  union,  strictly 
speaking,  is  only  partial,  as  a  portion,  and  in 
normal  salts  all,  of  the  hydrogen  of  the  sulphu 
ric  acid  is  displaced  by  the  basyle.  (See  SALTS.) 
Thus,  H2S04  +  2K  =  211  +  K2S04,  normal  sul 
phate  of  potassium  ;  or  H2S04  +  K  =  H  + 
KHSO4,  acid  sulphate  of  potassium.  The  sul 
phates  are  extensively  employed  in  the  arts,  in 
medicine,  in  agriculture,  and  in  the  chemical 
laboratory.  1.  Sulphates  of  Alumina.  The 
normal  sulphate,  A1«3SO3  +  18H2O,  is  found 
native  in  many  localities,  as  on  the  volcanic 
island  of  Milo  in  the  Grecian  archipelago,  in 
the  craters  of  volcanoes  in  the  Andes,  and  at 
Adelaide  in  Australia.  It  is  known  in  miner 
alogy  as  alunogen,  hair  salt,  feather  alum,  and 
halotrichite.  Its  hardness  is  1-5  to  2;  sp.  gr. 
1'G  to  1*8;  lustre  vitreous;  color  white,  or 
tinged  with  yellow  or  red.  It  is  manufactured 
in  large  quantities,  is  known  in  commerce  as 
concentrated  alum,  and  is  used  in  dyeing  instead 
of  common  alum.  Clay  as  free  as  possible 
from  iron  is  heated  to  redness,  and  then  ground 
and  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of  sulphuric 
acid  of  sp.  gr.  1-45,  in  a  reverberatory  fur 
nace,  till  the  acid  begins  to  volatilize.  Af 
ter  exposure  to  the  air  for  several  days,  water 
is  added  and  the  solution  freed  from  what 
iron  it  may  contain  by  precipitation  with  fer- 
rocyanide  of  potassium.  The  solution  is  then 
evaporated  to  a  sirup,  which  solidifies  on  cool 
ing.  It  is  soluble  in  two  parts  of  water,  in 
soluble  in  alcohol.  There  is  a  series  of  double 
aluminic  sulphates,  forming  true  alums,  which 
are  treated  under  the  head  of  ALOI.  Not  all 
alums  contain  aluminum,  but  they  are  so 
named  because  they  are  formed  on  the  type 
of  the  alum  salts.  2.  Sulphates  of  Barium. 
Some  of  the  sulphates  of  barium  are  double 
salts.  The  most  important  is  the  neutral  sul 
phate,  BaSO4,  or  heavy  spar,  which  is  found 
native  in  large  quantities,  and  when  ground 
into  powder  is  used  to  adulterate  white  lead 
as  a  pigment.  An  amorphous  sulphate  is 
made  on  a  large  scale  for  the  same  purpose, 
and  called  permanent  white.  There  is  an  acid 
salt,  BaH22S04,  and  a  basic  soda  sulphate,  Ba- 
N22SO4.  3.  Sulphates  of  Calcium  and  Chro 
mium.  A«n  anhydrous  neutral  sulphate  of  cal 
cium,  CaS04,  occurs  native  as  the  mineral  an- 


454 


SULPHATES 


SULPHIDES 


hydrite.  It  may  be  formed  artificially  in  crys 
tals  by  fusing  sulphate  of  potash  with  an  excess 
of  chloride  of  calcium.  Gypsum  is  native  hy- 
drated  sulphate  of  calcium,  CaSO42H2O.  (See 
GYPSUM.)  The  sulphates  of  chromium,  both 
the  pure  chromium  and  also  the  double  salts, 
are  an  important  class  of  compounds,  and  in 
clude  the  chrome  alums,  as  ammonio-chrome 
alum,  potassio-chrome  alum,  and  sodio-chrome 
alum.  4.  Sulphates  of  Copper.  The  normal 
sulphate,  CuSO4  +  5H20,  is  the  blue  vitriol  of 
commerce,  extensively  used  in  the  arts.  (See 
COPPER,  vol.  v.,  pp.  318-'19.)  There  are  several 
basic  sulphates  of  copper,  and  double  sulphates 
of  copper  and  ammonia  of  various  shades  of 
blue,  some  of  which  form  solutions  of  exceed 
ing  beauty.  By  mixing  solutions  of  ammonio- 
cupric  sulphates  or  of  potassio-cupric  sulphates 
with  corresponding  double  sulphates  of  cobalt, 
iron,  magnesium,  manganese,  nickel,  or  zinc, 
an  interesting  series  of  complex  salts  is  ob 
tained,  all  of  which  crystallize  in  monoclinic 
prisms  and  tables,  isomorphous  with  the  mag 
nesium  double  salts ;  and  furthermore,  by  mix 
ing  the  solutions  of  three  or  four  of  these 
double  salts,  others  still  more  complex  may  be 
formed,  isomorphous  with  the  preceding. 
Copper  also  forms  with  magnesium,  sodium, 
and  zinc  beautiful  double  sulphates.  In  the 
preparation  of  cupric  sulphate  from  materials 
which  contain  iron  compounds,  several  so- 
called  ferroso-cupric  sulphates  are  formed,  hav 
ing  different  proportions  of  base,  but  which 
are  not  true  double  salts.  The  Salzburg  vit 
riol,  prepared  at  Buxweiler  in  Alsace,  con 
tains  3  molecules  of  iron  to  1  of  copper ;  Ad- 
mont  vitriol,  5  to  1 ;  Baireuth  vitriol,  7  to  1. 
5.  Sulphates  of  Iron.  Sulphuric  acid  forms 
with  iron  an  extensive  series  of  salts,  some  of 
which  have  a  constitution  analogous  to  the  per 
oxide,  and  are  called  ferric  salts ;  others,  anal 
ogous  to  the  protoxide,  are  called  ferrous  salts. 
Among  the  former  are  several  interesting  dou 
ble  salts,  including  ammonio-ferric  sulphate, 
or  ammonia-iron  alum,  and  potassio-ferric  sul 
phate,  or  potash-iron  alum.  Ferrous  sulphate, 
green  vitriol,  or  copperas,  FeSO4  +  7II20  (or 
FeOS03  +  7IIO,  old  formula),  is  the  most  im 
portant  commercial  salt  of  iron.  It  occurs 
native,  sometimes  in  crystals,  but  more  often 
in  amorphous  masses,  in  iron  mines  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  being  formed  by  the  oxida 
tion  of  iron  pyrites ;  but  most  of  the  copperas 
consumed  in  the  arts  is  prepared  simultaneous 
ly  with  alum  from  schists  containing  iron  py 
rites.  Ferrous  sulphate  crystallizes  in  mono- 
clinic  prisms  or  tables,  which  when  moist  read 
ily  absorb  oxygen  and  pass  into  ferric  sulphate ; 
but  if  crushed  and  deprived  of  moisture  by 
strong  pressure  between  folds  of  cotton  cloth 
or  filter  paper,  it  may  be  kept  in  bottles  for  a 
long  time  without  change.  (See  COPPERAS.) 
G.  Other  Metallic  Sulphates.  The  normal  sul 
phate  of  magnesium,  MgS04  +  7H2O,  is  de 
scribed  under  the  title  EPSOM  SALT.  t  There  is 
an  acid  sulphate  and  several  double  salts.  The 


sulphates  of  potassium  are  described  with  that 
metal.  Glauber's  salt  is  the  normal  and  prin 
cipal  sulphate  of  sodium.  (See  GLAUBER'S 
SALT.)  The  other  metallic  sulphates  of  suffi 
cient  importance  are  treated  under  the  heads 
of  the  respective  metals.  7.  Alcoholic  Sul 
phates.  Sulphuric  acid  combines  with  various 
alcohol  radicals  to  form  a  series  of  'sulphuric 
ethers,  the  most  important  among  which  are 
acid  sulphate  of  ethyle,  or  sulphovinic  acid, 
(C2H5)HSO4,  and  neutral  sulphate  of  ethyle,  or 
true  sulphuric  ether,  (C2H5)2SO4.  (This  latter 
ether  must  be  distinguished  from  what  is  ordi 
narily  called  sulphuric  ether,  which  is  the  oxide 
and  not  the  sulphate  of  the  radical  ethyle, 
Colls.)  Sulphovinic  acid  is  formed  by  the 
action  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  upon  alcohol, 
ether,  or  ethylene,  and  was  first  noticed  by  Da- 
bil  in  1800  in  the  residues  of  the  preparation 
of  common  ether.  The  molecule  of  hydrogen 
which  it  contains  may  be  replaced  by  a  metal 
forming  a  salt  which  is  called  a  sulphovinate, 
or  ethyle  sulphate.  Xeutral  sulphate  of  ethyle, 
or  true  sulphuric  ether,  is  formed  by  passing 
sulphuric  anhydride  into  a  flask  containing 
common  sulphuric  ether  surrounded  by  a  freez 
ing  mixture.  It  is  a  yellowish  oily  liquid  of 
sp.  gr.  1*12,  having  a  sharp  taste  and  the  odor 
of  oil  of  peppermint.  As  it  is  decomposed 
when  heated  in  the  air,  it  must  be  distilled  in 
an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  anhydride.  Sul 
phuric  acid  forms  with  methyle  an  acid  sul 
phate  of  methyle,  or  sulpho-methylic  acid, 
CII3IISO4,  and  a  neutral  sulphate  of  methyle 
or  methylsulphuric  ether,  (CIL^SO^  The 
molecule  of  hydrogen  in  sulpho-methylic  acid 
may  be  replaced  by  a  metal,  forming  a  salt 
called  a  methyl-sulphate. 

SULPHIDES,  or  Snlplmrets,  compounds  in  which 
sulphur  forms  the  electro-negative  element. 
Sulphur  unites  with  all  the  metals,  with  most 
of  the  non-metallic  elements,  and  with  many 
organic  radicals.  The  sulphides  have  generally 
a  constitution  corresponding  to  the  oxides,  and 
like  them  may  be  divided  into  acid  and  basic 
sulphides,  which  are  capable  of  uniting  and 
forming  sulphur  salts.  Thus,  we  have  stan- 
nate  of  potassium,  K2SnO3,  and  also  sulpho- 
stannate  of  potassium,  K2SnS3.  The  sulphides 
are  decomposed  more  or  less  perfectly  by  hy 
drochloric  acid,  and  behave  like  the  correspond 
ing  oxides,  yielding  one  molecule  of  sulphy- 
dric  acid  for  every  molecule  of  sulphur  in  the 
sulphide.  Thus,  FeS  +  2HCl=II2S  +  FeCl2  . 
and  SbS,  +  6HCl=3H9S  +  2SbCl3.  Of  the  sul 
phides  of  the  non-metallic  elements,  those  of 
carbon  and  chlorine  are  the  most  important. 
Bisulphide  of  carbon,  carbon  disulphide,  or 
sulpho-carbonic  acid,  CS2,  is  the  only  sulphide 
of  carbon  which  is  positively  known.  It  is 
prepared  on  a  large  scale  as  a  solvent  for  vari 
ous  manufacturing  purposes.  A  large  earthen 
retort  has  a  tube  which  passes  through  the 
mouth  down  to  near  the  bottom.  The  retort  is 
filled  with  charcoal  and  heated  to  redness  in  a 
furnace,  and  bits  of  sulphur  are  dropped  from 


SULPHITES 


SULPHUR 


455 


time  to  time  down  the  tube,  which  after  each 
introduction  is  stopped  with  a  cork.  The  neck 
of  the  retort  is  connected  with  a  condensing 
tube,  which  is  kept  cold  by  a  stream  of  water, 
and  dips  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water.  The  sul-  I 
phide  which  collects  at  the  bottom  of  this  ves 
sel  contains  an  excess  of  sulphur,  from  which 
it  is  freed  by  redistillation.  By  another  pro 
cess  sulphur  vapor  is  driven  over  red-hot  coke. 
Sulphide  of  carbon  is  a  colorless,  mobile,  highly 
refracting  liquid,  its  index  of  refraction  being 
1-678.  (See  LIGHT,  vol.  x.,  p.  439.)  It  has  a 
peculiar,  fetid,  disagreeable,  alliaceous  odor, 
and  when  breathed  produces  great  depression, 
followed  by  coma.  The  density  of  the  liquid 
is  1*274,  water =1 ;  of  the  vapor,  2'67,  air=l ; 
boiling  point,  118'4°.  It  freely  dissolves  sul 
phur,  depositing  it  on  evaporation  in  beauti 
ful  octahedral  crystals.  It  also  dissolves  phos 
phorus,  iodine,  camphor,  and  caoutchouc,  and 
mixes  easily  with  oils.  It  is  extensively  used 
in  the  vulcanization  of  caoutchouc  and  the 
manufacture  of  gutta  perclia,  for  extracting 
bitumen  from  mineral  substances,  and  of  oil 
from  seeds.  Sulphide  of  chlorine,  S2C12,  is 
formed  by  passing  dry  chlorine  over  melted 
sulphur  contained  in  a  glass  retort.  A  deep 
orange-yellow,  mobile  fluid  distils  over,  hav 
ing  a  peculiar  disagreeable  odor,  boiling  at  282° 
F. ;  sp.  gr.  1'087.  It  dissolves  sulphur  in  large 
quantities.  Dissolved  in  crude  benzole  with 
excess  of  sulphur,  it  is  also  used  in  Europe  for 
vulcanizing  caoutchouc.  The  principal  sul 
phides  of  organic  radicals  are  of  the  alcoholic 
series,  and  form  a  class  of  ethers,  as  hydro- 
sulphuric  ether,  or  monosulphide  of  ethyle, 
(CalLOaS,  and  the  disulphide,"  (CJI5)2S2.  Sul- 
phydrate  of  ethyle,  or  mercaptan,  CaHeSH,  is 
interesting  as  being  the  sulphur  analogue  of 
common  alcohol,  or  hydrated  oxide  of  ethyle, 
C2H5OH.  (See  ALCOHOL,  and  ETIIYLE.)  Mer- 
captan  (mercurium  captans,  which  signifies 
having  a  strong  tendency  to  seize  upon  or  com 
bine  with  mercury)  was  discovered  by  Leise 
in  1833,  and  has  since  been  examined  by  Liebig 
and  others.  It  is  a  colorless  mobile  liquid,  of 
an  exceedingly  offensive  and  permanent  garlic 
odor ;  sp.  gr.  0'842  ;  boiling  point  about  144° 
F.  When  it  is  mixed  with  mercuric  oxide, 
violent  reaction  ensues,  with  formation  of 
water,  and  a  white  substance,  soluble  in  alco 
hol,  which  by  the  action  of  sulphydric  acid 
yields  sulphide  of  mercury  with  reproduction 
of  mercaptan.  A  drop  on  the  end  of  a  glass 
rod  waved  through  the  air  will  evaporate  so 
rapidly  as  to  freeze  a  portion  remaining.  It 
forms  an  interesting  class  of  compounds  with 
other  elements,  for  which  the  reader  is  re 
ferred  to  larger  works  on  chemistry.  The  sul 
phides  of  methyle,  (CH3)2S  and  (CH3)2S2,  and 
also  methyle  sulphydrate,  or  methyle  mercap 
tan,  CllsSII,  and  other  organic  sulphides  and 
sulphydrates,  possess  much  chemical  interest. 

SULPHITES,  salts  formed  by  the  union  of  sul 
phurous  acid  with  bases,  or  more  strictly  speak 
ing  by  the  action  of  sulphurous  acid  on  bases ; 


the  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  in  the  molecule  of 
the  acid  being  partially  or  wholly  replaced  by 
a  metallic  basyle  or  a  radical,  forming  normal 
and  acid  salts.  (See  SALTS.)  Thus,  normal 
sulphite  of  potassium,  K2SO3,  may  be  formed 
by  wholly  replacing  the  hydrogen  in  the  acid. 
II2SO3 ;  or  the  acid  sulphite,  KIISO3,  may  be 
formed  by  employing  half  the  quantity  of  acid. 
The  sulphites  of  the  metals  are  usually  formed 
by  passing  sulphurous  anhydride,  SO2,  through 
aqueous  solutions  or  mixtures  of  hydrates  or 
carbonates,  the  anhydride  being  first  converted 
into  the  acid  by  combining  with  the  elements 
of  water,  whereupon  double  decomposition 
immediately  takes  place,  with  an  exchange 
between  the  metallic  basyle  and  the  hydrogen 
constituent  of  the  acid.  Sulphurous  acid  coin- 
bines  with  nearly  all  the  metals,  the  most  im 
portant  sulphites  being  those  of  calcium  and 
sodium.  Sulphite  of  calcium  may  be  precipi 
tated  in  an  anhydrous  state  by  passing  sul 
phurous  anhydride  through  water  having  hy 
drate  of  lime  in  suspension,  or  through  a  solu 
tion  of  chloride  of  calcium.  It  is  manufac 
tured  on  a  large  scale  and  used  in  bleaching, 
and  for  protecting  organic  substances  from 
decay.  The  sulphites  of  sodium  comprise  a 
normal  salt,  Na2S08,  and  an  acid  salt,  NaHSO3. 
The  normal  salt  is  prepared  by  saturating  a 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  with  sulphurous 
acid  and  adding  to  it  as  much  carbonate  of 
soda  as  it  originally  contained  while  warm. 
On  cooling,  the  salt  separates  in  monoclinic 
crystals,  having  seven  molecules  of  water  of 
crystallization  (Xa2SO3  +  7H2O).  Another  hy 
drate  was  formed  by  Muspratt,  containing  ten 
molecules  of  water.  The  acid  sulphite  is  pre 
pared  by  supersaturating  the  solution  of  sodic 
carbonate  with  sulphurous  acid.  Both  of  these 
salts  have  been  used  to  remove  the  traces  of 
chlorine  in  paper  pulp,  under  the  name  of  anti- 
chlor,  but  they  have  been  partially  superseded 
by  hyposulphite  of  sodium,  or  this  salt  is  used 
in  connection  with  them.  (See  PAPEE.) — The 
two  atoms  of  hydrogen  in  the  molecule  of  sul 
phurous  acid  may  be  partly  or  wholly  replaced 
by  monatomic  alcohol  radicals,  forming  acid 
and  neutral  sulphurous  ethers,  the  acid  ethers 
being  sometimes  called  sulpho-acids.  Ethyl- 
sulphurous  acid,  (Calls)  IIS03,  is  formed  by  the 
action  of  nitric  acid  on  sulphydrate  of  ethyle 
or  mercaptan,  (CaH6)HS.  Neutral  sulphurous 
ether,  (C2H5)2SO3,  may  be  formed,  among  other 
methods,  by  the  action  of  absolute  alcohol  on 
disulphide  of  chlorine.  The  alcoholic  sulphites 
and  other  sulpho-ethers  and  compounds  have 
been  carefully  studied  by  Muspratt,  Gerhardt, 
Rammelsberg,  Ivolbe,  and  others.  They  form 
an  extensive  and  interesting  series. 

SULPHUR,  an  elementary  substance  belonging 
to  the  class  of  metalloids.  It  has  been  known 
from  the  earliest  times  as  the  sublimed  product 
of  volcanoes,  and  as  a  natural  mineral  deposit 
in  clay  and  marl  strata  in  tertiary  formations, 
and  is  also  associated  with  gypsum,  being  one 
of  the  sources  of  this  mineral.  (See  GYPSUM.) 


456 


SULPHUR 


It  occurs  in  some  schistose  rocks,  and  in  coal 
and  lignite  deposits,  and  is  deposited  from  the 
sulphuretted  waters  of  certain  mineral  springs. 
It  is  found  in  Sicily  in  beds  of  blue  clay  lying 
in  a  matrix  of  rock  salt,  gypsum,  and  celestine. 
(See  STRONTIUM.)  It  also  exists  in  primitive 
rocks,  as  granite  and  mica,  and  abounds  in  the 
lava  fissures  of  volcanic  craters,  as  in  the  sol- 
fatara  near  Naples  and  at  Popocatepetl,  Mexi 
co.  It  is  a  constituent  of  many  minerals,  such 
as  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  galena  or  sulphuret 
of  lead,  cinnabar  or  sulphuret  of  mercury,  gray 
antimony,  and  realgar  or  sulphuret  of  arsenic; 
also  of  ternary  salts  of  metals,  such  as  the  sul 
phates  of  copper  and  iron,  and  of  strontia, 
barium,  and  calcium  (celestine,  heavy  spar, 
and  gypsum) ;  and  of  more  soluble  compounds 
which  are  constituents  of  mineral  waters,  as 
the  sulphates  of  magnesium  and  sodium  (Ep 
som  and  Glauber's  salts).  It  is  a  constituent 
of  the  proteiiie  compounds  of  animals  and 
vegetables,  in  the  taurine  of  bile  and  the  cys- 
tine  of  urine,  and  certain  volatile  oils,  as  oil 
of  onions  and  oil  of  mustard. — Sulphur  is  ob 
tained  from  the  natural  deposits  of  free  sul 
phur  by  melting  or  by  distillation.  Rich  de 
posits  are  simply  melted  in  large  cast-iron  or 
earthen  caldrons,  the  gangue  and  small  stones 
being  removed  with  perforated  ladles.  Some 
times  rude  furnaces  somewhat  like  lime  kilns 
are  employed  for  the  coarser  deposits,  in  which 
a  portion  of  the  sulphur  is  burned,  while  the 
great  mass  is  drawn  off  at  the  bottom.  A 
better  method  than  the  latter  is  that  of  dis 
tillation,  as  the  product  is  much  purer.  This 
is  done  in  large  earthen  pots  or  retorts  placed 
in  a  long  furnace.  Rude  receivers  of  earthen 
ware  or  wood  are  placed  outside  of  the  fur 
nace  in  which  the  sublimate  is  condensed. 
The  product  obtained  by  melting  is  known  as 
rough  sulphur,  and  contains  about  3  per  cent, 
of  foreign  matter,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  distillation,  in  stills  having  largo  chambers 
for  condensers,  in  which  it  is  deposited  in  the 
form  known  as  flowers  of  sulphur;  or  it  may 
be  condensed  in  the  liquid  form  in  smaller  and 
hotter  receivers,  and  cast  into  cylinders  called 
roll  sulphur.  Sulphur  may  also  be  obtained 
from  iron  pyrites  by  heating  it  in  close  ves 
sels,  in  which  case  the  dioxide  parts  with  one 
molecule  of  sulphur  and  becomes  protoxide.  It 
is  one  of  the  products  of  the  heating  of  copper 
pyrites  preliminary  to  copper  smelting.  Sul 
phur  is  also  a  by-product  of  gas  manufacture 
when  salts  of  iron  are  used  to  decompose  sul 
phuretted  hydrogen.  (See  GAS,  vol.  vii.,  p. 
G37.)  The  iron  salt,  which  before  using  is 
mixed  with  lime  and  exposed  to  the  air  to  con 
vert  it  into  peroxide,  in  the  gas-purifying  pro 
cess  becomes  a  hydrated  sulphide.  This  is  again 
reconverted  into  peroxide  by  exposure  to  the  air, 
with  evolution  of  sulphur. — Properties.  Native 
sulphur  occurs  either  in  amorphous  masses, 
or  in  transparent  yellow  crystals  derived  from 
the  octahedron  with  a  rhombic  base.  Sub 
limed  sulphur  of  commerce,  known  as  flowers 


of  sulphur,  is  a  yellow  gritty  powder  having  a 
slight  peculiar  odor,  but  from  its  insolubility 
is  nearly  tasteless.  It  is  a  non-conductor  of 
electricity,  and  becomes  negatively  excited  on 
being  rubbed  by  most  substances.  It  has  a 
strong  affinity  for  oxygen,  taking  fire  when 
heated  in  the  air  to  455°,  burning  with  a  blue 
flame  and  emitting  suffocating  fumes  of  sul 
phurous  anhydride.  It  is  therefore  classed 
among  highly  inflammable  substances.  It 
melts  at  239°,  forming  an  amber-yellow  liquid 
which  is  lighter  than  solid  sulphur.  It  boils 
at  about  836°,  forming  a  deep  yellow  vapor  of 
sp.  gr.  G'617,  one  volume  of  which  contains 
three  atoms  of  sulphur.  When  heated  to  about 
1832°  the  vapor  is  only  one  third  as  dense  as 
at  900°,  and  then  has  the  same  atomic  volume 
as  oxygen.  Sulphur  has  also  a  very  strong 
affinity  for  chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine,  form 
ing  respectively  chlorides,  bromides,  and  iodides 
of  sulphur.  It  combines  readily  with,  most  of 
the  metals,  forming  sulphides  or  sulphurets, 
which  generally  have  a  constitution  correspond 
ing  to  the  oxides  of  the  same  metals.  Sulphur, 
like  phosphorus,  is  remarkable  for  the  number 
of  modifications  or  allotropic  conditions  which 
it  may  assume  under  different  circumstances. 
(See  ALLOTROPISM,  and  PHOSPHORUS.)  These 
different  modifications  are  divided  into  two 
distinct  varieties,  those  in  the  first  variety  be 
ing  soluble  and  those  in  the  second  insoluble 
in  bisulphide  of  carbon.  Berthelot  has  named 
the  first  or  soluble  variety  electro-positive  sul 
phur,  because  it  is  separated  at  the  positive 
electrode  of  a  galvanic  battery  during  the  elec 
trolysis  of  a  solution  of  hydrosulphuric  acid, 
and  also  because  it  is  in  this  form  that  it  is 
separated  from  sulphides  of  electro-positive 
metals.  The  second  variety  he  named  electro 
negative  sulphur,  because  it  appears  at  the 
negative  pole  of  the  battery  during  the  decom 
position  of  sulphurous  acid,  and  separates  from 
sulphur  compounds  with  electro-negative  ele 
ments,  as  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  and  oxy 
gen.  Soluble  sulphur,  or  that  which  is  soluble 
in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  presents  three  forms, 
two  crystalline  and  one  amorphous.  In  the 
first  the  crystals  are  octahedrons  with  a  rhom 
bic  base,  and  all  the  modifications  of  both  vari 
eties  have  a  tendency  finally  to  assume  this 
form.  It  is  formed  when  sulphur  separates 
from  its  solutions  at  common  temperatures. 
The  second  crystalline  form  is  that  of  brown 
ish  yellow  needles  belonging  to  the  oblique 
prismatic  system.  It  is  obtained  by  melting  a 
mass  of  sulphur,  allowing  it  to  solidify  on  the 
surface,  piercing  the  crust,  and  allowing  the 
fluid  portion  to  run  out.  On  breaking  away  a 
part  of  the  crust  the  long,  needle-like  crystals 
will  be  exposed  to  view.  These  two  forms 
arc  not  only  very  unlike  as  to  their  crystal 
lography,  but  differ  widely  in  their  specific 
gravities  and  in  their  melting  points,  the  octa 
hedral  crystals  having  a  density  of  2 -05  and 
melting  at  239°  F.,  while  the  needles  have  a 
density  of  only  1*98,  that  of  ordinary  roll  sul- 


O 


SULPHUR 


phur,  and  melt  at  248°.  After  a  time  the  pris 
matic  crystals  will  be  found  to  consist  of  ag 
gregations  of  minute  octahedral  crystals.  When 
a  saturated  solution  of  sulphur  in  hot  turpen 
tine  cools,  the  first  crystals  formed  will  be 
prismatic,  while  those  which  are  deposited 
when  the  solution  is  comparatively  cool  will 
be  octahedrons.  Roll  sulphur  or  brimstone  is 
at  first  prismatic,  but  after  keeping  becomes 
octahedral,  and  the  change  of  form  is  attended 
with  the  evolution  of  heat.  The  amorphous 
variety  of  soluble  sulphur  is  precipitated  as  a 
greenish  white  emulsion  on  adding  acids  to 
dilute  solutions  of  alkaline  polysulphides.  This 
amorphous  sulphur  changes  after  a  time  into 
a  mass  of  octahedral  crystals.  Ordinary  sub 
limed  sulphur  (flowers  of  sulphur)  belongs  to 
this  variety,  but  always  contains  small  quanti 
ties  of  one  of  the  insoluble  modifications.  The 
principal  modifications  of  the  insoluble  variety 
of  sulphur  are  :  1,  an  amorphous  modification, 
obtained  as  a  soft  pasty  mass,  or  magma,  by 
decomposing  bisulphide  of  chlorine  with  wTater, 
or  by  adding  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  to  a  solu 
tion  of  a  hyposulphite ;  2,  a  plastic  form,  ob 
tained  by  pouring  viscid  sulphur  raised  to  near 
ly  500°  into  cold  water.  The  effect  of  heat 
upon  sulphur  is  remarkable.  It  begins  to  melt 
at  about  239°,  and  between  248°  and  284°  it  is 
yellow,  transparent,  and  limpid.  As  the  tem 
perature  rises  to  356°  it  becomes  brown,  and 
at  last  nearly  black  and  opaque  and  quite  viscid. 
At  this  point  the  temperature  becomes  station 
ary  for  a  time,  although  the  supply  of  heat  is 
kept  up,  in  consequence  of  a  molecular  change 
which  is  going  on.  Soon  the  temperature 
again  rises,  and  when  it  has  reached  about  500° 
the  mass  becomes  more  liquid,  but  retains 
considerable  viscosity.  If  it  is  now  suddenly 
cooled  by  pouring  it  in  a  small  stream  into 
cold  water,  a  brown  tenacious  mass  is  produced, 
which  may  be  drawn  out  into  elastic  threads 
having  a  specific  gravity  of  only  1*957.  In  a 
few  hours  it  becomes  yellow  and  opaque,  and 
passes  into  the  octahedral  form.  If  the  duc 
tile  sulphur  is  heated  to  212°,  the  change  is 
sudden,  with  a  further  rise  of  heat,  from  con 
densation,  to  230°.  —  Compounds.  Sulphur 
forms  with  oxygen  an  interesting  series  of 
compounds :  two  anhydrous  oxides,  or  anhy 
drides,  sulphurous  anhydride,  SO2,  and  sul 
phuric  anhydride,  SO3 ;  two  acids,  sulphurous 
and  sulphuric,  formed  by  the  union  of  these 
anhydrides  respectively  with  water,  and  a  fur 
ther  series  of  acids  which  have  no  correspond 
ing  anhydrides.  The  constitution  of  all  these 
bodies  is  remarkably  illustrative  of  the  law  of 
multiple  proportions.  The  formulas  of  the 
acids  are  as  follows  : 

Hyposulphurous  acid HoSOa 

Sulphurous  acid =  S00  +  H2O  =  H~SO3 

Sulphuric  acid =  SO3  +  H.2O  =  HoSO4 

Thiosulphuric  (sometimes  called  hvposulphuric)  acid  H^SgO, 

Dithionic  acid II,8aOe 

Trithionic  acid H^O,, 

Tetrathionic  acid • H2S406 

Pentathionic  acid H2S5O6 


Thiosulphuric  acid  (Gr.  deiov,  sulphur)  is  so 
called  because  it  has  the  constitution  of  sul- 
i  phuric  acid  with  a  molecule  of  oxygen  re 
placed  by  one  of  sulphur.  The  last  four  acids 
in  the  table  are  called  polythionic  acids, 
because  they  contain  varying  proportions  of 
sulphur  united  with  constant  proportions  of 
the  other  elements.  Sulphurous  anhydride, 
SO2,  formerly  called  sulphurous  acid,  is  the 
only  product  when  sulphur  is  burned  in  dry 
air  or  oxygen  gas.  When  the  combustion 
takes  place  in  pure  oxygen,  it  is  found  that  on 
returning  to  its  former  temperature  the  gase 
ous  product  is  doubled  in  weight,  but  that  its 
volume  is  unchanged.  It  is  in  fact  formed  by 
the  condensation  of  one  volume  of  oxygen  and 
half  a  volume  of  sulphur  vapor  into  one  vol 
ume.  When  required  pure,  sulphurous  acid  is 
usually  obtained  by  the  partial  reduction  of 
sulphuric  acid.  This  is  conveniently  effected 
by  boiling  strong  oil  of  vitriol  with  copper 
turnings  or  mercury.  The  reaction  is  shown 
in  the  following  equation:  Cu  +  2II2S04  = 
CuSo4  +  2H2O  +  S02.  It  may  also  be  obtained 
by  passing  the  vapor  of  sulphuric  acid  over  red- 
hot  platinum  foil  or  sponge,  the  product  being 
sulphurous  anhydride  and  oxygen.  (See  OXY 
GEN,  vol.  xii.,  p.  769.)  Sulphurous  anhydride 
is  a  colorless  gas,  having  a  density  of  2 -21. 
When  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  three  atmos 
pheres  at  common  temperatures,  or  if  cooled  to 
0°  F.  at  the  ordinary  pressure,  it  is  condensed 
to  a  colorless,  transparent  liquid,  which  solidi 
fies  to  a  crystalline  mass  at  — 105°.  The  liquid 
anhydride  may  be  obtained  in  large  quantities 
by  passing  the  gas  from  the  generator  first 
through  a  small  quantity  of  water  to  wash  it, 
then  through  a  tube  surrounded  by  ice  to  re 
move  moisture,  then  through  a  tube  contain 
ing  pieces  of  calcium  chloride  to  dry  it  com 
pletely,  and  finally  through  a  worm,  or  into  a 
receiver  immersed  in  a  mixture  of  salt  and  ice. 
It  may  be  preserved  in  sealed  glass  tubes,  or 
corked  and  wired  soda  bottles.  Sulphurous 
anhydride  dissolves  in  water,  forming  a  solu 
tion  of  sulphurous  acid,  H2SO3,  which  again 
decomposes  by  the  application  of  gentle  heat 
into  the  anhydride  and  water.  Water  at  60° 
absorbs  about  45  times  its  volume  of  the  gas, 
the  resulting  liquid  having  a  density  of  1-04. 
By  exposure  to  the  air  the  solution  slowly 
passes  into  sulphuric  acid.  By  cooling  a  satu 
rated  aqueous  solution  to  32°,  Dopping  ob 
tained  the  pure  acid,  H2SO3,  in  cubical  crystals. 
A  crystalline  hydrate,  S028II2O,  according  to 
Pierre,  may  also  -be  obtained  at  a  low  tempera 
ture,  which  melts  at  39°,  suffering  decomposi 
tion.  Sulphurous  acid  is  a  powerful  reducing 
agent,  instantly  discoloring  acid  solutions  of 
manganates  and  chromates,  reducing  the  latter 
to  green  oxides  of  chromium.  It  reduces  the 
salts  of  gold,  precipitating  the  metal  in  the 
metallic  state,  and  is  capable  of  taking  the  sec 
ond  molecule  of  oxygen  from  almost  any  me 
tallic  binoxide.  Brewers  often  employ  a  solu 
tion  of  sulphurous  acid  to  wash  out  their  beer 


458    SULPHURETTED  HYDKOGEN" 


SULPHURIC  ACID 


barrels,  and  in  the  rural  districts  sulphur  is 
often  burned  in  old  cider  barrels  to  purify 
them.  Sulphurous  acid  is  extensively  used  in 
bleaching  straw,  woollen,  and  silken  goods, 
and  also  isinglass  and  other  articles  which 
would  be  injured  by  chlorine.  (See  BLEACH 
ING.)  It  is  'a  powerful  antiseptic,  and  is  now 
employed  to  preserve  meats.  (See  PRESERVA 
TION  OF  FOOD,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  824.)  For  its  most 
important  use,  see  SULPHURIC  ACID.  Sulphu 
rous  acid  is  dibasic,  forming  normal,  neutral, 
and  double  salts.  (See  SULPHITES.)  The  bi 
nary  compounds  of  sulphur  with  the  metals, 
or  the  sulphides,  are,  when  important,  men 
tioned  in  the  articles  on  the  respective  metals, 
or  under  SULPHIDES.  One  of  the  principal 
uses  of  sulphur  is  in  making  gunpowder.  (See 
GUNPOWDER.) — Medical  Properties  and  Uses. 
Sulphur  is  termed  in  therapeutics  a  laxative, 
diaphoretic,  and  alterative.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  carried  into  the  circulation  by  the  fatty 
matters  in  the  alimentary  canal.  That  it  is 
discharged  by  the  skin  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  silver  worn  about  those  who  are  taking 
it  becomes  blackened  with  a  coating  of  sul 
phide.  It  is  used  in  cutaneous  and  other  dis 
eases,  both  internally  and  externally,  some 
times  artificially  prepared,  and  sometimes  as 
it  exists  in  natural  springs.  (See  MINERAL 
SPRINGS.  )  It  has  been  successfully  employed  in 
diphtheritic  croup,  given  suspended  in  water, 
and  in  sciatica  and  chronic  articular  rheuma 
tism,  applied  externally  upon  dry  Hannel  and 
bandaged  to  the  limb  for  several  days.  The 
officinal  preparations  embrace  confections,  pias 
ters,  and  ointments,  and  precipitated  sulphur 
or  lac  sulpTiuris.  This  latter  preparation  is 
made  by  boiling  sulphur  with  milk  of  lime, 
which  forms  bisulphide  of  calcium  and  hypo 
sulphite  of  lime,  from  the  solutions  of  both 
of  which  the  sulphur  is  precipitated  by  the 
action  of  hydrochloric  acid.  It  has  the  gen 
eral  properties  of  ordinary  sublimed  sulphur, 
but  is  in  a  state  of  finer  division. 

SULPHURETTED  HYDROGEN.  Sec  HYDROSUL- 
PHURIO  ACID. 

SULPHURIC  ACID,  the  hydrate  of  sulphuric 
anhydride,  or  teroxide  of  sulphur,  S03  +  HaO= 
H2SO4.  It  may  also  be  regarded  as  a  salt  of 
hydrogen,  this  element  holding  the  place  of 
a,  basyle  to  the  radical  sulphion,  S04.  (See 
SALTS,  vol.  xiv.,  pp.  582,  583.)  The  discovery 
of  sulphuric  acid  is  ascribed  to  Basil  Valentine, 
a  monk  of  Erfurt  in  Saxony,  about  1440.  He 
obtained  it  by  distilling  green  vitriol  or  the 
sulphate  of  iron,  and  as  the  liquid  product  had 
jm  oily  appearance  when  poured  out,  it  was 
called  oil  of  vitriol.  lie  also  obtained  it  by 
burning  sulphur  under  a  bell  glass  containing 
moisture,  calling  the  product  oleum  sulpliu- 
•ris  per  campanum,  or  oil  of  sulphur  by  the 
bell.  This  was  the  germ  of  the  present  pro 
cess  of  manufacture,  which  consists  in  pro 
ducing  sulphurous  acid  and  carrying  it  to  a 
higher  state  of  oxidation  by  nitrous  and  hy- 
ponitrous  acids.  The  old  process  of  distilla 


tion  fro'm  green  vitriol  is  still  employed  in 
some  parts  of  Germany,  particularly  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Nordhausen  in  Prussian  Sax 
ony,  and  near  Prague  in  Bohemia.  Sulphate 
of  iron,  chiefly  produced  by  the  oxidation  of 
iron  pyrites,  first  has  its  water  of  crystalliza 
tion  expelled,  when  it  is  subjected  to  a  high 


FIG.  1.— Distillation  of  aSTordkauseii  Acid. 

red  heat  in  earthen  retorts  placed  in  galleries 
in  a  furnace,  as  shown  in  fig.  1.  As  soon  as 
the  acid  begins  to  distil  over,  the  necks  of  the 
retorts  are  passed  into  receivers.  The  product 
is  a  brown  oily  liquid  having  a  density  of  about 
1-9,  and  fumes  in  the  air,  for  winch  reason  it 
is  also  called  fuming  sulphuric  acid.  Its  com 
position  may  be  expressed  by  the  formula 
IIoSO^SOs.  "When  gently  heated  it  breaks  up 
into  sulphuric  anhydride,  S03,  and  sulphuric 
acid,  II2S04.  If  fuming  Norclhausen  acid  is 
distilled  into  a  receiver  cooled  by  ice,  white 
fumes  will  solidify  on  its  sides  into  white  silky 
needles.  This  product  was  formerly  called 
anhydrous  sulphuric  acid.  It  does  not  how 
ever  possess  acid  properties  like  the  residue  in 
the  retort,  but  requires  to  be  united  with  wa 
ter  to  enable  it  to  combine  with  bases.  It  is 
tough  and  ductile,  and  can  be  moulded  in  the 
fingers  for  a  short  time  if  they  are  dry.  It 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  1'946  at  55-4°,  fumes 
in  the  air,  and  when  thrown  into  water  hisses 
like  red-hot  iron,  and  forms  sulphuric  acid. 
It  melts  at  65°  and  boils  at  about  95°,  forming 
a  colorless  vapor,  which  is  decomposed  in  high 
ly  heated  porcelain  tubes  into  two  volumes  of 
sulphurous  anhydride  and  oxygen.  The  com 
mon  way  of  preparing  sulphuric  acid  at  pres 
ent,  known  as  the  English  process,  is  to  oxi 
dize  sulphurous  acid.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  by  Dr.  Eoebuck  about  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century,  but  the  invention  is  also 


SULPHURIC  ACID 


459 


claimed  for  a  calico  printer  at  Rouen,  with, 
improvements  by  Chaptal,  such  claimants  giv 
ing  credit  to  Dr.  Roebuck  only  for  the  inven 
tion  of  the  leaden  chambers  in  which  the  pro 
cess  was  carried  on.  A  large  and  long  cham 
ber,  divided  into  sections  by  partitions  which 
alternately  leave  open  spaces  at  the  top  and 
bottom,  has  at  one  end  a  small  furnace  in. 
which  the  flame  of  sulphur  heats  a  crucible 
containing  a  mixture  of  nitre  and  oil  of  vit 
riol.  The  chamber  is  lined  with  sheet  lead, 
and  its  floor  is  covered  with  a  thin  stratum  of 
water.  Jets  of  steam  are  also  introduced.  The 
sulphur  in  burning  produces  sulphurous  anhy 
dride,  SO-2,  which  in  the  presence  of  moisture 
becomes  sulphurous  acid  (SOs  +  l^C^HsSOs), 
and  ttiis  again,  by  the  action  of  NO5,  be 
comes  sulphuric  acid,  IlaSO-i,  the  nitric  acid 
being  at  the  same  time  reduced  to  a  lower 
oxide.  According  to  the  researches  of  Weber 
and  Winkler,  the  following  is  the  rationale  of 
the  process :  The  oxidation  of  the  sulphurous 
acid  to  sulphuric  acid  takes  place  in  the  leaden 
chambers  under  the  influence  of  the  vapor  of 
water,  at  the  expense  of  the  oxygen  of  the  nitric 
or  nitrous  acid,  which  is  converted  into  deu- 
toxide  of  nitrogen.  It  is  necessary  however 
that  the  nitrous  acid  be  first  absorbed  in  plenty 
of  water,  which  takes  up  the  free  nitrous  acid 
and  decomposes  the  deutoxide  of  nitrogen,  a 
process  greatly  promoted  by  the  presence  in 
the  chamber  of  sulphurous  acid  purposely  in 
troduced.  The  water,  usually  in  the  form  of 
steam  (practical  experience  proving  that  a  cer 
tain  elevation  of  temperature  is  required),  acts 
in  this  process  as  in  others  wherein  sulphurous 
acid  effects  reduction.  By  the  presence  of  at 
mospheric  air  in  the  chamber  the  deutoxide 
of  nitrogen  is  oxidized  into  hyponitric  or  ni 
trous  acid,  and  this  acid  again  is  decomposed 
by  sulphurous  acid.  A  peculiar  crystalline  sub 
stance  sometimes  forms,  having  the  formula 
HaS04  -t-NaOsjSOs,  and  formerly  thought  to  play 


FIG.  2. — Class-room  Apparatus  for  Sulphuric  Acid. 

an  important  part  in  the  transformation  ;  but 
according  to  R.  Weber  this  substance  only  ap 
pears  when  the  process  is  not  well  managed, 
and  is  chiefly  due  to  want  of  water.  The  pro 
cess  of  forming  sulphuric  acid  may  be  illustra 
ted  on  a  small  scale  by  means  of  the  apparatus 


shown  in  fig.  2.  A  flask,  &,  furnishes  sulphu 
rous  anhydride,  and  the  bottle  e  deutoxide  of 
nitrogen,  to  the  large  glass  balloon  r,  and  the 
flask  w  supplies  steam  when  it  is  required.  Air 
is  occasionally  blown  into  the  balloon  through 
the  bent  tube  if,  the  effete  products  passing 
out  at  o.  If  but  little  vapor  of  water  is  present, 
the  white  crystalline  solid  above  mentioned 
makes  its  appearance  upon  the  sides  of  the 
globe ;  but  when  sufficient  water  is  present  the 
substance  is  not  deposited,  neither  is  it  sup 
posed  to  be  formed  as  a  necessary  stage  of  the 
process.  Gay-Lussac  invented  what  is  called  a 
condenser  as  an  attachment  to  the  large  leaden 
chambers,  for  the  purpose  of  economizing  the 
consumption  of  nitre,  Avhich  formerly  amount 
ed  to  from  one  eighth  to  one  twelfth  of  the 
weight  of  sulphur.  The  condenser  consists  of 
a  leaden  tower  filled  with  fragments  of  coke, 
through  which  sulphuric  acid  of  CG°  Baume 
is  constantly  trickling.  Through  this  con 
denser  the  spent  gases  are  passed,  and  the 
oxides  of  nitrogen  which  they  may  contain 
are  absorbed.  The  sulphuric  acid  which  col 
lects  at  the  bottom  of  the  chambers  is  too 
dilute  for  most  purposes ;  it  is  not  found  ad 
vantageous  to  allow  it  to  attain  a  specific  grav 
ity  of  quite  TO,  because  at  that  strength  it 
absorbs  too  much  of  the  nitrous  fumes.  It 
may  be  used  at  this  strength  for  the  manufac 
ture  of  salt  cake  (see  SODA),  but  for  other 
uses  it  must  be  further  concentrated.  This  is 
generally  effected  by  two  different  stages,  the 
first  in  leaden  pans,  the  second  in  platinum 
or  glass  retorts.  Some  makers  concentrate 
to  60°  Baume  (sp.  gr.  1'Tl)  in  leaden  pans; 
others  use  them  only  till  the  acid  is  raised  to 
55°  Baume  (sp.  gr/1'59).  The  leaden  pans 
are  rectangular,  long  and  wide,  supported  by 
iron  plates  to  protect  the  lead  from  imme 
diate  contact  with  the  flame  which  is  used  for 
evaporation.  The  pans  arc  generally  arranged 
in  steps,  the  acid  being  conveyed  from  the  up 
per  to  the  lower  ones  by  syphons,  the  den 
sity  of  the  acid  increasing  from  one  pan  to 
the  next  lower.  When  it  has  attained  a  den 
sity  of  from  1-05  to  rV2  in  the  leaden  pans, 
it  is  known  as  brown  oil  of  vitriol,  and  may 
be  used  by  bleachers,  calico  printers,  dyers, 
&c. ;  but  to  raise  it  to  the  strength  of  com 
mercial  oi\  of  vitriol,  it  is  further  concen 
trated  in  the  glass  or  platinum  retorts  above 
mentioned.  Glass  retorts  holding  20  gallons 
or  more  are  often  used,  set  in  an  iron  pot,  the 
bottom  of  which  is  covered  with  dry  sand. 
The  concentration  requires  from  12  to  10 
hours;  the  vapors  which  distil  over  toward 
the  last,  carrying  some  acid  with  them,  are 
passed  into  condensers  and  returned  to  the  lead 
pans.  Platinum  retorts  are  more  costly,  but 
are  thought  by  many  to  be  more  economical  in 
the  end  on  account  of  their  not  being  liable  to 
break.  Fig.  3  shovrs  a  section  of  a  platinum 
retort.  The  syphon  x  is  worked  without  a 
stopcock  by  the  vessel  c,  in  the  following  in 
genious  manner.  When  the  vessel  is  lowered 


460 


SULPHURIC   ACID 


SULPICIANS 


with  its  spout  to  the  gutter  J,  the  outer  limb  of 
the  syphon,  which  is  constantly  full,  becomes 
lengthened  below  n  (the  end  of  one  of  the 
leaden  pans),  and  the  acid  flows  out,  fills  the 
movable  vessel,  and  runs  out  of  the  spout  and 
through  the  gutter  d  into  the  retort  13.  The 


FIG.  3.— Platinum  Eetort. 

head  0  communicates  by  means  of  tubing,  not 
shown  in  the  engraving,  with  a  worm,  where 
the  watery  vapor  and  the  very  weak  acid  me 
chanically  carried  over  with  it  are  condensed. 
The  fire  under  the  retort  communicates  with 
the  flue  A,  which  passes  under  the  leaden  pans. 
The  concentrated  acid  left  in  the  retorts  con 
tains  a  slight  excess  of  water  beyond  that 
required  for  the  formula  II2O,S03  or  II2SO4. 
This  formula  gives  18*36  per  cent,  of  the  ele 
ments  of  water,  while  Marignac  obtained  19'62 
per  cent,  from  the  concentrated  acid.  Accord 
ing  to  Playfair,  if  the  concentration  is  con 
ducted  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  500° 
F.,  the  true  compound,  of  sp.  gr.  1*844,  is  ob 
tained;  but  if  heated  to  ebullition,  there  is 
partial  decomposition. — Properties.  The  oil 
of  vitriol  of  commerce  is  an  oily-looking,  col 
orless,  and  odorless  liquid,  of  sp.  gr.  1'842.  It 
chars  nearly  all  organic  substances,  in  conse 
quence  of  abstracting  from  them  the  elements 
of  water,  leaving  a  carbonaceous  residue.  It 
mixes  with  water  in  all  proportions,  with  con 
densation  of  volume  of  the  mixture,  and  con 
sequent  evolution  of  heat.  Its  attraction  for 
moisture  is  so  great,  that  if  exposed  to  the  air 
for  a  few  days  in  a  shallow  vessel  it  frequently 
doubles  its  weight ;  and  advantage  is  taken  of 
this  in  the  laboratory  for  drying  various  sub 
stances.  The  boiling  point  of  sulphuric  acid 
is  620-6°  F.,  and  it  freezes  at  about— 29°,  al 
though  when  frozen  it  does  not  melt  below 
32°.  Marignac  finds  that  the  true  sulphuric 
acid  when  heated  parts  with  a  small  quantity 
of  vapor  of  the  anhydride,  and  the  remaining 
liquid  boils  at  640-4°.  Sulphuric  acid  forms 


two  definite  hydrates,  the  monohydrate,  H2 
SO4,H2O,  and  the  dehydrate,  H2SQ4,2H2O. 
The  first,  of  sp.  gr.  T78,  crystallizes  at  47°  in 
splendid  rhombic  prisms,  of  sp.  gr.  1*951.  From 
this  property  it  is  often  called  glacial  sulphuric 
acid.  It  boils  at  about  400°.  The  dehydrate 
may  be  formed  by  concentrating  a  dilute  acid 
in  vacuo  at  212°  till  it  ceases  to  lose  weight. 
Its  sp.gr.  is  1*62;  boiling  point,  370°. —  Uses. 
Sulphuric  acid  is  the  starting  point  of  nearly 
all  the  great  chemical  manufactures.  It  is  used 
to  procure  nitric  acid  from  the  nitrates  of  po 
tassium  and  sodium,  and  hydrochloric  acid 
from  common  salt,  at  the  same  time  furnish 
ing  salt  cake,  from  which  the  carbonates  of 
soda  are  obtained.  It  is  therefore  used  in  the 
preparation  of  various  bleaching  compounds. 
Phosphate  of  lime  in  artificial  manures  is  re 
duced  to  biphosphate  by  the  action  of  sulphu 
ric  acid.  In  medicine,  diluted  with  water  or 
spirits  of  wine  and  known  as  acid-urn  sulphu- 
ricum  dilutum  and  acidum  sulphuricum  aro- 
maticum,  it  is  used  as  a  tonic,  refrigerant,  and 
astringent.  It  is  given  in  typhoid  fevers,  in 
convalescence  from  various  fevers,  and  as  an 
aid  to  digestion. 

SULPHURIC  ETHER.     See  ETHEK. 

SULPHUROUS  ACIDo     See  SULPHUR. 

SULPICIMS,  or  Priests  of  the  Society  of  St.  Sol- 
pice,  a  congregation  of  priests  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  founded  in  the  parish  of  St. 
Sulpice,  Paris,  in  1645,  by  Jean  Jacques  Olier 
de  Verneuil,  and  specially  devoted  to  the  train 
ing  of  candidates  for  the  priesthood.  In  1642 
Olier  and  two  other  clergymen  formed  a  com 
munity  at  Vaugirard,  and  bound  themselves  to 
found  ecclesiastical  seminaries.  His  compan 
ions  soon  abandoned  him,  and  becoming  in  the 
same  year  rector  of  the  parish  of  St.  Sulpice, 
he  set  about  realizing  his  plan  there.  The  act 
founding  the  society  of  St.  Sulpice  is  dated 
Sept.  6,  1645,  and  was  immediately  sanctioned 
by  the  proper  authorities.  The  corner  stone 
of  the  present  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  was  laid 
in  September,  1649;  the  edifice  was  completed 
and  occupied  in  August,  1651.  The  society 
formed  two  bands,  the  one  devoted  to  parish 
work,  the  other  to  that  of  teaching.  The  Sul- 
picians  were  warmly  befriended  from  the  be 
ginning  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  the  estab 
lishment  of  Sulpician  seminaries  in  nearly  all 
the  dioceses  of  France  soon  followed.  There 
by  the  society  came  to  have  the  chief  part  in 
the  education  of  the  French  clergy  down  to  the 
revolution  of  1789.  They  were  at  first  favored 
by  Napoleon,  but  were  suppressed  by  him  in 
1812  for  their  attachment  to  Pius  VII. ;  they 
were  restored  by  Louis  XVIII.,  and  ever  after 
ward  directed  the  most  important  diocesan 
seminaries  in  France. — Olier  in  1636  formed  a 
company  for  colonizing  the  island  of  Montreal. 
They  purchased  it  in  1640,  sent  out  Sieur  de 
Maisonneuve  with  priests  and  nuns  in  1641,  and 
transferred  their  proprietorship  to  the  Sulpi- 
cians  in  1656.  In  1657  the  Sulpicians  De  Quey- 
lus,  Souard,  and  Galinier  took  possession  of 


SULPICIUS  SEVERUS 


SUMACH 


461 


the  island  and  founded  there  a  missionary  es 
tablishment;  but  their  claims  to  exclusive  paro 
chial  jurisdiction  being  resisted,  De  Queylus  in 
1659  obtained  in  Koine  a  bull  erecting  Montreal 
into  an  independent  parish,  and  used  the  pow 
ers  thus  conferred  in  spite  of  Bishop  de  Laval, 
till  a  lettre  de  cachet  forcibly  removed  him  in 
October,  1660.  This  conflict  of  jurisdiction 
broke  out  anew  in  1821,  on  the  erection  of  the 
see  of  Montreal,  and  has  been  kept  up  till  the 
present  time,  the  most  eminent  Canadian  jurists 
taking  sides  in  the  controversy.  Both  parties 
appealed  to  Rome,  and  a  final  decision  had  not 
been  reached  in  the  beginning  of  1876.  The 
Sulpicians  Francois  de  Fenelon,  brother  of  the 
author  of  Telemaque,  and  Claude  Trouve,  found 
ed  in  1668  the  first  Iroquois  mission  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario.  In  July, 
1669,  a  party  of  Sulpicians  under  Dollier  de 
Casson  first  explored  Lake  Erie  and  sailed 
round  it  and  Lake  St.  Clair.  But  their  mis 
sionary  labors  were  soon  necessarily  limited  to 
the  Indian  tribes  in  the  immediate  neighbor 
hood  of  Montreal,  where  they  collected  the 
remnants  of  the  Christian  Algonquin  and  Iro 
quois  tribes  into  two  contiguous  settlements  at 
the  lake  of  Two  Mountains  on  the  Ottawa.  In 
Montreal  city,  besides  the  seminary  proper 
attached  to  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  as  a  pa 
rochial  residence,  founded  in  1657,  they  possess 
the  theological  seminary,  to  which  students  are 
sent  from  every  part  of  the  United  States,  the 
preparatory  seminary  or  "  college  of  Montreal," 
founded  in  1773,  and  several  other  succursal 
churches  with  their  residences. — In  April,  1791, 
at  the  call  of  Bishop  (afterward  Archbishop) 
Carroll,  a  band  of  four  Sulpicians  and  three 
seminarians,  headed  by  Francois  Charles  Nagot 
(died  1816),  sailed  for  Baltimore,  where  they 
formed  for  a  time  the  clergy  of  the  cathedral. 
They  sent  some  of  their  number  to  teach  in 
Georgetown  college,  and  founded  in  Baltimore 
the  theological  seminary  of  St.  Mary's,  with 
a  collegiate  or  preparatory  school.  The  semi 
nary  was  raised  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  to  the 
rank  of  a  Catholic  university;  the  collegiate 
school  was  removed  to  near  Ellicott  City, 
Howard  co.,  in  1849,  and  suppressed  in  1852. 

SELPICIFS  SEVERUS,  a  Roman  historian,  born 
near  Toulouse  about  A.  D.  363,  died  at  Mar 
seilles  about  410.  He  was  a  lawyer,  but  on 
the  death  of  his  wife  adopted  an  ascetic  life. 
His  father  disinherited  him;  but,  encouraged 
and  assisted  by  his  father-in-law,  he  formed 
with  his  own  freedmen  and  a  few  followers  a 
monastic  establishment  near  Marseilles.  lie 
wrote  the  life  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  an  abridg 
ment  of  the  Scriptural  narrative,  which  was 
a  favorite  text  book  in  the  schools  of  the  mid 
dle  ages,  and  a  continuation  to  his  own  time, 
under  the  title  of  "  The  Chronicle  of  Sulpicius 
Severus."  His  works,  which  have  been  often 
printed,  include  also  "Three  Dialogues"  and 
a  collection  of  letters.  The  last  critical  edition 
is  that  of  Halm,  forming  vol.  i.  of  the  Vienna 
Corpus  (1866). 


SllIACH,  or  Sumac  (Arab,  summak),  the  com 
mon  name  for  plants  of  the  genus  rhus  (the 
ancient  Greek  and  Latin  name),  of  the  cashew 
family  or  anacardiacece,  which  includes,  be 
sides  the  cashew,  the  mango  and  other  tropical 
fruits.  The  sumachs  are  represented  in  the 
United  States  by  about  12  species,  which  are 
shrubs  or  small  trees,  with  alternate,  some 
times  simple,  but  generally  trifoliolate  or  odd- 
pinnate  leaves,  and  small  polygamous  flowers 
in  terminal  or  axillary  panicles;  the  sepals  and 
petals  are  five,  and  the  stamens,  also  five,  are 
inserted  under  the  margin  of  a  disk  which  lines 
the  calyx ;  fruit  a  small,  dry,  nut-like  drupe. 
Our  species  are  separable  into  several  well 
marked  sections  or  subgenera.  1.  The  su 
machs  proper,  with  pinnate  leaves,  flowers  in 
a  terminal  crowded  panicle,  and  the  globular 
fruit  clothed  with  acid  hairs ;  the  plants  not 
poisonous,  and  containing  an  abundance  of 
tannin.  The  smooth  sumach  (rlivs  glalra)  is 
the  most  common,  often  covering  extensive 
tracts  of  barren  soil;  it  grows  from  2  to  12 
ft.  high,  with  leaves  a  foot  or  more  long, 
consisting  of  11  to  31  lance-oblong,  pointed, 
serrate  leaflets,  which  are  whitish  beneath; 
the  yellowish  green  flowers  appear  in  June, 
and  are  pleasantly  fragrant;  the  fruit,  in 
dense  clusters,  is  of  the  richest  crimson,  with 
a  velvety  appearance  from  the  number  of  small 
hairs;  it  has  a  pleasant  acid  taste,  due  to  the 
presence  of  a  great  abundance  of  bimalate  of 
lime ;  an  infusion  of  the  berries  is  sometimes 
used  to  make  a  cooling  drink  in  fevers,  and 
as  a  gargle  in  affections  of  the  throat  and 
mouth.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  among 
the  first  which  put  on  autumn  colors,  and 


Smooth  Sumach  (Ehus  glabra). 

show  fine  tints  of  yellow  and  scarlet ;  a  variety 
in  which  the  leaflets  are  much  subdivided, 
discovered  some  years  ago  in  Pennsylvania,  is 
in  cultivation  for  the  fern-like  beauty  of  its 
foliage  under  the  name  of  cut-leaved  sumach. 
The  stag's-horn  sumach  (R.  typhina)  is  the 


462 


SUMACH 


largest  of  the  northern  species,  sometimes 
reaching  30  ft.,  but  is  usually  about  10  ft. ;  it 
is  readily  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by 
the  copious  soft  velvety  down  which  clothes 
the  ends  of  the  branches ;  the  wood  and  abun 
dant  pith  are  yellowish  or  orange-colored ;  the 
clusters  of  fruit,  at  first  crimson,  turn  purple 
in  autumn;  they  have  the  same  acid  proper 
ties  as  the  foregoing.  The  dwarf  or  mountain 
sumach  (/u  copallincii)  is  a  remarkably  neat 
shrub,  seldom  more  than  6  or  8  ft.  high ;  the 
branches  are  downy,  but  less  conspicuously  so 
than  in  the  stag's-horn  sumach,  and  it  is  readi 
ly  distinguished  from  either  of  the  others  by 
its  dark  shining  leaves,  the  common  petiole  to 
which  bears  a  winged  margin ;  the  leaves  in 
autumn  turn  to  a  rich  purple;  fruit  similar  to 
the  preceding.  A  very  dwarf  species  of  this 
section,  R.  pumila,  with  branches  only  about 
a  foot  high,  is  found  from  North  Carolina 
southward  in  pine  barrens ;  this  has  been 
erroneously  described  as  poisonous.  2.  The 
section  lobadium  includes  species  in  which  the 
flowers  are  in  short  ament-liko  spikes  prece 
ding  the  leaves,  fruit  flattish,  and  leaves  of 
three  leaflets,  not  poisonous.  The  principal 
species  is  the  fragrant  sumach  (11.  aromatica), 
a  straggling  bush  4  or  5  ft.  high ;  its  range  is 
from  Vermont  to  Florida,  and  westward  to  the 
Rocky  mountains,  where  it  has  smaller  leaves 
and  has  been  described  as  a  distinct  species 
(R.  trilobat(t).  The  leaves  of  the  eastern 
form  are  pleasantly  fragrant  when  bruised,  and 
those  of  the  western  have  a  strong  and  heavy 
odor;  they  with  other  leaves  form  the  kinni- 
kinick  or  killikinick,  smoked  by  the  Indians 
as  a  substitute  for  tobacco.  3.  The  section 
cotinus  has  simple  leaves,  not  poisonous,  and 
flowers  in  loose  panicles.  This  is  represented 
by  the  well  known  Venetian  sumach,  or  smoke 
tree  of  the  gardens  (R.  cotimiR),  sometimes 


Venetian   Sumach   (Ebus   cotinus).     Fruitful    and    abortive 
pedicels,  reduced  and  of  full  size. 

called  by  nurserymen  the  purple  fringe  tree ; 
it  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe,  and  is  rarely 
over  10  or  12  ft.  high;  in  summer  it  is  nearly 
enveloped  in  large,  feathery,  cloud-like  masses, 


which  are  at  first  greenish  and  later  tinged 
with  red ;  this  very  showy  effect  is  produced 
by  the  little  pedicels  or  stalks  of  the  flower 
cluster,  very  few  of  which  bear  flowers  and 
fruit,  while  the  abortive  ones  lengthen  greatly, 
branch,  and  become  plumose  with  long  hairs. 
This  plant  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
has  long  been  used  in  Greece  and  other  coun 
tries  for  tanning  and  dyeing.  A  tree  closely 
resembling  this,  found  in  the  interior  of  Ala 
bama,  and  described  by  Nuttall  as  a  distinct 
species  (R.  cotinoides),  is  so  little  known  that 
it  is  not  yet  admitted  as  really  different.  4. 
The  toxicodendron  group  includes  two  species 
with  white  or  dun-colored  berries  in  loose 
panicles  and  highly  poisonous  foliage.  The 


Poison  Ivy  (Rbus  toxicodendron). 

poison  ivy  or  poison  oak  (R.  toxicodendron) 
is  also  in  some  localities  called  mercury  vine ; 
it  has  leaves  of  three  leaflets,  which  are  rhom 
bic  ovate,  and  variously  notched,  lobed,  or 
even  entire ;  its  flowers  are  in  loose  slender 
axillary  panicles ;  the  smooth  fruit  is  pale 
brown.  This  is  found  nearly  all  over  the 
country,  especially  in  moist  and  shady  places, 
and  presents  two  forms,  one  erect  and  the 
other  climbing,  which  were  formerly  described 
as  distinct  species,  but  run  into  one  another 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  hardly  be  re 
garded  as  varieties;  it  clambers  over  rocks 
and  fences,  and  by  -means  of  aerial  rootlets 
ascends  the  trunks  of  the  tallest  trees,  and  ad 
heres  with  great  pertinacity;  when  wounded 
it  exudes  a  milky  juice,  which  becomes  black 
upon  exposure  to  the  air,  and  upon  fabrics 
makes  a  stain  indelible  by  all  ordinary  sol 
vents  ;  the  leaves  taken  internally  promote  the 
secretions  of  the  skin  and  kidneys.  This  plant 
is  highly  poisonous  to  many  persons.  The  poi 
son  sumach  (R.  venenata),  also  often  called  poi 
son  dogwood  and  poison  elder,  is  an  exceed 
ingly  neat  and  graceful  shrub,  G  to  18  ft.  high, 
found  in  swamps  from  Canada  to  Louisiana ; 
the  young  shoots  are  purple,  or  green  clouded 


SUMACH 


463 


with  purple,  and  marked  by  orange-colored 
dots  which  turn  grayish";  the  leaves  have  7  to 
13  leaflets,  which  are  dark  green,  pointed,  and 
entire  on  the  margins;  the  greenish  yellow 


Poison  Sumach  (Ehus  venenata). 

flowers  are  in  loose  axillary  panicles,  and  the 
greenish  white  fruit  hangs  in  loose  clusters  on 
stems  6  or  8  in.  long,  and  remains  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen  ;  the  juice  is  milky,  and 
dries  to  a  black  varnish.  This  has  poisonous 
characters  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  is  much 
more  virulent.  The  susceptibility  to  the  poi 
son  varies  greatly  in  different  persons ;  many 
can  handle  the  plants  without  any  unpleasant 
results,  while  others  are  seriously  affected  by 
touching  them,  or  even  passing  near  them. 
The  poisonous  properties  of  these  plants  are 
due  to  a  volatile  acid  named  by  its  discoverer, 
Prof.  J.  M.  Maisch,  toxicodendric.  Its  effect 
is  an  acute  eczematous  inflammation  of  the 
skin,  often  accompanied  by  much  swelling. 
The  usual  remedies  are  cooling  saline  purga 
tives  and  an  external  application  of  lead  water. 
The  coral  sumach  (P.  metopium),  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies,  is  found  in  the  southernmost  parts 
of  Florida;  it  is  a  tree  15  to  20  ft.  high,  with 
leaves  of  three  to  seven  thick  leaflets,  and  loose 
clusters  of  scarlet  berries  the  size  of  peas;  this 
also  is  poisonous. — The  sumach  of  commerce 
formerly  consisted  entirely  of  the  imported 
leaves  of  rhus  coriaria  of  southern  Europe  and 
northern  Africa;  it  greatly  resembles  in  ap 
pearance  our  stag's-horn  sumach  (R.  typhind), 
and  like  that  forms  a  small  tree  ;  it  is  largely 
cultivated  in  Sicily,  where  the  suckers  are 
planted  in  rows  about  4  ft.  apart,  and  the 
shoots  are  yearly  cut  back  to  within  a  few 
inches  of  the  ground,  the  crop  for  the  next 
year  being  furnished  by  the  new  stems  which 
push  from  the  stumps;  the  shoots  are  dried 
and  threshed,  the  leaves  are  finally  ground  be 
tween  mill  stones  and  bolted,  and  the  powder 
is  put  into  sacks  of  103  Ibs.  each  for  ship 
ment;  the  product  is  sometimes  adulterated 
VOL.  xv. — 30 


with  other  leaves,  but  when  pure  contains 
from  30  to  35  per  cent,  of  tannin.  Sumach  is 
used  for  tanning  light-colored  leathers  and  in 
dyeing  and  calico  printing ;  it  yields  with  dif 
ferent  mordants  a  great  variety  of  tints.  Since 
the  civil  war  the  collection  and  preparation  of 
the  leaves  of  our  native  sumachs  have  assumed 
considerable  importance,  especially  in  Virginia, 
the  headquarters  of  the  industry  being  at  Rich 
mond.  The  plants  grow  so  abundantly  in  the 
wild  state  that  cultivation  has  not  been  at 
tempted;  the  smooth,  the  stag's-horn,  and  the 
mountain  sumachs  are  collected  indiscriminate 
ly,  but  as  the  first  named  is  the  most  abundant, 
the  product  consists  mainly  of  that ;  the  gath 
ering  begins  early  in  July  and  continues  till 
frost.  The  leafy  tops  of  the  plants  are  broken 
off  and  carefully  dried,  the  best  being  that 
dried  in  the  shade ;  when  dry  it  is  beaten  with 
sticks,  and  the  leaves  are  taken  to  the  mill  to 
receive  the  same  treatment  as  that  described  for 
Sicilian  sumach.  American  sumach  contains 
from  15  to  20  per  cent,  or  more  of  tannin. — 
The  Japan  wax,  or  vegetable  wax  of  Japan,  is 
yielded  by  rhus  succedanea,  being  found  as  a 
thick  white  coating  of  the  seed  within  the  cap 
sule.  To  extract  it,  the  bruised  seed  vessels  are 
boiled  in  water  and  the  wax  skimmed  off  as  it 
rises  to  the  top ;  it  has  much  the  appearance 
of  white  wax  (bleached  beeswax),  but  is  rather 
more  opaque;  it  melts  at  about  127°,  saponi 
fies  readily,  and  formed  into  candles  gives  a 
fine  clear  light ;  mixed  in  proper  proportions 
with  paraffine,  it  makes  a  candle  in  appearance 
closely  resembling  one  of  wax. — The  lacquer 
of  the  Japanese  is  produced  by  7?.  vernicifera, 
a  shrub  so  nearly  like  our  poison  sumach  in 
appearance  and  in  poisonous  qualities  that  the 
two  were  at  one  time  supposed  to  be  identical. 
The  juice,  obtained  by  wounding  the  tree,  is  at 
first  milky,  but  becomes  black  on  exposure,  and 
is  largely  used  for  furniture  and  various  kinds 
of  woodwork.  Americans  in  Japan  have  be 
come  seriously  poisoned  by  coming  in  contact 
with  newly  varnished  wares.  Dr.  Jacob  Bige- 
low  many  years  ago  demonstrated  that  our 
poison  sumach  affords  a  similar  product.  Other 
and  poisonous  species  afford  lacquer  to  the 


Chinese  Galls  (Elms  seinialata). 

natives  of  China  and  India. — The  singularly 
shaped  Chinese  galls  are  the  result  of  the  punc 
ture  and  deposition  of  the  egg  of  an  insect  in 
the  leaf  stalks  and  young  shoots  of  a  sumach, 


464: 


SUMAROKOFF 


SUMATRA 


rlius  semialata,  of  northern  India,  China,  and 
Japan ;  the  galls  are  very  irregular  in  shape,  1 
to  2^  in.  long,  mostly  egg-shaped,  with  various 
knotty  protuberances,  and  often  lobed,  velvety 
with  a  gray  down ;  they  are  mere  brittle  shells 
about  aV  in.  thick,  breaking  with  a  shining 
fracture,  and  containing  about  70  per  cent,  of 
tannin.  In  1872,  8,621  cwt.  of  these  galls  were 
imported  into  Great  Britain  alone. 

SIDIAROKOFF,  Alexei  Petroviteh,  a  Russian 
dramatist,  born  in  Moscow  in  November,  1727, 
died  there  in  October,  1777.  He  was  educated 
at  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  empress  Elizabeth 
placed  him  in  the  school  of  cadets.  In  1756 
he  founded  the  first  national  theatre  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  became  its  director  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier  general.  Catharine  II.  made 
him  councillor  of  state.  He  modelled  his  plays 
after  Corneille,  Racine,  and  Voltaire.  Among 
his  tragedies  are  KJiorejf  and  Sinaff  i  Truvor. 
He  also  wrote  proso  works,  satires,  and  oth 
er  poetry.  His  complete  writings  (10  vols., 
1787)  have  passed  through  several  editions. 

SUMATRA  (Sans.  Samudra,  the  ocean),  an 
island  of  the  Indian  archipelago,  in  the  Indo- 
Malay  group,  lying  directly  under  the  equator, 
S.  W.  of  the  Malay  peninsula  and  parallel  to  it, 
between  lat.  5°  40'  N.  and  5°  55'  S.,  and  Ion. 
95°  20'  and  106°  5'  E. ;  bounded  N".  by  the  bay 
of  Bengal,  N.  E.  by  the  strait  of  Malacca,  E. 
by  the  China  sea,  the  strait  of  Banca,  and  the 
Java  sea,  S.  by  the  strait  of  Sunda,  and  S.  W. 
by  the  Indian  ocean ;  extreme  length  1,050 
m.,  greatest  breadth  250  m. ;  area,  160,000 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  estimated  at  from  3,000,000  to 
4,000,000.  About  three  fourths  of  the  island 
is  subject  to  the  Netherlands,  a  portion  direct 
ly,  and  the  rest  through  dependent  native 
rulers.  To  the  first  class  belong  four  colonial 
establishments,  which  include  the  adjoining 
islands:  1.  The  government  officially  known 
as  Sumatra's  West  Coast,  comprising  the  west 
ern  seaboard  from  lat.  2°  30'  N.  to  1°  55'  S., 
and  including  the  residencies  of  Tapanuli  and 
Padang ;  aggregate  area,  about  47,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  1,620,979.  2.  Bencoolen,  on  the 
S.  W.  coast,  described  under  its  own  title.  3. 
Lampong,  at  the  S.  extremity  of  the  island; 
area,  10,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  112,271.  4.  Palein- 
bang,  on  the  S.  E.  coast  opposite  Banca,  (See 
PALEMBAXG.)  The  principal  native  state  in 
Sumatra  is  Acheen,  which  embraces  the  north 
ern  end  of  the  island  from  coast  to  coast,  and 
is  wholly  independent  of  the  Dutch.  (See 
ACTIEEN.)  The  territory  of  the  cannibal  Ba- 
taks  extends  southward  from  Acheen,  along 
the  interior,  to  the  border  of  the  colonial  dis 
tricts  of  the  W.  coast.  The  largest  native 
countries  in  the  east  are  Siak,  opposite  the  S. 
exfremity  of  Malacca,  and  Jambi,  between  Siak 
and  the  Dutch  residency  of  Pulembang. — The 
physical  conformation  of  Sumatra  resembles 
that  of  Java  in  the  long  volcanic  range  which 
extends,  throughout  the  island,  although  the 
active  volcanoes  are  not  nearly  so  numerous, 
and  probably  do  not  exceed  five.  The  range 


is  near  the  TV.  coast,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  strip  of  lowlands  from  less  than  20  to  30  m. 
wide,  above  which  the  mountains  rise  abrupt 
ly  to  a  height  of  from  2,500  to  5,000  ft,,  with 
many  lofty  peaks.  They  form  four  or  five 
parallel  ridges  with  elevated  plateaus  between 
them.  There  are  four  summits  over  10,000  ft. 
high,  and  six  others  over  5,000  ft.  Mt.  Berapi, 
just  S.  of  the  equator  (12,000  ft.),  is  the  centre 
of  a  volcanic  district  containing  numerous  hot 
springs,  and  continually  emits  vapor.  The  al 
titude  of  Mt.  Ophir  (or  Passaman  peak),  at  the 
equator,  and  Mt.  Indrapura,  in  lat,  1°  30'  S.,  is 
estimated  at  upward  of  12,000  ft.,  and  a  height 
of  11,000  ft.  is  assigned  to  the  Abong-Abong 
mountain,  which  rises  from  the  very  centre  of 
the  unexplored  interior  of  Acheen.  The  por 
tion  of  Sumatra  which  lies  eastward  of  the 
great  linear  volcanic  range  is  a  vast  low  and 
comparatively  level  forest  region,  watered  by 
numerous  and  extensive  rivers,  and  subject  to 
frequent  inundation  near  the  coast.  The  for 
mation  of  this  great  plain  is  alluvial,  and  com 
paratively  recent  in  geological  time,  while  the 
W.  coast  is  believed  to  be  gradually  wearing 
away.  According  to  Wallace,  Sumatra  was 
formerly  connected  with  the  Malay  penin 
sula,  and  also  with  Borneo.  In  western  Su 
matra  the  underlying  formation  consists  of 
granite  and  syenite,  overspread  with  mud 
and  coral,  sandstone,  and  lava  and  other  vol 
canic  products.  Limestone  and  marble  occur 
in  Padang,  and  there  are  extensive  coal  beds 
in  the  island,  but  of  very  recent  origin. 
Sumatra  has  long  been  noted  for  its  yield 
of  gold,  which  is  still  considerable,  being  de 
rived  from  the  beds  of  the  rivers,  particularly 
the  Indragiri,  the  Jambi,  and  their  tributa 
ries.  Iron,  copper,  tin,  sulphur,  and  petro 
leum  are  also  found. — The  coast  is  about  2,500 
m.  in  circuit.  The  island  terminates  on  the 
northwest  in  Acheen  head  and  on  the  north 
east  in  Diamond  point.  Between  these  points 
stretches  the  N.  coast  of  Acheen,  formerly 
known  as  the  Pedir  coast,  on  which  is  the  town 
of  Passier,  believed  to  be  the  first  place  to  which 
the  name  Sumuthrah  (Sumatra)  was  applied. 
The  shore  is  high  and  bold,  and  the  anchorage 
is  mostly  in  open  roadsteads.  The  1ST.  E.  coast 
is  low,  and  from  the  narrowest  part  of  the 
strait  of  Malacca  southward  to  the  strait  of 
Sunda  it  is  bordered  by  extensive  banks  of 
mud  and  sand,  making  navigation  intricate 
and  dangerous.  The  entire  W.  coast  is  exposed 
to  a  very  heavy  surf,  and  more  especially  that 
portion  which  lies  S.  of  the  equator.  It  is 
indented  by  several  excellent  harbors,  that  of 
Tapanuli  being  considered  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  world.  Parallel  to  it  and  about  60  m.  dis 
tant  is  a  chain  of  islands,  between  lat.  3°  N. 
and  5°  30'  S.,  comprising  several  of  consid 
erable  size,  including  Pulo  Babi  or  Hog  island 
(50  m.  long),  Pulo  Nias  (70  m.),  Sibiru,  Si- 
pora,  the  Poggi  islands,  and  Engano.  Most 
of  them  are  high,  well  wooded,  and  thickly 
inhabited.  The  chief  islands  off  the  E.  coast 


LIBRARY    ^ 

1V  KUsrrY  OF  i 

I  A. 


( > 


SUMATRA 


465 


are  Banca  and  Rupat,  the  latter  in  lat.  2°  K, 
extending  about  25  m.  each  way,  and  separated 
from  Sumatra  by  a  narrow  strait,  only  naviga 
ble  by  small  vessels. — The  large  rivers  of  Suma 
tra  now  down  the  eastern  watershed,  and  al 
though  there  are  many  rivers  on  the  W.  coast, 
they  all  have  short  courses  and  are  very  rapid. 
The  principal  eastern  watercourses  are  the 
Rakan,  flowing  northward  from  the  equator ; 
the  Siak,  200  m.  long,  in  the  native  state  of 
Siak ;  the  Kamper,  still  further  S.  ;  the  Indra- 
giri,  having  a  general  eastward  course  not  far 
from  the  1st  parallel  of  S.  latitude,  and  said  to 
be  300  m.  long ;  the  Jambi,  in  the  country  of 
that  name  ;  and  the  Musi  or  Palembang,  fall 
ing  into  the  strait  of  Banca,  the  largest  river 
in  Sumatra  and  navigable  200  m.  inland.  In 
the  lower  part  of  their  courses  these  rivers 
are  very  sluggish,  and  they  all  have  exten 
sive  deltas.  Among  the  mountains  in  the 
west  are  several  lakes,  of  which  the  best 
known  is  Sinkara,  nearly  1°  S.  of  the  equator, 
at  a  height  of  1,700  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  is 
10  m.  long,  3  m.  broad,  and  1,182  ft,  deep. 
The  Manindyu  lake,  in  the  same  region,  occu 
pies  the  elliptic  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano, 
and  is  6  m.  long  by  4  m.  in  width,  with  a  depth 
of  2,060  ft. — The  climate  of  Sumatra  is  warm 
and  moist,  the  thermometer  ranging  through 
out  the  year  between  76°  and  93°.  There  are 
about  200  days  of  rain  in  the  year  on  the 
Padang  plateau,  2,400  ft.  above  the  ocean. 
During  the  N.  W.  monsoon,  which  blows  from 
November  to  January,  the  weather  is  exces 
sively  rainy ;  but  from  June  to  September, 
when  the  S.  E.  monsoon  prevails,  the  rainfall 
is  limited  to  showers.  Except  in  the  marshy 
districts,  the  coasts  are  moderately  healthful. 
Sumatra  is  overspread  with  vast  forests,  rich 
in  the  most  valuable  products  of  the  tropics. 
Much  of  the  E.  coast  is  covered  with  mangrove 
bushes.  Further  inland  are  found  palms,  and 
trees  of  gigantic  growth,  many  of  them  being 
more  than  100  ft.  high.  On  the  W.  shore, 
besides  the  myrtle  and  several  varieties  of  fig, 
all  the  fruit  trees  common  to  the  archipelago 
abound,  and  most  of  the  mountains  are  covered 
to  their  summits  with  jungle.  In  the  forests 
are  many  valuable  timber  trees,  immense  tree 
ferns,  bamboos,  rattans,  the  camphor  tree, 
caoutchouc,  and  benzoin.  The  parasitic  Ilaf- 
flesia  bears  a  flower  with  a  calyx  a  yard  in 
diameter.  The  soil  of  Sumatra  is  remarkable 
for  its  fertility,  and  yields  large  and  valuable 
crops  of  rice,  coffee,  pepper,  and  tobacco,  and 
some  cotton.  The  cocoanut  tree,  the  betelnut, 
and  the  sago  palm  also  afford  important  pro 
ducts.  There  is  a  considerable  export  of  coffee 
to  the  United  States  from  Padang,  where  it  is 
grown  on  the  plateau.  In  Acheen  pepper  is 
the  chief  crop. — The  Sumatran  fauna  corre 
sponds  closely  with  that  of  Java  and  Borneo, 
the  other  great  islands  of  the  Indo-Malay  group. 
Of  the  quadrumana  it  comprises  11  species, 
among  them  the  siamang  ape,  and  the  orang 
outang,  whose  sole  other  habitat  is  Borneo ;  it 


is  believed  to  be  confined  to  the  N".  TV.  portion 
of  Sumatra.  The  tiger,  the  two-horned  rhi 
noceros,  and  the  elephant  (E.  Sumatranm)  are 
all  found  on  the  island.  Many  elephants  were 
tamed  in  former  times,  but  no  attempt  is  now 
made  to  domesticate  them.  Other  mammals 
are  the  musk  deer  and  great  Malay  deer,  the 
tapir,  the  flying  lemur,  the  Malayan  sun  bear, 
squirrels,  and  bats.  There  are  many  beauti 
ful  pheasants,  parrots,  partridges,  woodpeck 
ers,  herons,  and  the  large  hornbill.  Croco 
diles  and  pythons  are  the  most  formidable 
reptiles.  The  forms  of  insect  life  are  nu 
merous  and  varied,  including  21  papilionidce, 
among  which  is  the  leaf  butterfly.'  In  many 
parts  of  the  island  travelling  is  rendered  un 
comfortable  by  swarms  of  leeches  and  mos 
quitoes.  Buffaloes,  horses,  goats,  and  Chinese 
pigs  are  the  common  domestic  animals. — The 
inhabitants  of  Sumatra  are  of  the  Malay  race, 
of  which  the  island  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  cradle.  They  are  divided  into  several 
tribes,  who  speak  languages  that  are  considered 
as  dialects  of  one  common  tongue.  There  are 
tribes  in  the  interior  whose  origin  is  involved 
in  obscurity.  The  people  of  the  N".  part  of 
Sumatra,  about  Acheen,  are  taller,  stouter,  and 
of  darker  complexion  than  the  other  tribes, 
and  are  supposed  to  have  a  considerable  infu 
sion  of  Hindoo  blood.  The  Bataks  or  Battas, 
who  occupy  the  country  immediately  S.  of  these 
people,  are  smaller  and  of  lighter  complexion, 
and  in  some  respects  a  very  singular  race. 
(See  BATAK.)  Mohammedanism  is  the  prevail 
ing  religion,  but  it  is  in  a  relaxed  state,  and 
the  people  of  the  interior  cannot  be  said  to  be 
long  to  any  particular  faith.  Polygamy  is  not 
common  except  among  the  chiefs.  The  Malays 
round  the  coast  appear  to  be  collected  from 
different  parts  of  the  archipelago,  and  it  is  esti 
mated  that  more  than  6,000  Chinese  have  set 
tled  in  the  Dutch  possessions.  Among  the 
natives  the  ordinary  dress  is  a  turban  and  loose 
trowsers  reaching  to  the  knee;  the  upper  part 
of  the  body  is  commonly  uncovered  in  both 
sexes,  but  a  scarf  is  sometimes  worn  about  the 
shoulders.  The  houses  are  raised  on  posts  or 
pillars  from  4  to  8  ft.  from  the  ground,  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  they  are  erected  in 
trees.  Those  of  the  poorer  classes  are  made  of 
bamboo  and  thatched  with  grass,  but  the  houses 
of  the  more  wealthy  are  generally  framed  of 
wood  and  the  sides  enclosed  by  large  sheets  of 
bark.  Agriculture  is  in  a  very  rude  state.  The 
only  important  manufactures  are  of  utensils 
and  cloth  for  domestic  purposes.  Iron  for  na 
tive  use  is  now  wholly  imported.  The  trade 
of  Sumatra  is  principally  carried  on  with  Java, 
Madura,  Singapore,  Malacca,  Penang,  and  Brit 
ish  India.  The  chief  exports  are  pepper,  gold 
dust,  camphor,  nutmegs,  cloves,  mace,  benzoin, 
gutta  percha,  copper,  tin,  sulphur,  and  coral. 
— For  administrative  purposes  the  Dutch  colo 
nial  possessions  are  divided  into  districts,  each 
under  a  controller,  who  visits  the  various,  vil 
lages  from  time  to  time.  The  native  inhabi- 


466 


SUMBAWA 


SUMMERFIELD 


tants  are  forbidden  to  bear  firearms.  The  entire 
number  of  Europeans  in  the  country  probably 
does  not  exceed  2,000.  The  chief  towns  are 
Acheen  in  the  north,  Palembang  in  the  south 
east,  Bencoolen  in  the  southwest,  and  Padang 
on  the  W.  coast. — The  first  historical  notice  of 
Sumatra  occurs  in  Arab  manuscripts  narrating 
voyages  made  thither  in  the  9th  century.  The 
island  was  visited  in  1292  by  Marco  Polo,  who 
described  it  very  accurately  under  the  name  of 
Java  the  Less.  It  began  to  be  known  to  for 
eigners  as  Sumatra  in  the  last  half  of  the  14th 
century.  Before  the  middle  of  the  15th  cen 
tury  it  was  reached  by  the  Venetian  traveller 
Nicolo  di  Conti.  The  Portuguese  first  arrived 
there  in  1509,  visiting  the  Acheen  coast,  where 
they  found  a  powerful  king,  who  effectually 
opposed  their  efforts  to  obtain  a  footing.  The 
hostilities  thus  begun  between  Portugal  and 
Acheen  continued  with  but  little  intermission 
till  1641,  when  the  Portuguese  lost  Malacca. 
Sumatra  was  first  visited  by  the  Dutch  in  1599 
and  by  the  English  in  1 G02.  The  Dutch  formed 
a  settlement  at  Padang  in  1649,  got  posses 
sion  of  some  districts  in  the  S.  part  of  the  isl 
and,  and  established  several  factories.  In  1795 
all  their  Sumatran  territories  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  English,  who  had  established  a  station 
at  Bencoolen  in  1685.  They  were  restored  in 
1815,  but  Bencoolen  was  retained  till  1824, 
when  all  the  British  possessions  in  Sumatra 
were  ceded  to  the  Netherlands  in  exchange  for 
Malacca  and  small  settlements  upon  the  coasts 
of  India.  The  Dutch  have  since  found  means 
to  annex  a  great  extent  of  territory.  At  the 
time  of  the  treaty  of  1824,  the  Dutch  govern 
ment  pledged  itself  not  to  assail  Acheen,  but 
for  many  years  the  prevalence  of  piracy  and 
the  ill  treatment  of  foreign  vessels  on  the  N. 
coast  have  led  to  much  complaint.  All  objec 
tions  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  to  the  exten 
sion  of  Dutch  rule  in  Sumatra  were  removed 
by  a  treaty  made  in  1871,  and  in  consequence 
of  repeated  violations  of  faith  on  the  part  of 
the  sultan  of  Acheen,  a  naval  and  military  ex 
pedition  was  despatched  from  the  Netherlands 
to  the  N.  coast  of  Sumatra  in  1873.  It  was 
repulsed  by  the  Acheenese  with  heavy  loss, 
and  the  war  has  since  been  carried  on  with 
varying  success. 

SUMBAWA,  an  island  of  the  Indian  archipel 
ago,  in  the  Sunda  chain,  lying  between  Flores 
on  the  east  and  Lombok  on  the  west,  the  S.  W. 
point  in  lat.  9°  2'  S.,  Ion.  116°  42'  E. ;  length 
E.  and  W.  about  170  m.,  extreme  breadth  50 
m. ;  estimated  area,  6,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
80,000.  Wallace  classifies  it  zoologically  in 
the  Timor  group.  A  deep  bay  penetrates  the 
N.  coast,  and  it  is  separated  from  Flores  by 
Sapi  and  Mangerai  straits,  between  which  lies 
the  island  of  Comodo.  Sumbawa  is  divided 
into  six  native  states,  each  governed  by  a  ra 
jah  who  acknowledges  the  supremacy  of  the 
Dutch.  They  are  Tomboro  and  Sumbawa  on 
the  X.  coast,  Bima  on  the  E.  coast,  where  the 
Dutch  have  a  resident,  and  Dompo,  Sangar, 


and  Papakat.  The  island  is  mountainous,  and 
lies  within  the  volcanic  belt  of  the  Indian 
archipelago,  containing  Mt.  Tomboro,  a  vol 
cano  near  the  N.  coast,-  8,940  ft.  high,  the 
eruption  of  which  in  1815  caused  a  subsidence 
of  the  surface,  and  was  characterized  by  tre 
mendous  explosions  which  were  heard  over 
an  area  having  a  radius  of  more  than  800  m. 
Nearly  12,000  persons  were  killed ;  the  ashes 
fell  in  Java  and  Flores  to  the  depth  of  several 
inches,  and  even  in  Sumatra,  840  m.  from  the 
volcano.  In  Lombok  immense  damage  was 
done  and  many  lives  were  lost.  In  1836  a  less 
destructive  eruption  occurred.  Gold,  sulphur, 
and  saltpetre  are  found.  Sumbawa  is  not  well 
wooded,  but  sandal  and  sapan  wood  and  teak 
occur  to  a  limited  extent.  It  has  one  of  the 
best  breeds  of  horses  in  the  Indian  archipel 
ago,  and  they  are  extensively  exported.  The 
pearl  oyster  is  found.  The  manners  and  lan 
guage  of  the  natives  strongly  resemble  those 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Celebes.  The  island  has 
been  subject  to  the  Dutch  since  1676, 

SUMMER,  the  warm  season  of  the  year,  in 
cluding  astronomically  the  time  between  the 
vernal  and  autumnal  equinoxes,  or  from  about 
the  21st  of  June  till  about  the  22d  of  Septem 
ber.  The  calendar  summer  comprises  in  the 
United  States  the  months  of  June,  July,  and 
August ;  in  England,  May,  June,  and  July.  In 
the  southern  hemisphere  the  summer  months 
are  December,  January,  and  February  accord 
ing  to  the  American  method  of  regarding  the 
seasons,  or  November,  December,  and  January 
according  to  the  English  method.  Between 
the  tropics  there  is  no  summer  properly  so 
called,  the  hottest  times  being  those  when  the 
sun  passes  to  the  zenith  at  noon,  which  at  the 
equator  will  correspond  to  the  vernal  and  au 
tumnal  equinoxes,  the  two  dates  being  on  our 
summer  side  of  the  equinoxes  for  places  N.  of 
the  equator,  and  on  our  winter  side  in  places 
S.  of  the  equator. — The  Indian  summer  is  a 
period  of  warm,  pleasant  weather,  which  usu 
ally  occurs  every  year  over  the  northern  por 
tion  of  the  United  States  after  the  autumnal 
storms,  and  continues  often  without  inter 
ruption  two  or  three  weeks.  It  appears  to 
be  a  more  decided  season  in  the  interior  than 
near  the  coast,  and  in  the  region  of  the  great 
lakes  is  especially  noticeable,  the  waters  du 
ring  its  continuance  remaining  placid,  and  the 
atmosphere  filled  with  a  peculiar  haziness. 
The  Indians  regarded  it  as  the  gift  of  their 
most  honored  deity,  the  god  of  the  southwest, 
who  sends  the  S.  W.  winds,  and  to  whom  they 
believed  their  souls  to  go  after  their  decease. 

SUMMERFIELD,  John,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  in  Preston,  England,  Jan.  31,  1798, 
died  in  New  York,  June  13,  1825.  He  was 
educated  at  a  Moravian  school,  removed  to 
Dublin  in  1813,  joined  the  Wesleyan  society 
at  the  age  of  19,  and  became  a  preacher.  In 
1821  he  removed  to  New  York,  where  his  elo 
quence  drew  crowds  to  hear  him.  In  1822 
he  visited  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  Wash- 


SUMMER  RED  BIRD 


SUMNER 


467 


ington,  and  in  December  went  to  Paris,  and 
then  to  England.  In  1824  he  returned  to 
New  York,  and  continued  for  a  time  to  travel 
and  preach.  He  was  a  founder  of  the  Amer 
ican  tract  society.  His  biography  has  been 
written  by  John  Holland  (8vo,  New  York, 
1829),  and  by  William  M.  Willett  (Philadelphia, 
1857).  His  "  Sermons  and  Sketches  of  Ser 
mons  "  were  published  at  New  York  in  1842. 

SUMMER  RED  BIRD.     See  TAN  A  GEE. 

SUMMERS,  a  central  county  of  West  Virginia, 
bounded  S.  W.  by  the  Meadow  river,  and  in 
tersected  by  Gauley  river.  It  has  been  formed 
since  the  census  of  1870  from  Nicholas  co.  The 
surface  is  greatly  diversified,  and  the  valleys 
are  productive.  The  staples  are  wheat,  corn, 
oats,  hay,  and  dairy  products.  Capital,  Hinton. 

SUMMERS,  Thomas  Osmond,  an  American  cler 
gyman,  born  near  Corfe  Castle,  Dorsetshire, 
England,  Oct.  11,  1812.  He  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  in  1830,  and  became  a  preacher 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  at  first  in 
Virginia.  In  1840  he  went  to  Texas  as  one  of 
nine  ministers  to  constitute  the  first  confer 
ence  there.  In  1844  he  joined  the  Alabama 
conference,  and  as  secretary  of  the  convention 
at  Louisville,  Ky.,  assisted  in  organizing  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  South.  By  ap 
pointment,  he  assisted  in  editing  the  "  South 
ern  Christian  Advocate  "  and  in  compiling  a 
new  hymn  book.  In  1850  the  general  con 
ference  elected  him  editor  of  their  books  and 
tracts,  and  of  the  "Sunday  School  Visitor," 
and  in  1858  also  of  the  "  Quarterly  Review." 
In  1866  he  was  elected  editor  of  the  "  Nash 
ville  Christian  Advocate,"  and  in  1874  pro 
fessor  of  systematic  theology  in  the  new  Van- 
derbilt  university,  Nashville,  Tenn.  His  wri 
tings  include  "  Commentaries  on  the  Gospels 
and  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;"  "  Com 
mentary  on  the  Ritual  of  the  M.  E.  Church, 
South;"  "A  Treatise  on  Baptism;"  "A  Trea 
tise  on  Holiness ;"  "  Sunday  School  Teacher, 
or  the  Catechetical  Office;"  " Seasons,  Months, 
and  Days;"  "Talks  Pleasant  and  Profitable;" 
"The  Golden  Censer;"  "Scripture  Catechism" 
(2  vols.,  Old  and  New  Testament);  "Refuta 
tion  of  Thomas  Paine's  Theological  Writings;" 
and  an  enlargement  and  revision  of  Watson's 
"  Biblical  and  Theological  Dictionary." 

SUMMIT.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Ohio,  drained 
by  the  Cuyahoga  river  and  the  head  streams 
of  the  Tuscarawas,  and  traversed  by  the  Ohio 
canal  and  several  railroads;  area,  400  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  34,674.  It  is  the  most  elevated 
land  on  the  line  of  the  Ohio  canal.  The  sur 
face  is  uneven  and  the  soil  highly  fertile.  Coal 
is  mined  in  large  quantities.  Water  power 
abounds.  The  chief  productions  in  1873  were 
307,123  bushels  of  wheat,  633,619  of  Indian 
corn,  386,714  of  oats,  98,489  of  potatoes,  32,- 
587  tons  of  hay,  105,639  Ibs.  of  wool,  749,370 
of  butter,  and  1,586,842  of  cheese.  In  1874 
there  were  8,223  horses,  23,911  cattle,  28,- 
065  sheep,  and  9,594  hogs.  In  1870  there 
were  5  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple 


ments,  10  of  brick,  23  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
11  of  cheese,  16  of  cooperage,  1  of  cutlery  and 
edge  tools,  1  of  anchors  and  chains,  8  of  iron 
castings,  9  of  tanned  and  6  of  curried  leather, 
7  of  machinery,  3  of  paper,  26  of  stone  and 
earthen  ware,  3  of  woollen  goods,  10  flour 
mills,  and  15  saw  mills.  Capital,  Akron.  II. 
A  N.  W.  county  of  Colorado,  bordering  on 
Utah,  and  watered  by  the  Grand,  White,  and 
Bear  rivers ;  area,  about  8,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  258.  This  county  formerly  occupied  the 
whole  N.  W.  corner  of  the  territory  W.  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  but  in  1874  Grand  co.,  with 
an  area  of  about  11,000  sq.  m.,  was  formed 
from  the  N.  portion.  The  E.  includes  a  por 
tion  of  the  Middle  park,  and  is  crossed  by  the 
Rocky  mountains.  The  W.  portion  is  densely 
timbered  with  pine  and  spruce,  and  there  are 
immense  beds  of  coal.  Gold,  copper,  lead, 
iron,  and  zinc  are  found.  On  the  Grand  and 
Blue  rivers  and  their  tributaries  are  good 
grazing  lands;  little  is  known  of  the  agricul 
tural  capabilities  of  the  county.  The  popula 
tion  is  chiefly  in  the  S.  E.  corner,  on  the  head 
waters  of  the  Blue  river,  and  is  almost  exclu 
sively  engaged  in  gold  placer  mining.  Capital, 
Breckinridge.  III.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Utah, 
bordering  on  Wyoming,  and  containing  the 
head  waters  of  Bear  and  Weber  rivers ;  area, 
1,250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,512.  It  is  crossed 
by  the  Union  Pacific  railroad.  The  surface  is 
mountainous.  Coal,  gold,  silver,  and  lead  are 
found.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
18,955  bushels  of  wheat,  2,028  of  oats,  1,352 
of  barley,  12,149  of  potatoes,  13,540  Ibs.  of 
butter,  and  2,569  tons  of  hay.  The  value  of 
live  stock  was  $65,353.  Capital,  Coalville. 

SUMMER.  I.  A  N.  central  county  of  Missis 
sippi,  formed  in  1874  from  Choctaw,  Mont 
gomery,  and  Oktibbeha  counties;  area,  408  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  about  8,000.  It  is  drained  by  the 
Big  Black  river.  The  surface  is  somewhat  un 
dulating  and  the  soil  productive.  The  chief 
crops  are  Indian  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  and  cot 
ton.  Capital,  Mt.  Tabor.  II.  A  N.  county  of 
Tennessee,  bordering  on  Kentucky,  bounded 
S.  by  the  Cumberland  river  and  drained  by  af 
fluents  of  Big  Barren  river;  area,  about  500 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  23,711,  of  whom  7,777 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  undulating  and 
the  soil  fertile.  The  Louisville,  Nashville,  and 
Great  Southern  railroad  passes  through  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  163,114 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,155,914  of  Indian  corn, 
233,837  of  oats,  35,253  of  Irish  and  25,074  of 
sweet  potatoes,  4,921  tons  of  hay,  909,568  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  38,860  of  wool,  224,295  of  butter, 
15,668  of  honey,  and  38,563  gallons  of  sorghum 
molasses.  There  were  7,582  horses,  3,078 
mules  and  asses,  5,378  milch  cows,  9,500  other 
cattle,  20,421  sheep,  and  37,304  swine.  Capi 
tal,  Gallatin.  III.  A  S.  county  of  Kansas,  bor 
dering  on  Indian  territory,  and  intersected  in 
the  northeast  by  the  Arkansas  river;  area, 
1,152  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  22;  in  1875,  4,925. 
It  consists  of  fertile  prairies.  Capital,  Sumner. 


468 


SUMNER 


SUMIVER,  Charles,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  6,  1811,  died  in 
Washington,  D.  0.,  March  11,  1874.  His  fa 
ther,  who  died  in  1839,  was  a  graduate  of  Har 
vard  college,  a  lawyer,  and  for  14  years  high 
sheriff  of  the  county  of  Suffolk.  The  son  re 
ceived  his  early  education  at  the  Boston  Latin 
school,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1830.  He  was  appointed  reporter  of  the  cir 
cuit  court  of  the  United  States,  in  which  ca 
pacity  he  published  three  volumes  known  as 
u  Sumner's  Reports,"  containing  decisions  of 
Judge  Story.  He  also  at  the  same  time  edited 
the  "American  Jurist,"  a  quarterly  law  jour 
nal  of  high  reputation.  During  the  first  three 
winters  after  his  admission  to  the  bar,  while 
Judge  Story  was  absent  in  Washington,  Mr. 
Sumner  was  appointed  lecturer  to  the  law 
students,  and  part  of  the  time  he  had  sole 
charge  of  the  school.  His  favorite  topics  were 
those  relating  to  constitutional  law  and  the 
law  of  nations.  He  visited  Europe  in  1837, 
travelled  in  Italy,  Germany,  and  France,  and 
resided  for  nearly  a  year  in  England.  He  car 
ried  to  England  a  letter  of  introduction  from 
Judge  Story,  in  which  ho  was  described  as  "  a 
young  lawyer  giving  promise  of  the  most  emi 
nent  distinction  in  his  profession,  with  truly 
extraordinary  attainments,  literary  and  judi 
cial  ;  and  a  gentleman  of  the  highest  purity 
and  propriety  of  character."  He  was  received 
with  unusual  distinction  in  the  highest  circles, 
was  introduced  by  eminent  statesmen  on  the 
floor  of  the  houses  of  parliament,  and  invited 
by  the  chief  judges  to  sit  with  them  in  West 
minster  hall,  lie  returned  to  Boston  in  1840, 
and  in  1844-'6  published  an  elaborate  edition 
with  annotations  of  u  Vesey's  Reports"  in  20 
vols.  Though  voting  with  the  whig  party,  he 
took  no  active  part  in  politics  till  1845,  when 
on  the  4th  of  July  he  pronounced  before  the 
municipal  authorities  of  Boston  an  oration  on 
"The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,"  in  which, 
prompted  by  the  menacing  aspect  of  affairs 
between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  he  de 
nounced  the  war  system  as  the  ordeal  by  bat 
tle  still  unwisely  continued  by  international 
law  as  the  arbiter  of  justice  between  nations, 
and  insisted  that  this  system  ought  to  give  way 
to  peaceful  arbitration  for  the  adjudication  of 
international  questions.  His  oration  attracted 
unusual  attention,  led  to  much  controversy, 
and  was  widely  circulated  both  in  America 
and  Europe.  It  was  followed  by  a  rapid  suc 
cession  of  public  addresses  on  kindred  themes, 
which  were  also  widely  circulated.  Mr.  Sum 
ner  earnestly  engaged  in  the  opposition  to  the 
annexation  of  Texas  on  the  ground  of  slavery. 
In  1846  he  made  an  address  to  the  whig  state 
convention  of  Massachusetts  on  "  The  Anti- 
Slavery  Duties  of  the  Whig  Party,"  and  short 
ly  afterward  published  a  letter  of  rebuke  to 
Mr.  Robert  0.  Winthrop,  who  then  repre 
sented  Boston  in 'congress, 'for  his  vote  in  fa 
vor  of  the  war  with  Mexico.  These  steps  led 
eventually  to  Mr.  Sunmer's  separation  from 


the  whig  party  and  association  with  the  free- 
soilers,  to  whose  candidates,  Van  Buren  and 
Adams,  he  lent  efficient  support  in  the  presi 
dential  contest  of  1848.  After  the  withdrawal 
of  Mr.  Webster  from  the  senate  of  the  United 
States  by  his  entrance  into  the  cabinet  of  Mr. 
Fillmore  in  1850,  Mr.  Sumner  was  nominated 
for  the  vacancy  by  a  coalition  of  freesoilers 
and  democrats  in  the  Massachusetts  legislature, 
and  was  elected  on  April  24,  1851,  after  a 
most  earnest  and  protracted  contest.  He  took 
his  seat  on  Dec.  1,  1851,  and  retained  it  by 
successive  reflections  till  his  death.  His  first 
important  speech  was  upon  the  fugitive  slave 
act,  against  which  he  argued  that  congress 
had  no  power  under  the  constitution  to  legis 
late  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves ;  and 
that  if  it  had,  the  act  in  many  essential  par 
ticulars  conflicted  with  the  constitution,  and 
was  also  cruel  and  tyrannical.  In  this  speech 
Mr.  Sumner  laid  down  as  a  guide  for  political 
action  the  formula  to  which  he  ever  after 
ward  adhered,  that  "  freedom  is  national  and 
slavery  sectional."  In  the  debate  on  the  re 
peal  of  the  Missouri  compromise  and  on  the 
contest  in  Kansas,  Mr.  Sumner -took  a  very 
prominent  part.  His  last  speech  upon  this 
topic,  which  was  printed  under  the  title  of 
"  The  Crime  against  Kansas,"  occupied  two 
days  in  its  delivery,  May  19  and  20,  1856. 
Some  passages  in  it  greatly  incensed  the  mem 
bers  of  congress  from  South  Carolina,  one 
of  whom,  Preston  S.  Brooks,  on  May  22  as 
saulted  Mr.  Sumner  while  he  was  writing  at 
his  desk  in  the  senate  chamber,  and  with  a 
gutta  percha  cane  struck  him  on  the  head  till 
he  fell  to  the  floor  insensible.  (See  BEOOKS, 
PBESTON  S.)  The  injury  thus  received  proved 
very  serious,  and  was  followed  by  a  severe  and 
long  disability,  from  which  his  recovery  was 
not  complete  till  three  or  four  years  later. 
His  term  of  office  as  senator  expired  March  4, 

1857,  and  in  the  preceding  January  the  legis 
lature   of  Massachusetts  reflected  him  by  a 
unanimous  vote  in  the  senate,  while  in  the 
house  of  representatives,  consisting  of  several 
hundred  members,  he  received  all  but  seven 
votes.     Under  the    advice   of   physicians  he 
went  to  Europe  for  the  benefit  of  his  health  in 
March,  1857,  and  returned  in  the  autumn  to  re 
sume  his  seat  in  the  senate.     His  health  being 
still  impaired,  he  went  abroad  again  in  May, 

1858,  remaining  till  the  autumn  of  1859,  and 
submitted  to  a  course  of  extraordinarily  se 
vere  medical  treatment  in  Paris.     His  next 
serious  effort  was  an  elaborate  speech  in  the 
senate,   denouncing  the  influence   of  slavery 
on  character,  society,  and  civilization,  which 
was  printed  under  the   title   of   "  The   Bar 
barism  of  Slavery."     In  the  presidential  con 
test  of  1860  he  made  several  speeches  in  be 
half  of  Abraham  Lincoln  and  Hannibal  Ham- 
lin.     In  the  senate  and  in  popular  addresses 
daring  the  civil  war  he  earnestly  opposed  all 
concession  to  or  compromise  with  slavery,  and 
early  proposed   emancipation   as  the   speedi- 


SUMNER 


SUMTER 


469 


est  mode  of  bringing  the  war  to  a  close.  He 
based  his  arguments  not  only  on  moral  and 
historical,  but  on  constitutional  grounds,  and 
always  claimed  that  his  positions  were  in  strict 
accordance  with  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States.  In  March,  1861,  when  the  republican 
party  obtained  the  control  of  the  senate,  Mr. 
Simmer  was  made  chairman  of  the  commit 
tee  on  foreign  relations.  On  Jan.  9,  1862,  he 
delivered  an  elaborate  speech  arguing  that  the 
seizure  of  Messrs.  Mason  and  Slidell  on  board 
the  steamer  Trent  was  unjustifiable  on  the 
principles  of  international  law  which  had  al 
ways  been  maintained  by  the  United  States. 
This  speech  had  great  influence  in  reconciling 
the  public  to  the  surrender  of  the  confeder 
ate  envoys.  Later  in  the  war  he  made  pow 
erful  speeches  on  "  Our  Foreign  Relations  " 
(1863),  and  on  "The  Case  of  the  Florida" 
(186-4),  and  in  1865  he  pronounced  a  eulogy  on 
President  Lincoln.  A  speech  upon  our  claims 
on  England,  April  13,  1869,  caused  great  ex 
citement  and  indignation  in  Great  Britain, 
where  it  was  erroneously  supposed  to  threaten 
war  and  regarded  as  an  attempt  to  excite  pop 
ular  feeling  against  that  country  by  exagger 
ating  the  "consequential  damages"  she  had 
incurred  in  recognizing  the  belligerency  of  the 
seceding  states  and  in  allowing  the  confederate 
cruisers  to  sail  from  her  ports.  In  the  same  year 
his  opposition  to  the  Santo  Domingo  treaty, 
against  which  he  delivered  a  speech  in  the  sen 
ate,  brought  him  into  collision  with  the  admin 
istration  of  President  Grant,  and  led  to  his 
removal  in  March,  1870,  from  the  chairman 
ship  of  the  committee  on  foreign  relations, 
and  ultimately  to  his  separation  from  the  re 
publican  party  and  his  support  of  Horace  Gree- 
ley,  the  liberal  republican  and  democratic  can 
didate  for  president  in  1872.  In  the  spring 
of  that  year  he  had  delivered  in  the  senate 
an  animated  speech  against  the  renornination 
of  President  Grant,  which  did  not  have  the 
weight  he  expected  with  the  republican  con 
vention  that  met  shortly  afterward.  On  Sept. 
11  a  convention  of  democrats  and  liberal  re 
publicans,  held  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  nominated 
him  for  governor  of  the  state  ;  but  he  had  al 
ready  gone  to  Europe  for  medical  advice,  and 
when  the  news  of  his  nomination  reached  him 
in  England  he  declined  it.  He  returned  from 
Europe  late  in  1872,  and  on  taking  his  seat*  in 
the  senate  reintroduced  two  measures  which 
he  had  unsuccessfully  proposed  before.  One 
was  the  civil  rights  bill,  the  other  a  resolution 
providing  that  the  names  of  the  battles  won 
over  fellow  citizens  in  the  civil  war  should 
be  removed  from  the  regimental  colors  of  the 
army  and  from  the  army  register.  This  last 
resolution  was  strongly  denounced,  and  led  to 
a  vote  of  censure  on  him  by  the  legislature  of 
Massachusetts  in  1873,  which  was  rescinded  in 
1874,  shortly  before  his  death.  lie  died  of  an 
gina  pectoris,  after  an  illness  of  a  few  hours. 
Mr.  Sumner's  addresses  were  first  collected  un 
der  the  title  of  "Orations  and  Speeches"  (2 


vols.  12mo,  Boston,  1850),  to  which  was  added 
"  Recent  Speeches  and  Addresses"  (12mo,  Bos 
ton,  1856).  During  the  last  years  of  his  life 
he  prepared  a  final  and  complete  collection 
entitled  "The  Works  of  Charles  Sumner"  (12 
vols.,  Boston,  1871-'5).  Two  or  three  more 
volumes  are  to  appear,  under  the  charge  of  his 
executors,  of  whom  the  chief  is  Prof.  Longfel 
low. — See  "A  Memorial  of  Charles  Sumner," 
published  by  order  of  the  legislature  of  Massa 
chusetts  (Boston,  1874),  and  "Life  and  Public 
Services  of  Charles  Sumner,"  by  C.  Edwards 
Lester  (New  York,  1874). 

SUMNER,  John  Bird,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  at  Kenil worth,  Warwickshire,  in  1780, 
died  in  London,  Sept.  6,  1862.  He  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  and  in  1820  became  canon  of 
Durham,  in  1828  bishop  of  Chester,  and  in 
1848  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  was  a 
leader  'of  the  evangelical  school  in  the  church 
of  England,  and  while  he  was  primate  of  Eng 
land  occurred  the  controversy  about  the  work 
entitled  "Essays  and  Reviews,"  and  also  the 
revival  of  the  synodical  power  of  the  convo 
cations.  He  published  an  essay  on  "  Apostoli 
cal  Preaching  "  (London,  1815)  ;  "  The  Records, 
of  Creation"  (2  vols.,  1816),  which  won  the 
second  Burnet  prize  of  £400;  "Evidences  of 
Christianity"  (1824);  and  a  volume  of  selec 
tions  entitled  "Practical  Reflections  "  (1859). 

SUMTER,  the  name  of  four  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  An  E.  county  of  South  Car 
olina,  bounded  W.  by  the  Wateree  river,  and 
drained  by  Black  river  and  its  affluents ;  area, 
about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1875,  31,480,  of 
whom  23,086  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
generally  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile,  and 
there  are  extensive  forests  of  pine.  It  is  in 
tersected  by  the  Wilmington,  Columbia,  and 
Augusta  railroad  and  its  branch.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  189,039  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  36,113  of  sweet  potatoes,  7,212 
bales  of  cotton,  245,325  Ibs.  of  rice,  and  2,282 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  905  horses,  1,126 
mules  and  asses,  1,699  milch  cows,  2,630  other 
cattle,  1,075  sheep,  and  658  swine;  6  man 
ufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  4  of  tar 
and  turpentine,  and  5  saw  mills.  Capital, 
Sumter  Court  House.  II.  A  S.  W.  county  of 
Georgia,  bounded  E.  by  Flint  river ;  area,  about 
600  sq.  m.;  pop.  in*1870,  16,559,  of  whom 
10,639  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and 
the  soil  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by  the  South 
western  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  280,379  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
22,085  of  oats,  11,516  of  peas  and  beans,  40,- 
924  of  sweet  potatoes,  12,823  bales  of  cotton, 
61,031  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  15,310  gallons  of 
molasses.  There  were  634  horses,  1,796  mules 
and  asses,  1,768  milch  cows,  3,878  other  cattle, 
832  sheep,  and  12,624  swine.  Capital,  Ameri- 
cus.  III.  A  central  county  of  Florida,  bounded 
W.  by  the  Withlacoochee  river;  area,  1,370  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870,  2,952,  of  whom  980  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  generally  level  and 
swampy,  and  there  are  several  small  lakes. 


470 


SUMTER 


SUN 


The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  67,278 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  112,620  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  8,800  Ibs.  of  rice,  501  bales  of  cotton,  and 
13,650  gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  14,995 
cattle  and  5,480  swine.  Capital,  Leesburg. 
IV.  A  W.  county  of  Alabama,  bordering  on 
Mississippi,  bounded  E.  by  the  Tombigbee  and 
intersected  by  the  Noxubee  river ;  area,  about 
800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 24,109,  of  whom  18,907 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  uneven  and  the 
soil  fertile.  It  has  water  communication  by  the 
Tombigbee  river,  and  is  intersected  by  the  Ala 
bama  and  Chattanooga  railroad  and  a  branch 
of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  334,110  bushels  of  wheat, 
14,941  of  sweet  potatoes,  2,513  Ibs.  of  wool, 
and  11,646  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,242 
horses,  1,957  mules  and  asses,  2, 097  milch  cows, 
988  working  oxen,  3,644  other  cattle,  2,249 
sheep,  and  8,024  swine.  Capital,  Livingston. 

SUMTER,  Fort,  a  work  built  upon  an  artifi 
cial  island  near  the  entrance  of  the  harbor 
of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  which  it  was  designed  to 
protect.  It  stands  about  2|  m.  from  Castle 
Pinckney,  the  fort  near  the  point  of  the  penin 
sula  upon  which  Charleston  is  built,  and  about 
half  that  distance  from  Fort  Moultrie  on  Sul 
livan's  island.  It  was  intended  to  mount  140 
heavy  guns,  in  three  tiers ;  but  at  the  close  of 
1860  the  fort  was  still  incomplete,  few  of  the 
guns  being  mounted.  The  United  States  gar 
rison,  numbering  109  men,  of  whom  only  63 
were  combatants,  under  Major  Robert  Ander 
son,  occupied  Fort  Moultrie.  On  the  night  of 
Dec.  26  Major  Anderson,  learning  that  the  se 
cessionists  had  made  preparations  to  capture 
Fort  Moultrie  and  seize  the  other  fortifications 
near  Charleston,  transferred  his  force  to  Fort 
Sumter.  Here  he  was  able  to  mount  only  52 
of  the  lighter  guns.  About  the  same  time 
commissioners  were  sent  by  the  state  author 
ities  to  demand  from  the  government  of  the 
United  States  the  surrender  of  all  the  forts  in 
South  Carolina.  President  Buchanan  refused, 
and  Fort  Sumter  was  virtually  in  a  state  of 
siege.  Early  in  January,  1861,  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  to  throw  in  supplies,  by 
means  of  an  expedition  from  New  York  in 
the  steamer  Star  of  the  West.  On  April  11 
Gen.  Beauregard,  who  had  been  placed  in  com 
mand  of  the  forces  raised  by  the  confederate 
government,  and  had  constructed  powerful 
batteries  on  every  point  commanding  Fort 
Sumter,  demanded  the  immediate  surrender 
of  the  fort.  Major  Anderson  refused,  but  said 
that  if  he  was  not  reenforced  by  the  15th  he 
would  evacuate  the  fort ;  to  which  Beauregard 
responded  that  he  would  open  fire  at  about 
half  past  4  on  the  morning  of  April  12.  Fire 
was  accordingly  opened,  and  in  a  few  hours 
the  works  were  seriously  damaged.  The  bom 
bardment  was  fiercely  continued,  but  no  one 
was  hurt.  The  provisions  and  ammunition  be 
ing  nearly  exhausted,  the  evacuation  of  the  fort 
was  agreed  upon  on  the  afternoon  of  the  13th, 
and  on  the  14th  Major  Anderson  marched  out 


with  flying  colors.  The  confederates  strength 
ened  the  fort  and  put  in  a  strong  garrison,  and 
until  near  the  close  of  the  war  it  formed  the 
main  defence  of  Charleston.  In  April,  1863, 
it  was  unsuccessfully  bombarded  by  a  monitor 
fleet  under  Admiral  Du  Pont.  Still  later  it 
was  subjected  to  a  heavy  fire  from  batteries 
erected  on  Morris  island,  and  reduced  almost 
to  a  mass  of  shapeless  ruins ;  but  every  direct 
attempt  to  take  it  failed,  and  it  fell  into  Union 
hands  only  when  Charleston  was  finally  aban 
doned  by  the  confederates  in  February,  1865. 
(See  CHARLESTON.)  On  April  14,  1865,  just 
four  years  after  the  surrender,  the  Union  flag, 
the  same  which  had  been  lowered  in  1861, 
was  again  formally  raised  over  the  dilapidated 
walls  of  Fort  Sumter. 

SUMTER,  Thomas,  an  American  revolutionary 
general,  born  in  Virginia  in  1734,  died  near 
Camden,  S.  0.,  June  1,  1832.  He  was  a  vol 
unteer  in  the  French  and  Indian  war,  was  pres 
ent  at  Braddock's  defeat,  and  in  March,  1776, 
became  lieutenant  colonel  of  the  second  regi 
ment  of  South  Carolina  riflemen.  After  the 
capture  of  Charleston  by  the  British  in  1780, 
he  took  refuge  in  the  swamps  of  the  Santee, 
and,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier  general,  be 
came  one  of  the  most  active  and  able  partisan 
leaders  of  the  south.  On  July  12  he  defeated 
a  British  detachment  on  the  Catawba,  but  on 
Aug.  18  was  surprised  and  routed  at  Fishing 
creek  by  Tarleton.  He  collected  another  corps, 
and  on  Nov.  12  defeated  Col.  Wemyss,  who 
had  attacked  his  camp  in  Chester  district  near 
Broad  river.  A  few  days  later  Tarleton  at 
tempted  to  surprise  him  while  encamped  at 
Blackstocks  on  the  Tiger  river,  but  was  com 
pelled  to  retreat  with  severe  loss.  Sumter  was 
severely  wounded  in  this  encounter;  but  in 
March,  1781,  he  raised  three  new  regiments, 
and,  in  concert  with  Marion,  Pickens,  and 
others,  harassed  the  enemy's  scattered  posts 
in  the  low  country.  In  January,  1781,  con 
gress  passed  a  resolution  of  thanks  to  him 
and  his  men.  He  was  a  member  of  congress 
from  South  Carolina  in  l789-'93,  and  United 
States  senator  in  1801-'9  ;  and  in  1809  he  was 
appointed  minister  to  Brazil,  where  he  re 
mained  two  years.  He  was  the  last  surviving 
general  of  the  revolution. 

SUN,  the  central  ruling  body  of  the  plane 
tary  system,  and  the  great  source  of  light  and 
heat.  The  visible  orb  of  the  sun,  as  distin 
guished  from  the  complex  structure  of  which 
that  orb  is  but  a  part,  is  a  globe  about  853,000 
m.  in  diameter.  So  far  as  observation  ex 
tends,  this  globe  is  spherical  in  shape,  no  dif 
ference  having  been  detected  in  the  polar  and 
equatorial  diameters.  In  fact,  no  single  set  of 
measurements,  however  carefully  made,  could 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  any  com 
pression  in  the  solar  orb,  since  the  equality  of 
the  diameters  results  not  from  a  single  set  of 
measures,  but  from  comparisons  between  many 
thousands  of  observations  made  at  Greenwich, 
Paris,  Washington,  and  other  leading  observa- 


SUN" 


tories.  The  volume  of  the  sun  exceeds  the 
earth's  nearly  1,253,000  times.  His  mean  den 
sity  is  almost  exactly  equal  to  one  fourth  of 
the  earth's,  so  that  his  mass  exceeds  hers  about 
316,000  times.  Gravity  at  the  visible  boun 
dary  of  the  solar  globe  exceeds  gravity  at  the 
earth's  surface  about  27'1  times ;  and  a  body 
dropped  from  rest  near  the  sun's  surface  would 
fall  through  436  ft.  in  the  first  second,  and 
have  acquired  a  velocity  of  872  ft.  a  second,  or 
about  10  m.  a  minute.  The  sun's  mass  exceeds 
the  combined  mass  of  all  the  planets  about 
750  times.  His  mean  distance  from  the  earth 
has  been  estimated  at  about  91,430,000  m. ; 
though  we  may  expect  that  the  results  obtained 
during  the  late  transit  of  Venus  (December, 
1874)  and  to  be  obtained  during  the  coming 
transit  (December,  1882)  will  lead  to  some  cor 
rection  of  this  estimate.  It  already  appears 
probable  that  the  sun's  estimated  mean  dis 
tance  must  be  increased  to  about  92,000,000 
m.  The  greatest  and  least  distances  of  the  sun 
from  the  earth  (assuming  his  mean  distance  to 
be  91,430,000  m.)  are  respectively  92,963,000 
and  89,897,000  m. ;  and  his  apparent  diameter 
varies  from  31'  31'8"  to  32'  36'4"  as  he  passes 
from  his  greatest  to  his  least  distance. — The 
sun  has  an  apparent  motion  among  the  stars 
from  west  to  east  along  the  great  circle  called 
the  ecliptic  (see  ECLIPTIC),  making  a  complete 
circuit  of  the  heavens  in  365  days,  6  hours,  9 
minutes,  and  9'6  seconds,  though  the  passage 
from  vernal  equinox  to  vernal  equinox  (first 
point  of  Aries)  occupies  only  365d.  5h.  48m. 
48'6s.,  because  of  the  precession  of  the  equi 
noxes.  (See  PKECESSION.)  These  two  periods 
are  called  respectively  the  sidereal  year  and  the 
tropical  year.  There  is  one  other  astronomi 
cal  year  (besides  the  civil,  Julian,  and  lunar 
years)  known  as  the  anomalistic  year,  being 
the  interval  separating  successive  passages  of 
the  perigee  of  the  solar  path,  viewed  geomet 
rically;  its  length  amounts  to  365d.  6h.  13m. 
49*3s.  The  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  is  not 
uniform  in  the  ecliptic,  owing  to  the  eccen 
tricity  of  the  earth's  orbit ;  it  is  greatest  about 
Dec.  31  to  Jan.  1,  when  he  moves  through  1° 
1'  9-9"  in  24h.,  and  least  about  June  30-July 
1,  when  he  only  moves  through  0°  57'  11*5"  in 
24h.  The  sun  has  also  three  real  motions  :  1, 
an  axial  rotation,  the  nature  of  which  will 
presently  be  described  ;  2,  a  motion  about  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  solar  system, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  great  superiority  of 
his  mass  over  that  of  all  the  other  bodies  this 
centre  of  inertia  is  always  within  the  sun's  vol 
ume  ;  3,  a  progressive  motion  in  space  toward 
the  direction  of  the  constellation  Hercules,  the 
rate  of  which  has  been  estimated  at  150,000,- 
000  m.  per  annum,  but  on  evidence  exceeding 
ly  questionable.  The  fact  of  solar  motion  to 
ward  Hercules  is  as  nearly  certain  as  possible, 
but  the  rate  of  this  motion  is  not  known. 
Recent  researches  suggest  that  it  is  far  greater 
than  the  rate  just  mentioned,  great  though 
that  rate  may  appear. — Examined  with  a  tele 


scope,  the  sun's  surface,  which  appears  very 
nearly  uniform  to  the  naked  eye,  is  seen  to 
be  brightest  near  the  centre,  and  to  grow  pro 
gressively  darker  toward  the  circumference. 
It  is  also  marked  by  various  irregularities, 
spots,  facula3,  mottling,  besides  other  appear 
ances  requiring  greater  telescopic  power  for 
their  detection.  The  spots  on  the  sun  were 
independently  discovered  by  Galileo,  Fabri- 
cius,  Scheiner,  and  Harriot.  It  was  soon  per 
ceived  that  they  move  in  such  a  way  as  to 
indicate  that  they  are  real  surface  markings, 
not  bodies  passing  between  the  earth  and  the 
sun,  and  that  therefore  the  sun's  rotation  can 
be  measured  by  observing  them.  It  was  found 
that  the  sun  rotates  in  a  period  of  about  25|- 
days ;  and  as  the  spots  do  not  at  all  times 
pass  on  straight  lines  across  the  sun's  face, 
but  sometimes  on  a  course  slightly  bowed  up 
ward  and  at  others  on  a  course  slightly  bowed 
downward,  it  was  seen  that  the  sun's  axis  of 
rotation  is  not  quite  upright  as  referred  to  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic,  but  slightly  inclined.  The 
following  elements  of  the  sun's  rotation  belong 
to  the  astronomy  of  recent  times,  having  been 
deduced  from  results  obtained  by  Carrington 
and  Sporer,  reduced  to  the  year  1869  : 


ELEMENTS. 

Carrington. 

Sporer. 

Longitude  of  node  of  solar  equator  
Inclination  of  solar  equator  
Mean  diurnal  rotation 

73°     57' 
7       15 
14       18 

74°     87' 
6      57 
14       27 

Mean  rotation  period  

25-3Sd. 

25-234d. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  a  mean  rotation  is  in 
dicated.  Carrington's  observations  have  shown 
that  spots  in  different  solar  latitudes  travel 
at  different  rates,  varying  in  fact  from  a  daily 
rotation  through  about  12f°  in  lat.  50°  (nearly 
the  highest  in  which  spots  have  been  observed) 
to  a  daily  rotation  through  nearly  14^°  at  the 
solar  equator  (where,  however,  spots  are  very 
rarely  seen).  Carrington  gives  the  following 
formula  for  the  rotation  in  different  solar  lati 
tudes  :  daily  rotation  =  14°  25'- (2°  45')  sin.? 
lat. ;  but  this  formula  is  purely  empirical.  The 
curious  point  about  this  variation  in  the  rate 
of  turning  is  that,  taking  two  parts  of  the  visi 
ble  solar  surface  in  the  same  longitude,  but  one 
in  lat  45°  (say),  the  other  on  the  equator,  the 
latter  will  advance  further  and  further  in  longi 
tude  from  the  former,  gaining  daily  about  two 
degrees,  so  that  in  the  course  of  about  180  days 
it  will  have  gained  a  complete  revolution.  That 
is  to  say,  the  sun's  equator  makes  about  two 
revolutions  more  per  annum  than  the  regions  in 
45°  north  and  south  solar  latitude.  The  spots 
on  the  sun  have  usually  a  dark  central  region 
called  the  umbra,  within  which  is  a  still  darker 
part  called  the  nucleus,  while  around  this  there 
is  a  fringe  of  fainter  shade  than  the  umbra, 
called  the  penumlra.  Although  the  umbra  and 
nucleus  appear  dark,  however,  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  they  are  really  dark ;  in  fact, 
Prof.  Langley  of  Pittsburgh  has  succeeded  in 
examining  the  light  from  the  nucleus  alone, 


472 


SUN 


and  lie  finds  that  though  the  nucleus  looks  per 
fectly  black  by  contrast  with  the  general  sur 
face,  it  shines  in  reality  with  a  light  unbearably 
brilliant  when  viewed  alone,  while  his  thermal 
measurements  show  that  the  heat  from  the 
nucleus  is  even  greater  proportionately  than 
the  light,  and  not  very  greatly  below  the  heat 
of  the  surrounding  surface.  The  boundary 
between  the  umbra  and  the  penumbra  is  in 
general  well  defined  ;  and  commonly  the  inner 
part  of  the  penumbra  nearest  to  the  umbra  is 
brighter  than  the  exterior  portion.  Many 
spots  are  of  enormous  size,  so  as  to  be  visible 
with  the  naked  eye.  Sir  W.  Herschel  saw  one 
in  1779  which  had  a  diameter  exceeding  50,- 
000  m.,  and  many  fur  larger  than  this  have 
since  been  seen.  The  spots  are  not  scattered 
over  the  whole  surface  of  the  sun,  but  are  for 
the  most  part  confined  to  two  belts  between 
lat.  5°  and  30°  on  either  side  of  the  solar  equa 
tor.  An  equatorial  zone  6°  wide  is  almost 
^entirely  free  from  spots.  Owing  to  this  pe- 
'culiarity  of  arrangement,  Sir  J.  Herschel  sug 
gested  the  existence  of  motions  in  the  solar 
atmosphere  corresponding  to  our  trade  winds ; 
but  the  circumstances  of  the  solar  orb  and 
atmosphere  differ  so  entirely  from  those  of 
our  earth  and  air,  that  such  comparisons  are 
unsafe.  Dr.  Wilson  of  Glasgow  was  the  first 
to  show  that  the  umbra  of  a  spot  is  below  the 
level  of  the  penumbra.  He  observed  that  a 
spot,  visible  in  1769,  changed  in  shape  as  it 
traversed  the  solar  disk,  precisely  as  it  would 
if  the  spot  had  been  a  depression  below  the 
general  surface  of  the  sun.  The  penumbra 
was  markedly  wider  on  the  side  nearest  the 
edge  of  the  solar  disk  than  on  the  other  side, 
whereas  the  reverse  should  have  been  the  case 
if  the  spot  had  been  a  surface  marking.  Sir 
W.  Ilerschel  in  1777  began  a  series  of  solar 
observations  which  before  long  confirmed  Wil 
son's  views.  He  was  led  to  explain  the  spots 
by  the  theory  that  the  sun's  globe  is  surround 
ed  by  two  layers  of  clouds,  suspended  in  an 
atmosphere  at  different  elevations.  He  sup 
posed  the  upper  cloud  stratum  to  be  self- 
luminous,  and  to  bo  the  source  of  the  solar 
light,  or  the  true  photosphere  (to  use  a  conve 
nient  term  invented  by  Schroter).  The  lower 
layer  he  regarded  as  opaque,  and  as  owing 
whatever  light  it  appears  to  possess  to  the  re 
flection  of  light  received  from  the  upper  layer. 
He  supposed  that  when  an  opening  is  formed 
in  the  outer  layer  wo  see  merely  a  penumbral 
spot;  but  that  when  the  inner  layer  also  is 
displaced  we  see  the  true  surface  of  the  sun, 
which  he  supposed  to  be  solid,  and  not  neces 
sarily  so  heated  as  to  be  unfit  for  habitation. 
Modern  researches  show  this  part  at  least  of 
Herschel's  theory  to  be  wholly  untenable,  every 
thing  tending  to  prove  that  the  whole  mass 
of  the  sun  to  its  innermost  core  is  intensely 
heated.  The  recognition  of  a  nucleus  within 
the  umbra  would  seem  to  indicate  that  a  third 
cloud  layer  exists  within  the  second  or  inter 
nal  layer  of  Ilerschel's  theory.  But  the  obser 


vations  of  Prof.  Langley  show  that  most  prob 
ably  all  the  features  of  the  solar  photosphere 
yet  observed  are  phenomena  of  cloud  enve 
lopes,  since  he  has  been  able  to  recognize  cloud 
forms  at  one  level  floating  over  cloud  forms  at  a 
lower  level,  while  even  in  the  (relatively)  dark 
est  depths  of  the  nucleus  clouds  are  still  to  be 
perceived,  though  so  deep  down  that  their  out 
lines  can  be  barely  discerned.  The  study  of 
the  solar  spectrum  (see  SPECTKUM  ANALYSIS), 
while  revealing  much  respecting  the  constitu 
tion  and  physical  condition  of  the  solar  orb, 
has  thrown  some  light  also  on  the  nature  of 
sun  spots.  Mr.  lluggins,  for  instance,  has 
found  that  several  of  the  absorption  bands  be 
longing  to  the  solar  spectrum  are  wider  in  the 
spectrum  of  a  spot,  a  circumstance  indicative 
of  increased  absorption  so  far  as  the  vapors 
corresponding  to  such  lines  are  concerned. 
Spots  are  more  numerous  in  some  years  than 
in  others,  and  occasionally  no  spots  are  visible 
for  many  successive  days.  Schwabe  of  Des 
sau  began  to  study  this  peculiarity  in  182 6,  and 
after  many  years  recognized  a  remarkable 
periodicity  in  the  frequency  of  sun  spots. 
They  are  found  gradually  to  increase  in  num 
ber  during  a  certain  period,  and  then  to  de 
crease  until  at  length  there  are  no  spots ;  then 
they  increase  again,  and  so  on.  According  to 
Schwabe's  earlier  investigations,  the  cycle  lasts 
10^  years;  but  Wolf  of '  Zurich  has  found  by 
examining  earlier  observations  that  the  true 
average  period  is  about  11  '11  years.  (See  MAG 
NETISM,  TERRESTRIAL.)  Various,  minor  cycles 
have  been  suspected,  besides  a  long  cycle  of 
about  56  years.  Wolf  in  1859  presented  a 
formula  by  which  the  frequency  of  spots  is 
connected  with  the  motions  of  the  four  bod 
ies,  Venus,  the  earth,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn. 
Prof.  Loomis  of  Yale  college  has  since  advo 
cated  a  theory  (suggested  by  the  present  wri 
ter  in  1865,  in  "  Saturn  and  its  System,"  p. 
168,  note)  that  the  long  cycle  of  56  years  is 
related  to  the  successive  conjunctions  of  Sa 
turn  and  Jupiter.  But  the  association  is  as 
yet  very  far  from  being  demonstrated,  to  say 
the  least. — Besides  the  spots,  the  telescope  re 
veals  minute  dark  dots  or  pores  mottling  the 
surface,  which  have  been  lately  found  to  be 
the  intervals  separating  numberless  cloud-liko 
forms,  apparently  minute,  but  in  reality  from 
200  to  1,000  in.  in  diameter,  the  brilliancy  of 
which  so  greatly  exceeds  that  of  the  interve 
ning  spaces  that  they  must  be  recognized  as 
the  principal  radiators  of  the  solar  light  and 
heat.  These  are.  found  to  be  in  constant  fluc 
tuation,  and  Sir  J.  Herschel  compares  their 
appearance  to  the  slow  subsidence  of  some 
flocculent  chemical  precipitates  in  a  transparent 
fluid  when  viewed  perpendicularly  from  above. 
Near  the  great  spots  or  groups  of  spots  there 
are  often  seen  streaks  more  luminous  than  the 
neighboring  surface,  called  faculm.  They  are 
oftenest  seen  toward  the  borders  of  the  disk. 
Mr.  Dawes  saw,  on  Oct.  22,  1859, -in  a  large 
iriass  of  faculoe,  one  bright  streak  forming  the 


SUN 


473 


very  edge  of  the  sun,  and  projecting  irregu 
larly  beyond  the  circular  contour,  reminding 
him  of  a  ridge  of  low  hills  often  seen  at  the 
enlightened  limb  of  the  moon.  M.  Chacornac, 
a  most  diligent  French  investigator,  observed 
on  one  occasion  a  sudden  transformation  of 
the  luminous  part  of  the  photosphere  into 
dark  parts  ;  luminous  bridges  were  seen  cross 
ing  the  spots,  and  then  gradually  becoming 
dark.  As  these  luminous  bridges  darkened, 
they  at  the  same  time  plunged  into  the  deeper 
parts,  and  became  covered  with  other  lumi 
nous  bridges  which  formed  above  them. — The 
phenomena  witnessed  during  total  solar  eclipses 
are  next  to  be  considered.  The  red  prominen 
ces  were  first  seen  during  the  solar  eclipse  of 
July  8,  1842.  In  the  eclipse  of  July  28,  1851, 
it  was  shown  that  they  belong  to  the  sun,  since 
the  advancing  moon  visibly  concealed  those 
on  one  side  and  disclosed  those  on  the  other 
side.  During  the  eclipse  of  June  18,  I860, 
Secchi  and  De  la  Rue  photographed  the  prom 
inences  at  two  stations  in  Spain,  and  thence 
forth  the  solar  nature  of  these  appendages  was 
admitted  by  all.  As  some  of  them  were  seen 
to  extend  fully  3'  from  the  edge  of  the  sun  on 
that  occasion,  it  became  manifest  that  they  are 
objects  of  enormous  dimensions,  since  3'  at 
the  sun's  distance  corresponds  to  an  extension 
of  about  80,000  m.  In  the  Indian  eclipse  of 
August,  1868,  the  prominences  were  examined 
with  the  spectroscope  by  Col.  Tennant,  Capt. 
Herschel,  and  Messrs.  Janssen  and  Rayet.  The 
spectrum  was  found  to  consist  of  bright  lines, 
showing  that  the  colored  prominences  are 
masses  of  glowing  gas,  the  bright  lines  of  hy 
drogen  were  recognized,  and  an  orange-yellow 
line  was  ascribed  (mistakenly,  however)  to  so 
dium.  But  on  the  following  day  Janssen  ap 
plied  a  new  method  of  research,  the  principle 
of  which  had  been  indicated  earlier  by  Huggins 
("  Report  of  Council  of  Astronomical  Society," 
"Monthly  Notices,"  February,  1868).  Since 
prismatic  dispersion  reduces  the  brightness  of 
the  solar  spectrum,  but  only  throws  the  lines 
of  a  gaseous  spectrum  further  apart,  it  follows 
that  by  directing  a  tele-spectroscope  toward 
the  place  of  a  prominence,  the  light  from  the 
air  which  usually  obliterates  the  prominence 
light  can  be  so  reduced  by  sufficient  dispersion 
that  the  prominence  lines  may  be  rendered  visi 
ble.  Janssen  found  this  to  be  the  case,  and  by 
noting  the  indications  thus  afforded  he  was  able 
to  determine  the  presence  and  even  the  shape 
of  prominences  at  various  parts  of  the  sun's 
edge.  Two  months  later,  but  before  the  news 
of  Janssen's  success  had  reached  England,  Mr. 
Lockyer  obtained  a  similar  result.  Before  long 
Hoggins,  who  had  been  the  first  to  enunciate 
the  principle  of  the  method,  showed  how  by 
opening  the  slit  of  the  spectroscope  the  whole 
of.  a  prominence  could  be  seen  at  once.  Since 
then  the  prominences  have  been  successfully 
studied  by  Zollner,  Respighi,  Secchi,  and  oth 
ers.  Prof.  Young  of  Dartmouth  college  has 
been  particularly  successful  in  applying  this 


method  of  research. — Even  before  the  promi 
nences  were  discovered,  it  was  known  that  a 
border  of  red  light  surrounds  the  solar  disk ; 
it  had  been  seen  on  the  eastern  side  at  the  be 
ginning  of  total  eclipse,  and  on  the  western 
side  at  the  end.  In  1860  this  envelope  was 
very  clearly  seen,  and  even  photographed.  It 
has  been  designated  as  the  sierra, 'because  of  its 
serrated  appearance ;  but  recently  the  name 
chromosphere  (for  chromatosphere)  has  been 
given  to  it.  The  observations  of  prominences 
and  sierra  as  summarized  by  Secchi  indicate 
the  following  results :  "  The  sierra  presents 
four  aspects:  1,  smooth,  with  defined  outline; 
2,  smooth,  but  no  defined  outline;  3,  fringed 
with  filaments  ;  and  4,  irregularly  fringed  with 
small  flames.  The  prominences  may  be  divi 
ded  into  three  orders,  heaps,  jets,  and  plumes. 
The  heaped  prominences  need  no  special  de 
scription.  The  jets  are  those  to  which  alone 
the  following  description  by  Respighi  (erro 
neously  given  as  generally  applicable  to  all 
prominences)  can  be  applied :  '  They  originate 
generally  in  rectilinear  jets  either  vertical  or 
oblique,  very  bright  and  very  well  defined. 
They  rise  to  a  great  height,  often  to  a  height 
of  at  least  80,000  m.,  and  occasionally  to  more 
than  twice  that ;  then  bending  back,  fall  again 
upon  the  sun  like  the  jets  of  our  fountains. 
Then  they  spread  into  figures  resembling  gi 
gantic  trees  more  or  less  rich  in  branches.' 
Their  luminosity,"  proceeds  Secchi,  "is  in 
tense,  insomuch  that  they  can  be  seen  through 
the  light  clouds  into  which  the  sierra  breaks 
up.  Their  spectrum  indicates  the  presence 
of  many  elements  besides  hydrogen.  When 
they  have  reached  a  certain  height  they  cease 
to  grow,  and  become  transformed  into  ex 
ceedingly  bright  masses,  which  eventually  sep 
arate  into  fleecy  clouds.  The  jet  prominences 
last  but  a  short  time,  rarely  an  hour,  frequent 
ly  but  a  few  minutes,  and  they  are  only  to 
be  seen  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  spots. 
Wherever  there  are  jet  prominences  there 
also  are  faculaa.  The  plume  prominences  are 
distinguished  from  the  jets  in  not  being  char 
acterized  by  any  signs  of  an  eruptive  origin. 
They  often  extend  to  an  enormous  height; 
they  last  longer  than  the  jets,  though  subject 
to  rapid  changes  of  figure;  and  lastly  they  are 
distributed  indifferently  over  the  sun's  surface. 
It  would  seem  that  in  jets  a  part  of  the  photo 
sphere  is  lifted  up,  whereas  in  the  case  of 
plumes  only  the  sierra  is  disturbed."  (It  is 
here  of  importance  to  remark  that  these  erup 
tive  prominences,  particularly  associated  with 
spots,  are  of  late  becoming  recognized  as  chief 
ly  due  to  metallic  vapors,  in  distinction  from 
the  "plume"  forms,  which  are  largely  com 
posed  of  hydrogen.)  This  account  would  be  in 
complete  without  a  description  of  the  remark 
able  solar  explosion  actually  witnessed  by  Prof. 
Young  on  Sept.  7,  1871.  Fig.  1  represents  a 
cloud  prominence  he  had  been  observing  on 
the  eastern  limb  of  the  sun.  It  was  about  100,- 
000  rn.  long  by  54,000  m.  high.  He  was  called 


4.74 


SUN 


away  at  12h.  30m.,  and  on  returning  at  12h. 
55m.  "found  that  the  whole  thing  had  been  lit- 


FIG.  1.— Prominence  as  it  appeared  at  half-past  12  o'clock, 

Sept.  7,  1S71. 

erally  blown  to  shreds  by  some  inconceivable 
up-rush  from  beneath."  Fig.  2  represents  the 
appearance  when 
the  up  -  rushing 
hydrogen  had  at 
tained  its  great 
est  height,  ex 
ceeding  200,000 
m.  "  The  whole 
phenomenon,"  he 
says,  "  suggest 
ed  most  forcibly 
the  idea  of  an 
explosion  under 
the  great  prom 
inence,  acting 
mainly  upward, 
but  also  in  all 
directions  out 
ward,  and  then 
after  an  interval 

FIG.  2,-As  the  above  appeared       followed    J>7      a 
half  an  hour  later!  corresponding  m- 

rush."    A  strange 

circumstance  remains  to  be  mentioned  :    "  The 
same  afternoon  a  portion  of  the  sierra  on  the 


35 


iff 


20* 

Spots 

25  v\ 

Prvtiiberances      \ 

J 

1414 

2767 

50 

/8S3-6/ 

1871 

Ft* 

3 — Relative  Frequency  of  Protuberances  and  Sun  Spots. 


opposite  limb  of  the  sun  was  for  several 
hours  in  a  state  of  unusual  brilliance  and  ex 
citement,  and  showed  in  the  spectroscope 
more  than  120  bright  lines  whose  position  was 
determined  and  catalogued — all  that  I  had 
ever  seen  before  and  some  15  or  20  besides." 
Before  passing  from  the  prominences  it  may 
be  well  to  indicate  the  laws  of  their  numer 
ical  distribution,  as  determined  by  Secchi  and 
others.  This  is  shown  in  fig.  3.  On  the  left 
side  the  results  of  Carrington's  observation  of 
1,414  spots  between  1853  and  1861  are  indi 
cated,  and  on  the  right  the  result  of  Secchi's 
observations  of  2,767  protuberances  in  1871, 
the  number  of  spots  or  prominences  being  of 
course  shown  by  the  length  of  the  radial  lines. 
The  dotted  line  on  the  right-hand  side  repre 
sents  in  the  same  manner  the  distribution  of 
the  larger  prominences,  viz.,  those  exceeding  1' 
or  27,000  m.  in  height. — During  a  total  eclipse 
there  appears  around  the  black  body  of  the 
moon  a  halo  or  glory  of  light,  bright,  close  to 
the  place  of  the  concealed  sun,  but  gradually 
fading  away  outward,  until  its  light  is  lost  in 
the  general  tint  of  the  sky.  In  this  glory 
of  light,  which  is  called  the  solar  corona,  ra 
diations  are  also  sometimes  seen,  and  under 
favorable  atmospheric  conditions  complicated 
series  of  streaks  can  be  seen  extending  to  a 
considerable  distance  outward  from  the  promi 
nence  region.  Various  theories  were  advanced 
in  former  times  to  explain  the  corona.  Ac 
cording  to  one  theory,  it  is  a  phenomenon 
caused  by  the  solar  light  falling  on  our  own 
atmosphere;  another  theory  ascribed  it  to  a 
lunar  atmosphere.  In  the  opinion  of  Lever- 
rier  and  Foucault  (among  others),  the  corona 
is  an  example  of  the  interference  of  light 
(see  LIGHT),  the  phenomenon  being  analogous 
to  the  colored  fringes  seen  on  a  screen  in  a 
darkened  room  when  a  solar  beam  is  admitted 
through  a  chink.  To  this  theory 
Airy  raised  the  objection  that  if,  in 
order  to  make  the  analogy  perfect, 
the  eye  is  placed  in  the  position  of 
the  screen,  no  colored  fringes  are 
seen.  It  is  shown  that  the  corona 
is  partly  polarized,  and  hence  part 
ly  consists  of  reflected  light.  It 
has  been  further  proved  that  the 
plane  of  polarization  passes  through 
the  sun  and  the  observer.  This 
was  regarded  by  Airy  as  pointing 
to  the  existence  of  an  atmospheric 
medium  capable  of  reflecting  light, 
and  extending  from  the  earth  to  the 
moon.  But  in  more  recent  times 
astronomers  began  to  perceive  that 
no  other  theory  can  be  admitted 
than  that  which  regards  the  corona 
as  a  true  solar  appendage.  (Of 
course,  it  must  be  admitted  that  a 
portion  of  the  light  around  the 
eclipsed  sun  comes  from  our  own 
atmosphere,  which  must  necessarily 
be  illuminated  by  the  true  corona 


SUN 


475 


during  eclipse,  precisely  as  it  is  illuminated  by 
the  sun  when  there  is  no  eclipse ;  but  it  will 
readily  be  understood  that  this  portion  of  re 
flected  light  is  very  small  in  amount.)  During 
the  solar  eclipse  of  August,  1869,  Profs.  Young 
and  Harkness  discovered  that  certainly  one 
bright  line  exists  in  the  spectrum  of  the  corona, 
and  two  other  lines  were  suspected.  European 
astronomers  expressed  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy 
of  this  observation  ;  but  it  was  confirmed  du 
ring  the  Mediterranean  eclipse  of  December, 
1870,  when  Young  thus  summed  up  his  own 
and  other  observations :  "  There  is  surrounding 
the  sun,  beyond  any  further  reasonable  doubt, 
a  mass  of  self-luminous  gaseous  matter,  whose 
spectrum  is  characterized  by  the  green  line 
1,474  Kirchhoff.  The  precise  extent  of  this  it 
is  hardly  possible  to  consider  as  determined, 
but  it  must  be  many  times  the  thickness  of  the 
red  hydrogen  portion  of  the  sierra,  perhaps  on 
an  average  8'  or  10',  with  occasional  horns  of 
twice  that  height.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that 
it  may  even  turn  out  to  have  no  upper  limit, 
but  to  extend  from  the  sun  indefinitely  into 
space.1'  During  the  same  eclipse,  Brothers  of 
Manchester  and  Willard  of  Philadelphia  (the 
latter  acting  under  the  directions  of  Prof.  Win- 
lock  of  the  Harvard  observatory)  photographed 
the  corona  successfully  from  two  distant  sta 
tions,  AVillard  being  near  Jerez  in  Spain,  Broth 
ers  near  Syracuse  in  Sicily.  The  views  thus 
obtained  agreed  so  closely  (save  in  circum 
stances  depending  on  photographic  conditions) 
as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  the  corona  is  a  solar 
phenomenon.  Doubts  were  still  expressed, 
and  it  was  not  until  the  solar  eclipse  of  De 
cember,  1871,  that  these  were  finally  removed. 
On  that  occasion  the  spectroscopic  and  pho 
tographic  results  were  alike  decisive.  Jans- 
sen  with  the  spectroscope  not  only  recognized 
the  bright  lines  before  seen  and  others  less 
bright,  but  also  a  faint  solar  spectrum,  which, 
since  our  atmosphere  during  total  eclipse  is 
certainly  not  illuminated  by  sunlight,  must 
have  been  reflected  by  matter  in  the  solar 
corona,  such  as  vaporous  clouds,  meteor  flights, 
or  the  like.  Mr.  Davis,  a  photographer  sent 
out  at  Lord  Lindsay's  expense,  obtained  five 
excellent  photographs  of  the  corona,  all  agree 
ing  perfectly  inter  se,  excepting  in  extent. 
This  proved  certainly  that  the  features  of  the 
corona  do  not  change  as  they  would  if  the 
phenomenon  depended  on  the  passage  of  light 
rays  athwart  lunar  inequalities,  to  fall  upon 
scattered  matter  at  a  less  distance  than  the 
moon.  Again  Col.  Tennant  obtained  six  pho 
tographs,  similarly  accordant  inter  se,  and  also 
agreeing  perfectly  with  Mr.  Davis's  at  Doda- 
betta,  a  station  far  removed  from  Davis's,  Bai- 
cull.  Since,  also,  Dodabetta  is  near  the  highest 
peak  of  the  Neilgherries,  about  9,000  ft.  above 
the  sea  level,  while  Baicull  is  close  to  the  sea 
shore,  it  will  be  manifest  that  if  the  features 
of  the  corona  depended  on  the  illumination  of 
our  own  atmosphere,  the  pictures  of  Tennant's 
series  would  have  differed  altogether  from  those 


of  Davis's  series.  Thus,  independently  of  the 
spectroscopic  evidence,  the  photographs  proved 
that  the  corona  is  a  solar  appendage,  at  least 
as  far  as  those  features  shown  in  the  two  series 
extend.  But  they  extend  from  the  sun  in 
places  to  a  distance  exceeding  his  own  diame 
ter,  and  amounting  in  fact  to  more  than  a 
million  miles.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  true  solar  corona  extends  much  further, 
and  that  in  reality  the  zodiacal  light  (see  ZODI 
ACAL  LIGHT)  forms  the  outer  part  of  the  solar 
corona;  so  that  if  the  light  of  the  sun  could 
be  for  a  time  obliterated  without  rendering 
his  appendages  invisible,  we  should  see  the 
corona  merging  gradually  into  the  faint  glow 
of  the  zodiacal  light.  Mr.  Arthur  W.  Wright 
of  Yale  college  has  succeeded  in  showing  that 
this  light  is  not  emitted  from  incandescent 
gas,  but  reflected  from  particles  or  small  bod 
ies,  and  hence  derived  from  the  sun. — Another 
important  discovery  made  during  total  solar 
eclipses  relates  to  a  solar  atmosphere  under 
lying  even  the  sierra.  Secchi  had  observed 
in  1869  that  close  to  the  sun's  limb  the  solar 
spectrum  becomes  continuous ;  this  he  con 
sidered  to  be  due  to  the  existence  of  a  rela 
tively  very  shallow  atmosphere,  consisting  of 
the  vapors  which  cause  the  dark  lines  of  the 
solar  spectrum.  For  if  the  brightness  of  the 
lines  of  these  vapors  corresponds  very  closely 
to  the  brightness  of  the  ordinary  solar  spec 
trum  for  the  parts  near  to  the  sun's  edge,  the 
dark  lines  of  the  latter  spectrum  would  be 
cancelled,  and  so  a  continuous  spectrum  would 
be  produced.  For  another  reason,  the  present 
writer  had  adopted  the  theory  that  the  atmos 
phere  producing  the  absorption  lines  of  the 
solar  spectrum  must  be  shallow,  compared  at 
least  with  the  dimensions  of  the  sun's  globe ; 
for  he  showed  that  a  shallow  and  not  a  deep 
atmosphere  is  to  be  inferred  from  the  darken 
ing  of  the  solar  disk  near  its  edge.  The  opin 
ion  thus  advanced  on  theoretical  grounds  was 
shown  to  be  correct  by  the  observations  of 
Prof.  Young  during  the  total  eclipse  of  De 
cember,  1870;  for,  "directing  his  analyzing 
spectroscope  to  the  part  of  the  sun's  limb 
which  was  to  disappear  last,  he  found  that  at 
the  instant  when  totality  commenced  the  solar 
spectrum  was  suddenly  replaced  by  a  spectrum 
consisting  of  a  thousand  soft  bright  lines."  In 
other  words,  the  vapors  which  by  their  absorp 
tive  action  produce  the  dark  lines  of  the  ordi 
nary  solar  spectrum  were  for  the  moment  shi 
ning  with  their  own  light,  and  thus  produced 
a  spectrum  of  bright  "lines.  This  spectrum 
continued  visible  for  a  few  seconds  only,  show 
ing  that  the  complex  atmosphere  producing  it 
cannot  be  more  than  two  or  three  hundred 
miles  in  depth.  The  observation  was  success 
fully  renewed  during  the  eclipse  of  December, 
1871,  and  again  during  the  annular  eclipse  of 
June,  1872. — How  to  account  for  the  supply 
of  the  prodigious  amount  of  heat  constantly 
radiated  from  the  solar  surface  has  offered  a 
boundless  field  of  hypothesis.  One  conjecture 


476 


SUN- 


BIRD 


has  been  that  the  sun  is  now  giving  off  the 
heat  imparted  to  it  at  its  creation,  and  that  it 
is  gradually  cooling  down  ;  another  ascribed  it 
to  combustion,  and  a  third  to  currents  of  elec 
tricity.  Newton  and  Buffon  conjectured  that 
comets  might  be  the  aliment  of  the  sun,  and 
of  late  years  a  somewhat  similar  theory  (first 
broached  by  Mr.  Waterston  in  1853)  has  been 
in  vogue,  viz.,  that  a  stream  of  meteoric  matter 
constantly  pouring  into  the  sun  from  the  re 
gions  of  space  supplies  its  heat,  by  the  con 
version  into  it  of  the  arrested  motion.  As  the 
sun  may  indeed  derive  a  small  amount  of  heat 
from  this  cause,  it  deserves  more  attention  than 
previous  conjectures.  But  conjecture  and  hy 
pothesis  may  be  said  to  have  given  place  to 
views  which  claim  a  higher  title,  as  it  is  now 
becoming  generally  recognized,  in  accordance 
with  modern  physical  theories  of  heat,  that  in 
the  gravitation  of  the  sun's  mass  toward  its 
centre,  and  in  its  consequent  condensation, 
sufficient  heat  must  be  evolved  to  supply  the 
present  radiation,  enormous  as  this  undoubtedly 
is.  It  appears  to  be  susceptible  of  full  demon 
stration  that  a  contraction  of  the  sun's  volume 
of  a  given  definite  amount,  which  is  yet  so 
slight  as  to  be  invisible  to  the  most  powerful 
telescope,  is  competent  to  furnish  a  heat  sup 
ply  equal  to  all  that  can  have  been  emitted  du 
ring  historical  periods.  According  to  this  the 
ory  then  (which  is  due  largely  to  the  develop 
ment  by  llelmholtz  of  Mayer's  great  generali 
zation),  the  sun's  mass  remains  unaltered,  and 
its  temperature  nearly  constant,  while  its  size 
is  slowly  diminishing  as  it  contracts ;  so  slowly, 
however,  that  the  supply  may  bo  reckoned  on 
through  periods  almost  infinite  as  measured 
by  the  known  past  of  our  race,  and  which  are 
in  any  case  to  be  counted  by  millions  of  years. 
It  would  appear  from  early  measurements  of 
Secchi  that  the  different  portions  of  the  solar 
disk  do  not  radiate  heat  in  uniform  degrees, 
and  his  tables  show  that  the  equatorial  regions 
are  slightly  hotter  than  the  polar.  It  has  been 
explained  that  the  rapid  decrease  of  brightness 
toward  the  edge  of  the  sun  obliges  us  to  admit 
the  existence  of  a  shallow  atmosphere  around 
it.  Prof.  Langley  has  recently  published  tables 
from  more  extended  measurements,  showing 
the  rate  of  absorption  both  of  heat  and  light, 
the  latter  being  greater  than  the  former.  As 
he  does  not  now  find  the  difference  between 
the  equatorial  and  polar  heat  observed  by  Sec- 
chi  in  1852,  the  latter  concludes  from  a  com 
parison  of  his  own  observations  with  Lang- 
ley's,  that  great  changes  occur  in  the  distribu 
tion  of  the  heat  on  the  sun's  surface.  Prof. 
Langley  has  further  shown  that  this  atmos 
phere  absorbs  one  half  of  the  sun's  total  ra 
diation,  and  he  considers  that  its  function  in 
the  solar  emission  is  of  great  importance  to 
us.  A  slight  alteration  in  the  thickness  of 
^  this  obscuring  envelope  would  induce  changes 
1  on  the  earth  greater  than  those  known  to 
have  occurred  in  its  climate  in  past  geologic 
epochs,  which  may  themselves  not  impossibly 


have  been  due  to  this  hitherto  unrecognized 
cause.  M.  Fizeau  has  found  that  the  chemical 
rays  are  similarly  reduced  in  amount  toward 
the  edge  of  the  solar  disk,  a  fact  which  is  also 
abundantly  shown  by  the  darkening  near  the 
edge  of  photographic  sun  pictures,  like  those 
by  Rutherfurd  and  De  la  Rue. — To  sum  up 
briefly  the  received  hypotheses  of  the  physical 
constitution  of  the  sun :  Of  its  internal  struc 
ture  we  know  nothing,  but  we  can  infer  from 
the  low  density  of  the  solar  globe  as  a  whole 
that  no  considerable  portion  is  solid  or  liquid. 
The  regions  we  examine  appear  to  consist  of 
cloud  layers  at  several  levels  floating  in  a  com 
plex  atmosphere,  in  which  probably  most  of 
the  elements  are  known  to  us,  and  certainly 
many  of  them  exist  in  the  form  of  vapor.  Out 
side  this  complex  atmosphere  extend  envelopes 
of  simpler  constitution,  though  into  them  oc 
casionally  arise  the  vapors  which  ordinarily  lie 
lower  down.  The  sierra,  for  instance,  consists 
in  the  main  of  glowing  hydrogen  gas,  and 
that  gas,  whatever  it  may  be,  which  produces 
the  line  near  the  orange-yellow  sodium  lines. 
The  prominence  region  may  be  regarded  as 
simply  the  extension  of  the  sierra.  The  inner 
corona  is  still  simpler  than  the  sierra  so  far  as 
its  gaseous  constitution  is  concerned  ;  but  here 
meteoric  and  cometic  matter  appears,  extend 
ing  to  the  outer  corona  and  to  great  distances 
beyond  even  the  visible  limits  of  the  zodiacal. 
Returning  to  the  photosphere,  we  find  it  sub 
ject  to  continual  fluctuations,  both  from  local 
causes  of  agitation  and  from  the  subjacent 
vapor  acting  by  its  elasticity  to  burst  through 
it ;  the  facuL'o,  which  are  found  to  be  above  the 
general  level  of  the  photosphere,  are  taken  to 
be  heapings  up  of  the  luminous  matter  like  the 
crested  surges  of  the  sea.  All  the  strata  are 
subject  to  great  movements,  which  sometimes 
have  the  character  of  uniform  progression 
analogous  to  our  trade  winds,  and  sometimes 
are  violent  and  resemble  in  their  effects  our 
tornadoes  and  whirlwinds.  Eruptive  action 
appears  to  operate  from  time  to  time  with 
exceeding  violence,  but  whether  the  enormous 
velocities  of  outrush  are  due  to  true  explosive 
action  (which  would  compel  us  to  believe  that 
the  sun  is  enclosed  by  a  liquid  shell,  so  as  to 
resemble  a  gigantic  bubble),  or  to  the  uprising 
of  lighter  vapors  from  enormous  depths,  as 
heated  currents  rise  in  our  own  atmosphere, 
is  not  as  yet  certainly  known. 

SUN  BIRD,  the  name  commonly  given  to  the 
promeropidce,  a  family  of  tenuirostral  birds, 
with  a  long,  slender,  and  usually  curved  bill, 
the  nostrils  placed  at  the  base  and  covered  with 
a  scale,  wings  of  moderate  size,  and  short 
tarsi  covered  with  broad  scales.  They  inhabit 
the  tropical  regions  of  both  hemispheres  ;  the 
subfamily  promeropincc,  including  by  far  the 
most  species,  is  confined  to  the  old  world,  and 
the  ccerebinw  to  the  new.  The  true  sun  birds 
belong  to  the  former,  and  have  a  long,  slender, 
curled,  and  sharp  bill,  sometimes  finely  serrated 
on  the  margins;  the  tail  is  long,  the  central 


SUNBURY 


SUNDAY  SCHOOLS 


477 


feathers  often  exceeding  the  rest.  They  are 
found  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans,  and  on  the  continents  of  Africa  and 
Asia ;  they  are  the  humming  birds  of  the  old 


Fiery-tailed  Sun  Bird  (Nectarinia  ignicauda). 


world,  having  similar  habits  and  the  same  bril 
liant  colors,  but  are  larger.  The  genus  necta- 
rinia  (Illig.)  contains  more  than  100  species, 
mostly  African.  The  nest,  of  an  elegant  form, 
is  usually  suspended  from  the  end  of  a  twig, 
with  an  opening  at  the  side ;  the  eggs  are  two 
to  four.  The  ccBrebince  or  guitguits  have  a 
shorter,  broader,  and  nearly  straight  bill,  and 
long  pointed  wings ;  they  are  found  in  tropi 
cal  South  America  and  the  West  Indies;  the 
plumage  is  very  beautiful.  The  nest  is  protect 
ed  by  a  long  funnel  or  by  two  compartments 
against  insects,  birds,  serpents,  and  lizards. 

SUNBURY,  a  borough  and  the  capital  of 
Northumberland  co.,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Susquehanna  river,  42  m.  N.  of 
Harrisburg,  and  114  m.  N.  W.  of  Philadelphia; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,131.  It  has  a  daily  and  three 
weekly  newspapers,  and  several  manufactories 
and  machine  shops.  It  is  connected  by  rail 
with  Philadelphia  and  the  Shamokin  mining 
region,  and  about  200,000  tons  of  coal  are 
shipped  annually. 

SUNBURY,  a  S.  central  county  of  New  Bruns 
wick,  Canada,  intersected  by  the  St.  John 
river;  area,  1,203  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  6,824, 
of  whom  2,839  were  of  English,  2,655  of  Irish, 
and  552  of  Scotch  origin  or  descent.  The 
surface  is  nearly  level;  the  soil  is  fertile  and 
heavily  wooded.  The  European  and  North 
American  railway  and  Fredericton  branch 
traverse  the  county.  Capital,  Oromocto. 

SUNDA  ISLANDS,  a  former  designation  of 
those  islands  of  the  Indian  archipelago  which 
surround  the  Java  sea.  They  were  divided 
into  the  greater  and  the  lesser  Sunda  islands, 
the  former  including  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Ce 
lebes,  and  Java,  and  the  latter  the  chain  of 
islands  which  extends  from  the  E.  extremity 
of  Java  to  Papua,  exclusive  of  the  Moluccas. 

SUNDA  STRAIT,  an  arm  of  the  sea  between 
the  islands  of  Sumatra  and  Java,  which  leads 
from  the  Indian  ocean  to  the  Java  sea.  The 
length  of  the  channel  upon  the  Sumatra  side, 


from  Flat  point,  in  lat.  5°  59'  S.,  to  Hog  point, 
is  about  85  m. ;  and  upon  the  opposite  coast, 
from  Java  head,  lat.  7°  5'  S.,  to  Bantam  point, 
about  100  m.  The  breadth  of  the  strait  where 
it  joins  the  Indian  ocean  is  about  70  m.,  and  at 
the  end  next  the  Java  sea  about  20  m. 

SUNDAY  (Sax.  Sunnan  dwg],  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  identical  with  the  Roman  dies  tioUs 
(day  of  the  sun).  The  keeping  of  this  as  a 
sacred  day,  in  memory  of  Christ's  resurrection 
and  of  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  dates 
from  the  beginning  of  Christianity.  It  is 
probable  that  the  first  Jewish  Christians  kept 
this  day  holy,  while  conforming  also  to  their 
legal  sabbath.  It  was  called  the  Lord's  day  in 
all  the  churches ;  but  it  was  also  popularly 
designated  as  Sunday  as  soon  as  the  gentile 
element  began  to  prevail.  According  to  De' 
Rossi,  the  first  monumental  inscription  calling 
it  the  Lord's  day  is  of  the  year  403.  Its  first 
official  recognition  is  in  an  edict  of  Constan- 
tine  in  321,  ordering  that  all  work  should  cease 
in  the  cities  "on  the  venerable  Sunday,"  but 
permitting  necessary  husbandry  to  be  attended 
to.  The  Theodosian  code  prescribed  that  "  on 
the  Sunday,  rightfully  designated  by  our  an 
cestors  as  the  Lord's  day,  all  lawsuits  and  pub 
lic  business  shall  cease."  (See  LOED'S  DAY.) 

SUNDAY  SCHOOLS.  The  earliest  recorded 
Sunday  schools  were  the  schools  of  catechu 
mens,  organized,  according  to  Tertullian,  in 
A.  D.  180,  though  less  formal  instruction  of 
Christian  children  and  novitiates  prevailed 
earlier.  The  schools  of  the  catechumens  flour 
ished  till  the  6th  century.  In  1527  Luther 
established  Sunday  schools  in  Wittenberg  for 
the  instruction  of  children  who  could  not  at 
tend  the  day  schools.  In  1560  Knox  inaugu 
rated  them  in  Scotland.  In  1580  Archbish 
op  Borromeo  of  Milan  established  a  system  of 
Sunday  schools  throughout  his  diocese,  and 
about  the  same  time  there  were  similar  schools 
in  France  and  the  Netherlands.  In  the  17th 
century  the  clergy  statedly  catechised  the  chil 
dren  in  some  parishes  of  England ;  and  Joseph 
Alleine,  author  of  the  "Alarm,"  opened  a  Sun 
day  school  in  1668.  There  was  a  Sunday 
'school  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  1674,  and  one  in 
Plymouth,  Mass.,  in  1680.  About  1740  Lud- 
wig  Hacker  established  a  school  in  Ephratah, 
Lancaster  co.,  Pa.,  which  continued  until  the 
building  was  taken  for  a  hospital  during  the 
revolution.  Modern  Sunday  schools,  however, 
were  originated  by  Robert  Raikes,  who  in 
1781  gathered  poor  children  from  the  streets 
in  Gloucester,  England,  and  employed  female 
teachers  at  a  shilling  a  day  for  their  instruc 
tion.  The  children  were  taught  from  10  A.  M. 
to  12 ;  then,  after  an  hour's  recess,  read  a  les 
son  and  went  to  church.  After  church  they 
repeated  the  catechism  till  after  5,  and  were 
then  charged  to  go  home  at  once  and  quietly. 
Raikes  published  an  account  of  his  work  in 
the  "Gloucester  Journal"  in  1783,  which  was 
republished  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine," 
and  schools  upon  his  plan  were  soon  estab- 


478 


SUNDAY  SCHOOLS 


SUNDERLAND 


lished  in  the  principal  towns  of  England. 
Scotland  had  similar  schools  as  early  as  1782, 
and  they  were  established  in  Ireland  in  1785. 
The  London  Sunday  school  society  was  organ 
ized  in  1785,  and  in  16  years  it  spent  £4,000. 
In  1786  it  was  thought  that  there  were  250,- 
000  children  in  Sunday  schools  in  Great  Brit 
ain.  Bishop  Asbury  established  one  in  Han 
over  co.,  Va.,  in  1786,  and  Bishop  White  one 
in  Philadelphia  in  1791.  In  1790  the  Metho 
dist  Episcopal  conference  at  Charleston,  S.  C., 
resolved  to  establish  schools  for  whites  and 
blacks.  Katy  Ferguson,  a  poor  negro  woman, 
is  said  to  have  established  one  in  New  York  in 
1793.  Samuel  Slater  opened  a  Sunday  school 
for  his  operatives  in  Pawtucket,  K.  I.,  in  1797; 
and  Mrs.  Isabella  Graham  and  her  daughter, 
Mrs.  Divie  Bethune,  who  had  seen  the  English 
schools,  opened  one  in  a  private  house  in  New 
York  in  1801.  The  important  change  from 
paid  to  volunteer  teachers  is  said  to  have  been 
adopted  by  the  Methodists  at  Bolton,  England, 
about  1786.  The  "Gratis  Sunday  School  So 
ciety"  was  established  in  Scotland  in  1797, 
and  voluntary  teaching  was  general  in  England 
in  1800.  In  1803  the  London  Sunday  school 
union  was  formed,  to  foster  voluntary  teaching. 
Soon  the  churches  began  to  assume  charge  of 
Sunday  schools,  in  the  United  States  about 
1809;  and  the  instruction  then  became  more 
exclusively  religious.  Schools  were  opened  in 
the  Protestant  churches  of  all  denominations 
in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  later 
among  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  more  recently 
among  the  Quakers.  Since  1848  special  atten 
tion  has  been  given  to  mission  schools  for  the 
vagrant  children  of  large  cities.  In  1875  there 
were  140  Protestant  mission  schools  in  New 
York.  As  now  organized,  a  Sunday  school 
has  a  superintendent  with  various  assistants 
and  a  number  of  teachers,  each  of  whom  has  a 
class  of  scholars.  The  classes  are  of  different 
grades,  but  generally  study  the  same  Scripture 
lesson,  their  study  being  separate,  but  all  the 
classes  uniting  in  worship.  The  session  gen 
erally  continues  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half. 
Schools  upon  this  plan  have  been  introduced 
by  English  and  American  missionaries  in  all 
lands;  but  the  system  has  been  adopted  in  the 
national  churches  of  continental  Europe  only 
within  the  last  20  years.  The  following  table 
gives  the  fullest  statistics  accessible  for  1874 : 


Among  the  most  important  societies  formed 
for  the  promotion  of  Sunday  schools  are  the 
following  : 

SOCIETIES. 

Begun  in 

Expended  for 
missionary 
work  in  1874. 

London  Sunday  school  union  
American  Sunday  school  union  
Methodist   Episcopal    Sunday    school 
union.. 

1803 

1824 

1S27 

£4.059 

$90,U71) 

$15,781 

COUNTRIES. 

Begun  in 

Schools. 

Teachers. 

Scholars. 

France  

1854 

990 

41  5^0 

Belgium 

1856 

34 

95 

1  190 

Norway  and  Sweden.  .  . 
Germany 

1S59 
1868 

'i'^is 

"4(143 

"817^5 

Netherlands  
Italy  

1863 

1863 

520 

58 

2,111 
110 

58.000 
8.1  86 

Cisfeithan  Austria  
Hungary  . 

1872 

1872 

C 
p 

80 
30 

300 
350 

Switzerland  

600 

2,09*5 

46  370 

Spain  . 

20 

95 

1  000 

Greece  
Great  Britain  and  Ire 
land  (estimated).  .  .  . 
Canada.. 

8 
4  401 

18 

310.000 
35  745 

839 

3.050.000 
271  8^1 

United  States  

69,871 

753,060 

5,790.683 

These  societies  also  publish  hymn  books,  books 
and  papers  explaining  the  Bible  lessons,  and 
books  for  the  lending  libraries,  with  which 
most  schools  are  furnished.  Sunday  school 
publications  are  now  issued  by  regular  business 
houses,  as  well  as  by  church  boards  and  tract 
societies.  (See  TRACT  AXD  PUBLICATION  SOCI 
ETIES.)  Conventions  of  Sunday  school  teach 
ers  have  been  held  in  the  United  States  since 
1832.  A  world's  convention  met  in  London  in 
1862.  A  German  national  convention  was 
held  in  Hamburg  in  1874.  In  1875  there  were 
in  the  United  States  21  state  conventions,  and 
a  national  and  international  convention.  Since 
1866  a  uniform  series  of  Bible  lessons  has  been 
widely  used  in  the  United  States,  and  since 
1872  has  been  adopted  in  Europe  and  in  the 
missionary  schools  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Com 
ments  on  these  uniform  lessons  have  been  pre 
pared  by  distinguished  clergymen,  translated 
into  many  languages,  and  issued  in  pamphlets 
and  papers  for  teachers,  and  in  "  lesson  leaves  " 
for  scholars,  in  many  millions  of  copies. 

SINDERBOIDS,  a  marshy  tract  of  British  In 
dia,  in  Bengal,  stretching  across  the  lower  part 
of  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  between  the  bay  of 
Bengal  and  the  inhabited  parts  of  the  delta, 
from  the  river  Iloogly  to  the  island  of  Eabna- 
bad,  158  m.,  with  a  breadth  of  about  75  m. ; 
area,  over  7,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  very  small.  The 
soil  is  alluvial,  and  the  whole  district  is  cut  up 
into  innumerable  wooded  islands  by  rivers  and 
creeks,  many  of  them  navigable  for  vessels  of 
considerable  size.  The  woods  swarm  with 
tigers,  the  waters  with  crocodiles,  and  other 
tropical  animals  abound.  Salt  is  manufactured 
from  the  sea  water  to  a  sufficient  extent  to 
supply  the  demand  of  the  lower  provinces  of 
Bengal.  The  Sunderbunds  are  included  within 
the  district  of  the  24  Pergunnahs. 

SINDERLAND,  a  town  and  parliamentary  bor 
ough  of  Durham,  England,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Wear  in  the  North  sea,  12  m.  N.  E. 
of  the  city  of  Durham  and  240  m.  N.  by  W. 
of  London;  pop.  of  the  town  in  1871,  98,335. 
The  Wear  passes  through  the  borough,  and  is 
crossed  by  an  iron  bridge,  high  enough  for 
large  sailing  vessels  to  pass,  which  connects 
Monk  Wearmouth  with  the  S.  side  of  the  river. 
The  harbor  is  formed  by  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  is  protected  by  piers.  The  docks  on 
the  S.  side  of  the  river  have  an  independent 
entrance  to  the  sea.  Ship  building  amounts 
in  seasons  of  ordinary  prosperity  to  more  than 


SUNDERLAND 


SUNDEW 


479 


70,000  tons.  The  entrances  in  18T3  were  8,091 
British  vessels,  tonnage  1,705,925,  and  1,257 
foreign  vessels,  tonnage  268,511  ;  clearances, 
8,140'  British  vessels,  tonnage  1,828,094,  and 
1,299  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  296,002.  The 
value  of  exports  was  £1,615,190.  The  chief 
'  manufactures  consist  of  earthenware  and  glass, 
and  all  kinds  of  articles  required  for  fitting  out 
vessels.  Window  glass  and  glass  bottles  are 
very  largely  manufactured. 

SUNDERLAND.  I.  Robert  Spencer,  second  earl 
of,  an  English  statesman,  born  in  Paris  about 
1641,  died  at  Althorp,  Sept.  28,  1702.  After 
serving  as  ambassador  to  Spain  and  France,  he 
became  in  1679  secretary  of  state.  In  1681  he 
went  out  of  office,  but  was  recalled  in  1682, 
and  exercised  a  controlling  influence  during 
the  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  Un 
der  James  II.  he  remained  secretary,  and  was 
also  made  president  of  the  council.  In  1687 
he  became  a  Roman  Catholic ;  but  he  carried 
on  a  secret  intrigue  with  the  prince  of  Or 
ange,  and  in  October,  1688,  was  dismissed  by 
James.  On  the  arrival  of  the  prince  of  Or 
ange,  Sunderland  went  to  Rotterdam,  where 
he  was  thrown  into  prison,  but  was  released 
by  order  of  William.  He  then  went  to  Am 
sterdam,  turned  Protestant  again,  and  after 
residing  about  two  years  at  Utrecht  returned 
to  England,  although  excepted  in  the  act  of 
indemnity.  On  April  19,  1697,  William  ap 
pointed  him  lord  chamberlain  and  one  of  the 
lords  justices ;  but  on  Dec.  25  he  resigned. 
II.  Charles  Spencer,  third  earl  of,  an  English 
minister,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1674, 
died  April  19,  1722.  Professing  republican 
principles,  he  entered  the  house  of  commons 
in  1695  as  member  for  Tiverton,  and  continued 
in  the  next  three  parliaments.  In  1705  he 
was  sent  to  Vienna  as  envoy  extraordinary  and 
plenipotentiary,  and  in  1707  became  secretary 
of  state,  but  was  dismissed  in  1710.  lie  was 
generally  regarded  as  the  head  of  the  whig 
party,  and  on  the  accession  of  George  I.  he 
was  made  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  in  1715 
lord  privy  seal,  and  in  April,  1717,  secretary 
of  state.  The  house  of  commons  implicated 
him  in  the  criminal  transactions  of  the  South 
sea  scheme;  but  he  was  acquitted  by  a  vote 
of  233  to  172,  though  with  loss  of  his  office. 
He  spent  his  remaining  days  in  intrigues  to 
effect  the  downfall  of  Walpole.  By  his  mar 
riage  with  the  second  daughter  of  the  great 
duke  he  became  progenitor  of  the  present 
house  of  Marlborough,  their  son  succeeding 
as  second  duke. 

SUNDEW,  the  common  name  of  plants  of  the 
genus  drosera  (Gr.  6poaep6(;,  dewy),  which  gives 
its  name  to  the  droseracecc,  a  small  order  of 
remarkable  plants,  one  of  which,  the  Venus's 
fly-trap,  is  described  under  DIOX^EA.  There 
are  about  100  species  of  drosera,  distributed 
all  over  the  world,  except  in  some  of  the  Pa 
cific  islands;  they  are  perennials,  and  either 
stemless,  with  a  rosette  of  leaves  rising  from 
the  rhizome,  or  have  steins  with  alternate 
VOL.  xv. — 31 


leaves ;  with  a  few  rare  exceptions,  the  leaves 
bear  numerous  bristles  or  hairs,  each  of  which 
exudes  a  drop  of  clear  glutinous  fluid ;  this 
exudation  of  the  hairs,  which  glistens  like  dew 
drops,  is  recognized  in  the  common  and  bo 
tanical  names.  Six  species  are  found  within 
the  limits  of  the  United  States;  they  are  all 
stemless,  with  the  leaves  circinate  in  the  bud 
(i,  e.,  rolled  up  from  the  apex  downward),  all 
in  a  tuft  at  the  base,  from  the  centre  of  which 
rises  a  naked  scape  bearing  the  flowers  at  the 
top  in  a  one-sided  raceme,  the  undeveloped 
apex  of  which  droops,  leaving  the  open  flower 
apparently  the  highest.  The  white  or  rose- 
colored  flowers,  which  open  only  in  sunshine, 
have  in  our  species  their  parts  mostly  in  fives, 
the  calyx  and  corolla  withering  and  remain 
ing  in  fruit ;  the  globular  ovary  has  three  or 
five  styles,  so  deeply  cleft  as  to  appear  like  six 
or  ten,  and  ripening  into  a  one-celled,  three- 
valved  capsule  containing  numerous  seeds,  with 
a  pitted  surface.  All 
are  found  in  bogs  or 
wet  sands,  some  very 
rare  and  others  wide 
ly  distributed.  The 
most  common  is  the 
round -leaved  sun 
dew  (D.  rotundifo- 
lici),  which  extends 
from  Canada  to  Flor 
ida  ;  its  leaves,  1  to  2 
in.  long,  and  spread 
ing  upon  the  ground, 
have  an  orbicular 
blade  narrowing  ab 
ruptly  into  a  peti 
ole  ;  the  scapes,  6  in. 
or  more  high,  bear 
white  flowers  with 
their  parts  sometimes 
in  sixes.  The  long- 
leaved  (DJongifolia), 
less  frequent,  but 
with  a  similar  range,  often  grows  in  the  water, 
when  its  caudex  is  several  inches  long:  the 
leaves,  more  or  less  erect,  have  an  oblong  blade 
which  tapers  gradually  into  the  petiole,  and 
are  from  1^  to  4  in.  long;  scape  and  flowers 
similar  to  the  preceding.  Both  of  these  spe 
cies  are  also  natives  of  Europe,  the  first  named 
extending  from  northern  Spain  to  the  arctic 
regions  and  throughout  Russian  Asia.  The 
short-leaved  (D.  Irevifolia)  has  wedge-shaped 
leaves  only  %  in.  long,  and  white  flowers  on  a 
scape  3  in.  or  more  high;  this  and  D.  ccqril- 
laris,  formerly  regarded  as  a  long-leaved  va 
riety  of  it,  are  found  only  from  Florida  to 
Xorth  Carolina.  The  slender  sundew  (D.  line- 
aris)  is  our  most  local  species,  being  found 
along  Lake  Superior  and  in  a  few  other 
localities  further  west ;  its  narrowly  linear 
leaves  are  4  to  6  in.  long,  the  blade  barely  £ 
in.  wide;  the  scape,  at  first  shorter  than  the 
leaves,  but  at  length  longer,  has  white  flowers. 
The  thread-leaved  sundew  (D.filifolid)  occurs 


Round-leaved  Sundew  (Dro 
sera  rotunditblia). 


4:80 


SUNDEW 


SUN  FISH 


in  wet  sand  along  the  coast,  from  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  to  Florida;  it  has  a  bulb-like  base  or 
corm,  from  which  rise  the  singular  thread 
like  leaves,  from  6  to  12,  and  sometimes  18  in. 
long,  in  which  there  is  no  distinction  between 
blade  and  petiole,  having  the  upper  surface 


Leaf  of  Eound-leaved  Sundew,  viewed   laterally.     (Magni 
fied  four  times.) 

somewhat  convex  ;  the  scapes,  which  are  a  lit 
tle  longer  than  the  leaves,  bear  handsome  rose- 
purple  flowers  more  than  half  an  inch  across. 
— It  was  long  known  in  a  general  way  that 
numerous  small  insects  were  caught  by  coming 
in  contact  with  these  viscid  glands,  and  about 
I860  it  was  discovered  that  this  was  not  ac 
cidental,  but  that  the  leaves  were  especially 
adapted  to  the  work,  and  that  though  their 
motions  are  much  slower  than  those  of  the  re 
lated  dionaia,  they  are  none  the  less  effective, 
and  the  droseras  now  rank  among  the  plants 
which  catch  and  digest  insects  for  their  own 
nourishment.  Darwin,  in  his  recent  work  on 
u Insectivorous  Plants"  (1875),  gives  in  great 
detail  the  investigations  of  himself  and  others 
upon  droseras  and  a  few  other  genera,  but 
two  thirds  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  drosera 
rotund/folia  alone.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
leaf  is  thickly  studded  with  the  glandular 
hairs  already  mentioned,  to  which  Darwin 
gives  the  name  of  tentacles ;  the  average  num 
ber  of  these  on  31  leaves  was  found  to  be 
192;  those  on  the  central  part  of  the  leaf  are 
short  and  erect,  with  green  pedicels ;  toward 


Kound-leaved    Sundew,    seen   from    above.     1.    Tentacles 
partly  inflected.     2.  Tentacles  entirely  inflected. 

the  margin  they  are  larger,  inclined  outward, 
and  have  purple  pedicels ;  those  upon  the 
extreme  margin  project  on  the  same  plane 
with  the  leaf,  and  are  commonly  reflexed, 
while  a  few  which  spring  from  the  top  of  the 
petiole  are  the  largest  of  all,  some  being  |-  in. 


long ;  each  tentacle  consists  of  a  straight,  hair- 
like  pedicel  or  stalk,  consisting  of  several  rows 
of  elongated  cells  filled  with  a  purple  fluid ; 
the  gland  at  the  apex  is  mostly  oval  and  com 
plex,  and  secretes  a  colorless  and  extremely 
viscid  matter,  which  may  be  drawn  out  into 
long  threads.  If  a  small  object,  organic  or 
inorganic,  be  placed  on  the  centre  of  the  leaf, 
the  tentacles  nearest  it  begin  to  bend  toward 
it;  this  impulse  is  transmitted  to  those  fur 
ther  off,  until  all,  including  the  marginal  ones, 
are  closely  inflected  over  the  object,  a  process 
requiring  from  one  to  four  or  live  hours.  In 
case  an  insect  alights  upon  or  touches  one  of 
these  glands,  it  is  held  by  the  secretion,  and 
in  its  struggles  comes  in  contact  with  other 
glands,  which  hold  it  until  the  tentacles  can 
fold  over  it  one  by  one  and  completely  im 
prison  it.  The  insects  thus  caught  are  actually 
digested,  and  the  nutritive  material  absorbed 
to  contribute  to  the  growth  of  the  plant ;  it  is 
found  that  the  secretion  from  these  glands  or 


Thread-leaved  Sundew  (Drosera  filiformis). 

tentacles  has  a  digestive  power  closely  resem 
bling  that  of  the  gastric  juice  of  animals,  act 
ing  even  upon  cartilage  and  the  fibrous  sub 
stance  of  bone.  Experiments  with  several 
other  species  of  drosera  show  that,  though  the 
leaves  vary  greatly  in  shape  and  appearance 
from  those  of  D.  rotundl  folia,  they  differ  but 
little  in  their  functions.  Some  of  the  curious 
results  obtained  by  Mrs.  Treat  with  our  thread- 
leaved  sundew  are  given  in  the  article  INSEC 
TIVOROUS  PLANTS. 

SUN  FISH,  the  common  name  of  the  fish 
es  of  the  diodon  family  and  genus  ortJiago- 
riscus  (Schn.).  The  skeleton  is  soft  and  only 
partially  ossified  ;  the  body  short  and  round, 
compressed  laterally ;  the  skin  rough,  covered 
with  mucus,  but  without  spines ;  "jaws  undi 
vided  in  the  middle,  forming  a  cutting  edge ; 
mouth  small,  the  teeth  adapted  for  bruising 
sea  weeds  and  soft-bodied  animals ;  the  body 
is  truncated  posteriorly,  looking  as  if  it  had 


SUNFLOWER 


481 


been  cut  off  at  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  and 
then  furnished  with  a  short  broad  caudal; 
there  are  no  ventrals,  no  air  bladder,  and  no 
abdominal  sac  capable  of  distention ;  the  dor- 


Common  Sun  Fish  (Orthagoriscus  mola). 

sal  and  anal  fins  are  more  or  less  united  to 
the  caudal ;  the  stomach  is  small,  and  immedi 
ately  receives  the  biliary  canal.  The  common 
sun  fish  (0.  mola,  Schn.)  is  almost  circular,  and 
the  dorsal  and  anal  project  posteriorly,  with 
the  caudal  between  ;  on  each  side,  near  the 
centre,  is  a  small  pectoral,  and  in  front  of  it 
the  gill  opening ;  the  gills  are  arranged  in 
comb-like  fringes ;  it  is  also  called  moon  fish 
and  head  fish.  It  grows  4  or  5  ft.  in  length 
and  3  or  4  ft.  in  depth,  with  a  weight  of  sev 
eral  hundred  pounds ;  the  flesh  is  tough  and 
remarkably  elastic,  owing  to  the  great  amount 
of  yellow  elastic  fibre,  intricately  interlaced, 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of  white  fibre  and  true 
muscle ;  the  liver  is  very  fat,  and  its  oil  is 
used  for  lubricating  purposes  on  board  ship, 
and  for  sprains  and  bruises  among  fishermen. 
It  is  grayish  above  and  whitish  below,  with  a 
silvery  lustre  when  alive,  and  phosphorescent 
at  night.  According  to  Mr.  Putnam,  in  his 
paper  read  before  the  American  association 
for  the  advancement  of  science  in  1870,  the 
young  differ  little  from  the  adults  in  shape,  and 
do  not  resemble  molacantJiiis,  as  Liitken  and 
Steenstrup  have  said.  It  is  sluggish  in  its  mo 
tions,  and  is  often  seen  asleep  at  the  surface  of 
the  water.  In  some  seasons  it  is  common  in 
summer  in  Massachusetts  and  New  York  bays, 
and  feeds  partly  if  not  principally  on  medusa?. 
There  is  probably  no  fish  more  infested  by 
parasites,  internally  and  externally. — The  name 
eun  fish  is  also  commonly  given  to  many  me- 
dusse  (see  JELLY  FISH),  and  in  this  country  to 
the  bream  (see  BREAM). 

SUNFLOWER,  the  common  name  of  plants 
of  the  genus  helianthus,  a  word  of  the  same 
meaning.  The  genus  belongs  to  the  compo 
site  family,  and  consists  of  about  50  species, 
most  of  which  are  North  American  ;  they  are 


coarse  annual  and  perennial  herbs,  with  rough 
stems  and  foliage,  and  some  species  bear  tubers; 
the  opposite  or  alternate  leaves  have  three 
nerves ;  the  solitary  or  corymbose  heads  are 
margined  by  conspicuous  neutral  ray  flowers  ; 
the  involucre  imbricated ;  the  persistent  chaff 
of  the  receptacle  embracing  the  four-sided 
akenes  (popularly  seeds),  which  bear  at  the 
top  two  chaffy  and  very  deciduous  scales,  with 
sometimes  two  or  more  intermediate  ones. 
In  the  common  sunflower  (H.  annuus),  from 
tropical  America,  the  flat  receptacle  is  6  in.  or 
more  across,  margined  by  conspicuous  yellow 
ray  flowers,  while  the  central  portion,  or  disk, 
is  crowded  with  brownish  tubular  ones.  The 
idea  that  the  sunflower  is  so  called  because  it 
always  presents  its  face  to  the  sun  is  erroneous ; 
the  name  is  more  likely  to  be  due  to  the  resem 
blance  of  the  flower  head  to  the  old  pictorial 
representations  of  the  sun  as  a  disk  surrounded 
by  flaming  rays.  Few  plants  are  so  exhaustive 
of  potash,  the  constituent  in  which  most  soils 
are  deficient,  as  the  sunflower,  and  its  culti 
vation,  sometimes  recommended  for  various 
uses,  would  soon  render  fertile  soils  unpro 
ductive  ;  for  this  reason  it  cannot  become  a 
profitable  crop.  It  is  raised  in  small  quantities 
occasionally  for  the  seeds  (akenes),  which  make 
an  acceptable  variety  in  the  food  of  poultry, 
and  they  are  in  repute  among  horsemen  as  a 
remedy  for  heaves,  a  quart  being  given  daily 
with  the  food.  Though  the  seeds  yield  about 
40  per  cent,  of  an  oil  useful  for  burning,  for 
soaps,  and  other  purposes,  equally  good  oil  may 
be  obtained  from  plants  which  do  not  so  ex 
haust  the  soil.  The  abundant  pith  has  been 
used  by  French  surgeons  as  a  moxa.  A  so- 
called  double  variety,  in  which  the  tubular 
florets  of  the  disk  are  developed  in  the  same 


Garden  Sunflower  (Helianthus  multiflorus). 

form  as  those  of  the  ray,  is  much  more  showy 
than  the  common  kind. — The  best  garden  sun 
flower  is  the  many-flowered  (H.  multiflorus), 
a  perennial,  of  doubtful  nativity,  growing  4  to 


482 


SUNFLOWER 


SUNSTROKE 


6  ft.  high,  and  producing  late  in  summer  an 
abundance  of  flowers,  which  in  the  double  form 
have  a  close  resemblance  to  the  flowers  of  the 
dahlia.  //.  argophyllus  of  Texas,  with  hoary 
white  foliage,  and  II.  orgyralis  of  the  far  west, 
with  narrow  gracefully  recurved  leaves,  are 
both  sometimes  cultivated  for  the  peculiari 
ties  of  their  foliage.  Numerous  species,  of 
interest  to  the  botanist  only,  are  to  be  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  country,  especially  on  the 
western  prairies.  The  species  cultivated  for 
its  edible  tubers  as  Jerusalem  artichoke  (//. 
tuberoms)  is  described  under  ARTICHOKE. 

SIATLOWER,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Mississippi, 
intersected  by  the  Sunflower  river ;  area,  720 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,015,  of  whom  3,243 
were  colored.  Since  the  census  a  portion  has 
been  set  off  to  form  Leflore  co.  The  surface 
is  level  and  swampy,  and  the  soil  highly  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  155,072 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  21,091  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  and  7,028  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
830  horses,  849  mules  and  asses,  1,728  milch 
cows,  3,497  other  cattle,  184  sheep,  and  7,828 
swine.  Capital,  Jolmsonville. 

SUXGARIA,  or  Dzungaria.     See  TURKISTAN. 

SUMA  (Arabic,  custom,  or  rule),  a  collection 
of  oral  traditions  of  the  sayings  and  practices 
of  Mohammed  and  his  wives,  companions,  and 
immediate  successors.  The  believers  in  them 
are  called  Sunnis.  They  are  considered  the 
orthodox  Mohammedans,  and  comprise  the 
four  sects  of  Ilanifites,  Malekites,  Shafeites, 
and  Hanbalites,  named  after  their  founders, 
all  of  whom  recognize  the  Sunna  as  of  a  value 
second  only  to  that  of  the  Koran,  which  the 
Shiahs  deny.  (See  SIIIAIIS.)  The  Sunna  is  also 
known  under  the  name  JIadis,  "  Tradition.'1 
While  the  Shiahs  constitute  at  present  the 
majority  of  the  Persian  and  Hindoo  Moham 
medans,  the  Sunnis,  and  among  them  espe 
cially  the  Malekites  and  Shafeites,  are  domi 
nant  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  Arabia,  Turkis- 
tan,  and  Africa. 

SlIXSTUOKE  (Lat.  soils  ictus;  Fr.  coup  de 
soldi;  Ger.  Sonnenstich ;  also  called  insola 
tion,  heat  apoplexy,  heat  asphyxia,  and  solar 
asphyxia),  an  affection  which  suddenly  attacks 
persons  exposed  to  the  continuous  hot  rays  of 
the  sun  or  other  sources  of  heat.  The  symp 
toms  vary  considerably,  according  to  the  ex 
tent  and  nature  of  the  injury.  The  patient  is 
usually  attacked  in  the  midst  of  his  employ 
ment,  although  sometimes  he  is  not  seized  till 
in  the  night,  especially  if  occupying  heated  and 
badly  ventilated  quarters.  There  is  loss  of 
consciousness,  and  generally  stertorous  breath 
ing  and  convulsions,  and  in  the  worst  cases 
there  is  extreme  prostration  of  the  vital  pow 
ers,  and  the  voluntary  muscles  are  motionless 
from  the  paralyzed  condition  of  the  nervous 
system,  the  greatly  impeded  functions  of  res 
piration  and  circulation  being  the  only  signs 
of  life.  The  attack  usually  comes  on  in  the 
afternoon,  partly  because  this  is  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day,  and  also  because  the  subject 


has  generally  been  laboring  for  many  hours, 
and  his  vital  powers  are  more  or  less  exhausted. 
The  attack  may  be  immediately  preceded  by 
premonitory  symptoms,  such  as  pain  and  a 
feeling  of  fulness  in  the  head  and  oppression 
at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  sometimes  attended 
with  nausea  and  vomiting,  and  a  feeling  of 
weakness  in  the  lower  extremities,  vertigo, 
and  dimness  of  vision.  In  GO  cases  reported 
to  the  New  York  hospital  by  Dr.  H.  S.  Swift 
("New  York  Journal  of  Medicine,"  1854), 
surrounding  objects  appeared  of  a  uniform 
color,  generally  blue  or  purple,  but  sometimes 
red,  and  at  others  green.  In  light  casas  the 
insensibility  may  be  momentary,  but  in  se 
vere  cases  the  patient  rapidly  becomes  as 
phyxiated  or  comatose.  The  pupils  are  some 
times  dilated  and  sometimes  contracted,  and 
there  may  be  dilatation  and  contraction  at 
different  stages  in  the  same  case.  There  is 
considerable  and  often  very  great  increase  in 
the  temperature  of  the  body.  In  cases  ob 
served  at  Bellevue  hospital,  New  York,  in 
July,  1SG8,  it  frequently  rose  to  109'5°  F.,  and 
in  one  instance  to  110'5°;  and  still  higher  tem 
peratures  are  recorded.  When  it  reaches  107° 
recovery  is  scarcely  to  be  expected,  although 
it  took  place  in  the  one  instance  at  Bellevue 
where- it  reached  110'5°.  Vomiting  during  the 
unconscious  period,  and  involuntary  evacuation 
of  the  bowels,  are  very  grave  symptoms.  Al 
though  in  many  cases,  as  has  been  observed, 
the  symptoms  vary  with  the  extent  of  the  le 
sions,  in  the  more  pronounced  cases  they  are 
rather  uniform,  the  patient  being  completely 
without  sensation  or  motion,  except  that  of 
respiration,  which  is  stertorous,  though  less 
than  in  true  apoplexy.  The  eyes  are  fixed  and 
turned  upward  with  a  glassy  appearance ;  the 
pupils  are  greatly  contracted,  and  the  conjunc 
tive  are  congested.  Sometimes  the  whole  sys 
tem  of  voluntary  muscles  .will  be  convulsed, 
and  more  rarely  the  patients  appear  to  be  in 
a  state  analogous  to  somnambulism ;  but  the 
more  fatal  cases  are  often  entirely  free  from 
motion  of  the  voluntary  muscles.  In  reports 
of  cases  occurring  in  the  British  army  in  India, 
by  Mr.  Longmore,  in  which  he  designated  foul 
air  of  badly  ventilated  quarters  as  an  active 
cause,  the  pathological  conditions  found  after 
death  were  markedly  more  those  of  asphyxia 
than  of  Congestive  apoplexy,  there  being  ex 
cessive  engorgement  of  the  lungs,  while  the 
cerebral  congestion  was  decidedly  less.  The 
blood  remains  uncoagulated  after  death,  show 
ing  a  loss  of  life  in  its  organic  constituents. 
Thus,  the  post-mortem  appearances  accord 
with  the  symptoms,  illustrating,  as  Mr.  Barclay 
has  pointed  out,  the  four  different  ways  in 
which  death  may  take  place,  and  furnish  a  key 
to  the  rational  treatment  of  the  different  cases. 
1.  The  intense  heat  of  the  sun's  rays,  pour 
ing  down  upon  the  head,  combined  with  great 
bodily  exertion,  may  produce  a  state  similar 
to  that  of  nervouc  concussion  from  accident, 
and  death  may  take  place  more  or  less  sud- 


SUPERCARGO 


SUPERIOR 


483 


denly  by  syncope.  2.  When  death  does  not 
quickly  ensue,  paralysis  of  the  respiratory 
nerves  may  induce  pulmonary  congestion,  ter 
minating  in  asphyxia.  3.  The  cerebral  may 
be  much  greater  than  the  pulmonary  conges 
tion,  and  death  may  take  place  by  coma.  4. 
Partial  recovery  may  supervene,  and  the  pa 
tient  die  in  two  or  three  days  afterward,  with 
serous  effusion  witnin  the  cranial  cavity. 
Rather  more  than  half  the  cases  of  sunstroke 
are  fatal,  death  sometimes  occurring  in  a  few 
minutes,  but  oftener  in  a  few  hours,  the  aver 
age  perhaps  being  from  three  to  four,  the  pa 
tient  remaining  in  a  comatose  state  till  the  end 
of  life. — The  treatment  has  been  a  matter  of 
much  discussion,  and  for  cases  having  marked 
apoplectic  or  comatose  symptoms  it  is  so  still. 
Some  contend  that  bloodletting  may  be  ad 
vantageously  employed,  while  others  strongly 
oppose  it  in  all  cases,  maintaining  that  there 
is  always  a  degree  of  vital  depression  which 
forbids  it.  This  is  the  position  generally  held 
by  the  surgeons  of  the  English  army  in  India. 
The  principal  remedies  relied  upon  in  nearly 
all  countries  are  stimulation  to  the  surface, 
especially  along  the  spine,  by  sinapisms  or 
blisters  and  electricity,  and  the  administration 
of  stimulant  and  purgative  enemata  containing 
alcoholic  spirits ;  the  bathing  of  the  surface  of 
the  body  with  tepid  or  warm  water  contain 
ing  ammonia  or  carbonate  of  soda;  and  the  ap 
plication  of  the  cold  douche  to  the  spine  and 
of  cold  to  the  head.  The  hair  should  be  cut 
short,  and  in  the  worst  cases  blisters  may  be 
applied  to  the  nape  of  the  neck  and  along  the 
spine.  When  the  breathing  is  very  difficult 
and  the  bronchial  tubes  are  clogged  with  mu 
cus,  the  patient  should  be  often  turned  upon 
the  side  and  face.  Beneficial  effects  have 
sometimes  been  found  from  the  inhalation  of 
chloroform,  but  the  use  of  this  requires  great 
caution.  Promptness  and  decision  are  neces 
sary,  and  the  services  of  a  physician  should  be 
procured  as  quickly  as  possible ;  but  cold  to 
the  head,  sinapisms,  and  stimulating  enemata 
may  be  employed  before  his  arrival. 

SUPERCARGO,  a  person  who  accompanies  a 
cargo  shipped  to  a  foreign  port,  and  is  intrust 
ed  with  the  sale  of  it  there,  either  as  specially 
directed  or  to  the  best  advantage,  and  with 
the  investment  of  its  proceeds  in  a  proper 
cargo  for  the  home  or  other  market.  As  the 
supercargo's  authority  properly  concerns  the 
cargo,  it  is  ordinarily  dormant  during  the  voy 
age,  and  is  called  into  exercise  by  .arrival  at 
the  foreign  port ;  and  though  for  the  sake  of 
the  cargo  and  a  market  the  supercargo  may 
sometimes  have  the  authority  to  determine  the 
destination  of  the  ship,  yet  he  has  none  to 
interfere  in  the  navigation  of  her,  or  in  any 
respect  to  usurp  the  office  and  functions  of  the 
master.  The  powers  and  duties  of  a  super 
cargo  are  not  very  specifically  regulated  by 
law  or  usage,  but  are  determined  in  every  in 
stance  by  the  express  instructions  of  the  ship 
per  where  such  instructions  are  given,  as  they 


usually  are.  The  supercargo  is  simply  an  agent, 
and  is  limited  like  other  agents  to  the  author 
ity  vested  in  him  by  his  principal.  Yet,  by 
construction  of  the  law,  new  authority  is  con 
ferred  upon  the  supercargo  by  the  existence 
and  force  of  necessity;  and  it  has  been  ex 
pressly  held  that  if  by  any  sudden  emergency 
it  becomes  impossible  for  the  supercargo  to 
comply  with  the  precise  tenor  of  his  instruc 
tions,  or  if  a  literal  execution  of  them  would 
defeat  the  objects  of  the  shipper  and  amount 
to  a  sacrifice  of  his  interests,  it  then  becomes 
the  duty  of  the  supercargo  to  do  the  best  he 
can  for  the  shipper ;  and  his  acts  done  ~bona 
fide  and  with  a  reasonable  discretion,  in  such 
an  exigency,  are  binding  upon  the  latter.  A 
supercargo,  like  a  master  or  foreign  factor, 
generally  buys  and  sells  in  his  own  name,  and 
his  acts  in  a  foreign  port,  even,  after  the  death 
of  the  owner  of  the  cargo,  and  while  that 
event  was  unknown  to  him,  are  binding  upon 
all  parties. 

SUPERIOR,  Lake,  the  uppermost  of  the  great 
border  lakes  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
and  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  on  the 
globe.  It  is  included  between  lat.  46°  30' 
and  49°  X.,  and  Ion.  84°  50'  and  92°  10'  W. ; 
greatest  length  from  E.  to  W.  360  m. ;  great 
est  breadth,  across  its  central  portion,  140  m. ; 
area,  32,000  sq.  m.  Its  length  of  coast  is 
about  1,500  m.,  its  mean  depth  about  1,000 
ft.,  and  the  level  of  its  surface  above  the  sea 
about  630  ft.  The  boundary  line  between 
Canada  and  the  United  States  passes  from 
Lake  Huron  up  the  St.  Mary's  river,  the  out 
let  of  Lake  Superior,  through  the  centre  of 
the  lower  half  of  this  lake,  to  the  mouth  of 
Pigeon  river  on  the  N.  shore,  between  Isle 
Royale  and  the  Canadian  coast.  This  island 
was  allowed  to  fall  on  the  American  side  of 
the  boundary  in  compensation  for  one  of  the 
islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Mary's  river. 
The  S.  coast  of  the  lake  from  the  outlet  to 
Montreal  river  belongs  to  the  upper  peninsula 
of  Michigan.  From  this  river  to  the  river 
St%  Louis  the  coast  belongs  to  Wisconsin,  and 
thence  round  to  Pigeon  river  to  Minnesota. 
Toward  each  extremity  the  lake  contracts  in 
width,  and  at  the  lower  end  terminates  in  a 
bay  which  falls  into  the  outlet,  the  St.  Mary's 
river,  at  the  two  opposite  headlands  of  Gros 
Cap  on  the  north  and  Point  Iroquois  on  the 
south.  Thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Mary's 
at  Lake  Huron  is  about  60  m.  Numerous 
streams  flow  into  Lake  Superior,  but  none  of 
large  size.  High  lands  in  general  lie  near  the 
coast,  the  long  slopes  from  which  are  directed 
away  from  the  lake  and  the  short  slopes  toward 
it.  The  rapid  fall  prevents  the  navigation  even 
by  canoes  of  most  of  these  streams,  but  pro 
vides  excellent  water  power,  which  is  almost 
everywhere  available.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  St.  Louis,  which  enters  at  the  head  of 
the  lake ;  on  the  N".  shore,  the  Pigeon,  Kami- 
nistiquia,  Black  Sturgeon,  Nipigon  (the  outlet 
of  Is  ipigon  lake),  Pic,  and  Michipicoten ;  and 


484: 


SURAJAH  DOWLAII 


SUEETY 


on  the  S.  shore,  the  TequamenoD,  Sturgeon, 
Ontonagon,  Montreal,  and  Bad.  The  coast  of 
the  lake  is  for  the  most  part  rocky,  and  on 
the  1ST.  side  is  much  indented  by  deep  bays 
surrounded  with  high  rocky  cliffs,  back  of 
which  the  country  soon  rises  in  bleak  and 
dreary  mountains.  Numerous  islands  are  scat 
tered  about  this  portion  of  the  coast,  many 
rising  precipitously  to  great  heights  directly 
up  from  the  deep  water.  Some  present  cas 
tellated  walls  of  basalt,  and  some  rise  in  gra 
nitic  peaks  to  various  elevations  up  to  1,300 
ft.  above  the  lake.  Nowhere  upon  the  inland 
waters  of  North  America  is  the  scenery  so  bold 
and  grand  as  on  the  N.  shore  of  Lake  Superior. 
The  irregularities  of  the  coast  with  the  gen 
eral  depth  of  water  here  afford  numerous  good 
harbors,  which  however  in  this  unfrequented 
region  are  as  yet  of  little  service,  while  on  the 
opposite  coast  such  places  of  refuge  are  much 
wanted.  The  determination  of  the  coast  lines 
by  the  wearing  action  of  the  waters  upon  rocks 
of  different  degrees  of  hardness  is  remarkably 
exemplified  everywhere  along  the  shores  of 
Lake  Superior,  particularly  in  the  precipitous 
walls  of  red  sandstone  on  the  S.  coast,  famous 
in  all  the  earlier  accounts  of  the  lake  as  the 
"Pictured  Rocks."  They  stand  opposite  the 
greatest  width  of  the  lake  and  exposed  to  the 
greatest  force  of  the  heavy  storms  from  the 
north.  The  effect  of  the  waves  upon  them  is 
not  only  seen  in  their  irregular  shapes,  but  the 
sand  derived  from  their  disintegration  is  swept 
down  the  coast  below  and  raised  by  the  winds 
into  long  lines  of  sandy  cliffs.  At  the  place 
called  the  Grand  Sable  these  are  from  100  to 
300  ft.  high,  and  the  region  around  consists 
of  hills  of  drifting  sand.  The  principal  bays 
are  Thunder,  Black,  and  Nipigon  on  the  north, 
Tequamenon  at  the  outlet,  Keweenaw  on  the 
south,  and  Fond  du  Lac  at  the  head.  The 
largest  islands  are  Isle  Roy  ale  and  Michipico- 
ten.  The  most  important  places  on  the  shores 
of  the  lake  are  Marquette,  Mich.,  and  Duluth, 
Minn.  There  are  many  varieties  of  excellent 
fish,  the  most  valuable  being  white  fish,  stur 
geon,  and  trout. — For  the  mineral  productions 
of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  see  COPPER  MINES, 
vol.  v.,  p.  323;  IRON  GEES,  vol.  ix.,  p.  407; 
MICHIGAN,  vol.  xi.,  p.  497;  ONTARIO,  vol.  xii., 
p.  635 ;  and  SILVER,  vol.  xv.,  p.  57. 

SURAJAH  DOWLAH.  See  OLIVE,  and  INDIA, 
vol.  ix.,  p.  210. 

SURAT,  a  walled  town  of  British  India,  in  the 
northern  division  of  Bombay,  in  a  collectorate 
of  the  same  name  (pop.  in  1872.  554,000),  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Taptee,  20  m.  from 
its  mouth  in  the  gulf  of  Cambay,  and  150  m. 
N.  of  Bombay ;  pop.  about  70,000.  It  contains 
an  English  church,  several  handsome  mosques 
and  temples,  numerous  Hindoo  and  other 
schools,  and  the  Banian  hospital,  founded  and 
richly  endowed  by  the  Jains  for  the  treatment 
and  cure  of  diseased  animals.  The  city  is 
an  organized  municipality,  with  a  revenue  of 
nearly  £50,000.— Surat  is  of  great  antiquity, 


and  is  mentioned  in  the  ancient  Sanskrit  poem, 
the  Ramayana.  When  the  Mohammedans 
ruled  Hindostan  it  was  their  chief  port  of  em 
barkation  on  their  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  The 
Portuguese  sacked  Surat  in  1530.  In  1613  the 
English  obtained  commercial  privileges  from 
the  emperor  Jehanghir,  and  established  a  fac 
tory  here  which  became  their  chief  station  on 
the  "W.  coast  of  India,  and  remained  so  till 
1686,  when  it  was  removed  to  Bombay.  In 
1796  the  population  was  estimated  at  600,000, 
and  it  had  then  greatly  declined  in  conse 
quence  of  the  loss  of  its  trade.  In  1800  the 
administration  of  the  government  was  perma 
nently  assumed  by  the  British. 

SURETY,  in  law,  a  person  who  binds  himself 
to  fulfil,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  the  engage 
ment  of  the  principal  obligor.  For  those  cases 
in  which  the  surety  expressly  assumes  the  ob 
ligation  technically  known  as  a  guaranty,  see 
GUARANTY.  When  two  parties  join  in  making 
a  purchase,  or  in  giving  a  promissory  note, 
each  is  in  law  equally  liable  to  the  party  with 
whom  the  contract  was  made  ;  but  as  between 
themselves,  it  is  always  competent  for  one  to 
show  that  the  transaction  was  wholly  for  the 
benefit  and  at  the  request  of  his  co-obligor,  and 
that  he  became  bound  as  surety  merely  for  his 
associate.  If  in  such  case  the  surety  in  face 
be  compelled  (as,  according  to  the  tenor  of  his 
obligation,  he  obviously  may  be)  to  pay  the 
whole,  equity  declares  that  he  is  entitled  to 
complete  reimbursement  from  the  principal, 
and  that,  in  order  to  secure  this  reimbursement^ 
the  surety  is  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  all  the 
security  which  either  the  rules  of  law  or  the 
express  acts  of  the  parties  have  given  to  the 
obligee  or  creditor ;  and  if,  by  any  negligence 
or  other  acts,  the  obligee  defeat  these  rights 
of  the  surety,  he  forfeits  his  right  of  action 
against  him.  If  the  creditor  or  obligee  is  fair 
ly  informed  of  the  relation  of  principal  and 
surety  existing  between  the  parties,  he  is  bound 
to  take  care  that  no  act  of  his  shall  destroy  or 
lessen  the  surety's  right  of  indemnity  from  the 
principal  debtor.  If  therefore  he  declare  that 
he  will  look  solely  to  the  principal  for  pay 
ment,  so  that  the  surety  is  induced  to  omit 
taking  security  from  the  latter ;  or  if  he  tell 
the  surety  that  the  debt  has  been  paid  so  that 
he  relinquish  to  the  principal  his  security ;  the 
surety  will  be  in  both  cases  discharged  from 
his  obligation  to  the  obligee.  But  the  mere 
inaction  of  the  creditor  to  pursue  his  reme 
dies  against  the  principal  will  not  discharge 
the  surety,  nor  will  positive  indulgence  to  the 
principal  have  this  effect ;  but  if  the  delay 
be  granted  in  pursuance  of  any  binding  agree 
ment  with  the  principal,  so  that  the  surety 
cannot  pay  the  debt  and  then  proceed  at  once 
for  indemnity  against  the  principal,  the  credi 
tor's  act  releases  the  surety.  And  as  the  surety 
is  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  all  securities  given 
by  the  principal,  he  is  discharged  if  the  cred 
itor's  inaction  or  negligence  have  rendered 
these  securities  valueless.  In  short,  though  the 


SUKF  BIRD 


SURGERY 


485 


creditor  is  not  bound,  so  far  as  the  surety  is 
concerned,  to  pursue  the  ordinary  legal  reme 
dies  against  the  principal,  yet  he  is  hound,  in 
respect  to  all  remedies  given  him  by  way  of 
pledge  or  security  or  by  other  act  of  the  par 
ties,  to  hold  or  pursue  them  diligently  in  be 
half  of  the  surety ;  and  if  he  relinquish  any 
such  remedy  without  the  knowledge  or  against 
the  will  of  the  surety,  he  shall  lose  his  claim 
against  the'  latter  to  the  extent  of  the  right 
surrendered.  Question  has  often  been  made 
whether  the  creditor  would  not  lose  his  right 
against  the  surety  if  the  principal  should  be 
come  insolvent  after  a  request  by  the  surety 
(which  was  disregarded)  that  proceedings  be 
immediately  taken  for  collection  ;  but  it  has 
generally  been  held  that  he  did  not,  and  that 
the  remedy  of  the  surety  was  to  pay  the  debt 
and  then  proceed  to  collect  of  the  principal. 

SURF  BIRD  (aphriza  mrgata.  Gray),  a  wading 
bird  of  the  plover  family,  and  subfamily  cin- 
clince  or  turnstones.  The  bill  is  about  as  long 
as  the  head,  with  vaulted  obtuse  tip  and  com 
pressed  sides ;  wings  long  and  pointed,  with 
the  first  quill  the  longest;  tail  moderate  and 
even ;  tarsi  as  long  as  middle  toe,  robust,  with 
small  irregular  scales ;  toes  long,  free  at  the 
base,  sides  of  anterior  ones  margined,  and  hind 
one  elevated,  slender,  and  partly  resting  on 
the  ground.  It  is  about  10  in.  long,  with  the 
wing  7  in. ;  dark  brown  above,  lighter  on  the 
wing  coverts,  with  white  spots  and  stripes  on 
the  head  and  neck ;  upper  tail  coverts  and  basal 
half  of  tail  white,  the  latter  terminated  with 
brownish  black ;  under  parts  white,  tinged  with 
ashy  in  front,  each  feather  having  a  brown 
ish  black  crescent.  It  is  found  on  the  Pacific 
coast  of  North  and  South  America,  and  in  the 
Hawaiian  islands,  and  is  migratory. 

SIRGEOX,  a  bird  of  the  stork  family.  See 
JACANA. 

SURGERY,  or  Chirnrgcry  (Gr.  ^F//>,  the  hand, 
and  Ipyov,  labor),  that  department  of  the  art 
of  healing  which  appertains  to  the  diagnosis, 
prognosis,  and  treatment  of  the  class  of  dis 
eases  which  require  manual  or  instrumental 
measures  for  their  cure.  The  sphere  of  sur 
gery  is  more  limited  and  at  the  same  time 
more  accurately  defined  than  that  of  medicine. 
Surgery  divides  tissues  or  parts  improperly 
united,  and  unites  those  which  have  been  di 
vided  when  they  should  remain  in  union ;  sep 
arates  whatever  has  become  dangerous  or  in 
convenient  to  the  patient ;  removes  foreign 
bodies,  or  parts  of  the  body  which  from  dis 
ease  or  loss  of  vitality  have  become  foreign, 
whenever  they  exert  a  hurtful  influence  on 
the  animal  economy ;  restores  to  their  cavity 
or  replaces  in  their  normal  position  portions 
of  the  body  which  have  become  displaced; 
checks  the  loss  of  blood  from  wounded  or 
divided  blood  vessels ;  reduces  inflammations, 
or  removes  the  purulent  or  phlegmonous  mat 
ter  which  may  have  been  deposited  by  them  ; 
repairs  and  corrects  deformities  and  distor 
tions  ;  and  effects  the  replacement  of  lost 


tissues.  Its  means  of  accomplishing  these  re 
sults  are  the  hand,  lint,  bandages,  and  ap 
paratus  of  various  kinds,  cutting,  crushing, 
and  probing  instruments,  catheters,  bougies, 
sounds,  forceps,  specula,  &c.,  and  the  various 
forms  of  cauteries,  direct  and  indirect,  liquid 
and  solid. — The  earliest  surgeons  of  whom 
there  is  any  record  were  the  Egyptian  priests. 
According  to  Herodotus,  we  owe  to  them  the 
use  of  the  moxa  and  the  adaptation  of  arti 
ficial  limbs.  Among  the  ancient  Hebrews 
there  is  but  little  evidence  of  surgical  skill, 
and  that  little  was  confined  to  the  priests.  In 
Greece,  surgery  is  as  ancient  as  the  mythic  pe 
riod  of  its  history.  Chiron  the  centaur,  born 
in  Thessaly,  and  skilful  in  the  application  of 
soothing  herbs  to  wounds  and  bruises,  is  the 
legendary  father  of  Greek  surgery.  But  ./Es- 
culapius,  the  son  of  Apollo,  said  by  some  to 
have  been  the  pupil  of  Chiron,  though  others 
call  him  his  predecessor  and  superior,  won  the 
highest  fame  in  that  early  time  for  surgical 
skill.  He  is  said  to  have  been  deified  on  ac 
count  of  his  wonderful  success  about  50  years 
before  the  Trojan  war.  Temples  were  reared 
for  his  worship,  which  became  the  repositories 
of  surgical  knowledge,  at  Epidaurus,  Rhodes, 
Cnidus,  Cos,  and  Pergamus.  Homer  has  im 
mortalized  his  two  sons,  Podalirius  and  Macha- 
on,  the  companions  of  Agamemnon  in  the  Tro 
jan  war,  where  they  rendered  essential  service 
in  healing  the  wounds  of  the  Grecian  heroes. 
The  Asclepiades,  or  reputed  descendants  of 
./Esculapius,  retained  the  monopoly  of  surgery 
as  well  as  medicine  in  their  family.  They 
had  established  in  this  period  three  schools  of 
medicine,  at  Rhodes,  Cnidus,  and  Cos.  Py 
thagoras,  in  the  6th  century  B.  0.,  established 
at  Crotona  a  new  school  of  medicine,  in  which 
his  peculiar  philosophy  was  probably  applied 
to  the  art  of  healing;  among  its  early  pupils 
was  Democedes,  eminent  as  a  surgeon,  who 
when  taken  captive  by  the  Persians  reduced 
the  dislocated  ankle  of  Darius,  and  removed 
or  in  some  way  cured  the  cancerous  breast 
of  his  queen  Atossa,  after  the  Egyptian  phy 
sicians  had  failed.  The  want  of  anatomical 
knowledge,  no  dissections  being  allowed,  was 
a  fatal  bar  to  any  considerable  progress  in  sur 
gery.  Hippocrates  (about  400  B.  C.)  more  than 
any  of  his  predecessors  advanced  surgical  treat 
ment ;  he  reduced  dislocations  and  adjusted 
fractures,  used  the  trephine,  applied  the  for 
ceps  in  accouchement,  made  incisions  into  the 
kidney  for  the  removal  of  calculi,  performed 
amputations,  and  perforated  the  cavity  of  the 
ribs  in  empyema  and  hydrothorax.  Interdicted 
from  human  dissection,  he  practised  the  dis 
section  of  the  ape  tribe  as  nearest  to  man  in 
anatomical  structure,  and  thus  obtained  much 
knowledge.  For  a  century  after  the  death  of 
Hippocrates  we  meet  few  names  of  note  in 
surgery.  The  founding  of  the  Alexandrian 
school  under  Ptolemy  Soter  about  300  B.  C. 
was  another  important  epoch  in  the  advance 
of  the  art.  Herophilus  and  Erasistratus,  the 


4:86 


SURGERY 


two  great  leaders  of  the  medical  school  of 
that  university,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  were 
eminent  both  as  physicians  and  surgeons; 
with  them  commenced  the  practice  of  human 
dissections.  The  extirpation  of  the  spleen, 
and  the  application  of  remedies  direct  to  scir- 
rhosities  and  tumors  of  that  viscus  and  of  the 
liver,  were  among  the  bold  operations  of  Era- 
sistratus.  To  him  also  belongs  the  invention 
and  application  of  the  catheter  in  cases  of  re 
tention  of  urine.  The  pupils  of  these  eminent 
surgeons  invented  bandages  of  peculiar  forms, 
and  introduced  the  tourniquet  and  contri 
vances  for  reducing  dislocations  of  the  femur. 
One  of  them,  Ammonius,  employed  an  instru 
ment  for  lithontriptic  purposes,  anticipating 
Civiale's  process. — Rome  in  the  first  TOO  years 
of  its  history  produced  no  surgeon  of  note. 
Celsus,  who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era,  was  the  greatest  of  the  sur 
geons  of  ancient  Rome,  and  his  observations 
on  injuries  of  the  head,  on  cataract,  on  the 
ligature  of  wounded  arteries,  hernia,  lithoto 
my,  fractures  and  dislocations,  amputations, 
and  carbuncle,  show  considerable  knowledge. 
Aretams,  the  first  to  use  the  cantharides  blis 
ter,  Heliodorus,  Rufus  the  Ephesian,  all  of 
whom  flourished  between  A.  D.  50  and  120, 
and  after  them  Antyllus,  added  to  the  surgical 
knowledge  of  the  time  new  views  of  the  treat 
ment  of  injuries  of  the  head,  the  resort  to 
arteriotomy  instead  of  venesection  in  sudden 
emergencies  of  inflammatory  action,  bronchot- 
omy  in  some  acute  diseases  of  the  throat,  the 
radical  cure  of  hydrocele  by  free  incision  of 
the  parts,  and  a  more  thorough  investigation 
of  diseases  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder.  Galen 
devoted  more  attention  to  medicine  than  sur 
gery,  but  his  observations  on  hernia,  on  luxa 
tion  of  the  femur  backward,  and  on  the  appli 
cation  of  the  trephine  to  the  sternum  in  em- 
pyema,  are  of  importance.  In  the  early  period 
of  Christianity  surgery  languished ;  the  early 
Christians  opposed  dissection  as  strongly  as 
the  pagans,  and  by  attributing  the  power  of 
healing  wounds  to  martyrs  and  their  relics  dis 
couraged  all  efforts  at  improvement  in  surgical 
science.  The  first  eminent  name  among  the 
surgeons  of  the  dark  ages  is  Aetius  (500  to 
550),  whose  surgical  writings  are  numerous 
and  valuable.  He  practised  scarification  of  the 
extremities  in  anasarca,  operated  for  aneurism, 
endeavored  to  dissolve  urinary  calculi  by  in 
ternal  remedies,  discussed  hernia  with  great 
ability,  and  wrote  on  encysted  tumors,  inju 
ries  to  nerves  and  tendons,  diseases  of  the 
eyes,  &c.  Alexander  of  Tralles,  a  younger 
contemporary  of  Aetius,  wrote  treatises,  now 
lost,  on  diseases  of  the  eye  and  on  fractures, 
which  were  highly  commended  for  their  ori 
ginality  by  some  of  his  successors.  Paulus 
^Egineta,  in  the  7th  century,  was  a  surgeon  of 
eminence  and  considerable  originality.  His 
sixth  book  has  been  considered  by  many  as 
the  best  body  of  surgical  knowledge  prior  to 
the  revival  of  letters.  He  recommended  topi 


cal  in  preference  to  general  bleeding,  as  more 
effective  in  reducing  local  inflammation  ;  re 
sorted  to  copious  venesection  to  accelerate  the 
painful  descent  of  calculi  through  the  ureters ; 
opened  internal  abscesses  with  caustics ;  de 
fined  the  points  for  performing  paracentesis 
in  ascites ;  made  his  incision  in  lithotomy  on 
one  side  of  the  raphe  instead  of  the  centre 
as  Celsus  had  recommended ;  practised  both 
laryngotomy  and  tracheotomy,  the  latter  as  a 
means  of  carrying  on  respiration  during  oc 
clusion  of  the  larynx ;  treated  of  fractures  of 
the  patella ;  and  was  the  originator  of  the  ob 
stetric  operation  of  embryotomy. — The  Ara 
bian  physicians,  who  rose  into  distinction  as 
those  of  the  West  declined  in  reputation^  did 
little  for  surgery.  Rhazes  (about  900)  described 
for  the  first  time  spina  ventosa  and  spina  bifida, 
cauterized  the  wounds  from  the  bites  of  rabid 
animals,  opposed  the  use  of  the  knife  in  can 
cer  except  when  limited  and  when  the  whole 
tumor  could  be  removed,  and  gave  a  clear  and 
satisfactory  description  of  the  treatment  of 
hernia.  Avicenna  (died  about  1006)  intro 
duced  the  flexible  catheter.  Albucasis  (died 
about  1106)  introduced  an  instrument  for  the 
cure  of  fistula  laclirymalis,  invented  the  pro- 
bang,  and  in  wounds  of  the  intestine  practised 
union  of  the  divided  parts  by  suture  with  suc 
cess. — In  Catholic  Europe  medical  practice  and 
what  of  surgery  remained  was  mostly  in  the 
hands  of  the  clergy  until,  by  the  edict  of  the 
council  of  Tours  in  1163,  they  were  interdicted 
from  all  surgical  practice.  The  Jews  were  at 
this  period  and  for  a  century  or  two  later  in 
high  repute  as  physicians,  but  they  seem  to 
have  had  a  dislike  to  surgery.  Guy  de  Chau- 
liac,  a  priest,  compiled  from  the  Greek  and 
Arabian  authors  the  earliest  work  of  modern 
times  on  surgery,  but  with  very  little  judg 
ment  of  what  was  worth  retaining.  For  two 
centuries  and  more  surgery  was  mainly  in  the 
hands  of  the  illiterate  barber  surgeons.  The 
revival  of  surgical  science  dates  from  the  ap 
pearance  of  Vesalius  (died  1564)  as  a  teacher  of 
anatomy  in  Italy,  followed  soon  after  by  Fallo- 
pius  and  Eustachius.  Surgery  was  then  for  the 
first  time  put  upon  a  sound  and  scientific  basis, 
that  of  careful  dissection,  and  Ambroise  Pare, 
a  French  army  surgeon  who  had  educated  him 
self  in  anatomical  science,  was  the  first  of  its 
great  lights.  He  was  surgeon  successively  to 
four  kings  of  France,  and  was  attached  to  the 
French  armies  as  surgeon-general  down  to  1569. 
To  him  we  owe  the  revival  and  improvement 
of  the  practice  of  tying  the  arteries  after  op 
erations  or  wounds,  instead  of  cauterizing  them 
with  hot  iron  or  boiling  oil.  The  pupils  of 
Pare  added  little  lustre  to  their  master's  name ; 
but  in  Italy  at  the  close  of  the  16th  century 
Fabricius  ab  Acquapendente  flourished  at  Pa 
dua,  and  his  Opera  Chirurgica,  the  first  really 
valuable  treatise  on  surgery  of  modern  times, 
passed  through  17  editions.  lie  was  the  pre 
ceptor  of  Harvey.  Wiseman,  sergeant  sur 
geon  to  Charles  II.,  was  the  first  eminent  sur- 


SURGERY 


487 


gical  writer  and  practitioner  in  England.  His 
recommendation  of  immediate  amputation  in 
military  practice,  when  the  preservation  of  the 
limb  was  impossible,  has  been  followed  from 
that  time  to  the  present.  He  left  eight  trea 
tises  on  surgery,  which  are  not  without  value 
even  at  the  present  day.  The  flap  operation 
in  amputation  is  claimed  for  James  Young,  an 
English  surgeon  contemporary  with  Wiseman, 
and  also  for  two  French  surgeons,  Verduin 
and  Sabaurin,  of  the  same  period.  In  Ger 
many  during  this  century,  Hildanus,  Scultetus, 
Purmann,  and  Heister  were  the  principal  sur 
gical  writers  and  practitioners.  In  Italy  the 
principal  names  of  note  toward  the  close  of 
the  16th  and  in  the  iVth  century  were  Talia- 
cotius,  the  originator  of  the  restorative  surgery 
in  Europe  ;  Caesar  Magatus,  who  greatly  sim 
plified  the  treatment  of  wounds ;  and  M.  A.  Se- 
verinus,  who  banished  the  salves  and  plasters 
which  in  Italy  had  usurped  the  place  of  opera 
tions.  The  18th  century  witnessed  a  still  greater 
advance  in  the  science.  In  England,  Percival 
Pott,  well  known  for  his  investigation  of  that 
form  of  caries  of  the  vertebra  known  by  his 
name  (see  SPIXAL  DISEASES),  and  the  most 
judicious  writer  of  modern  times  on  fractures, 
amputations,  injuries  of  the  head,  and  diseases 
of  the  spine;  John  and  William  Hunter,  the 
former  the  greatest  master  of  the  principles 
of  surgery  in  the  profession  ;  Cheselden  and 
Douglas,  both  famous  as  lithotomists  ;  and  the 
two  Monros,  father  and  son,  are  among  the 
great  names  of  the  surgical  profession.  In 
France  flourished  La  Peyronie,  at  whose  in 
stance  Louis  XV.  in  1731  founded  the  acad 
emy  of  surgery ;  Jean  Louis  Petit,  the  greatest 
French  surgeon  of  the  18th  century ;  Ledran, 
Garangeot,  and  the  illustrious  Desault,  the  ori 
ginator  of  clinical  surgical  instruction  and  the 
inventor  of  numerous  admirable  apparatuses 
for  the  treatment  of  fracture.  Among  the  cel 
ebrated  surgeons  of  other  European  countries 
were  Molinelli,  Morgagni,  Scarpa,  Bertrandi, 
and  Moscati  in  Italy;  Deventer,  Albinus,  and 
Camper  in  Holland;  and  Platner,  Roderer, 
Rambilla,  Theden,  and  Richter  in  Germany. 
During  the  18th  century  the  ligature  of  aneu- 
rismal  arteries  of  large  size,  the  treatment 
of  hernia  and  fistula  in  ano,  the  cure  of 
fistula  laclirymalis,  and  the  skilful  manage 
ment  of  dangerous  and  difficult  parturitions, 
were  the  most  important  branches  of  surgery 
in  which  ftiere  was  a  material  advance  from 
the  preceding  century;  the  proper  construc 
tion  of  instruments  also  received  great  atten 
tion.  The  19th  century  has,  however,  done 
more  for  the  improvement  of  this  science  than 
all  the  centuries  which  have  preceded  it.  In 
England,  Abernethy,  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  Liston, 
and  others  of  the  highest  reputation  have  passed 
away,  and  others  hardly  less  eminent  remain ; 
in  France,  Dupuytren,  Roux,  Lisfranc,  and 
Larrey  have  had  no  superiors  either  before  or 
after  them.  The  following  may  with  propriety 
be  particularized  as  among  the  improvements 


of  the  age  in  surgery:  the  introduction  of 
anaesthesia ;  resection  of  the  bones  at  the  joints ; 
the  preservation  of  the  periosteum  and  conse 
quent  development  of  new  bone ;  partial  am 
putations  of  the  foot,  as  instanced  in  the  op 
eration  of  Lisfranc  for  the  removal  of  the  meta 
tarsus,  and  of  Chopart,  Symes,  Malgaigne,  and 
Pirigoflf  for  disarticulation  of  tarsal  bones ;  the 
amputations  at  the  thigh  and  shoulder  joints ; 
the  ligature  of  arteries  within  the  trunk  and 
immediately  at  their  departure  from  it;  the 
resection  and  removal  of  portions  or  even  the 
whole  of  the  upper  or  lower  jaw ;  the  opera 
tions  for  cleft  or  deficient  velum  palati  or  pala 
tine  vault;  the  opening  by  longitudinal  section 
of  the  air  passages  at  different  points  to  avoid 
asphyxia;  the  resection  and  extirpation  of  the 
uterus,  of  the  ovaries,  and  of  the  lower  por 
tion  of  the  rectum;  the  introduction  of  the 
silver  suture,  especially  in  operations  on  the 
viscera,  as  for  recto-vaginal  and  vesico-vaginal 
fistula;  the  adoption  of '  the  immovable  ap 
paratus  for  fractures;  the  processes  for  reme 
dying  disunited  fracture;  the  substitution  of 
milder  means  for  the  trephine  in  all  except  the 
most  serious  cases;  the  improved  treatment 
of  ulcers  and  abscesses;  the  cure  of  the  most 
formidable  aneurisms  by  the  ligature  of  the 
carotid,  subclavian,  axillary,  humeral,  and  ex 
ternal  and  internal  iliacs;  the  treatment  of 
varicose  veins  ;  the  successful  treatment  of  cal 
culus  by  lithotrity,  in  consequence  of  the  great 
improvements  made  in  the  processes  and  in 
struments;  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of 
tumors,  whether  encysted,  fatty,  vascular,  or 
malignant;  the  cure  of  strabismus,  and  the 
generally  improved  treatment  in  diseases  of 
the  eye,  including  the  invention  of  'the  oph 
thalmoscope  by  Helmholtz  in  1851,  and  the 
reformation  of  ophthalmic  medicine  and  sur 
gery  carried  on  by  Yon  Graefe,  Donders,  Bow 
man,  Toynbee,  Wilde,  Yon  Troltsch,  Politzer, 
and  others;  the  restorative  processes,  by 
which  the  nose,  lip,  arid  other  parts  are  re 
formed  from  adjacent  tissues ;  the  treatment 
of  harelip  and  of  club-foot;  and  the  notable 
advance  consequent  upon  the  conservative 
treatment  of  gunshot  and  other  wounds  of  the 
brain. — As  from  the  nature  of  their  duties 
suits  for  malpractice  are  more  often  brought 
against  surgeons  than  c^gainst  physicians,  it 
will  be  appropriate  here  to  speak  of  their  legal 
obligations,  though  the  same  laws  apply  to 
practitioners  in  any  of  the  branches  of  medicine. 
In  undertaking  the  treatment  of  a  patient,  the 
surgeon  enters  into  a  legal  obligation  and  as 
sumes  legal  liabilities,  which,  though  seldom 
expressly'defined,  are  yet,  in  the  apprehension 
of  the  law,  fixed  and  certain.  The  law  holds 
that  he  contracts  for  the  possession  of  that  rea 
sonable  degree  of  learning,  skill,  and  experi 
ence  which  the  members  of  his  profession  or 
dinarily  possess.  Those  also  who,  like  oculists, 
aurists,  or  dentists,  claim  to  be  particularly 
conversant  with  and  skilful  in  the  treatment 
of  the  diseases  of  single  organs,  must  be  held 


488 


SUKICATE 


SURREY 


to  a  peculiar  responsibility.  The  same  is  true 
of  surgeons  of  great  pretensions  in  large  cities 
as  compared  with  those  residing  in  remote  and 
thinly  settled  districts.  In  undertaking  a  case, 
the  surgeon  also  contracts  that  he  will  apply 
the  skill  which  he  possesses,  whatever  be  its 
degree,  with  reasonable  and  ordinary  diligence 
and  care.  Extraordinary  care  is  no  more  im 
plied  than  extraordinary  skill ;  nor  is  the  prac 
titioner  supposed  to  guarantee  a  cure,  though 
he  may  if  he  chooses  contract  to  effect  a  cure, 
and  then  he  must  answer  for  a  failure.  The 
practitioner's  skill  in  any  case  will  ordinarily  be 
required  to  embrace  those  phases  and  phenom 
ena  which  usually  characterize  the  dominant 
disease ;  and  any  mischance  which  connects 
itself  immediately  with  these  will  involve  the 
question  of  skill.  His  diligence  and  care  will  be 
exercised  in  watching  for  and  guarding  against 
the  accidental  influences  which,  if  overlooked, 
may  delay  or  even  prevent  the  restoration  of 
the  patient.  If  he  have  brought  ordinary  skill 
and  care  to  the  treatment  of  his  case,  the  sur 
geon  is  not  responsible  for  want  of  success  nor 
for  mistakes  in  cases  of  real  doubt  and  un 
certainty.  The  surgeon's  liability  in  cases  of 
malpractice  is  ordinarily  only  a  civil  one,  and 
the  injury  he  does  can  usually  be  compensated 
by  damages.  But,  in  cases  where  death  has 
followed  the  treatment,  and  it  has  seemed  to 
be  the  direct  consequence  of  the  treatment, 
there  have  been,  not  unfrequently,  charges  of 
criminal  malpractice  preferred  against  the  med 
ical  practitioner.  To  constitute  a  crime,  there 
must  be  a  malicious  or  criminal  intent.  This 
intent  may  exist  in  an  actual  design,  or  the 
law  will  infer  it  from  gross  rashness  or  want 
of  circumspection. — Where  no  statutory  pro 
hibition  intervenes,  all  regular  and  irregular 
practitioners  are  to  be  placed  on  the  same  foot 
ing.  Leaving  out  of  consideration  cases  of  ex 
press  malice,  which  would  hardly  be  included 
under  the  designation  of  malpractice,  our  topic 
is  reduced  to  those  cases  in  which  the  charge 
is  founded  upon  gross  ignorance,  gross  negli 
gence,  or  gross  rashness.  With  particular  ref 
erence  to  the  charge  of  manslaughter,  the  law, 
especially  in  England,  is  that  "  if  one,  whether 
a  medical  man  or  not,  profess  to  deal  with  the 
life  or  health  of  another,  he  is  bound  to  use 
competent  skill  and  sufficient  attention;  and 
if  he  cause  the  death  of  the  other  through  a 
gross  want  of  either  of  these,  he  will  be  guilty 
of  manslaughter  ;"  or  as  an  eminent  American 
authority,  Mr.  Bishop,  states  the  law :  "  The 
carelessness  in  a  medical  man  which,  if  death 
follow,  will  render  him  liable  for  manslaugh 
ter,  is  gross  carelessness,  or,  as  it  is  more 
strongly  expressed,  the  grossest  ignorance  or 
most  criminal  inattention." 

SURICATE,  a  carnivorous  mammal  of  South 
Africa,  coming  near  the  ichneumons.  It  is  the 
ryzcena  (suricata)  capensis  (111.),  and  is  some 
times  called  zenick.  It  is  about  a  foot  long, 
with  a  tail  of  G  or  8  in.,  and  about  6  in.  high ; 
it  is  nocturnal,  dwelling  in  burrows  which  it 


excavates  with  its  stout  claws;  the  color  is 
grayish  brown,  tinged  with  yellow,  with  ob 
scure  dark  bands  across  the  back.  It  is  docile 


Suricate  (Ryzama  capensis). 

and  intelligent,  and  is  often  domesticated  for 
the  destruction  of  vermin. 

SURINAM,  or  Dutch  Guiana.     See  GUIANA. 

SURINAM,  a  river  of  Dutch  Guiana,  which 
rises  in  the  mountains  on  the  S.  frontier,  flows 
through  the  centre  of  the  colony,  and  falls  into 
the  Atlantic  about  10  m.  below  Paramaribo 
after  a  course  of  about  300  m.  It  has  several 
tributaries,  and  is  navigable  for  large  vessels 
about  30  m.  from  its  mouth. 

SURREY,  a  S.  E.  county  of  England,  border 
ing  on  Middlesex  (from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Thames),  Kent,  Sussex,  Hampshire,  and 
Berkshire;  area,  7-48  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
1,090,270.  That  part  of  the  county  which  lies 
on  the  Thames,  with  much  of  the  land  on  the 
borders,  is  exceedingly  fertile.  Parts  of  the 
shire  are  famed  for  the  beauty  of  their  scenery. 
The  principal  streams  are  the  Wey,  Mole,  and 
Wandle,  which  fall  into  the  Thames.  There 
are  extensive  market  gardens  and  flower  farms, 
where  besides  flowers  medicinal  herbs  are  raised 
in  large  quantities.  Numerous  canals  and  rail 
roads  intersect  the  county.  Silk,  woollen  goods, 
hosiery,  paper,  earthenware,  leather,  and  ale 
are  manufactured.  Besides  Southwark,  Lam 
beth,  and  other  portions  of  London,  the  most 
important  places  are  the  three  county  townsj 
Guildford,  Croydon,  and  Kingston,  and  Epsom, 
Reigate,  Farnham,  and  Godalming. 

SURREY,  Henry  Howard,  earl  of,  an  English 
poet,  born  about  1516,  beheaded  on  Tower 
hill,  London,  Jan.  21,  1547.  He  was  the  eld 
est  son  of  Thomas  Howard,  third  duke  of 
Norfolk,  and  passed  his  youth  at  the  court  of 
Henry  VIII.  In  1532  he  married  .the  daugh 
ter  of  the  earl  of  Oxford,  and  went  to  France 
with  the  duke  of  Richmond.  He  assisted  in 
the  trial  of  Anne  Boleyn  in  1536,  served  in 
France  in  1540,  and  was  imprisoned  for  some 
wild  irregularities  in  1543.  In  1544  he  com 
manded  in  France,  and  earned  the  rank  of 
field  marshal.  After  the  taking  of  Boulogne 
he  became  its  governor,  and  continued  the 


SURROGATE 


SURVEYING 


489 


war  with  advantage  until  January,  154G,  when 
he  met  with  a  reverse.  A  panic  among  his 
troops  caused  a  failure  to  intercept  a  convoy 
of  provisions  near  St.  Etienne,  and  his  rival, 
the  earl  of  Hertford,  afterward  the  protec 
tor  Somerset,  induced  the  king  to  recall  him 
to  England.  Surrey's  comments  on  this  ac 
tion  offended  Henry,  who  imprisoned  him  for 
a  short  time  in  the  tower.  The  Hertford  fac 
tion  lost  no  opportunity  to  excite  the  fears  of 
the  king,  and  on  Dec.  12,  1546,  Surrey  with 
his  father  was  again  arrested  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  for  having  quartered  the  royal  arms 
with  his  own.  Surrey  in  an  eloquent  defence 
proved  conclusively  his  right  to  assume  the 
royal  arms ;  yet  he  was  condemned  and  exe 
cuted  about  a  week  before  the  death  of  the 
king.  His  works  consist  of  sonnets,  amatory 
verses,  elegies,  paraphrases  from  the  Scriptures, 
and  translations  of  the  second  and  fourth  books 
of  the  /Eneid,  and  afford  the  first  instance  of 
the  use  of  the  sonnet  and  of  blank  verse  in 
English  poetry.  The  first  edition  of  his  son 
nets  was  published  by  Richard  Tottel  in  1557. 
Editions  of  his  works,  with  those  of  Sir  Thom 
as  Wyatt,  and  biographies,  have  been  published 
by  George  Frederick  Nott,  D.  I).  (2  vols.  4to, 
1815-'16;  new  ed.,  1871),  Sir  Harris .  Nicolas 
(1831),  Prof.  Child  (Boston,  1854),  and  the 
Rev.  R.  Gilfillan  (Edinburgh,  1850). 

SURROGATE.     See  PEOBATE. 

SIRRY.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  James  river  and  S.  W.  by 
Blackwater  river ;  area,  340  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  5,585,  of  whom  3,192  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  moderately  hilly  and  the  soil 
fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
85,995  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  44,666  of  peas 
and  beans,  15,773  of  Irish  and  3,381  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  1,104  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were 
452  horses,  724  milch  cows,  1,113  other  cattle, 
1,032  sheep,  and  4,073  swine.  Capital,  Surry 
Court  House.  II.  A  N.  W.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  bordering  on  Virginia,  bounded  S. 
by  the  Yadkin  and  drained  by  Ararat  and 
Fisher  rivers ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  11,252,  of  whom  1,560  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  in  part  mountainous  and  gen 
erally  hilly.  Ararat  or  Pilot  mountain  in  the 
southeast  is  the  highest  peak  in  this  region. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  26,701 
bushels  of  wheat,  18,029  of  rye,  190,171  of 
Indian  corn,  39,321  of  oats,  14,707  of  Irish 
and  15,368  of  sweet  potatoes,  254,286  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  12,690  of  wool,  81,238  of  butter, 
5,183  of  flax,  68,658  of  honey,  and  9,681  gal 
lons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  1,129 
horses,  2,178  milch  cows,  3,989  other  cattle, 
6,414  sheep,  and  11,634  swine;  3  manufac 
tories  of  cotton  goods,  5  of  chewing  tobacco, 
and  4  flour  mills.  Capital,  Dobson. 

SURVEYING  (Fr.  survoir,  to  overlook),  the 
art  of  measuring  portions  of  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  either  for  the  purpose  of  calculating 
the  contents  of  areas,  of  laying  out  tracts  of 
required  extent,  of  establishing  roads,  or  of 


preparing  maps.  The  ancient  science  of  ge 
ometry  grew  out  of  the  practice  of  surveying, 
and  now  embodies  the  mathematical  princi-, 
pies  upon  which  the  work  is  conducted.  This 
science  was  cultivated  by  the  Egyptians  at  a 
very  early  period,  and  many  of  the  old  Greek 
writers  ascribe  its  origin  to  changes  which 
annually  took  place  from  the  inundation  of 
the  Nile,  and  to  the  consequent  necessity  of 
adjusting  the  claims  of  each  person  respecting 
the  limits  of  lands.  The  progress  of  the  art 
of  surveying  to  its  higher  application  in  deter 
mining  the  figure  of  the  earth  has  been  traced 
in  the  article  EARTH;  and  the  operations  in 
trigonometrical  surveys  upon  a  grand  scale  are 
described  under  COAST  SURVEY. — The  systems 
of  surveying  may  be  classed  according  to  its 
special  objects ;  as  land  surveying,  for  deter 
mining  the  contents  of  areas,  or  dividing  tracts 
into  lots  of  smaller  dimensions  ;  topographical 
surveying,  which  includes  the  measurement 
of  horizontal  lines  and  angles,  and  the  varia 
tions  of  level,  so  that  the  superficial  inequali 
ties  may  be  graphically  represented;  hydro- 
graphical  or  maritime  surveying,  the  object  of 
which  is  the  determination  of  the  positions 
of  channels,  shoals,  rocks,  and  the  shore  line ; 
and  mining  surveying,  for  fixing  the  positions 
of  the  underground  works  in  mines,  so  that 
these  can  be  correctly  mapped.  Surveys  ex 
tending  over  large  territories  involve  the  con 
sideration  of  the  curvature  of  the  earth  and 
the  use  of  spherical  trigonometry,  and  are 
called  geodetic  in  contradistinction  from  ordi 
nary  surveying  over  more  limited  areas,  which 
may  with  sufficient  accuracy  be  conducted 
without  reference  to  the  figure  of  the  earth, 
and  which  may  be  termed  plane  surveying. 
(See  GEODESY.)  These  systems  all  involve  the 
same  principles  of  measuring  lines  and  angles 
between  definite  points  upon  the  area  included 
in  the  survey,  and  reproducing  these  upon 
paper,  reduced  to  a  convenient  scale.  Calcu 
lating  the  content  of  the  area  is  commonly 
the  conclusion  of  the  work  of  land  surveying. 
Tracts  of  any  shape  or  size  may  be  accurately 
surveyed,  if  tolerably  level  and  clear,  with  no 
other  instrument  than  the  surveyor's  chain 
(see  GUNTER,  EDMUND)  ;  and  for  this  may  bo 
substituted  a  measuring  tape,  a  measured  rope, 
or  leather  driving  reins.  This  is  done  by  mea 
suring  all  the  sides  of  the  tract,  and  then  diag 
onals  from  one  corner  to  another,  so  selected 
as  to  divide  the  tract  into  triangles  as  nearly 
equilateral  as  possible.  The  number  of  diag 
onals  will  be  two  less  than  the  number  of 
sides.  In  using  the  chain  it  is  to  be  kept  as 
nearly  horizontal  as  possible,  or  if  the  mea 
surement  is  made  on  a  slope  the  variation  from 
the  horizontal  is  to  be  determined  and  duly 
allowed.  In  case  the  corners  are  not  visible 
from  each  other,  intermediate  points  may  be 
adopted  and  used  for  the  terminations  of  lines 
from  corners,  the  object  being  in  every  case 
to  divide  the  tract  into  triangles  of  which  the 
sides  are  all  measured.  Proof  lines  measured 


490 


SURVEYING 


from  a  corner  of  each  triangle  to  the  opposite 
side  serve  to  rectify  the  other  measures  of  the 
triangle,  and  if  perpendicular  to  the  side  afford 
a  convenient  means  of  calculating  upon  the 
ground  the  area  of  the  triangle.  Perpendicu 
lars  to  any  line  are  readily  laid  out  with  a 
chain,  as  carpenters  and  masons  draw  right 
angles  by  what  they  call  the  6,  8,  and  10  rule, 
the  popular  application  of  the  principle  of  the 
square  of  the  hypothenuse  being  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two  other  sides. 
The  method  is  to  measure  from  the  point 
where  the  perpendicular  meets  the  line,  either 
along  this  line  or  along  the  perpendicular,  a  dis 
tance  equal  to  six  units  of  any  kind,  and  then 
upon  the  other  of  these  lines  a  distance  of 
eight  units.  The  two  lines  are  perpendicular 
to  each  other  when  the  two  termini  are  just 
ten  units  apart.  Convenient  distances  for  this 
measurement  might  be  3,  4,  and  5  rods  or 
chains,  or  any  similar  multiples  of  these  num 
bers,  as  21,  28,  and  35.  Other  trigonometri 
cal  methods  readily  suggest  themselves.  A 
number  of  convenient  instruments  of  simple 
form,  known  as  the  surveyor's  cross,  are  in 
use  for  setting  out  perpendiculars  by  lines 
of  sight,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles ; 
and  a  temporary  substitute  for  them  is  easily 
made  by  sticking  a  pin  in  each  corner  of  a 
square  piece  of  board,  and  sighting  across 
these  in  the  direction  of  the  line  and  at  right 
angles  to  it.  Angles  in  the  Held  are  deter 
mined  by  a  chain,  by  measuring  a  "tie  line" 
from  a  measured  point  on  one  side  to  another 
measured  point  on  the  other  side.  By  this 
means  the  boundaries  of  a  tract  may  be  de 
termined  when  it  cannot  be  -conveniently  mea 
sured  off  in  triangles.  A  great  variety  of 
expedients  are  adopted  for  overcoming  nat 
ural  obstacles  and  determining  the  extent  and 
shape  of  inaccessible  objects,  systems  of  tri 
angles  being  in  such  cases  formed  outside  of 
and  around  such  objects.  Crooked  lines  are 
determined  by  means  of  perpendicular  offsets 
measured  from  different  points  along  a  straight 
lino  run  as  nearly  coincident  to  the  crooked 
line  as  may  be.  In  all  the  methods  of  survey 
ing,  the  measurements,  together  with  various 
incidental  observations,  are  recorded,  after 
some  established  system,  in  what  are  called 
field  notes,  and  from  these  the  results  of  the 
survey  are  afterward  plotted"  to  a  convenient 
scale. — A  more  common  system  of  surveying 
is  that  in  which  instruments  for  taking  angles 
are  employed  in  connection  with  the  chain. 
A  graduated  horizontal  circle,  with  a  straight 
edge  called  an  alidade  turning  upon  its  cen 
tral  point,  which  may  be  conveniently  sight 
ed  along,  furnishes  the  means  of  ascertaining 
the  angular  distance  of  two  lines,  the  instru 
ment  being  set  at  their  intersection,  and  the 
alidade  pointed  in  the  direction  of  one  and 
then  of  the  other.  This  involves  the  princi 
ple  of  the  engineer's  transit,  or  of  the  the 
odolite.  (See  THEODOLITE.)  With  these  in 
struments  angles  can  be  determined  with  great 


accuracy,  especially  when  the  observations  are 
repeated  by  reversing  the  instrument  and  ta 
king  the  mean,  each  including  the  reading  of 
both  verniers.  With  the  transit  and  the  chain 
for  measuring  distances,  a  tract  of  almost  any 
dimensions  is  accurately  surveyed  by  mea 
suring  the  angles  at  its  corners,  and  the  cor 
rectness  of  the  work  is  proved  when  the  sum 
of  all  the  interior  angles  is  found  equal  to  the 
product  of  two  right  angles,  or  180°,  by  the 
number  of  sides  of  the  tract  less  two ;  or  if 
the  instrument  be  used  by  the  method  called 
traversing,  or  "  surveying  by  the  back  angle  " 
(which  consists  in  noting  the  angle  which  each 
successive  line  makes,  not  with  the  preceding 
line,  but  with  the  first  line  observed,  which  is 
hence  called  the  meridian  of  the  survey),  then 
the  reading,  on  getting  round  to  the  last  sta 
tion,  and  looking  back  to  the  first  line,  should 
be  300°,  or  0°.  A  compass  and  chain  may  be 
employed  in  filling  up  the  interior  details  of  a 
large  survey  with  the  transit ;  and  the  compass 
may  be  used  for  determining  the  magnetic  bear 
ing  of  one  of  the  lines,  unless  this  be  astronom 
ically  ascertained  by  observations  of  the  north 
star  or  of  the  shadows  before  and  after  noon. 
The  compass  is  the  instrument  in  most  common 
use  in  ordinary  surveying.  The  magnetic  nee 
dle,  wherever  the  instrument  is  set,  establishes 
the. meridian  line,  and  from  this,  the  sights  of 
the  instrument  being  turned  to  any  other  line, 
the  angle  of  divergence  is  read  on  the  gradua 
ted  circle  around  the  compass  box.  This  instru 
ment  has  been  described  under  its  own  name ; 
also  the  more  perfect  instrument,  in  which  its 
inaccuracies  are  obviated,  under  the  head  of 
COMPASS,  SOLAR. — The  details  of  surveys  are 
variously  modified  according  to  the  extent  of 
the  area,  character  of  the  ground,  &c.  With 
the  transit  or  compass,  the  boundary  lines  may 
be  all  followed  out,  the  angles  they  make  with 
each  other  determined,  and  their  lengths  mea 
sured  by  the  chain ;  the  points  of  crossing  of 
roads,  brooks,  fences,  &c.,  measured,  and  the 
bearings  of  these  objects  taken ;  and  increased 
accuracy  may  be  given  to  the  work  by  run 
ning  diagonal  or  proof  lines,  as  in  chain  sur 
veying.  Additional  checks  are  furnished  by 
taking  at  each  station  the  bearings  of  some 
marked  objects,  which  when  the  work  is  plot 
ted  should  severally  fall  at  the  points  of  inter 
section  of  the  lines  directed  toward  these  ob 
jects  from  the  several  stations.  Sometimes  a 
tract  may  be  surveyed  from  a  measured  base 
line,  either  a  line  within  or  without  it,  or  one 
of  the  boundary  lines,  by  placing  the  compass 
successively  at  each  end  of  this  line  and  taking 
the  bearings  of  each  corner ;  or  without  a  com 
pass  the  work  may  be  very  conveniently  per 
formed  with  approximate  correctness  by  the 
plane  table  method,  provided  no  angles  are 
taken  less  than  30°  nor  larger  than  150°.  A 
drawing  board  covered  with  paper  is  set  up  at 
one  end  of  a  measured  base  line,  and  a  ruler 
furnished  with  upright  sights  at  each  end,  ex 
actly  over  the  drawing  edge,  is  set  with  this 


SURVEYING 


491 


edge  against  a  fine  needle  stuck  up  in  the  board, 
and  is  then  directed  successively  toward  the 
corners  of  the  tract  to  be  surveyed  and  any 
other  prominent  objects,  toward  which  from 
the  needle  lines  are  to  be  drawn  on  the  paper. 
One  of  these  lines  should  also  be  in  the  direc 
tion  of  the  measured  line.  The  instrument  is 
then  taken  to  the  other  end  of  the  measured 
line,  the  needle  is  removed  along  the  last  line 
named  on  the  board  a  distance  corresponding, 
according  to  the  scale  adopted,  to  that  of  the 
measured  line  on  the  ground,  and  the  board  is 
so  placed  as  to  make  the  line  toward  the  for 
mer  station  correct.  The  ruler  is  then  again 
pointed  to  the  same  objects,  and  lines  are 
drawn  toward  each  from  the  new  position  of 
the  needle.  Their  intersections  with  the  for 
mer  lines  designate  the  places  of  these  objects 
on  the  plane.  The  plane  table  is  used  in  vari 
ous  other  ways,  as  by  moving  it  from  one  cor 
ner  to  the  next,  arid  placing  it  at  each  so  that 
the  last  line  drawn  coincides  with  that  in  the 
ground.  From  any  central  point  also  radia 
ting  lines  may  be  measured  to  the  corners,  and 
the  distances  measured  and  marked  off  accord 
ing  to  the  proper  scale. — Rivers,  brooks,  and 
roads  are  surveyed  by  measuring  a  succession 
of  lines  following  their  general  course,  and  ta 
king  offsets  from  the  sides  of  the  line.  Streets 
are  followed  in  a  similar  manner.  Distances 
are  sometimes  measured  upon  roads,  wrhere 
expedition  is  more  important  than  extreme 
accuracy,  by  various  substitutes  for  the  chain, 
some  of  which,  as  the  odometer  and  pedom 
eter,  have  been  noticed  under  the  former  head. 
One  may  soon  accustom  himself  to  pace  in 
straight  lines,  and  with  steps  of  uniform 
lengths,  the  most  exact  method  being  to  regu 
late  the  natural  step,  rather  than  to  try  to  at 
tain  one  of  any  determinate  length.  The  usual 
average  step  of  a  man  is  that  of  the  English 
military  pace,  2^-  ft.  The  French  geographical 
engineers  accustom  themselves  to  take  regular 
steps  of  ys-g-  of  a  metre,  or  2  ft.  7-&  in. — The. field 
work  being  completed,  the  figure  of  the  tract 
surveyed  is  reproduced  upon  a  diminished  scale 
by  what  is  termed  plotting ;  and  from  this 
plot  the  contents  are  ascertained  by  a  series 
of  mathematical  calculations  applied  succes 
sively  to  the  several  divisions,  or  by  the  meth 
od  of  calculation  of  latitudes  and  departures, 
for  which  a  table  of  natural  sines  is  required, 
unless  "  traverse  tables "  giving  the  latitude 
and  departure  for  any  bearing,  as  furnished  in 
some  books  on  surveying,  are  at  hand.  An 
approximate  estimate  of  the  number  of  acres 
included  in  the  survey  is  sometimes  made  by 
drawing  the  plan  upon  sheet  lead  of  uniform 
thickness,  or  upon  Bristol  board  or  heavy  pa 
per,  cutting  out  the  piece  on  the  boundary 
lines,  and  weighing  it  in  a  delicate  balance. 
The  weight  may  then  be  compared  with  that 
of  a  similar  piece  that  exactly  comprises  a  defi 
nite  number  of  acres,  laid  out  upon  the  same 
scale. — The  extensive  territories  of  the  United 
States  are  surveyed  upon  a  peculiar  system, 


planned  with  reference  to  the  division  of  the 
lands  into  squares  of  uniform  size,  so  arranged 
that  any  tract  of  160  acres,  or  a  u  quarter  sec 
tion,"  may  have  its  distinct  designation  and  be 
readily  found  upon  the  map  or  recognized  upon 
the  ground  by  the  marks  left  by  the  surveyors. 
Each  great  survey  is  based  upon  a  meridian 
line  run  due  N.  and  S.  by  astronomical  mea 
surements  the  whole  extent  of  the  survey  in 
these  directions;  and  upon  a  "  standard  paral 
lel  "  or  base  line  running  E.  and  AY.,  similarly 
established  with  great  accuracy.  Parallels  to 
these  lines  are  run  every  6m.,  usually  with  the 
solar  compass  corrected  by  frequent  celestial 
observations ;  and  thus,  as  nearly  as  the  figure 
of  the  earth  admits,  the  surface  is  divided  into 
squares  of  6  in.  1ST.  and  S.  and  the  same  E.  and 
W.,  each  one  containing  36  sq.  m.  or  sections, 
into  which  the  territory  is  further  divided  by 
meridians  and  parallels  run  at  every  mile ; 
while  the  half  mile  being  marked  on  these 
lines  by  setting  what  is  called  a  quarter  post, 
the  points  are  established  for  the  subdivision 
into  quarter  sections.  The  squares  of  36  sq. 
in.  are  termed  townships,  often  contracted  to 
"towns;"  and  each  line  of  them  E.  and  "W.  is 
numbered  either  N.  or  S.  from  the  base  line, 
and  each  line  of  them  N.  and  S.  is  termed  a 
range  and  is  numbered  E.  or  "W.  from  the 
meridian.  The  N.  and  S.  lines  bordering  the 
townships  are  known  as  range  lines,  arid  the 
E.  and  "W.  as  township  lines.  Each  survey  is 
designated  by  the  meridian  on  which  it  is 
based,  and  of  these  principal  meridians  there 
are  6  designated  by  numbers  and  18  by  special 
names.  The  following  table,  compiled  from 
information  furnished  from  the  general  land 
office  in  August,  1875,  gives  the  designation 
of  the  meridians,  their  longitude  "W.  from 
Greenwich,  and  the  X.  latitude  or  other  de 
scription  of  the  principal  base  lines : 


DESIGNATION  OF        !  Longitude  W. 
PRINCIPAL  MEKIDIAN.  'tfm  Greenwich  J 


r         ivr 
****  h"M'  N< 


First,  boundary  bet; 
Ohio  and  Indiana . . 

Second,  through  In 
diana  

Third,  through  Illinois 

Fourth.  N.froin  mouth 
of  Illinois  river j 

Fifth,  N.  from  mouth 
of  Arkansas  river. .  i 

Sixth 

Michigan 

Tallahassee 

St.  Stephen 

Huntsville ' 

Choctaw 

AVashington ; 

St.  Helena,  S.  from 
base 

Louisiana 

New  Mexico 

Great  Salt  Lake 

Boise 

Mt.  Diablo 

San  Bernardino. . . . 

Hmnboklt 

Willamette 

Montana 

Gila  and  Salt  river.. 

Indian 


84°  51' 


86°  2S' 
69°  10'  80' 


90°  29'  50":  3S° 5S' 12" 

90°  58'  i  Mouth  of  St.  Francis  E. 

97°  22'  |  40° 

64°  19'  9";  7  m.  1ST.  of  Detroit. 

84°  IS'  i  Tallahassee,  Fla. 

88°    2'  31° 

86°  31'  I  N.  boundary  of  Alabama. 

89°  10'30"i  29m.  S.  of  Jackson,  Miss. 

91°    5'  31° 

90°  11'  81° 

92°  20'  81° 

106°  52'  9"!  34°  19' 

111"  53' 47"  40°  46'  4" 

11 6°  20'  43°  26' 

121°  54'  37°  53' 

116°  56'  34°  6' 

124°  11'  40°  25' 80" 

122°  44'  45°  30' 

111°  3S'  45°  46'  27" 

112°  15'  46"  83°  22'  57" 

97°  15'  56"  84°  31' 


492 


SURVEYING 


sus 


The  36  sections  of  each  township  are  numbered 
in  order,  beginning  with  the  N.  E.  corner  and 
thence  proceeding  along  the  N.  side  of  the 
township  to  section  6  in  the  N.  W.  corner; 
section  7  begins  the  next  line  of  sections  S., 
the  numbers  running  E.  to  12,  and  then  begin 
ning  the  third  line  with  13  and  running  W.  to 
18,  and  so  on,  bringing  No.  36  in  the  S.  E. 
corner  of  the  township.  The  quarter  sections 
are  designated  by  their  position  as  N.  E., 
N.  W.,  S.  E.,  and  S.  AY.  Fractional  sections 
of  irregular  shapes  are  admitted  on  the  borders 
of  lakes,  rivers,  &c.  "With  these  explanations 
any  tract  may  be  readily  pointed  out  upon  the 
government  maps  from  its  abbreviated  descrip 
tion,  or  any  locality  in  the  wildest  territory 
may  be  correctly  defined ;  thus  the  S.  W.  qr. 
sect.  13,  T.  66  N.,  E.  34  AY.,  meridian  Michi 
gan,  is  traced  directly  to  an  old  mining  loca 
tion  near  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  Isle  Royale, 
Lake  Superior.  The  law  which  established 
this  system,  while  it  required  that  the  N.  and 
S.  lines  should  be  true  meridians,  also  required 
that  the  townships  should  be  six  miles  square. 
To  satisfy  both  of  these  conditions  is  physi 
cally  impossible,  for  the  figure  of  the  earth 
causes  the  meridians  to  converge  toward  the 
pole,  thus  making  the  N.  line  of  each  town 
ship  shorter  than  its  S.  line;  an  inequality 
which  becomes  more  and  more  marked  the 
higher  the  latitude  of  the  surveys.  Provision 
is  consequently  made  for  correcting  the  errors 
thus  caused,  by  establishing  what  are  called 
correction  lines,  which  are  parallels  bounding 
a  line  of  townships  on  the  north  when  lying 
N.  of  the  principal  base,  or  the  S.  line  of 
townships  when  lying  S.  of  the  principal  base, 
from  which  the  surveys  as  they  are  continued 
are  laid  out  anew,  the  range  lines  again  start 
ing  at  correct  distances  from  the  principal  me 
ridian.  In  Michigan  these  correction  lines  are 
repeated  at  the  end  of  every  tenth  township, 
but  in  Oregon  they  have  been  repeated  with 
every  fifth  township.  The  instructions  to  the 
surveyors  have  been  that  each  range  of  town 
ships  should  be  made  as  much  over  6  m.  in 
width  on  each  base  and  correction  line  as  it 
will  fall  short  of  the  same  width  where  it  closes 
on  to  the  next  correction  line  N.  ;  and  it  is 
further  provided  that  in  all  cases  where  the 
exterior  lines  of  the  townships  shall  exceed  or 
shall  not  extend  6  m.,  the  excess  or  deficiency 
shall  be  specially  noted  and  added  to  or  de 
ducted  from  the  western  or  northern  sections 
or  half  sections  in  such  township,  according  as 
the  error  may  be  in  running  the  lines  from  E. 
to  W.  or  from  S.  to  N.  In  order  to  throw 
the  excesses  or  deficiencies  on  the  N.  and  on 
the  W.  sides  of  the  township,  it  is  necessary 
to  survey  the  section  lines  from  S.  to  N.  on 
a  true  meridian,  leaving  the  result  in  the  N. 
line  of  the  township  to  be  governed  by  the 
convexity  of  the  earth  and  the  convergency  of 
the  meridians.  Navigable  rivers,  lakes,  and 
islands  are  "meandered"  or  surveyed  by  the 
compass  and  chain  along  the  banks.— Tlie  in 


struments  employed  on  these  surveys,  besides 
the  solar  compass,  are  a  surveying  chain  33  ft. 
long  of  50  links,  and  another  of  smaller  wire 
as  a  standard  to  be  used  for  correcting  the 
former,  as  often  at  least  as  every  other  day ; 
also  11  tally  pins  made  of  steel,  telescope, 
targets,  tape  measure,  and  tools  for  marking 
the  lines  upon  trees  or  stones.  In  surveying 
through  woods,  trees  intercepted  by  the  line 
are  marked  with  two  chops  or  notches,  one  on 
each  side ;  these  are  called  sight  or  line  trees. 
Other  trees  near  by  not  touched  by  the  line 
are  blazed  on  two  sides,  quartering  toward 
the  line ;  but  if  at  some  distance  from  the  line, 
the  two  blazes  should  be  near  together,  on  the 
side  facing  the  line.  These  are  generally  found 
to  be  permanent  marks,  not  only  recognizable 
for  many  years,  but  carrying  with  them  their 
own  age  by  the  rings  of  growth  around  the 
blaze,  which  may  at  any  subsequent  time  be 
cut  out  and  counted  as  years ;  and  the  same 
are  recognized  in  courts  of  law  as  evidence  of 
the  date  of  the  survey.  They  cannot  be  ob 
literated  by  cutting  down  the  trees  or  other 
wise  without  leaving  evidence  of  the  act. 
Corners  are  marked  upon  trees  if  found  at  the 
right  spots,  or  else  upon  posts  set  in  the  ground, 
and  sometimes  a  monument  of  stones  is  used 
for  a  township  corner  and  a  single  stone  for 
section  corners ;  mounds  of  earth  are  made 
where  there  are  no  stones  nor  timber.  At  the 
corners  the  four  adjacent  sections  are  desig 
nated  by  distinct  marks  cut  into  a  tree,  one  in 
each  section.  These  trees  facing  the  corner 
are  plainly  marked  with  the  letters  B.  T. 
(bearing  tree)  cut  into  the  wood.  Notches  cut 
upon  the  corner  posts  or  trees  indicate  the 
number  of  miles  to  the  outlines  of  the  town 
ship,  or,  if  on  the  boundaries  of  the  township, 
to  the  township  corners. — A  useful  text  book 
is  the  "Treatise  on  Land  Surveying"  of  W. 
M.  Gillespie  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1875). 

SURVILLE,  Marguerite  Eleonore  Clotildc  dc  Vallon- 
Chalys  de,  a  French  lady  of  the  15th  century, 
the  reputed  authoress  of  remarkable  posthu 
mous  poems  first  collected  in  1803  by  Vander- 
bourg.  They  have  been  ascribed  to  her  de 
scendant,  the  marquis  Joseph  Etienne  de  Sur- 
ville,  a  royalist  executed  in  1798,  and  with  less 
probability  to  the  publisher  Vanderbourg  him 
self.  The  poems  are  in  the  style  of  the  15th 
century,  and  refer  to  Clotilde's  husband  Beren- 
ger  de  Surville,  who  fell  during  the  defence  of 
Orleans  against  the  English.  Other  parts  of 
them  are  believed  to  apply  to  the  persecutions 
endured  by  Louis  XVI.  The  publication  has 
given  rise  to  a  long  controversy,  but  even  those 
who,  like  Villemain  and  Sainte-Beuve,  ques 
tion  its  genuineness,  unite  in  praising  the  ge 
nius  of  the  work. 

SUS,  a  territory  of  Morocco,  comprising  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  that  country  between  the 
Atlas  mountains  and  the  river  Asaka  or  Nun, 
and  extending  E.  to  the  country  called  Draa ; 
area,  about  11,500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  estimated  at 
750,000.  It  is  mostly  mountainous,  the  climate 


SUSA 


SUSQUEHANNA 


493 


is  healthful,  and  the  soil  generally  good.  The 
principal  productions  are  the  cereals  and  le 
gumes,  and  the  date,  olive,  argan,  fig,  almond, 
and  grape.  The  mountains  are  rich  in  min 
erals,  particularly  copper  and  lead,  and  there 
are  numerous  mines  which  were  anciently 
worked.  The  inhabitants,  who  are  Shelloohs 
or  Berbers  and  Arabs,  are  more  austere  and 
more  warlike  than  others  of  the  Moroccans, 
and  use  neither  tobacco,  liquors,  nor  coffee. 
They  possess  but  few  cattle  or  sheep.  Taru- 
dant,  the  chief  city,  a  walled  town  with  five 
gates,  is  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Sus,  44  m. 
from  the  coast.  The  N.  part  of  Sus,  above 
the  river  Qaz,  is  ruled  by  the  governor  of  Ta- 
rudant  under  the  authority  of  Morocco.  Taze- 
roualt,  S.  of  the  Gaz,  is  governed  by  a  nomi 
nally  independent  sovereign,  and  the  remainder 
is  under  independent  sheiks. 

SUSA  (Gr.  rd  Zovaa,  the  city  of  lilies),  an  an 
cient  city  of  Persia,  the  Shushan  (Heb.,  lily)  of 
the  Scriptures,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Susiana,  and  one  of  the  residences  of  the  court. 
It  was  between  the  Ohoaspes  (the  modern 
Kerkha)  and  the  Coprates  (Abzal,  an  affluent 
of  the  Karun),  enjoyed  a  fine  climate,  and  was 
one  of  the  largest  cities  of  the  Persian  empire. 
Strabo  says  it  was  120  stadia  in  circumference, 
and  surrounded  with  a  wall  of  burnt  brick. 
According  to  Pliny,  it  was  founded  by  Darius 
Hystaspis,  though  others  make  Tithonus,  the 
father  of  Memnon,  its  founder.  It  was  for  a 
long  period  the  chief  treasury  of  the  Persian 
empire.  In  325  B.  C.,  when  visited  by  Alex 
ander,  it  possessed  immense  wealth,  and  from 
its  plunder  he  gave  largesses  to  his  soldiers 
and  presents  of  great  value  to  his  generals 
on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage  with  Barsine 
and  Parysatis.  There  has  been  considerable 
controversy  as  to  the  site  of  the  ancient  city, 
but  the  discovery  by  Sir.  W.  F.  Williams  and 
Mr.  W.  K.  Loftus  of  a  gigantic  tumulus  and 
cuneiform  and  Greek  inscriptions  at  the  mod 
ern  Sus,  E.  of  the  Kerkha,  establish  that  as 
the  locality  of  Susa,  over  Sinister,  which  was 
formerly  suggested  as  a  probable  site. 

SUSIANA  (also  Susis  and  Cissia),  an  ancient 
province  or  region  of  Persia,  of  great  extent, 
mountainous  in  the  northeast,  but  mostly  a 
plain,  lying  between  the  Zagros  mountains  and 
the  Tigris,  bounded  N".  by  Media  and  S.  by  the 
Persian  gulf.  It  nearly  corresponded  to  the 
modern  province  of  Khuzistan.  It  was  drained 
by  the  Pasitigris  (supposed  to  be  the  lower 
Karun),  the  Eulasus  (the  upper  Karun),  the 
Choaspes  (Kerkha),  the  Coprates  (Abzal),  the 
Hedypnus  (Jerrahi),  and  the  Croatia  (Tab). 
Its  earliest  inhabitants  were  the  Elymaai,  prob 
ably  the  Elamites  of  Scripture,  a  portion  of 
whom  still  occupied  it  in  the  time  of  Strabo; 
the  other  tribes  mentioned  as  settled  in  the 
province  are  the  Susii,  who  were  agriculturists 
and  had  their  villages  on  the  plain,  and  the 
Cissii,  Coss^ei,  Uxii,  and  Messabatse,  all  preda 
tory  mountaineers.  (See  ELYMAIS,  and  KHF- 
ZISTAN.) 


SUSO,  Heinrich,  a  German  ascetic  writer,  also 
known  as  Brother  Amandus,  but  whose  real 
name  was  Yon  Berg,  born  in  Ueberlingen,  on 
£ake  Constance,  about  1300,  died  in  Ulm,  Jan. 
25,  1365.  He  was  educated  in  a  Dominican 
convent  at  Constance,  and  at  Cologne  under 
the  mystic  Eckhart.  After  his  mother's  death 
he  adopted  her  family  name  in  his  18th  year, 
and  led  a  life  of  penance  at  the  Constance 
convent  till  1340,  when  he  became  an  itinerant 
preacher  of  great  influence,  especially  among 
women.  His  anniversary  is  celebrated  by 
the  Dominicans  on  March  2.  Gorres,  who 
translated  his  autobiography,  regarded  him 
as  among  the  most  fascinating  writers  of  his 
class,  and  his  Horologium  Sapientim  JEternw 
(1480)  ranked  in  the  middle  ages  next  to  the 
"  Imitation  of  Christ."  His  works,  which  were 
written  in  Latin,  have  been  often  reprinted 
and  translated  into  several  languages  (modern 
German  by  Diepenbrock,  Ratisbon,  1829  and 
1838).  A  new  edition  of  his  Brief e,  by  Prega, 
appeared  in  1867. 

SISQIEHAMA,  a  river  of  Xew  York,  Penn 
sylvania,  and  Maryland,  having  its  source  in 
Otsego  lake,  Otsego  co.,  N.  Y.  It  flows  gen 
erally  S.  "W.  to  the  Pennsylvania  line  in  Broome 
co.,  receiving  the  Unadilla  and  several  smaller 
tributaries;  near  the  Pennsylvania  boundary 
it  flows  around  the  base  of  a  spur  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  to  Binghamton,  forming  what  is  called 
the  "Great  Bend;"  after  receiving  the  Che- 
nango  at  Binghamton,  its  course  is  "W.  by 
S.  till  it  again  reaches  the  Pennsylvania  line, 
where  it  takes  a  S.  E.  direction  to  Pittston, 
Luzerne  co.,  receiving  the  Tioga  and  numer 
ous  small  tributaries  in  its  course ;  at  Pitts- 
ton  it  turns  sharply  S.  W.,  passes  Wilkesbarre, 
and  receives  near  Sunbury  the  large  affluent 
known  as  the  West  branch  of  the  Susquehan- 
na,  which  is  more  than  200  m.  long,  rising 
above  Clearfield,  and  passing  that  town,  Lock 
Haven,  and  Williamsport ;  then  turning  south 
ward,  it  receives  the  Juniata  14  m.  above 
Harrisburg,  and  flowing  thence  S.  E.  enters 
the  Chesapeake  bay  at  Havre  de  Grace.  Its 
length  is  a  little  more  than  400  m.  from  Ot 
sego  lake  to  the  bay,  and  from  the  junction 
of  the  two  branches  153  m.  The  river  is  gen 
erally  shallow,  and  its  course  much  broken  by 
rapids;  in  the  spring,  during  flood,  rafts  and 
strong  boats  float  down  from  Binghamton,  but 
at  other  times  it  is  not  navigable.  Immense 
quantities  of  timber  are  transported  upon  it. 
Canals  have  been  constructed  along  its  banks, 
on  the  main  stream  for  125  m.,  and  on  the 
West  branch  for  124  m.  Its  waters  abound 
with  fish.  The  lower  waters  of  the  Susque- 
hanna  are  famous  for  a  great  abundance  of 
ducks  and  other  wild  fowl. 

SIjSQUEHAMA,  a  K  E.  county  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  bordering  on  New  York,  and  drained 
by  tributaries  of  the  Susquehanna  river,  a  por 
tion  of  which  lies  in  the  1ST.  part  of  the  county ; 
area,  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  37,523.  The 
surface  is  very  hilly,  and  the  soil  fertile  and 


SUSQUEHANNAS 


SUTHERLAND 


well  adapted  to  grazing.  Timber  is  abundant, 
and  the  export  trade  in  pine  lumber  is  very 
extensive.  Jt  is  traversed  by  several  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  40,522 
bushes  of  wheat,  31,117  of  rye,  311,218  of  In 
dian  corn,  628,001  of  oats,  177,864  of  buck 
wheat,  341,717  of  potatoes,  98,459  tons  of  hay, 
108,584  Ibs.  of  wool,  2,580,649  of  butter,  and 
35,560  of  honey.  There  were  8,282  horses, 
24,533  milch  cows,  20,023  other  cattle,  35,700 
sheep,  and  8,806  swine ;  3  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  32  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  10  of  furniture,  4  of  iron  castings,  18 
tanneries,  6  flour  mills,  52  saw  mills,  and  5 
woollen  mills.  Capital,  Montrose. 

SUSQUEHAMAS.     See  CONESTOGAS. 

SUSSEX.  I.  A  N.  county  of  New  Jersey, 
bordering  on  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
bounded  N.  W.  by  the  Delaware  river,  and 
drained  by  the  Flatkill,  Paulinskill,  Wallkill, 
and  Pequest;  area,  600  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1870, 
23,168.  The  Blue  mountains  traverse  the  W. 
and  the  Hamburg  and  Wawayanda  mountains 
the  E.  part,  and  the  remainder  of  the  surface 
is  very  hilly;  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  The 
Hopatcong  lake  is  in  the  S.  E.  part,  and  sup 
plies  the  summit  level  of  the  Morris  canal ; 
and  there  are  several  other  small  lakes.  The 
Sussex  railroad  passes  through  it.  Franklinite, 
iron  ore,  red  oxide  of  zinc,  and  other  minerals 
are  found.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
64,532  bushels  of  wheat,  105,306  of  rye,  422,- 
776  of  Indian  corn,  268,477  of  oats,  72,870  of 
buckwheat,  81,006  of  potatoes,  40,335  tons  of 
hay,  11,959  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  1,455,788  of  but 
ter.  There  were  4,230  horses,  17,376  milch 
cows,  5,338  other  cattle,  3,976  sheep,  and  14,- 
414  swine ;  8  manufactories  of  cheese,  1  of 
pig  iron,  3  of  castings,  -5  of  tanned  and  5  of 
curried  leather,  18  flour  and  7  saw  mills,  and  6 
distilleries.  Capital,  Newton.  II.  A  S.  coun 
ty  of  Delaware,  bordering  on  Maryland,  Dela 
ware  bay,  and  the  Atlantic,  and  drained  by 
affluents  of  the  Nanticoke  and  Pocomoke  riv 
ers  and  other  streams;  area,  about  1,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  31,696,  of  whom  5,438  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  almost  level,  and  the 
soil  fertile.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Delaware 
division  of  the  Philadelphia,  Wilmington,  and 
Baltimore  railroad,  and  the  Junction  and  Break 
water  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  69,239  bushels  of  wheat,  1,122,693  of  In 
dian  corn,  55,779  of  oats,  87,300  of  Irish  and 
53,390  of  sweet  potatoes,  3,161  tons  of  hay, 
25,566  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  185,005  of  butter,  23,- 
517  of  honey,  and  32,347  gallons  of  sorghum 
molasses.  There  were  4,074  horses,  1,265 
mules  and  asses,  6,127  milch  cows,  4,250  work 
ing  oxen,  6,968  other  cattle,  12,213  sheep,  and 
18,409  swine;  1  woollen  mill,  5  flour  mills, 
and  20  saw  mills.  Capital,  Georgetown.  III. 
A  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia,  bounded  N.  E.  by 
Blackwater  river  and  intersected  by  the  Not- 
toway;  area,  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,885, 
of  whom  4,923  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
hilly  and  the  soil  fertile.  It  is  intersected  by 


the  Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and  Ohio,  and  the 
Richmond,  Fredericksburg,  and  Potomac  rail 
roads.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
118,305  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  21,357  of  oats, 
7,223  of  Irish  and  9,818  of  sweet  potatoes, 
16,110  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  1,833  of  wool,  and  21,- 
528  of  butter.  There  were  546  horses,  876 
milch  cows,  1,682  other  cattle,  1,352  sheep,  and 
5,731  swine.  Capital,  Sussex  Court  House. 

SUSSEX,  a  S.  E.  county  of  England,  border 
ing  on  Surrey,  Kent,  the  English  channel,  and 
Hampshire;  area,  1,464  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
417,407.  The  coast  line  is  not  much  broken, 
the  most  remarkable  projection  being  Beachy 
Head,  564  ft.  above  the  sea,  A  range  of  chalk 
hills,  called  the  North  Downs,  crosses  the  N.  E. 
part  of  the  county;  and  the  South  Downs, 
with  an  average  height  of  500  ft.  and  from  4 
to  6  m.  broad,  run  through  its  entire  length 
nearly  parallel  to  the  coast.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Arun,  Adur,  and  Ouse.  The 
county  is  purely  agricultural,  and  wheat  and 
hops  are  the  chief  products.  The  downs  are 
principally  used  for  pasturage,  and  are  famous 
for  their  mutton.  Sussex  is  remarkably  rich 
in  antiquities.  It  is  divided  into  East  and  West 
Sussex,  and  has  two  county  towns,  Chichester 
and  Lewes;  the  other  towns  of  greatest  im 
portance  are  Brighton,  Hastings,  New  Shore- 
ham,  live,  Arundel,  and  Newhaven. 

SUTHERLAND,  a  N.  county  of  Scotland,  bor 
dering  on  the  Pentland  frith,  Caithness,  the 
North  sea,  Ross-shire,  and  the  Minch;  area, 
1,886  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  24,317!  Several 
small  islands  which  lie  off  the  N.  and  W.  coasts 
are  included  in  the  county.  On  these  sides 
the  coasts  are  generally  high  and  bold,  and  are 
indented  by  numerous  arms  of  the  sea;  but 
that  on  the  east  is  flat  with  a  low  sandy  beach. 
The  interior  is  mountainous,  the  highest  sum 
mit  being  3,280  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  rivers 
are  all  small  with  short  courses,  but  there  are 
numerous  lakes.  The  principal  crops  are  oats, 
barley,  and  potatoes.  Sheep  farming  is  ex 
tensively  carried  on.  Game,  including  deer, 
is  abundant.  Dornoch,  the  capital,  is  the  only 
town.  Great  improvements  were  made  by  the 
dukes  of  ^  Sutherland,  proprietors  of  most  of 
the  county,  aided  by  parliament. 

SUTHERLAND,  George  Gramille  Leyeson  Cower, 
duke  of,  born  Jan.  9,  1758,  died  July  19,  1833. 
He  was  a  son  of  the  marquis  of  Stafford,  be 
longing  to  a  family  of  historic  distinction  since 
the  14th  century.  He  early  entered  the  house 
of  commons,  and  was  ambassador  in  Paris 
from  1790  to  1799.  In  1799  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Gower.  In  1803  he  in 
herited  the  vast  estates  of  his  uncle  the  duke 
of  Bridgewater  and  of  his  father,  which  add 
ed  to  the  "Gower  domain  made  him  one  of 
the  richest  men  in  the  world.  lie  extended 
his  uncle's  great  picture  gallery,  and  promoted 
the  fine  arts.  He  was  created  a  duke  Jan.  28, 
1833.  The  Bridgewater  estates  passed  to  his 
second  son  Francis,  afterward  earl  of  Elles- 
mere,  and  the  other  property  to  the  elder  son, 


SUTLEJ 


SUTTEE 


495 


George  Granville  Sutherland  Leveson  Gower 
(1786-1861),  the  second  duke.  The  wife  of 
the  latter,  Harriet  Elizabeth  Georgiana  (born 
May  21,  1806,  died  Oct.  27,  1868),  a  daughter 
of  the  earl  of  Carlisle,  and  the  queen's  mistress 
of  the  robes  for  nearly  20  years,  was  celebrated 
for  her  beauty  and  accomplishments,  and  pro 
moted  anti-slavery  and  other  philanthropical 
movements.  The  present  and  third  duke  is 
Sir  George  Granville  William  Sutherland  Lev 
eson  Gower,  born  Dec.  19,  1828. 

SlITLEJ,  the  most  easterly  of  the  five  rivers 
of  the  Punjaub,  in  British  India.  It  rises  in 
Thibet  N.  of  the  Himalaya  mountains,  about 
lat.  31°  N.,  Ion.  82°  E.,  flowing  N.  W.  out  of 
Lake  Manasarowar,  and  in  the  early  part  of 
its  course  is  joined  by  numerous  tributaries. 
After  a  course  of  about  200  m.  it  turns  W., 
and  in  about  lat,  31°  10',  Ion.  75°  4',  550  m. 
from  its  source,  it  unites  with  the  Beas,  and 
the  river  thence  flows  S.  W.  and  is  called  the 
Ghara  until  its  junction  with  the  Chenaub,  300 
m.  below,  when  the  united  stream  takes  the 
name  of  Punjnud,  and  joins  the  Indus  after  a 
course  of  about  50  m.,  in  lat.  28°  58',  Ion.  70° 
23'.  The  upper  Sutlej  is  supposed  to  be  the 
Hesudrus  and  the  lower  the  Ilyphasis  of  the 
ancients.  In  the  upper  part  of  its  course  'the 
Sutlej  is  an  impetuous  torrent,  and  the  sce 
nery  magnificent.  In  the  Punjaub  plain  it  is 
from  7  to  30  ft.  deep,  and  from  250  to  500 
and  700  yards  wide. 

SUTTEE  (Sans,  sati,  from  sat,  pure),  prop 
erly,  a  chaste  and  virtuous  wife,  but  common 
ly  used  to  designate  the  self-immolation  of  a 
widow  by  burning  herself  with  the  dead  body 
of  her  husband.  The  practice  has  existed  for 
many  centuries,  not  only  in  India  but  in  other 
Asiatic  countries.  Diodorus  Siculus  gives  an 
instance  which  occurred  in  the  army  of  Eume- 
nes  more  than  300  years  B.  C.,  and  in  India  it 
is  certainly  of  great  antiquity,  though  the  pe 
riod  of  its  origin  is  unknown.  It  was  more 
prevalent  there  than  elsewhere,  from  the  belief 
encouraged  by  the  Brahmans,  and  professedly 
derived  from  their  most  sacred  books,  that  it 
conferred  the  highest  merit  not  only  on  the 
widow  herself,  but  on  her  dead  husband.  It 
was  asserted  by  the  Brahmanical  writers  that 
every  woman  who  thus  burned  herself  should 
remain  in  a  region  of  joy  with  her  husband 
35,000,000  years,  while  otherwise  she  would 
have  no  place  in  paradise.  The  prevalence  of 
the  practice  is  to  be  attributed  to  belief  in  this 
view,  rather  than  to  any  other  influence.  A 
careful  study  of  the  Vedas  and  the  Institutes 
of  Mann  has  shown,  however,  that  these  works 
not  only  do  not  command  suttee,  but  implied- 
ly  prohibit  the  practice.  Certain  passages  of 
the  Vedas  supposed  to  relate  to  it  have  been 
the  subject  of  animated  controversy  among 
Anglo-Indian  scholars.  The  practice  prevailed 
long  after  the  East  India  company  came  into 
power.  The  Mohammedan  emperor  Akbar 
prohibited  it  in  the  16th  century,  but  without 
much  effect.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the  pres- 
VOL.  xv. — 32 


ent  century  several  unavailing  attempts  to  re 
press  it  were  made  by  the  company,  and  in 
the  12  years  between  1815  and  1826  there  were 
7,154  cases  of  suttee  officially  reported  in  Ben 
gal  alone.  In  1829  Lord  William  Bentinck, 
governor  general,  enacted  a  law  declaring  all 
aid,  assistance,  or  participation  in  any  act  of 
suttee  to  be  murder,  and  punishable  as  such. 
This  measure  created  much  excitement  at  first 
in  Bengal,  the  Brahmans  denouncing  it  with 
great  violence  as  an  interference  with  their 
religion,  and  even  sending  an  agent  to  England 
with  a  large  sum  of  money  to  procure  its  re 
peal;  but  it  was  rigidly  adhered  to,  and  the 
excitement  soon  subsided.  In  1847,  during 
Lord  Hardinge's  administration,  the  prohibi 
tory  edict  Avas  extended  to  the  native  states 
in  subsidiary  alliance  with  the  government  of 
India,  and  the  practice  is  believed  now  to  be 
extinct. — The  mode  of  performing  suttee  was 
much  the  same  throughout  India,  varying  only 
according  to  the  rank  of  the  parties  or  the 
customs  of  each  province.  The  widow,  seat 
ing  herself  by  the  side  of  her  husband's  body, 
had  the  sides  of  her  feet  painted  red,  and 
then  bathed  herself  and  dressed  in  her  finest 
clothes.  Meantime  a  drum  was  beaten  through 
the  adjacent  villages.  A  large  company  hav 
ing  assembled,  a  Jiole  was  dug  in  the  ground, 
and  a  bed  formed  of  green  boughs,  on  which 
was  reared  the  funeral  pile  of  dry  fagots, 
hemp,  clarified  butter,  and  other  combustibles. 
The  widow  then  gave  her  ornaments  to  her 
friends,  painted  her  forehead,  tied  red  cotton 
round  her  wrists,  put  two  new  combs  in  her 
hair,  and,  when  the  body  of  her  husband  was 
placed  upon  the  pile,  walked  around  it  seven 
times,  scattering  parched  rice  and  cowries,  and 
finally  ascended  the  pile,  to  which  she  was  se 
cured  with  ropes.  The  eldest  son  or  the  head 
man  of  the  village  usually  lighted  the  pile.  In 
Orissa  the  pyre  was  below  the  level  of  the 
ground,  and  the  widow  threw  herself  down 
upon  it.  The  practice  of  suttee  never  pre 
vailed  S.  of  the  Kistnah. 

SUITER,  a  central  county  of  California,  com 
prising  the  delta  between  the  Sacramento  and 
Feather  rivers ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
5,030,  of  whom  208  were  Chinese.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  rich  bottom  lands,  almost  the  only 
inequality  of  surface  being  the  Sutter  buttes, 
an  isolated  group  of  three  peaks  in  the  north. 
There  is  little  timber.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  673,749  bushels  of  wheat,  26,513 
of  Indian  corn,  452,911  of  barley,  14,630  gal 
lons  of  wine,  126,657  Ibs.  of  wool,  117,875  of 
butter,  and  14,100  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
4,754  horses,  3,623  milch  cows,  4,476  other 
cattle,  35,078  sheep,  and  10,690  swine.  Capi 
tal,  Yuba  City. 

SETTER,  John  Angnstns  (originally  SUTEE),  an 
American  pioneer,  born  at  Kandern,  Baden,- 
Feb.  15,  1803.  He  graduated  at  Bern,  Switz 
erland,  as  a  military  officer,  and  in  1834  emi 
grated  to  America,  where  he  became  known 
as  a  Swiss.  At  Santa  Fe  he  carried  on  for 


496 


SUITOR 


SVEABOEG 


some  time  a  profitable  trade  with  Indians 
and  trappers,  whose  accounts  of  California 
prompted  him  in  1838  to  cross  the  Kocky 
mountains;  he  went  to  Fort  Vancouver  and 
to  the  Sandwich  islands,  and  thence  to  Alas 
ka  and  along  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  and 
on  July  2,  1839,  was  stranded  in  the  bay  of 
Yerba  Buena  (now  San  Francisco).  Pene 
trating  into  the  interior  amid  great  difficulties, 
he  founded  in  the  same  year  the  earliest  white 
settlement  on  the  site  of  Sacramento,  received 
a  considerable  grant  of  land,  and  in  1841  built 
a  fort,  calling  it  New  Helvetia,  which  was 
afterward  the  first  settlement  reached  by  over 
land  emigrants  to  California.  The  Mexican 
authorities  appointed  him  governor  of  the 
northern  frontier  country ;  and  subsequently 
under  the  American  authorities  he  was  justice 
of  the  peace  (alcalde)  and  Indian  agent.  He 
acquired  great  influence  and  wealth,  but  was 
ruined  in  1848,  when  gold  was  first  discovered 
(February)  on  his  property  near  Coloma,  El 
Dorado  co.  His  laborers  deserted  him,  and  his 
lands  were  overrun  by  the  gold  diggers.  lie 
never  recovered  them,  though  repeatedly  ad 
vancing  his  claims,  and  has  not  received  any 
indemnity  excepting  an  annual  allowance  of 
$3,000  from  the  state  of  California.  Since 
1873  he  has  resided  at  Litiz,  Lancaster  co.,  Pa. 

SUTTOX,  Amos,  an  English  missionary,  born 
at  Sevenoaks,  Kent,  in  1798,  died  in  Cuttack, 
India,  Aug.  17,  1854.  lie  was  ordained  as  a 
missionary  at  Derby  in  1824,  and  sent  to  Oris- 
sa,  India,  where  he  labored  30  years,  visiting 
England  and  America  once.  lie  translated 
the  Scriptures  into  Oriya,  compiled  an  Oriya 
dictionary,  grammar,  and  lesson  book,  wrote 
tracts,  and  translated  many  English  works. 
In  English  he  published  "The  Family  Chap 
lain"  (2  vols.,  Calcutta,  1831-2),  "Narrative 
of  the  Mission  to  Orissa,"  "  Orissa  and  its 
Evangelization "  (Derby,  Eng.,  and  Boston, 
1850),  "Hymn  Book  for  Mission  Congrega 
tions,"  and  "Guide  to  the  Saviour." 

SI  VAROFF,  properly  Snvoroff,  Alexei  Vasilievitcli, 
count,  and  Prince  Italiski,  a  Russian  soldier, 
born  Nov.  24,  1729,  died  in  St.  Petersburg, 
May  17,  1800.  He  entered  the  army  at  a  very 
early  age,  served  in  the  seven  years'  war,  and 
commanded  with  success  in  Poland  against  the 
confederates  of  Bar  (!768-'72),  and  subsequent 
ly  against  the  Turks,  the  khan  of  the  Crimea, 
and  the  Nogai  Tartars,  obtaining  the  rank  of 
general-in-chief  inj.783.  In  the  campaign  of 
1787  against  theTurks  he  raised  the  siege  of 
Kinburn  and  was  wounded,  achieved  another 
victory  at  Fokshaui  (July  21,  1789)  together 
with  the  Austrians,  and  on  Sept.  22  routed 
the  main  Turkish  army  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rimnik,  for  which  he  received  the  title  of 
count,  and  the  surname  Rimnikski.  After  re 
peated  repulses  he  stormed  Ismail  in  1790,  los 
ing  20,000  men,  massacred  the  Turkish  garri 
son  of  30,000  troops,  and  nearly  reduced  the 
town  to  ashes.  He  was  next  governor  of  Ye- 
katerinoslav,  Taurida,  and  the  conquered  terri 


tories  on  the  Dniester.  In  1794  he  defeated 
Kosciuszko  jointly  with  Fersen  (Oct.  10),  and 
carried  Praga,  a  suburb  of  Warsaw,  by  assault 
(Nov.  3),  deluging  it  with  blood.  The  news 
of  this  event  he  communicated  to  the  empress 
in  the  following  despatch  :  "  Hurrah  !  Praga ! 
Suvaroff  ;"  and  in  reply  the  empress  promoted 
him  in  these  words:  "Bravo!  field  marshal! 
Catharine."  The  caprice  of  Paul  I.  drove  him 
from  the  service  in  September,  1798 ;  but  he 
was  soon  reinstated  at  the  request  of  the  em 
peror  Francis  of  Germany,  and  in  1799  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  united  Austrian  and  Rus 
sian  armies  in  Italy.  He  achieved  many  bril 
liant  victories  over  the  French,  at  Cassano,  on 
the  Trebbia,  and  at  Novi,  for  which  he  was 
made  Prince  Italiski.  He  crossed  the  Alps  to 
join  Korsakoff,  at  the  moment  when  Masse- 
na's  decisive  victory  over  the  latter  at  Zurich 
(Sept.  25,  1799)  entirely  changed  the  military 
situation,  and  he  was  recalled  to  Russia  with 
the  rank  of  generalissimo.  An  ovation  pre 
pared  for  him  at  St.  Petersburg  was  counter 
manded  by  a  caprice  of  the  czar,  and  this  un 
deserved  mortification  gave  the  death-blow  to 
Suvaroff's  shattered  health.  His  autobiogra 
phy  has  been  published  under  the  title  of  Vie 
de  Souvoroff  tracee  par  lid-meme,  ou  collection 
de  ses  lettres  et  de  ses  ecrits,  edited  by  Glinka 
(2  vols.,  Moscow,  1819).  One  of  the  best  bi 
ographies  of  him  is  by  Polevoi  (German  ed., 
Mitau,  1853). 

SUWALKI.  I.  A  W.  government  of  Poland, 
bordering  on  Lomza,  Prussia,  and  the  Lithua 
nian  governments  of  Kovno,  Wilna,  and  Grod 
no;  area,  4,840  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  524,489. 
It  is  level,  well  wooded,  and  drained  by  tho 
Niemen,  which  constitutes  its  E.  and  N.  fron 
tier.  The  principal  towns  are  Suwalki,  Au- 
gustowo,  and  Kalvarya.  II.  A  town,  capital 
of  the  government,  150  m.  N.  E.  of  Warsaw; 
pop.  in  1867,  10,890,  including  about  6,000 
Jews.  It  was  founded  by  King  Sigismund 
Augustus,  and  has  been  much  improved.  It 
contains  many  brandy  distilleries,  and  the  trade 
is  active,  especially  in  horses  and  cattle  during 
the  periodical  fairs. 

SIWAMEE,  or  Suwanee,  a  N.  county  of  Flor 
ida,  bounded  N.,  W.,  and  S.  W.  by  the  Su- 
wannee  river;  area,  790  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
3,556,  of  whom  1,435  were  colored.  The  sur 
face  is  undulating,  and  the  soil  tolerably  fer 
tile.  There  are  two  or  three  small  lakes  and 
several  swamps.  The  county  is  traversed  by 
the  Jackson,  Pensacola,  and  Mobile  railroad, 
and  its  branch  from  Live  Oak  to  Lawton,  Ga. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  50,934 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  19,404  of  oats,  17,670 
of  sweet  potatoes,  10,741  of  peas  and  beans, 
511  bales  of  cotton,  61  hogsheads  of  sugar, 
and  17,427  gallons  of  molasses.  There  were 
1,875  milch  cows,  2,156  other  cattle,  369  sheep, 
and  3,946  swine.  Capital,  Houston. 

SVEABORG,  the  principal  fortress  of  Finland, 
Russia,  on  the  gulf  of  Finland,  in  the  province 
and  3  m.  S.  E.  of  the  town  of  Helsingfors,  the 


SVERTCHKOFF 


SWAINSON 


497 


approaches  to  which  it  defends,  and  under  its 
municipal  authority;  pop.  about  4,000.  It  is 
built  upon  seven  granitic  islands  forming  an 
ellipse,  all  of  them  strongly  fortified,  and  con 
nected  either  by  causeways  or  bridges  of  boats. 
The  principal  fort  is  on  Vargo  island,  on  the 
south,  and  comprises  a  strong  castle  and  bar 
racks,  and  magazines  excavated  in  the  rock. 
The  total  number  of  cannon  is  2,000,  but  it 
generally  mounts  800  ;  and  the  usual  garrison 
of  the  fortress  varies  from  6,000  to  8,000  men, 
though  the  casemates  have  accommodations 
for  12,000.  The  harbor  within,  to  which  there 
is  but  one  entrance,  has  room  for  70  ships  of 
the  line.  The  fortress  was  erected  between 
1749  and  1758  by  Count  Ehrenswerd,  field 
marshal  of  Sweden  (who  is  buried  within 
it),  as  a  defence  against  Russia.  In  1808  it 
was  besieged  by  the  Russians,  and  after  two 
months  the  Swedish  commandant  and  admiral 
Cronstedt,  though  amply  supplied  with  the 
means  of  defence,  capitulated  (April  7).  Left 
in  the  possession  of  the  conquerors  by  the 
peace  of  Sept.  17,  1809,  it  was  called  the  ""Gib 
raltar  of  the  North,"  and  has  since  been  re 
garded  as  the  strongest  fortress  of  Russia  on 
the  Baltic.  In  August,  1855,  it  was  severely  but 
unsuccessfully  bombarded  by  the  allied  fleet. 

SVERTCHKOFF,  Nikolai,  a  Russian  artist,  born 
in  St.  Petersburg  in  1818.  He  spent  several 
years  in  Paris,  and  in  1852  became  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  St.  .Petersburg,  and  in  1855  a 
professor  there.  He  excels  in  painting  horses, 
costumes,  and  figures,  and  also  as  a  sculptor. 
His  principal  works  include  "  The  Czar  Alex 
ander  reviewing  his  Troops,"  "A  Russian 
Team  of  three  Horses,"  "A  Russian  Horse 
Market,"  and  "  A  Relay  of  Post  Horses." 

SWABIA,  or  Suabia  (Ger.  Schwdberi),  a  duchy 
of  the  German  empire  during  its  earlier  period, 
and  subsequently  one  of  its  ten  great  circles  or 
divisions.  The  circle  was  bounded  N.  by  the 
Palatinate  of  the  Rhine  and  Franconia,  E.  by 
Bavaria,  S.  by  Switzerland,  and  W.  by  France, 
the  Rhine  flowing  on  the  borders  of  the  two 
latter.  It  had  an  area  of  13,000  sq.  m.,  and 
was  conterminous  with  the  present  kingdom  of 
Wiirtemberg,  the  S.  part  of  Baden,  and  the  dis 
trict  of  Swabia  and  Neuburg  in  Bavaria.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  tracts  in 
Germany,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Danube  from 
S.  W.  to  N.  E.,  and  diversified  by  the  mountain 
scenery  of  the  Black  Forest  on  the  west  and 
the  Alps  on  the  south.  It  was  originally  called 
Alemannia,  and  received  the  name  of  Swabia 
(from  the  Suevi,  who  inhabited  parts  of  it)  when 
the  Alemanni  were  conquered  by  Clovis  in  496. 
St.  Columbanus  introduced  Christianity  in  the 
7th  century.  Toward  the  end  of  the  llth  cen 
tury  it  was  in  a  very  flourishing  condition,  and 
in  1080  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  made  the  duchy 
of  Swabia  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Frederick 
of  Hohenstaufen.  It  subsequently  became  one 
of  the  most  powerful  and  most  civilized  coun 
tries  of  Germany.  In  the  Italian  wars  the 
reigning  house  of  Swabia  stood  at  the  head  of 


the  Ghibelline  party,  and  when  Conradin  was 
executed  at  Naples  in  1268  the  line  became 
extinct.  (See  HOHEXSTALTFEX.)  The  various 
cities,  prelates,  and  counts  then  made  them 
selves  independent,  and  since  that  time  Swabia 
has  not  formed  a  separate  state.  Various  con 
federacies,  however,  were  formed  at  different 
periods,  known  in  history  under  the  name  of 
Swabian  leagues.  The  principal  of  these  was. 
the  "great  Swabian  league  "  of  1488.  The  Swa 
bian  circle  was  definitely  organized  in  1563. 

SWAIN,  a  S.  W.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
separated  from  Tennessee  on  the  north  by  the 
Great  Smoky  mountains ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. 
It  has  been  formed  since  the  census  of  1870 
from  Jackson  co.  The  surface  is  generally  ele 
vated  and  mountainous;  the  soil  is  good  and 
the  county  well  adapted  to  stock  raising.  Cap 
ital,  Charleston. 

SWAEV,  Charles,  an  English  poet,  born  in  Man 
chester  in  1803,  died  near  there,  Sept.  22,  1874. 
He  learned  the  business  of  dyeing,  but  at  the 
age  of  30  became  an  engraver.  In  1828  he  pub 
lished  "Metrical  Essays,"  followed  by  "Beau 
ties  of  the  Mind"  (1831)  and  "Dryburgh  Ab 
bey"  (1832),  an  elegy  on  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
His  subsequent  publications  comprise  "A  Me 
moir  of  Henry  Liversedge  "  (1835) ;  "  Rhymes 
for  Childhood"  (1846);  "Dramatic  Chapters, 
Poems,  and  Songs"  (1847);  "English  Melo 
dies  "  (1849)  ;  "  Letters  from  Laura  d'Au- 
verne  "  (1853) ;  and  "  Art  and  Fashion  "  (1863). 
Swain  was  known  as  the  "Manchester  poet." 
A  collection  of  his  poems  has  appeared  in  the 
United  States  (Boston,  1858;  new  ed.,  1872). 

SWAINSON,  William,  an  English  naturalist,  born 
in  Liverpool,  Oct.  8,  1789.  He  served  in  the 
Mediterranean  in  the  army  commissariat  de 
partment  from  1807  to  1815,  then  travelled 
in  South  America  with  Koster,  the  German 
naturalist,  and  on  his  return  settled  in  London. 
In  1820  he  commenced  the  publication  of 
"Zoological  Illustrations,  or  original  Figures 
and  Descriptions  of  new,  rare,  or  interesting 
Animals,"  since  republished  in  6  vols.  8vo; 
and  in  1821  of  "Exotic  Conchology"  (4to; 
new  ed.,  edited  by  S.  Ilawley,  1841).  He  has 
also  produced  a  "Naturalist's  Guide  for  col 
lecting  and  preserving  all  Subjects  of  Natural 
History  and  Botany,"  &c.  (1822);  12  volumes 
on  natural  history  in  Lardner's  "  Cabinet  Cyclo 
paedia;"  two  volumes  on  the  "Birds  of  West 
ern  Africa"  and  one  on  the  "Fly  Catchers," 
in  Jardine's  "Naturalist's  Library"  (1837-'8)  ; 
"A  Treatise  on  Malacology,  or  the  Natural 
Classification  of  Shells  and  Shell  Fish"  (1840); 
and  a  series  of  "Ornithological  Drawings," 
being  selections  of  Brazilian  and  Mexican  birds 
(1834-'41).  He  assisted  Sir  John  Richardson 
in  the  preparation  of  that  patt  of  his  "Fauna 
Boreali-Americana "  which  relates  to  North 
American  birds,  and  in  connection  with  Mr. 
Shuckard  prepared  in  1840  "  The  History  and 
Natural  Arrangement  of  Insects."  In  1841  he 
emigrated  to  New  Zealand,  and  since  his  resi 
dence  there  he  has  published  several  works  on 


498 


SWALLOW 


its  social  and  political  condition,  and  on  the 
natural  history  of  that  colony  and  Tasmania. 

SWALLOW,  the  general  name  of  the  diurnal 
fissirostral  birds  of  the  family  Mnmdinidce, 
not  including  the  swifts,  many  of  which  are 
called  swallows.  (See  SWIFT.)  The  hill  is 
short  and  weak,  very  broad  at  the  base  and 
suddenly  compressed  to  the  tip  ;  the  wings 
long,  narrow,  and  acute;  primaries  nine  or 
ten,  the  first  the  longest;  tail  more  or  less 
forked ;  tarsi  very  short  and  weak,  generally 
naked,  and  covered  with  scales ;  toes  usually 
long  and  slender,  with  the  claws  moderate, 
curved,  and  sharp ;  the  gape  very  wide  and 
usually  provided  with  short  bristles.  The 
typical  genus  hirundo  (Linn.),  having  more 
than  50  species,  embraces  several  well  known, 
elegant  swallows  both  in  America  and  the  old 
world,  remarkable  for  their  great  powers  of 
flight.  Their  food  consists  of  insects,  which 
they  take  on  the  wing,  usually  in  the  neighbor 
hood  of  water,  with  remarkable  skill  and  grace ; 
they  drink  on  the  wing,  sweeping  along  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  often  wash  them 
selves  by  a  sudden  plunge.  They  fly  at  the 
rate  of  a  mile  a  minute  in  their  ordinary  evolu 
tions,  but  are  rather  awkward  on  the  ground 
from  the  length  of  the  wings  and  the  shortness 
of  the  legs ;  they  live  more  on  the  wing  than 
any  other  birds,  even  feeding  their  young  in 
the  air ;  their  sight  is  very  acute ;  they  fly  low 
in  damp  weather,  where  the  insects  are  most 
abundant,  and  are  thence  supposed  to  foretell 
rain.  They  are  most  numerous  in  the  trop 
ics,  migrating  to  and  from  temperate  regions  ; 
in  Great  Britain  they  make  their  appearance 
from  Africa,  where  they  spend  the  winter,  from 
the  beginning  to  the  middle  of  April,  and  de 
part  toward  the  end  of  October,  crossing  the 
channel  singly  or  in  small  parties ;  they  often 
alight  on  vessels,  and  sometimes  fall  into  the 
sea.  In  the  United  States  they  arrive  about  a 
month  later  and  depart  several  weeks  earlier. 
Most  species  prefer  the  neighborhood  of  man, 
building  their  nests  in  society  in  his  dwellings 
and  buildings ;  they  form  attachments  to  places, 
returning  year  after  year  to  the  same  nests ; 
they  are  docile  and  have  been  partially  domes 
ticated  ;  a  single  bird  probably  collects  about 
1,000  insects  in  the  course  of  a  day.  The 
nests  are  generally  made  of  clay  or  mud  mixed 
with  straw  and  grass,  of  various  forms,  and  at 
tached  externally  to  some  building ;  many  spe 
cies  breed  in  holes  in  sand  banks,  at  the  end  of 
which  is  the  nest  of  grasses  and  feathers ;  the 
eggs  are  five  or  six. — The  best  known  species 
in  the  old  world  is  the  chimney  or  house  swal 
low  (If,  rustic®,  Linn.) ;  it  is  6^  in.  long,  bluish 
black  above,  with  a  band  on  the  chest,  and  the 
forehead,  eyebrows,  and  throat,  ruddy ;  lower 
parts  rufous  white,  with  a  white  spot  on  the 
inner  web  of  each  tail  feather  except  the  two 
innermost;  the  tail  is  very  long  and  forked. 
As  its  name  imports,  it  frequently  builds  its 
nest  in  chimneys  a  few  feet  from  the  top  ;  it 
also  nests  in  old  walls  and  shafts  of  mines,  and 


among  the  rafters  of  barns  and  sheds;  the 
nest  is  cup-shaped,  made  of  earth  and  straw 
and  lined  with  feathers ;  the  eggs  are  white, 
spotted  with  ash  and  red.  The  parents  are 
very  attentive  to  the  young,  and  brave  in  their 
defence ;  they  have  two  broods  in  a  season, 
the  second  sometimes  left  to  perish,  not  being 
able  to  quit  the  nest  at  the  period  of  migra 
tion  ;  the  males  are  sweet  singers,  and  very 
courageous.  The  analogue  of  this  species  in 
America  is  not  the  one  commonly  called  chim 
ney  swallow  with  us  (which  is  a  swift),  but 
the  barn  swallow  (II.  horreorum,  Barton)  ;  it 
is  about  7  in.  long  and  13  in.  in  alar  extent, 
glossy  steel-blue  above,  with  concealed  white 
in  middle  of  back ;  it  much  resembles  its  Eu 
ropean  congener,  though  it  has  the  pectoral 
collar  interrupted  in  the  middle,  while  in  II. 
rustica  it  continues  across.  It  inhabits  North 
America  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  ap 
pearing  in  the  southern  states  from  the  middle 
of  February  to  March  1,  a  few  at  a  time,  reach 
ing  New  England  in  mild  seasons  by  the  mid- 


Barn  Swallow  (Hirundo  horreorum). 

die  of  May.  It  is  gentle  and  easily  tamed. 
The  nest  is  made  of  mud  or  moist  earth  mixed 
with  grasses,  and  is  attached  to  the  beams  and 
rafters  of  barns  and  outbuildings ;  it  is  gen 
erally  about  8  in.  long,  6  in.  in  the  greatest 
diameter,  and  from  beam  to  outside  of  shell  6|- 
to  4  in.,  weighing  often  more  than  2  Ibs. ;  the 
eggs  are  four  to  six,  small  and  long,  w^hite  with 
a  few  spots  of  reddish  brown ;  incubation  lasts 
13  days,  both  sexes  assisting,  and  both  occupy 
ing  the  nest  at  night  until  the  young  are  hatched. 
This  species  collects  in  large  flocks  in  midsum 
mer  on  barns  and  sheds,  telegraph  wires,  &c., 
chirping  almost  continually,  and  making  short 
sallies  in  search  of  insects.  They  start  for  the 
south  by  the  end  of  August  or  first  of  Septem 
ber,  early  on  some  fair  morning ;  they  do  not 
fly  high,  and  follow  the  shore  or  the  course  of 
rivers. — The  cliff  or  fulvous  swallow  (H.  [pe- 
troclieliiloii\  lunifrons,  Say)  is  about  5  in.  long 
and  12J  in.  in  alar  extent ;  the  erown  and  back 
are  steel-blue,  separated  more  or  less  broadly 
by  a  grayish  collar ;  the  chin,  throat,  and  sides 
of  head  dark  chestnut ;  breast  grayish  brown ; 


SWALLOW 


SWAN 


499 


belly  white ;  steel-blue  spot  on  throat ;  rump 
light  chestnut,  and  forehead  brownish  white ; 
tail  slightly  notched.  It  is  found  through 
out  North  America  from  ocean  to  ocean;  it 


White-bellied  Swallow  (Hirundo  bicolor). 

is  called  republican  swallow  by  Audubon,  in 
allusion  to  the  habit  of  associating  to  make 
their  nests  and  rear  the  young.  The  nest  is 
built  under  eaves  and  cornices,  where  it  is 
partly  sheltered  from  the  rain  ;  it  is  made 
of  clay  and  sand,  the  entrance  near  the  top, 
shaped  like  an  earthen  retort  with  the  neck 
broken  off ;  it  is  lined  with  straw  and  grass ; 
the  eggs  are  white  with  dusky  spots  ;  the 
nest  is  bravely  defended  by  the  parents.  The 
white-bellied  swallow  or  American  house  mar 
tin  (//.  ~bicolor,  Vieill.)  is  6£  in.  long  and  12-J- 
in.  in  alar  extent,  of  a  glossy  metallic  green 
above  and  white  below ;  it  comes  earlier  in  the 
spring  than  the  others,  but  is  not  so  common ; 
the  nest  is  made  in  a  hollow  tree,  lined  with 


Sand  Swallow  (Cotyle  riparia). 

grass  and  feathers,  and  the  eggs  are  white  with 
a  bluish  tinge  ;  it  is  as  widely  distributed 
as  the  others  in  North  America,  and  some  time 
before  migrating  southward  gets  very  fat  on 


myrtle  berries  (myrica  cerrfera).  For  the  lar 
gest  of  the  American  swallows,  see  MARTIN. — 
The  bank,  sand,  or  river  swallow  belongs  to 
the  genus  cotyle  (Boie) ;  it  is  the  C.  riparia 
(Boie),  and  the  smallest  of  the  American  spe 
cies,  being  4|  in.  long  and  10£  in.  in  alar  ex 
tent.  The  bill  is  very  flat,  and  extremely  wide 
at  base,  gradually  narrowing  toward  the  -tip ; 
nostrils  prominent  and  rounded;  tail  moder 
ate,  nearly  even  or  very  slightly  forked  ;  tarsi 
rather  long,  with  a  tuft  of  feathers  near  the 
toes  behind.  It  is  grayish  brown  above,  some 
times  approaching  sooty,  with  paler  margins ; 
below  pure  white,  with  a  band  across  the 
breast  and  sides  like  the  back.  It  is  generally 
distributed  over  America  and  Europe,  wher 
ever  there  is  a  -sandy  pit  or  river  bank ;  it  is 
the  earliest  to  arrive  in  the  spring,  and  less 
familiar  than  the  other. species;  it  hollows  out 
a  tubular  gallery  in  the  sand  banks,  often  more 
than  3  ft.  in  length,  at  the  end  of  which  is  a 
larger  excavation  for  the  nest ;  it  is  called 
sand  or  bank  martin  in  Europe.  There  is  no 
appreciable  difference  between  the  European 
and  American  birds. 

SWA3OIERDAM,  Johannes,  a  Dutch  entomolo 
gist,  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1037,  died  about 
1680.  He  studied  medicine  with  his  father 
and  at  the  university  of  Leyden.  He  gave 
considerable  attention  to  the  natural  history  of 
insects,  and  made  many  dissections  and  micro 
scopical  examinations  and  a  large  collection  of 
specimens.  He  obtained  leave  at  Amsterdam 
to  dissect  the  bodies  of  those  who  died  in  the 
hospital,  and  invented  the  mode  for  the  prep 
aration  of  hollow  organs  now  usually  employed 
in  anatomy.  He  published  a  "  General  Histo 
ry  of  Insects"  (1669),  "The  Natural  History 
of  Bees"  (1673),  a  "History  of  the  Ephe 
meras"  (1675),  and  other  works.  His  ento 
mological  collection  was  divided  at  his  death 
and  sold  in  small  portions.  Boerhaave  edit 
ed  his  works  and  wrote  his  life.  An  English 
translation  of  his  entomological  works  by  T. 
Floyd  was  published  in  1758. 

SWAN,  a  web-footed  bird  of  the  duck  family, 
and  the  type  of  the  subfamily  cygnina,  em 
bracing  some  of  the  largest  and  most  graceful 
of  aquatic  birds.  The  bill  and  feet  are  much 
like  those  of  the  ducks,  the  former  being  stout, 
of  nearly  equal  width  throughout,  and  with  a 
comparatively  small  nail ;  the  neck  very  long, 
and  the  legs  short ;  wings  long  and  powerful, 
second  and  third  quills  equal  and  longest ;  tail 
short  and  rounded  ;  eyes  small  and  near  the 
bill.  They  perform  long  migrations,  flying  in 
single  files  uniting  at  an  acute  angle ;  the  diet 
consists  of  grass,  roots,  and  seeds,  in  search  of 
which  they  submerge  the  head  only,  keeping  it 
under  water  three  to  five  minutes  at  a  time ; 
they  also  devour  aquatic  worms  and  insects, 
young  frogs,  and  probably  small  fish ;  the  in 
testines  are  long,  as  in  the  vegetable  feeders ; 
they  are  gregarious  at  all  seasons,  awkward  on 
land,  but  rapid  and  high  fliers ;  they  are  re 
markably  careful  to  keep  their  plumage,  which 


500 


SWAN 


is  generally  white,  free  from  dirt.  The  nest 
is  bulky,  of  grass  and  coarse  materials,  placed 
on  the  ground  among  the  rushes  and  near 
the  water ;  it  is  sometimes  raised  a  foot  or 
more  to  avoid  inundations;  the  male  guards 
the  nest,  assists  the  female  in  the  care  of  the 
young,  and  boldly  defends  them  even  against 
predaceous  animals  and  man;  the  eggs  are 
five  to  eight,  and  incubation  lasts  six  weeks. — 
In  the  typical  genus  cygnus  (Linn.)  the  bill  is 
longer  than  the  head,  the  base  covered  by  a 
soft  skin  extending  to  the  anterior  half  of  the 
eyes,  and  the  nostrils  in  the  middle  portion ; 
lower  part  of  tibia  bare ;  tarsus  much  short 
er  than  the  foot,  compressed  and  scaly ;  webs 
full ;  hind  toe  small,  much  elevated,  with  a 
narrow  lobe;  tail  of  20  to  24  feathers,  rounded 
or  wedge-shaped ;  sexes  similarly  colored,  but 
the  females  the  smaller.  Wagler  has  divided 
the  old  genus  cygnus  into  two,  cygnus  and 
olor,  according  as  there  is  or  is  not  a  swollen 
fleshy  tubercle  at  the  base  of  the  bill ;  in  the 
former  also  the  lamella)  of  the  edges  of  the 
bill  are  visibly  projecting,  and  in  the  latter  not ; 
in  the  former  belongs  the  tamo  swan  of  Eu 
rope,  and  in  the  latter  the  wild  swan  and  both 
of  the  North  American  species.  The  Euro 
pean  wild  or  whooping  swan  (G.  ferns,  Ray)  is 
4.V  to  4J  ft.  long,  white,  with  the  head  and 
neck  tinged  with  yellowish,  and  a  black  bill, 
yellowish  at  the  base  and  without  tubercle;  it 
is  a  winter  visitor  in  Great  Britain,  migrating 
northward  in  the  spring  to  Lapland,  Russia, 
Siberia,  &c.,  where  it  breeds;  the  young  are 
brownish  gray.  The  male  has  a  peculiar  note 
resembling  the  word  "hoop,"  repeated  several 
times  in  succession,  the  intensity  greatly  in 
creased  by  the  convolutions  of  the  windpipe, 
which,  after  penetrating  the  keel  of  the  breast 
bone  to  its  posterior  portion,  is  bent  forward 
again  to  the  front  of  this  bone  before  going 
to  the  lungs ;  this  peculiarity  is  not  found  in 
the  tame  swan,  which  has  a  soft  and  plain 
tive  voice.  The  swan  is  cruel  and  vindictive; 
the  males  fight  savagely  at  pairing  time,  and 
the  female  with  young  attacks  everything 
which  approaches  her  nest ;  it  can  repel  any 
bird,  even  the  eagle,  and  in  fighting  the  com 
batants  try  to  drown  one  another  by  holding 
the  rival's  head  under  water,  often  with  suc 
cess.  Though  heavy  fliers,  they  rise  to  a  great 
height,  uttering  a  loud,  harsh,  and  trumpet- 
like  note  when  sailing  high  in  the  air ;  when 
enraged  or  alarmed  they  can  swim  faster 
than  a  man  can  walk.  This  bird  was  sacred 
to  Apollo,  and  was  the  bird  of  the  Muses; 
it  was  fabulously  celebrated  for  its  melodi 
ous  song,  especially  at  the  time  of  its  death. 
The  flesh  is  dark  and  tough.  The  European 
tame  swan  (0.  olor,  Gmel.)  has  a  red  bill,  with 
black  tip  and  sides,  and  a  tubercle  at  the  base ; 
the  trachea  has  no  convolutions.  It  is  gen 
erally  distributed  over  Europe  and  America  as 
an  ornamental  bird  ;  it  is  large  and  handsome, 
a  permanent  resident  in  temperate  Europe  ;  in 
Great  Britain  from  remote  periods  it  has  been 


protected  by  preservative  laws ;  the  male  is 
called  a  cob  and  the  female  a  pen ;  its  life  is 
said  to  extend  to  a  century.  The  young  have 
a  gray  plumage  and  a  lead-colored  bill.  The 


European  Tame  Swan  (Cygnus  olor). 

flesh  is  said  to  have  a  flavor  between  that  of 
the  goose  and  the  hare.  The  most  prized  are 
brought  to  the  United  States  from  Hamburg, 
and  are  generally  what  are  called  Polish  swans 
(C.  immutalilis,  Yarr.),  from  the  Baltic  shores, 
noted  for  having  white  cygnets. — The  Ameri 
can  or  whistling  swan  (C.  Americanus,  Sharp- 
less)  is  55  in.  long  and  about  7  ft.  in  alar  ex 
tent,  with  a  bill  of  4^  in. ;  the  bill  is  as  long 
as  the  head,  high  at  the  base,  the  feathers  on 
the  forehead  ending  in  a  semicircular  outline ; 
the  nostrils  far  forward;  tail  of  20  feathers; 
the  adult  is  pure  while  with  bill  and  legs  black, 
and  an  orange  or  yellowish  spot  in  front  of 
the  eye;  young  birds  are  brownish,  especially 
on  the  head ;  they  are  flve  or  six  years  in  com 
ing  to  maturity.  This  species  is  spread  over 
the  North  American  continent  from  the  At 
lantic  to  the  Pacific  ;  many  are  shot  in  winter 
and  spring  on  the  coasts  of  Virginia,  Maryland, 
and  Delaware ;  when  they  are  feeding,  one 
always  acts  as  sentinel ;  they  fly  in  an  angle, 
each  line  in  single  tile,  the  leading  bird  as  he 
gets  weary  retiring  to  the  rear.  The  nest  is 
described  as  made  of  moss,  peat,  and  sticks, 
5  to  G  ft.  long,  4|  ft.  wide,  and  2  ft.  high,  with 
the  cavity  1^-  ft.  in  diameter ;  the  eggs  are 
brownish  white,  clouded  with  darker.  The 
trumpeter  swan  (C.  buccinator,  Rich.)  is  about 
5  ft.  long  and  7  ft.  in  alar  extent,  with  the 
bill  4%  in. ;  bill  longer  than  the  head,  the  feath 
ers  on  the  forehead  with  a  semi-elliptical  out 
line  ;  nostrils  with  the  anterior  extremity  only 
as  far  forward  as  the  middle"  of  the  commis 
sure ;  tail  with  24  feathers  ;  the  adults  are  pure 
white,  the  legs  and  bill  entirely  black,  the  lat 
ter  without  any  red  spot  at  base.  It  is  found 
from  the  Mississippi  valley  to  the  Pacific,  ap 
pearing  on  the  lower  Ohio  about  the  end  of 
October,  and  going  south  when  the  ice  gets 
thick ;  it  is  very  common  in  the  fur  countries, 
breeding  as  far  north  as  lat.  61°  N.  The  note 
is  more  sonorous  than  in  the  whistling  swan  ; 
it  is  not  so  wary  as  the  last  named  species ; 


SWAN  RIVER 


SWEDEN 


501 


it  is  the  principal  source  of  the  fine  down  so 
much  prized  for  muffs  and  tippets. — A  black 
swan,  once  considered  as  apocryphal  as  a  white 
crow,  inhabits  Australia.  The  chenopis  atrata 
(Wagl.),  of  that  continent  and  Tasmania,  is 
black  except  a  few  white  primaries  and  a  bright 
red  bill ;  it  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  common 
swan,  and  is  now  not  unfrequently  seen  with 
it  in  the  parks  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

SWAN  RIVER.     See  WESTEEM  AUSTRALIA. 

SWANSEA  (Welsh,  Abertawy),  a  town  of  Gla 
morganshire,  Wales,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the 
river  Tawy,  where  it  falls  into  the  bay  of 
Swansea,  Bristol  channel,  GO  m.  W.  1ST.  W.  of 
Bristol;  pop.  in  1871,  51,702.  It  is  much  re 
sorted  to  for  sea  bathing.  There  are  extensive 
anthracite  mines  in  the  neighborhood,  which, 
together  with  the  convenience  of  the  port, 
have  made  it  the  principal  seat  of  the  cop 
per  trade  of  Great  Britain.  Copper  ore  is 
brought  hither  for  smelting  from  Cuba,  North 
and  South  America,  Australia,  &c.  There  are 
also  iron,  tin  plate,  and  zinc  works,  potter 
ies,  and  ship  yards.  The  port  was  entered  in 
1873  by  6,835  British  vessels,  tonnage  877,241, 
and  1,165  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  197,062. 
There  were  cleared  6,612  vessels,  tonnage 
859,619,  of  which  1,258  were  foreign,  tonnage 
216,527.  The  exports  in  the  same  year  were 
valued  at  £1,855,712.  The  exports  of  coal  in 
the  year  ending  with  February,  1875,  were 
30,592  tons,  and  the  coastwise  shipments  17,874 
tons.  There  are  extensive  docks ;  the  first 
floating  dock  was  built  at  Swansea  in  1852. 
Large  vessels  can  come  close  to  the  town  at 
flood,  but  at  ebb  the  harbor  is  nearly  dry. 

SWEATING  SICKNESS,  a  disease  which  often 
prevailed  extensively  in  Europe  and  Asia  du 
ring  the  middle  ages,  and  which  still  frequent 
ly  appears  in  Turkey  and  other  parts  of  Eu 
rope  and  Asia.  The  older  descriptions  of  it 
are  somewhat  vague,  but  from  the  general 
symptoms  it  is  doubtless  the  disease  which  has 
been  accurately  described  by  Rayer  and  others, 
and  is  now  called  miliary  fever,  sudatoria, 
and  miliaria,  and  is  defined  as  "  an  eruption 
of  innumerable  minute  pimples  with  white 
summits,  occurring  in  successive  crops  upon 
the  skin  of  the  trunk  and  extremities,  pre 
ceded  and  accompanied  with  fever,  oppression 
of  respiration,  and  copious  sweats  of  a  rank, 
sour,  fetid  odor,  peculiar  to  the  disease.  The 
base  of  the  pimples  and  the  skin  around  are  red 
and  irritable."  Pathologists  are  not  agreed  as  to 
its  specific  nature ;  some  deny  that  a  peculiar 
specific  disease*  exists,  as  in  smallpox  or  scar 
latina.  The  fever  which  precedes  the  erup 
tion  is  ushered  in  by  intense  chills,  oppression 
of  breathing,  fainting,  and  pains  in  the  head, 
loins,  and  limbs.  In  a  few  hours  nausea  and 
profuse  sweating  come  on,  but  without  reliev 
ing  the  other  symptoms.  The  pulse  is  small 
and  rapid,  often  hard  and  irregular.  The  tongue 
is  coated  with  a  foul  yellow  fur,  and  the  bowels 
are  constipated.  From  the  5th  or  6th  day  to 
the  21st  an  itching  sensation  is  felt  in  the  mam 


mary  and  epigastric  regions  and  the  inner  sur 
face  of  the  arms,  and  the  skin  of  those  parts  be 
comes  red  and  rough,  with  numerous  elevations 
about  the  size  of  common  pin  heads.  In  a  short 
time  the  summits  of  these  elevations  become 
pearly  white,  the  cuticle  being  elevated  by  a 
slightly  opaque,  sero-albuminous  fluid.  Several 
crops  of  elevations  break  out  in  succession  for 
from  three  to  seven  days,  followed  by  desqua- 
mation  of  the  cuticle.  In  severe  cases  the 
eruption  appears  at  the  junction  of  the  skin 
and  mucous  membrane,  and  is  liable  to  become 
aphthous.  Two  forms  are  recognized,  the  mild 
and  the  malignant,  the  latter  being  accompa 
nied  by  violent  inflammation  of  some  internal 
organ,  and  proving  fatal  sometimes  in  two  or 
three  days.  The  treatment  consists  in  cooling 
drinks,  bland  diet,  and  frequent  laving  and 
sponging  of  the  cutaneous  surface. — The  dis 
ease  appeared  in  England  in  1485,  just  after 
the  battle  of  Bosworth,  and  disappeared  sud 
denly  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  year.  It 
attacked  people  chiefly  in  the  prime  of  life,  and 
scarcely  one  per  cent,  recovered.  It  appeared 
again  in  the  summer  of  1506,  but  in  a  mild 
form.  In  July,  1517,  it  appeared  in  a  very 
malignant  form,  sometimes  terminating  fatally 
in  a  few  hours.  It  lasted  for  six  months,  and 
like  the  preceding  epidemics  was  confined  to 
England.  In  May,  1528,  it  again  appeared  in 
London.  It  lingered  in  the  city  till  the  next 
year,  and  was  so  fatal  as  to  receive  the  name 
of  "  the  great  mortality."  It  finally  extended 
over  the  northern  half  of  the  continent,  and 
2,000  persons  fell  victims  to  it  in  21  days  at 
Hamburg.  In  1551  it  made  its  last  appearance 
in  England,  and  continued  six  months. 

SWEDBERG,  Jesper,  a  Swedish  clergyman,  fa 
ther  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg,  born  at  Fahlun, 
Aug.  28,  1653,  died  at  Brunsbo,  July  26,  1735. 
His  father  was  a  copper  smelter  named  Daniel 
Isaksson.  Swedberg  took  his  name  from  a 
small  family  estate.  He  was  educated  at  TJp- 
sal,  and  in  1685  was  ordained  a  priest  and 
appointed  chaplain  to  the  king's  regiment 
of  cavalry  life  guards.  In  1690  he  was  made 
pastor  of  Vingaker,  in  1692  professor  of  the 
ology  at  Upsal,  and  soon  after  rector  of  the 
university.  In  1691  he  was  one  of  a  commis 
sion  to  revise  the  Swedish  Bible,  which  work 
was  completed  in  a  year.  In  1694  he  pub 
lished  a  psalm  book,  which  was  suppressed 
as  pietistic.  In  1702  Charles  XII.  made  him 
bishop  of  Skara  in  West  Gothland,  in  which 
office  he  remained  till  his  death.  In  1722 
he  produced  the  first  Swedish  grammar  ever 
printed.  About  1732  the  Swedish  congrega 
tions  in  London,  Lisbon,  and  North  America 
elected  him  their  bishop. 

SWEDEN  (Swedish,  Sverige),  a  kingdom  of 
northern  Europe,  forming  with  Norway  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula,  and  lying  between  lat. 
55°  20'  and  69°  N.,  and  Ion.  li°  10'  and  24°  10' 
E.  It  is  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  Norway,  S. 
W.  by  the  Skager  Rack,  the  Cattegat,  and  the 
Sound,  S.  by  the  Baltic  sea,  E.  by  the  Baltic 


502 


SWEDEN 


and  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  N.  E.  by  Finland. 
It  is  separated  from  Norway  by  the  main  chain 
of  the  Scandinavian  system  of  mountains, 
along  which  a  broad  avenue  cut  in  the  forest, 
and  having  at  certain  intervals  stone  monu 
ments,  marks  the  line  of  division.  This  avenue 
is  maintained  with  great  care  by  the  Norwe 
gians,  and  its  condition  regularly  reported  to 
their  storthing  or  legislature.  The  extreme 
length  of  Sweden  is  970  m.,  and  its  general 
breadth  about  200  m. — The  coast  line,  about 
1,400  m.  in  extent,  is  deeply  indented  by  nu 
merous  fiords  or  gulfs.  About  300  m.  of  the 
coast  borders  on  the  Skager  Rack,  Cattegat,  and 
Sound ;  the  remainder  is  washed  by  the  Baltic 
and  the  gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  W.  shore  along 
the  Skager  Eack  and  Cattegat  is  rocky,  but  sel 
dom  elevated  more  than  30  or  40  ft.  The  S. 
shore  as  far  as  Solvesborg  in  Blekinge  is  low 
and  sandy ;  thence  northward  it  is,  with  some 
exceptions,  lined  by  precipitous  cliffs  about  50 
ft.  high  as  far  as  Calmar  sound.  Along  the 
Sound  the  coast  is  again  low  and  sandy,  but  N. 
of  it  rises  into  higher  cliffs,  and  at  the  outlet 
of  Lake  Mselar  presents  bold  headlands  100  ft. 
high.  N.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Dal  and  as  far 
as  the  strait  of  Quarken  rocky  and  sandy  shores 
alternate ;  and  the  upper  part  of  the  gulf  of 
Bothnia  is  characterized  by  low  sandy  beaches. 
The  entire  coast  N.  of  Calmar  is  lined  with 
numerous  rocky  and  sandy  islets,  which  render 
access  difficult  in  many  places.  Off  of  the  Ian 
of  Calmar,  and  separated  from  it  by  Calmar 
sound,  is  the  island  of  Oland ;  and  X.  E.  of  this 
lies  Gottland,  the  largest  island  of  Sweden. 
The  Aland  group,  off  the  Ian  of  Stockholm, 
belongs  to  Russia. — The  mountain  chain  which 
forms  the  spine  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula 
has  a  much  larger  portion  of  its  most  eleva 
ted  surface  in  Norway  than  in  Sweden.  Its 
southern  part,  the  Langfield  chain,  is  wholly 
in  Norway,  while  the  Dovrefield  and  Kiolen 
chains  form  the  boundary  between  the  two 
countries,  Sulitelma  in  lat.  67°  and  Sylf  jell  in 
lat.  63°,  lie  partly  in  each.  The  Norwegian 
side  of  these  mountains  is  much  more  precipi 
tous  than  the  Swedish.  In  Sweden  they  form 
a  plateau  nearly  4,000  ft.  high,  from  which 
occasional  peaks  rise  to  a  greater  height,  but 
which  in  a  breadth  of  40  m.  slopes  gradually 
to  an  elevation  of  from  800  to  1,000  ft.,  and 
thence  declines  in  hills  of  moderate  elevation 
to  the  sea  shore.  S.  of  lat.  59°  the  country  is 
very  level,  and  the  great  plain  of  Scania,  the 
most  fertile  tract  of  the  peninsula,  occupies 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  southern  ex 
tremity.  The  northern  part  of  Sweden  is 
rocky,  with  bleak,  barren,  snow-clad  hills,  and 
a  stunted  vegetation  of  birch,  fir,  and  small 
pines,  in  the  higher  lands  intermingled  with 
dreary  lakes  and  swamps.  The  great  forest 
region  lies  S.  of  lat.  64°,  where  the  surface  is 
less  elevated.  Further  S.  it  is  more  level,  and 
the  woods  give  place  to  cultivated  fields. — 
Sweden  abounds  in  beautiful  lakes,  which  cover 
more  than  14,000  sq.  m.  of  its  surface.  Lake 


"Wener  has  an  area  of  about  2,000  sq.  m.,  and, 
excepting  Ladoga  and  Onega  in  Russia,  is  the 
largest  lake  in  Europe.  Its  principal  affluent 
is  the  Klar,  which  enters  it  from  the  north, 
and  its  waters  are  carried  into  the  Cattegat 
by  the  Gotha.  At  the  Trolhiitta  falls  on  the 
latter,  the  river  descends  by  rapids  108  ft.  in 
5  m.  Lake  Wetter  is  80  m.  long  and  has  an 
area  of  715  sq.  m.  Its  surface  is  about  300 
ft.  above  the  sea,  and  in  one  part  it  is  more 
than  400  ft.  deep.  It  has  many  small  affluents. 
The  river  Motala  carries  its  waters  through 
several  smaller  lakes  into  the  Baltic.  The 
Maelar  lake,  about  75  m.  long,  is  a  series  of 
lakes  connected  by  channels  and  having  many 
branches.  It  contains  more  than  1,200  islands, 
most  of  which  are  of  great  beauty.  Other 
principal  lakes  are  Hjelmar,  connected  with 
the  Meelar,  Siljan,  Stor,  Stor  Uman,  Horn 
Afvan,  Stora  Lulea,  and  Tornea,  almost  all  in 
the  north.  None  of  the  rivers  of  Sweden  are 
navigable,  excepting  those  which  have  been 
rendered  so  artificially.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Klar  and  a  few  smaller  streams  on  the 
W.  coast  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  near 
ly  all  of  them  have  their  source  in  the  main 
mountain  range  and  flow  S.  E.  into  the  gulf 
of  Bothnia.  The  largest  is  the  Dal,  which  is 
formed  by  the  junction  near  Fahlun  of  the 
East  Dal  and  the  West  Dal,  and  enters  the 
gulf  of  Bothnia  near  Gefie.  At  Elfkarleby, 
near  its  mouth,  it  forms  a  splendid  cascade, 
which  is  surrounded  by  fine  scenery.  N.  of 
this  the  principal  rivers  are  the  Ljusne,  In- 
dals,  Angerman,  Umea  and  its  branch  the  Win- 
del,  Skelleftea,  Pitea,  Lulea,  Ranea,  Kalix,  and 
Tornea,  The  last,  with  its  branch  the  Muonio, 
forms  the  boundary  line  between  Sweden  and 
Russia.  Most  of  these  rivers  have  cataracts 
and  rapids.  The  Angerman  is  240  m.  long, 
and  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  600  tons  GO  m. 
from  its  mouth. — The  geological  formations  of 
Sweden  are  chiefly  granites,  gneiss,  and  meta- 
morphic  rocks.  They  compose  most  of  the 
Scandinavian  chain  of  mountains,  and  are  in 
many  places  covered  with  Silurian  strata,  which 
sometimes  are  seen  undisturbed  from  their 
original  horizontal  position.  These  are  bro 
ken  through  and  overflowed  by  trap  ;  and  the 
surface  is  generally  covered  with  the  drift 
formation  and  large  bowlders.  The  metamor- 
phic  group  abounds  in  metallic  veins,  which 
constitute  a  large  portion  of  the  wealth  of 
the  country.  Among  the  metals  produced  are 
iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  silver,  gold,  nickel,  co- 
bftlt,  and  manganese.  The  pyritiferous  slates 
are  largely  worked  for  alum  and  copperas, 
and  these,  as  well  as  the  sulphurous  gaiigues 
of  the  various  ores,  furnish  unlimited  sup 
plies  of  sulphur.  In  1872  there  were  produced 
4,881  cwt.  of  alum,  1,914  cwt.  of  iron  vitriol, 
2,936  cwt.  of  copper  vitriol,  and  7,067  cwt.  of 
sulphur.  The  most  important  iron  mines  are 
those  at  Dannemora  and  Osterby  in  the  Ian  of 
Upsal,  Presberg  in  Wermland,  Taberg  in  Jon- 
koping,  and  in  the  liins  of  Orebro,  Gefleborg, 


01 


.       LC 

-  --.- 

1 


r  __ 
if 

d 


;:N  i  v  i -.'a 


SWEDEN 


503 


Kopparberg,  and  "Westmanland.  Taberg  is  a 
mountain  of  magnetic  ore  1,129  ft.  high.  At 
Gellwara,  near  the  Lulea  river,  in  Norrbotten, 
is  also  a  mountain  of  nearly  pure  magnetic  iron 
ore,  with  some  specular  ore.  Swedish  iron  is 
not  excelled  by  any  in  the  world,  and  is  largely 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  Nearly  500 
iron  mines  were  open  in  1873 ;  the  total  yield 
of  rock  iron  ore  was  18,170,000  cwt.,  and  of 
bog  iron  ore  117,793  cwt.  .The  principal  cop 
per  mines  are  at  Fahlun  in  Kopparberg,  at.  At- 
vidaberg  in  Ostergottland,  at  Flogforss  in  Ore- 
bro,  in  Jamtland,  and  in  Westmanland.  Silver 
is  mined  in  small  quantities  at  Sala  in  Wrestman- 
land  and  in  Orebro,  and  zinc  near  Askersund 
in  Orebro  and  other  places.  In  1873  the  yield 
of  copper  was  about  5,000  cwt.,  of  silver  16 
cwt.,  of  zinc  602,883  cwt.,  of  nickel  24,420  cwt., 
and  of  manganese  6,713  cwt.  Coal  of  inferior 
quality  is  found  near  Ilelsingborg  in  Malmo, 
and  large  veins  of  better  quality  have  been 
discovered  lately  in  other  parts.  The  yield  in 
1873  was  2,406,486  cubic  feet.  Marble  is  quar 
ried  in  Ostergottland,  and  at  Elfdal  in  Kop 
parberg  are  the  celebrated  porphyry  quarries, 
where  many  varieties  of  that  stone  are  found. 
In  1872  14,734  mining  licenses  were  issued  in 
the  kingdom.  An  interesting  geological  change 
in  the  coast  line  of  Sweden  is  the  gradual 
rising  of  the  land  along  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  and 
the  Baltic  sea.  This  was  first  observed  in  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century  by  Celsius,  who 
attributed  it  to  the  subsidence  of  the  waters  of 
the  Baltic ;  but  in  1807  Von  Buch  made  a  care 
ful  examination  of  the  coast,  and  announced 
his  conviction  that  "the  whole  country,  from 
Frederikshald  in  Norway  to  Abo  in  Finland, 
and  perhaps  as  far  as  St.  Petersburg,  is  slowly 
and  insensibly  rising."  According  to  later  ob 
servations,  the  greatest  rise  is  further  N.  at  the 
top  of  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  where  it  amounts 
to  about  4-^  ft.  in  a  century;  at  Gefle,  90  m. 
N.  of  Stockholm,  it  is  from  2  to  3  ft.  in  a  cen 
tury  ;  at  Stockholm  it  is  scarcely  6  in. ;  and  at 
Malmo  the  movement  seems  to  be  downward. — 
The  soil  is  generally  not  very  fertile,  much  of  it 
being  the  result  of  the  disintegration  of  prim 
itive  rocks,  and  containing  a  large  proportion 
of  silex.  The  productive  soil  constitutes  about 
53  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area,  the  remainder 
being  sand  barrens,  rocks,  and  heaths.  Of  the 
productive  parts  about  13  per  cent,  are  arable, 
5  per  cent,  meadow  lands  and  pasturage,  and 
82  per  cent,  forests.  The  climate  of  the  Scan 
dinavian  peninsula  is  generally  milder  than 
that  of  other  countries  in  the  same  latitude. 
The  average  winter  temperature  in  the  more 
populous  portions  of  the  country  is  but  little 
lower  than  that  of  the  state  of  New  York. 
At  Stockholm,  in  lat.  59°  20',  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  about  42°,  that  of  winter  25° 
and  of  summer  62°;  at  Lund,  lat.  55°  42',  the 
annual  mean  is  45°,  that  of  winter  30°  and  of 
summer  62°;  at  Fahlun,  lat.  60°  36',  the  an 
nual  mean  is  40°,  that  of  winter  22°  and  that 
of  summer  58-30° :  and  at  the  Russian  frontier 


village  Enontekis,  lat.  68°  30',  and  at  an  eleva 
tion  of  1,440  ft.,  the  annual  mean  is  27°,  the 
winter  temperature  2°  and  the  summer  55°. 
In  Swedish  Lapland  there  are  scarcely  two 
months  of  summer.  In  Norrland,  in  nine 
weeks,  hay  will  have  been  cut  twice  and  the 
year's  seeding  and  harvest  completed.  At 
Stockholm  the  longest  day  is  18^  hours  and 
the  shortest  5^-  hours;  at  Tornea  22  hours  is 
the  longest;  and  at  Enontekis  the  sun  remains 
above  the  horizon  about  seven  weeks. — The 
pine  and  fir  forests  of  Sweden  furnish  a  great 
abundance  of  timber,  which  is  largely  ex 
ported.  In  the  middle  province  there  are  also 
considerable  quantities  of  ash,  linden,  willow, 
maple,  and  the  weeping  birch,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  northern  forest  trees.  In  the 
southern  province  the  oak  attains  great  size 
and  beauty,  and  the  beech  and  elm  are  com 
mon.  With  the  exception  of  the  cherry  there 
are  few  fruit  trees  N.  of  the  60th  parallel,  and 
scarcely  any  trees  grow  N.  of  the  64th  parallel. 
Barley  is  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  Sweden, 
and  rye,  wheat,  oats,  beans,  peas,  and  pota 
toes  are  successfully  grown  in  the  middle  and 
southern  provinces.  Apples  and  pears  grow 
in  the  southern  districts,  and  cranberries  and 
other  berries  in  the  northern.  The  goose 
berry  growls'  all  over  the  country.  Tobacco 
is  raised  in  the  vicinity  of  Stockholm.  Root 
crops  are  largely  cultivated.  The  agricultu 
ral  crops  in  1874  were  as  follows,  in  imperial 
bushels:  wheat,  4,000,000;  rye,  20,000,000; 
barley,  12,000,000;  oats,  30,000,000;  potatoes, 
52,000,000.  Large  quantities  are  also  raised 
of  peas,  beans,  mixed  grain,  buckwheat,  hemp, 
and  hay.  During  the  year  ending  Sept.  30, 
|  1873,  11,852,049  bushels  of  cereals  were  ex 
ported  from  Sweden  ;  and  the  total  imports  of 
grain,  flour,  and  meal  during  the  same  time 
were  2,326,581  bushels.  The  crops  of  1874 
were  below  the  average,  and  the  importations 
of  grain  were  larger  than  in  1873. — The  fauna 
of  Sweden  is  not  so  numerous  as  that  of  some 
of  the  other  northern  countries  of  Europe. 
The  principal  quadrupeds  are  the  brown  bear, 
wolf,  lynx,  fox,  glutton,  deer,  reindeer,  elk, 
marten,  otter,  beaver,  sable,  hare,  and  squirrel. 
Bears,  elk,  deer,  and  beavers  are  now  scarce. 
Wild  reindeer  are  sometimes  met  with  in  the 
northern  provinces.  Lemmings  occasionally 
come  down  in  droves  from  the  Kiolen  moun 
tains  and  lay  waste  the  country  in  their  path. 
Among  the  indigenous  birds  are  the  eagle,  eagle 
owl,  falcon,  hawk,  swan,£oose,  eider  duck  and 
other  species  of  wild  ducks,  gull,  ptarmigan, 
capercailzie  and  other  grouse,  woodcock,  black 
cock,  and  snipe.  The  sheltered  coasts  of  the 
Baltic  and  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  are  the  resort 
of  immense  flocks  of  sea  fowl.  The  lakes, 
rivers,  and  seas  abound  with  fish.  Many  of 
the  rivers  contain  fine  salmon,  trout  and  gray 
ling  are  caught  in  every  mountain  stream,  and 
pike  and  perch  abound.  The  turbot,  cod, 
mackerel,  ling,  and  herring  are  taken  in  con 
siderable  quantities,  and  lobsters,  crabs,  and 


501 


SWEDEN" 


oysters  are  abundant.  Great  numbers  of  the 
stromming,  a  small  fish  about  as  large  as  a 
sprat,  are  caught  in  the  gulfs  of  Bothnia  and 
Finland,  and  cured.  It  is  said  that  more  than 
80  kinds  of  salt  and  fresh  water  fish  are  sold 
in  the  markets  of  Gothenburg.  The  domes 
tic  animals  are  mostly  small  and  of  inferior 
quality,  but  efforts  are  making  to  improve 
the  breeds,  particularly  of  sheep.  Fine  ani 
mals  are  imported  from  foreign  countries,  and 
there  are  public  breeding  establishments.  In 
1870  there  were  in  Sweden  1,906,500  horned 
cattle,  1,595,000  sheep,  and  about  428,500 
horses. — The  three  great  divisions  of  Swe 
den,  Gothland  (Sw.  Gotaland),  Svealand,  and 
Norrland,  are  subdivided  into  24  lans  or  dis 
tricts,  the  extent  and  population  of  which  in 
1874  were  as  follows: 


DIVISIONS. 

Area, 
sq.  ill. 

Popula 
tion. 

CAPITAL. 

GOTHLAND. 

Malmo  

1.847 
2^507 
1,165 
3>40 
4,299 
4,44(i 
4.145 
1,901 
3,310 
4,1)48 
1,953 
1,212 
2,729 

88,302 

2,860 
2.015 
2,1503 
2,549 
3,503 
0,520 
11,  240 
659 

31,94!) 

325.909 
227,008 
129.521 
102.2*3 
184,210 
230,914 
201.N91 
130.008 
24!  1,089 
2^3.692 
239,5>7 
54,284 

2,434,346 

280,801 
102.029 
13NOHO 
119,4s5 
174>9.'5 
205.027 

1  51,253 

Malmo. 
Chris  tianstad. 
Carlscrona. 
Wexio. 

Jonkoping-. 
Calmar. 
Linkupintr. 
Halmstad. 
Mariestad. 
Wenersborg. 
Gothenburg. 
Wisby. 

Stockholm. 
Upsal. 
Nykoping. 
Westerns. 
Orebro. 
Carlstad. 
Fahlun. 

UK-kin},'!'  
Kronoberg  
Jonkoping  

Calmnr  
Ostergotland  

Hallaild                              .        ... 

Skaraborg 

Elfsborg  

Gothenburg  and  Bohus... 
Gottland  (island)  

•Lakes  Wener  and  Wetter 
Total  

8VEALANI). 

Stockholm  
Upsal  
Sodennanland  

Westmanland  
Orebro 

Wermland  
Kopparben,'-  
Lakes  Mselar  arid  Iljehuar. 

Total  

1,262,789- 

Gefle. 
Hernosand. 

Ostersund. 
Umea. 
Pitea. 

NORULAXD. 

GefiVborg  

7,464 
9.515 
19,556 

23,s05 
41,009 

101,499 
171,750 

157,196 
143.014 
73,593 
90,0^4 
80,350 

550,837 
4,297,972 

Wester  Non-land  
Jamtland 

AVesterbotten  
NorrbotU'U  

Total  

Total  of  Sweden  

Gothland  (the  region  originally  inhabited  by 
the  Goths)  lies  S.  of  lat.  59°,  and  comprises 
also  the  islands  of  Oland  and  Gottland ;  Svea 
land,  the  original  country  of  the  Svenskar  or 
Swedes,  extends  from  Gothland  northward  to 
about  lat.  60°  15'  at  its  eastern  extremity,  and 
Lit.  02°  15'  at,  the  western;  and  Xorrland  is 
the  whole  northern  part  up  to  the  Norwegian 
frontier  of  Finland.  In  1874  Sweden  had  89 
towns,  only  one  of  which,  Stockholm,  the  cap 
ital,  had  move  than  100,000  inhabitants  (147,- 
249).  Of  the  others,  Gothenburg  had  61,599, 
Norrkoping  and  Malmo  from  25,000  to  30,000 
each,  and  Carlscrona,  Gefle,  Upsal,  Lund,  and 
JOnkoping  from  12,000  to  18,000  each.— Be 


sides  the  Swedes  proper,  the  population  of 
Sweden  in  1870  included  6,611  Lapps,  27,079 
Finns,  and  12,015  foreigners ;  of  the  last,  2,856 
were  Germans,  2,795  Danes,  2,570  Norwegians, 
2,018  Finlanders,  806  Kussians,  355  English, 
157  Americans,  122  French,  and  a  few  of  oth 
er  nationalities.  Besides  the  members  of  the 
Lutheran  church,  to  which  nearly  all  the  native 
population  belong,  there  were  in  1870  3,809 
Baptists,  Methodists,  and  Mormons,  1,836  Jews, 
573  Roman  Catholics,  30  Greek  Catholics,  and 
190  of  the  Reformed  church.  The  number 
of  householders  in  1870  was  1,017,323.  The 
average  number  of  marriages  in  every  10,000 
inhabitants  during  the  decade  ending  in  1870 
was  65'44;  the  whole  number  of  divorces  du 
ring  the  same  period  was  1,301.  The  propor 
tion  of  illegitimate  births  in  the  whole  king 
dom  in  1873  was  11  per  cent.,  and  in  Stock 
holm  38'15  per  cent.  In  1870  the  number  of 
paupers  wholly  supported  at  the  public  expense 
was  85,147,  and  the  number  of  convicts  in  all 
the  prisons  was  5,951.  Intemperance,  which 
has  heretofore  prevailed  so  extensively  as  to 
mar  the  character  of  the  people,  has  been 
checked  by  wise  legislation,  and  crime  has 
decreased ;  but  the  consumption  of  distilled 
spirits  as  drink  is  still  large,  in  the  proportion 
of  about  2^  gallons  a  year  to  each  inhabitant. 
Monday,  as  well  as  Sunday,  is  often  spent  by 
working  men  in  dissipation,  which  has  given 
rise  to  the  phrase  "  free  Monday."  Like  the 
other  branches  of  the  Scandinavian  race,  the 
Swedes  are  tall  and  of  a  sandy  or  florid  com 
plexion  and  powerful  physique.  As  a  nation 
they  are  enterprising,  energetic,  honest,  and 
thrifty.  More  than  half  of  tlfe  population  be 
long  to  the  peasantry  or  ~bonde  class,  who  are 
gradually  absorbing  the  landed  property  of  the 
kingdom.  They  are  mostly  engaged  in  agri 
culture,  and  are  industrious  and  prudent.  The 
cottager  or  t<'»rp<tr,  who  hires  his  house  and 
patch  of  ground,  is  below  the  peasant  in  social 
rank.  The  law  formerly  prescribed  the  cos 
tumes  for  the  lower  classes,  but  now  all  dress 
as  they  please.  In  Dalecarlia  (the  region  on 
both  sides  of  the  Dal)  the  peasants  of  each 
parish  have  different  and  fanciful  costumes. 
Wooden  shoes  or  leather  shoes  with  wooden 
soles  are  largely  worn.  Men,  women,  and  chil 
dren  labor  together  in  the  fields;  women  do 
various  kinds  of  outdoor  work  in  the  towns, 
such  as  the  mixing  of  mortar  and  the  tending 
of  masons,  and  most  of  the  drudgery  in  fac 
tories.  By  law  no  children  under  12  years 
of  age  can  be  employed  in  a  factory,  and 
none  under  18  can  be  required  to  work  after 
dark.  In  1873  more  than  26,000  persons  were 
employed  in  the  mines  and  in  mining  indus 
try.  The  class  of  burghers  are  members  of 
the  various  mercantile  guilds  or  are  engaged 
in  manufacturing.  The  nobility  consists  of 
about  1,600  families.  They  formerly  possessed 
one  fifth  of  the  landed  property  of  the  king 
dom,  but  many  of  them  are  now  very  poor, 
and  their  pride  will  not  permit  them  to  en- 


SWEDEN 


505 


gage  in  commercial  or  industrial  pursuits.  Al 
though  their  political  power  as  a  distinct  class 
was  annulled  by  the  reform  of  the  constitu 
tion  in  I860,  they  still  hold  the  chief  offices 
in  the  state,  and  in  one  of  the  guard  regi 
ments  only  noblemen  are  commissioned  offi 
cers.  There  has  of  late  been  a  large  emi 
gration  from  Sweden,  chiefly  to  the  United 
States,  which  in  1869  amounted  to  39,069  ; 
but  it  decreased  in  1870  to  29,003,  in  1871 
to  17,450,  in  1872  to  15,915,  and  in  1873  to 
13,580. — Sweden  has  made  great  progress  in 
manufacturing  industry  within  the  past  few 
years.  While  the  number  of  distilleries,  of 
which  in  1835  there  were  85,172  small  and 
670  large  ones,  had  diminished  in  I860  to  565, 
other  branches  of  industry  have  greatly  in 
creased.  The  value  of  the  goods  produced  in 
the  registered  manufactories  of  the  country 
in  1830  was  $3,500,000  ;  in  1840,  $5,700,000; 
in  1850,  $10,900,000;  in  1860,  $18,500,000; 
in  1865,  $20,300,000  ;  and  in  1870,  $24,700,- 
000.  These  sums  are  exclusive  of  the  pro 
ducts  of  hand  trades,  which  are  estimated  to 
be  equal  in  value  to  the  manufactures  prop 
er.  The  number  of  manufactories  in  1830 
was  1,857,  in  1865  2,315,  and  in  1870  2,183. 
In  1870  the  manufactories  produced  cloth 
valued  at  $2,300,000;  other  textile  fabrics, 
$1,500,000;  silk,  $290,000;  cotton  spinning, 
$2,300,000  ;  leather,  $1,300,000  ;  tobacco, 
$1,600,000;  sugar,  $3,500,000;  metals,  $2,- 
100,000 ;  and  paper,  $760,000.— The  following 
table  shows  the  value  of  the  imports  and  ex 
ports  for  the  five  years  ending  with  1873  : 


YEARS. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1869 

$36  610000 

$33  720  000 

1870  

37,970,000 

40.870,000 

1S71  

1872 

45,340,000 
58  090  000 

42,150,000 
53  550  000 

1873  

72,746,000 

59,470,000 

Partial  returns  for  1874  show  a  further  relative 
increase  in  imports  and  a  decrease  in  exports. 
The  imports  from  the  United  States  in  1873, 
direct  and  indirect,  amounted  to  $7,476,878 ; 
the  exports  to  the  United  States,  $3,073,074. 
The  chief  imports  of  Sweden  are  textile  fabrics, 
groceries,  mineral  ores  and  manufactured  met 
als,  ships,  carriages,  and  machinery,  bones  and 
hides,  yarn,  thread,  and  spinning  materials, 
wines  and  alcohol,  colors  and  dyes,  and  coin. 
The  chief  exports  are  timber,  metals,  grain, 
cattle,  provisions  (animal),  tallow  and  oil,  and 
paper  and  paper  goods.  The  direct  imports 
from  the  United  States  are  petroleum,  resin, 
tallow,  and  agricultural  machines  and  imple 
ments;  indirect,  cotton,  pork,  tobacco,  sewing 
machines,  and  gold  and  silver  bullion.  The 
merchant  marine  of  Sweden  in  1872  numbered 
3,878  vessels  (including  498  steamers),  of  426,- 
000  aggregate  tonnage. — Sweden  has  remark 
able  facilities  for  internal  navigation  through 
a  series  of  lakes,  rivers,  and  bays,  connected  by 
more  than  300  m.  of  canals.  These  furnish 


direct  water  communication  between  the  Bal 
tic  and  the  North  sea,  which  is  of  great  im 
portance,  as  in  case  of  war  the  Danes  would 
command  the  channels  through  the  Belts  and 
the  Sound.  The  importance  of  this  connection 
was  well  understood  in  the  12th  and  13th  cen 
turies,  but  Gustavus  Vasa  was  the  first  to  un 
dertake  it.  Various  sovereigns  continued  the 
work,  and  in  1823  the  line  was  opened  from 
Soderkoping  on  the  Baltic  through  Lakes 
Wetter  and  Wener.  The  canal  from  Lake 
Wener  around  Trollhiitta  falls,  originally  built 
in  1800,  was  next  enlarged  and  rebuilt,  and  in 
1855  the  entire  route  was  thrown  open  for 
steamers.  It  is  in  all  235  m.  long,  of  which 
about  60  m.  are  across  the  lakes.  Its  most 
elevated  point  is  Lake  Wiken,  between  Wetter 
and  Wener,  where  it  is  299  ft.  above  the  level 
of  the  sea ;  the  descent  is  made  by  vessels  on 
each  side  through  37  locks.  Other  canals  con 
nect  the  Maslar  lake  with  Lakes  Iljelmar  and 
Barken,  and  with  the  Baltic.  There  are  ex 
cellent  roads  all  over  the  country,  and  in  win 
ter,  when  the  canals  and  lakes  arc  frozen  and 
the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  for  four  or 
five  months,  communication  is  easily  kept  up 
with  the  interior  by  means  of  sledges.  A  net 
work  of  railways  is  now  in  course  of  con 
struction,  to  connect  all  the  important  dis 
tricts  of  the  kingdom,  chiefly  at  the  expense 
of  the  government.  The  state  lines  include 
the  main  or  trunk  lines,  the  principal  of 
which  are  the  western,  from  Stockholm  to 
Gothenburg,  and  its  branches;  the  southern, 
from  Falkoping  on  the  western  line  to  Mahno ; 
the  northwestern,  from  Laxa  on  the  western 
line  to  the  frontier  of  Norway;  the  eastern, 
from  Kathrineholm  on  the  western  line  to 
Norrkoping;  and  the  northern,  connecting 
Stockholm  with  the  principal  cities  of  the 
north.  In  August,  1874,  1,639  m.  were  in 
operation,  of  which  878  m.  belonged  to  the 
state  and  761  m.  to  private  companies ;  1,744 
m.  were  in  construction,  437  m.  by  the  state 
and  1,307  m.  by  private  companies.  At  the 
beginning  of  1875,  451  m.  had  been  finished, 
making  the  total  length  of  all  the  railways  at 
that  time  2,090  m.  Of  the  telegraph  lines,  all 
of  which,  excepting  those  belonging  to  private 
railway  companies,  are  the  property  of  the 
state,  4,654  m.  were  in  operation  in  1872,  with 
10,081  m.  of  wires;  of  these,  177  m.  were  sub 
marine  cables.  The  number  of  post  offices  in 
the  kingdom  in  1872  was  546,  and  the  number 
of  letters  passing  through  the  mails  was  14,- 
465,572. — Previous  to  1858  the  unit  of  money 
in  Sweden  was  the  riksdaler  (government  dol 
lar).  The  wars  prior  to  1815  depreciated  the 
Swedish  paper  money  greatly,  and  the  govern 
ment  notes  were  of  less  value  than  those  issued 
by  the  bank,  which  was  an  independent  insti 
tution,  though  under  the  management  of  direc 
tors  appointed  by  the  legislature.  The  specie 
dollar  was  106  cts.,  the  rilisgalds  (royal  debts) 
dollar  26£  cts.,  or  four  to  the  specie  dollar; 
while  the  rilcsdaler  lanco,  or  bank  dollar,  was 


506 


SWEDEN 


39|  cts.,  or  three  eighths  of  the  specie  dollar 
and  1|-  of  the  riksgalds.  The  riksdaler  banco 
hence  became  the  official  money  of  accounts. 
All  three  (the  specie,  banco,  and  riksgald)  were 
divided  into  48  shillings,  and  the  skilling  into 
12  rundstyks.  In  1854  the  diet  adopted  a  deci 
mal  system,  which  was  put  into  operation  Jan. 
1,  1858.  In  this  system  the  riksgald  dollar 
(26^  cts.)  is  the  unit;  it  is  called  the  riksdaler 
ryksmint,  and  divided  into  100  ores.  In  1872 
a  convention  was  signed  at  Stockholm  by  the 
plenipotentiaries  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
Denmark,  for  the  introduction  of  a  common 
system  of  coinage  into  the  Scandinavian  king 
doms.  This  was  ratified  by  Sweden,  and  the 
new  coinage  was  put  into  circulation  on  Jan. 
1,  1875.  The  basis  is  gold,  with  silver  and 
bronze  for  the  smaller  coins,  the  unit  being  the 
kronor  or  crown  (264  cts.)  of  100  ores.  The 
gold  coins,  which  are  an  alloy  of  90  parts  gold 
and  10  copper,  are  the  10-crown  piece  and  the 
20-crown  piece.  The  silver  coins  have  an 
alloy  of  copper,  and  consist  of  pieces  of  one 
and  of  two  crowns,  and  of  50,  40,  25,  and  10 
ores  respectively.  The  bronze  coins  are  of 
95  parts  copper,  4  tin,  and  1  zinc,  and  are  of 
the  respective  values  of  1,  2,  and  5  ores.  In 
weights,  the  Swedish  pound,  which  is  the  unit, 
is  equal  to  0*937  of  the  pound  avoirdupois;  it 
is  subdivided  into  100  orts  of  100  korns  each; 
100  pounds  make  a  centner,  and  100  centners 
a  nyldst.  In  length,  one  Swedish  foot  is  equal 
to  0*974  of  an  English  foot,  and  is  divided  into 
10  inches  of  10  lines  each.  The  Swedish  mile 
is  equal  to  C'6235  English  miles;  the  square 
mile  to  43 '87  English  square  miles.  The  mea 
sure  of  contents  has  the  Swedish  cubic  foot  for 
its  unit,  divided  into  10  cans  of  100  cubic  inches 
each. — Sweden  and  Norway  form  a  single  king 
dom,  but  have  separate  internal  administrations, 
the  king  residing  alternately  in  each  country. 
(See  XORWAY.)  The  government  is  a  limited 
monarchy,  hereditary  only  in  the  male  line. 
The  king  is  sole  executive  of  the  realm,  com 
mander  of  the  land  and  sea  forces,  and  head 
of  the  church,  and  has  the  right  to  preside 
in  the  supreme  court  of  justice^  He  must  be 
a  member  of  the  Lutheran  church.  His  per 
son  is  inviolable,  and  his  action  exempt  from 
censure,  but  he  is  required  in  Sweden  to  ad 
vise  and  consult  with  a  council  of  state  com 
posed  of  ten  members,  two  of  whom,  called 
ministers  of  state,  hold  the  portfolios  of  jus 
tice  and  of  foreign  affairs,  and  eight  of  whom 
are  called  councillors  of  state;  of  the  latter, 
five  are  the  chiefs  respectively  of  the  depart 
ment*  of  marine,  war,  finance,  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  and  the  interior,  and  three  have  only 
consultative  voices.  All  the  members  of  the 
council  are  responsible  for  the  acts  of  the  ggv- 
ernment.  In  practice  the  king  submits  all 
measures  excepting  military  and  diplomatic 
affairs  to  his  councillors,  but  he  is  not  bound 
to  follow  their  advice.  If  he  proceeds  to 
unconstitutional  measures,  they  must  make  a 
formal  protest  or  be  held  responsible  before 


a  high  court  convened  for  their  trial.  Du 
ring  the  absence  of  the  king  in  Norway,  Swe 
den  is  governed  by  a  regency,  named  by  him, 
consisting  of  a  prince  of  the  blood  or  a  min 
ister  of  state  and  three  councillors.  In  case 
of  his  absence  in  a  foreign  country,  or  of 
the  minority  of  the  sovereign,  the  two  king 
doms  are  governed  by  a  joint  regency  consist 
ing  of  ten  Swedes  and  ten  Norwegians.  The 
law-making  power  is  vested  in  a  legislature 
called  the  diet,  which  previous  to  the  amend 
ment  of  the  constitution  in  1806  consisted  of 
four  houses,  respectively  of  the  nobles,  clergy, 
burghers,  and  peasants,  but  is  now  divided 
into  an  upper  and  a  lower  chamber.  The  up 
per  chamber  has  one  member  for  every  30,000 
of  population  (in  1874,  128),  who  are  elected 
for  nine  years  and  receive  no  salary.  Each 
member  must  be  more  than  35  years  old,  and 
must  have  possessed  for  at  least  three  years 
previous  to  election  real  estate  of  the  taxed 
value  of  80,000  riksdalers,  or  an  annual  income 
of  4,000  riksdalers.  There  are  only  6,000 
Swedes  eligible  to  a,  seat  in  this  chamber,  of 
whom  about  1,750  reside  in  the  country.  Mem 
bers  are  elected  indirectly,  in  cities  by  the  mu 
nicipalities  and  in  the  country  by  the  25  pro 
vincial  assemblies.  These  assemblies,  called 
landsting,  are  selected  by  electors  chosen  by 
the  people  in  the  communal  or  parish  elections, 
in  which  each  property  owner,  male  or  female, 
is  allowed  one  vote  to  each  100  riksdalers  of 
taxable  income.  In  the  cities  no  one  can  cast 
more  than  100  votes,  the  number  authorized 
by  10,000  riksdalers  of  income.  The  lower' 
chamber  consists  of  one  representative  for 
every  10,000  inhabitants  of  towns,  of  one 
deputy  for  every  rural  district  whose  popula 
tion  is  less  than  40,000,  and  two  deputies  for 
those  of  more  than  40,000.  In  1874  the  num 
ber  of  members  was  194,  of  whom  56  repre 
sented  the  towns  and  138  the  rural  districts. 
They  are  elected  for  three  years,  and  receive 
each  a  salary  of  1,200  riksdalers  for  the  session 
of  four  months  and  travelling  expenses.  They 
are  chosen  generally  by  direct  vote,  although 
they  may  be  by  indirect  vote  at  the  option  of 
a  district.  Every  male  Swede  21  years  of  age 
and  over,  who  owns  real  property  of  the  as 
sessed  value  of  1,000  riksdalers,  or  holds  a 
five  years1  lease  of  property  of  the  value  of 
6,000  riksdalers,  or  pays  an  income  tax  on 
800  riksdalers  is  entitled  to  vote  in  their  elec 
tion  ;  and  if  he  is  25  years  old  and  has  pos 
sessed  these  property  qualifications  for  one 
year  preceding  the  election,  he  may  be  elected 
a  member.  The  diet  assembles  every  year, 
on  Jan.  15,  without  special  convocation.  The 
king  appoints  the  president  and  vice  presi 
dent  of  each  chamber.  The  diet  appoints:  1, 
a  lawyer  as  procurator  general  to  superintend 
the  execution  of  the  laws  by  judges  and  offi 
cers ;  2,  a  committee  of  48  members,  every 
third  year,  to  report  whether  the  members  of 
the  supreme  court  deserve  to  retain  their  posi 
tions  ;  and  3,  a  committee  of  six  members,  also 


SWEDEN 


507 


every  third  year,  to  watch  with  the  procurator 
general  over  the  liberty  of  the  press.  Laws 
for  changing  or  abolishing  rights  of  the  no 
bility  require  the  consent  of  an  assembly  of 
nobles,  and  ecclesiastical  laws  can  be  enacted, 
changed,  or  abrogated  only  with  the  consent 
of  a  general  church  assembly.  The  king  has 
the  right  of  absolute  veto  of  any  measure 
passed  by  the  diet.  The  judiciary  consists  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  kingdom,  composed 
of  16  judges  in  two  divisions,  which  interprets 
the  laws  and  renders  justice  in  the  name  of  the 
king,  who  when  he  presides  has  the  right  of 
two  votes ;  three  royal  courts  of  justice,  sit 
ting  at  Stockholm,  Jonkoping,  and  Christian- 
stad;  a  royal  court  of  military  justice;  and 
a  supreme  court  of  admiralty.  There  are 
also  throughout  the  kingdom  petty  courts,  of 
which  the  clergy  are  often  magistrates. — The 
estimate  of  receipts  and  expenditures  of  the 
administration  for  the  year  1875  is  as  follows : 

GROSS   RECEIPTS. 

Ordinary  reveirae,  including  land  tax, 
receipts  from  railways,  telegraphs, 

forests,  tonnage  dues,  "&c 25,135,000 

Extraordinary : 

Customs' 19.500.000 

Posts 3.400.000 

Stamps 1,880,000 

Impost  on  spirits 12,000,000 

"       on  beet  sugar 60,000 

Income  tax 2,800,000-39,640,000 

On  account  of  the  public  debt: 

Cash,  interest,  &c 11,037,939 

Loan  of  1ST2  for  construction  of 

railways -. 9.437,000 

Kemainder  of  do.  and  new  loan. . .  14,000,000—84,474,989 

Total  receipts : 99,249,939 

EXPENSES. 
Ordinary: 

Eoyal  household 1.2^,6.000 

Justice 8,340.400 

Foreign  affairs 609.865 

Army 11,710,400 

Navy 4,459,100 

Interior 11,591,500 

Church  and  public  instruction 6.822,900 

Finance 10,498,000 

Pensions 1,539,135—51,836,800 

Extraordinary,  including  railway  con 
struction,  army  and  fleet,  and  sup 
plement  to  budget  of  1874 28,447,103 

On  account  of  the  public  debt: 

Liquidation  of  loans    for  railway 

construction 11,557,185     • 

Loaned  for  construction  of  private 

railways * 2.000.000 

Various  expenses 5,408,845—18,966.031 

Total  expenses \ . . .     99,249,939 

At  the  close  of  1873  the  total  public  debt 
amounted  to  about  122,080,000  crowns.  From 
this  must  be  subtracted  credits  of  about  32,- 
240,000,  which  leaves  the  actual  debt  about 
89,840,000  crowns.  The  whole  of  this  debt 
was  contracted  for  railway  construction,  and 
all  in  Germany,  with  the  exception  of  two 
loans  of  about  30,000,000  crowns  in  the  ag 
gregate,  which  were  negotiated  in  London. 
All  the  loans  are  paid  off  gradually  by  means 
of  a  sinking  fund.  In  1872  the  diet  author 
ized  the  emission  of  a  new  loan  of  24,000,000 
riksdalers,  at  4  per  cent.,  to  continue  the  con 


struction  of  the  railways  ;  but  the  budgets 
of  1872  and  1873  having  exhibited  surpluses, 
only  6,650,000  had  been  issued  up  to  May, 
1874.  Sweden  has  but  one  colony,  the  island 
of  St.  Bartholomew  in  the  West  Indies,  the 
administration  of  which  costs  25,000  crowns 
per  annum. — The  army  of  Sweden  is  composed 
of  five  classes  of  troops,  the  varfcade  or  en 
rolled  troops,  the  indelta  or  military  colonists, 
the  bevaring  or  conscripted  troops,  the  militia 
of  Gottland,  and  volunteers.  The  active  army 
consists  of  the  first  two  of  these  classes.  The 
varfvade  are  enlisted  usually  for  six  years ; 
they  comprise  a  body  of  about  6,000  men, 
among  which  are  the  royal  life  guards,  the 
artillery,  the  engineers,  and  one  regiment  of 
hussars.  The  indelta  consist  of  about  25,000 
men,  21,000  of  whom  are  infantry,  the  remain 
der  cavalry.  This  body,  which  was  established 
by  Charles  XL,  is  peculiar  to  Sweden.  The 
men  are  cantoned  in  military  districts,  where 
they  are  provided  for  by  the  holders  of  crown 
lands  in  those  districts.  Each  man  has  also 
assigned  to  him  a  house  and  a  piece  of  land, 
which  he  cultivates  for  himself.  The  infantry 
are  exercised  annually  30  days  and  the  cavalry 
46  days.  The  remaining  three  classes  consti 
tute  the  reserve.  The  bevaring  are  drawn  by 
annual  levy  from  the  whole  male  population 
between  the  ages  of  20  and  25.  The  right  to 
purchase  substitutes  was  abolished  by  the  diet 
in  1872.  In  1873  this  body  numbered  86,101 
men.  The  militia  of  Gottland  have  a  separate 
command,  and  cannot  he  obliged  to  serve  out 
of  the  island  ;  they  number  usually  about  8,000 
men.  The  volunteers  were  first  organized  in 
1861.  In  time  of  peace  they  are  subject  only 
to  their  own  rules,  although  their  command 
ers  are  chosen  by  the  king ;  but  in  war  they 
may  be  compelled  to  serve  under  the  military 
authorities.  About  20,000  were  enrolled  in 
1873.  The  effective  force  of  the  kingdom  in 
1873,  including  all  the  five  classes,  was  150,773 
men.  The  navy  was  entirely  reorganized  in 
1873,  and  now  forms  a  single  body  called  the 
royal  fleet,  with  two  stations,  at  Stockholm 
and  Oarlscrona.  It  consisted  in  1874  of  the 
following  vessels  :  steamers — 1  ship  of  the 
line  with  66  guns,  1  frigate  with  22  guns,  2 
corvettes  with  14  guns,  4  monitors  with  8 
guns,  10  small  monitors  (4  constructing)  with 
10  guns,  12  gun  boats  with  21  guns,  4  vessels 
without  guns,  1  transport  with  1  gun,  and  2 
despatch  boats  with  5  guns  ;  sailing  vessels — 
1  frigate  with  36  guns,  5  corvettes  with  102 
guns,  1  brig  with  10  guns,  and  1  schooner 
with  8  guns;  rowing  vessels — 4  mortar  boats 
with  5  guns,  44  gun  boats  with  98  guns,  and 
40  launches  with  49  guns ;  in  all,  133  vessels 
with  455  guns.  The  navy  is  officered  by  2  rear 
admirals,  6  commanders,  20  captain-command 
ers,  43  captains,  43  lieutenants,  and  26  sous- 
lieutenants;  it  has  an  effective  force  of  about 
7,000  men,  and  a  reserve  of  35,000  men. — The 
Lutheran  is  the  established  church  of  Sweden, 
but  all  sects  are  tolerated.  Previous  to  1873, 


508 


SWEDEN 


when  the  church  assembly  assented  to  the  act 
of  the  diet  permitting  civil  marriages  and  mar 
riages  by  dissenting  ministers,  no  one  not  con 
firmed  in  the  Lutheran  faith  could  be  legally 
married.  Every  Swede  who  does  not  claim  to 
belong  to  some  one  of  the  dissenting  sects 
must  be  confirmed  at  the  age  of  14  or  15  and 
partake  of  the  sacrament,  upon  which  he  re 
ceives  a  certificate  from  his  pastor.  If  he  neg 
lects  the  requirement,  he  is  subject  to  many 
inconveniences,  and  is  not  entitled  to  the  same 
burial  rites  as  a  confirmed  person.  The  clergy, 
who  must  be  graduates  of  one  of  the  univer 
sities,  are  generally  moral  and  high-toned,  and 
exercise  a  controlling  influence  in  society.  In 
the  country  parishes  they  are  often  magistrates 
as  well  as  pastors.  They  receive  in  general 
a  liberal  income  from  permanent  funds,  tithes, 
and  fees,  but  some  are  poorly  paid.  They  are 
usually  elected  in  parish  meeting  and  commis 
sioned  by  the  king.  The  head  of  the  church 
is  the  archbishop  of  Upsal,  who  has  under  him 
11  bishops,  respectively  of  Linkoping,  Skara, 
Strengnas,  Westeras,  "Wexio,  Lund,  Gothen 
burg,  Oalmar,  Carlstad,  Ilernosand,  and  Wis- 
by.  The  archbishop  and  bishops  are  nomi 
nated  by  the  king  from  a  list  of  candidates 
presented  by  the  dioceses.  Ecclesiastical  mat 
ters  are  discussed  in  convocation,  but  are  sub 
ject  to  the  decision  of  the  king. — Public  in 
struction  is  gratuitous  and  compulsory,  and  it 
is  rare  to  meet  with  any  one  who  cannot  read 
and  write.  Primary  schools  exist  in  every 
parish,  excepting  in  the  northern  districts, 
which  are  so  thinly  peopled  as  to  render 
movable  schools  necessary.  Children  who  do 
not  attend  schools  under  government  super 
vision  must  furnish  evidence  of  private  edu 
cation.  In  1870  nearly  97  per  cent,  of  the 
children  from  8  to  15  years  of  age  attended 
the  public  schools.  The  whole  number  of 
common  schools  in  the  kingdom  was  7,303, 
with  555,51)5  pupils;  of  these  1,164  were  mov 
able  schools.  In  1871  the  number  of  male 
teachers  in  the  common  schools  was  5,029, 
of  whom  52  were  clergymen  and  1,057  church 
clerks ;  the  number  of  female  teachers  was 
2,770.  The  amount  paid  for  the  support  of 
common  schools  in  1871  was  3,537,968  riks- 
dalers,  of  which  2,573,927  was  contributed  by 
parishes,  842,907  by  the  state,  and  121,133  was 
derived  from  interest  on  endowments.  In  1870 
there  were  98  high  schools  for  boys,  with  756 
teachers  and  12,755  pupils.  No  high  schools 
were  provided  for  girls  till  1873,  when  one  was 
established  at  Carlstad.  There  are  also  tech 
nical  schools  and  day  and  evening  schools  in 
the  several  cities.  The  universities  of  Upsal 
and  Lund  have  faculties  of  theology,  law, 
medicine,  and  philosophy.  In  1873  the  former 
had  1,611  and  the  latter  563  students.  Prepa 
rations  ^  are  nearly  completed  for  founding  a 
free  university  at  Stockholm.  There  is  a  mili 
tary  school  at  Carlberg,  a  higher  military 
academy  for  officers  of  engineers  and  of  artil 
lery  at  Marieberg,  and  a  school  for  naval  ca 


dets  at  Stockholm.  Libraries  and  collections 
of  art,  natural  history,  &c.,  exist  in  all  the  cit 
ies,  and  are  free  to  the  public  on  certain  days, 
and  there  are  many  literary  and  scientific  soci 
eties  in  the  kingdom.  Almost  every  parish, 
every  prison,  and  all  the  large  industrial  estab 
lishments  have  their  libraries.  In  1875  there 
were  271  newspapers  and  periodicals  published 
in  Sweden,  of  which  12  were  daily  and  16 
were  illustrated. — The  early  history  of  Swe 
den  is  confused  and  mythical.  When  Odin  and 
his  Swedes  entered  the  country,  they  found  a 
great  part  of  it  in  the  possession  of  the  Goths, 
who  had  dispossessed  the  Lapps  and  Finns, 
and  the  kingdom  which  he  founded  comprised 
only  a  portion  of  Svealand,  or  the  central 
province.  (See  DENMARK,  NORTHMEN,  NOR 
WAY,  and  ODIN.)  The  dynasty  of  the  Yng- 
lings,  founded  by  Frey-Yngve,  son  of  the  pon 
tiff  Njord,  Odin's  successor,  ended,  it  is  sup 
posed,  before  the  8th  century,  with  Ingjald 
Illrada.  He  wras  succeeded  by  Ivar  Vidfamne, 
who  ruled  over  both  the  Swedes  and  the 
Goths.  In  829  Ansgar  or  Anscarius,  a  monk 
of  Corbie,  visited  Sweden  and  converted  many 
pagans,  but  did  not  succeed  in  establishing 
Christianity.  About  the  year  1000  Olaf  Skot- 
konung  (the  lap-king,  so  called  because  he  re 
ceived  homage  when  an  infant)  was  baptized, 
and  a  bishopric  was  erected  at  Skara,  but 
Svealand  would  not  receive  Christian  teach 
ers  for  more  than  a  century  afterward.  Con 
stant  disputes  and  often  open  war  existed  for 
centuries  between  the  Goths  and  the  Swedes, 
and  their  political  union  was  not  completed 
until  the  reign  of  AValdemar,  son  of  Birger 
Jarl  (Earl  Birger),  who  was  made  king  in  1250. 
Finland  had  in  the  mean  while  been  conquered 
and  Christianized.  In  1279  Magnus  Ladulas 
(Harnlock,  so  called  because  he  protected  the 
people's  granaries  from  the  rapacity  of  the 
nobles)  ascended  the  throne  and  reigned  with 
ability  till  his  death  in  1290.  Then  followed 
a  long  period  of  dissension  between  his  three 
sons.  In  1319  Magnus  Smek,  an  infant,  be 
came  king,  and  in  the  next  year  succeeded 
by  right  of  his  mother  to  the  throne  of  Nor 
way,  .lie  established  his  son  Ilaco  in  Nor 
way,  and  induced  him  to  marry  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Waldemar,  king  ©f  Denmark.  The 
three  Scandinavian  states  being  thus  allied, 
he  attempted  by  the  aid  of  the  kings  of  Nor 
way  and  Denmark  to  abolish  the  senate,  but 
was  deposed  and  Albert  of  Mecklenburg  was 
elected  king  in  1363.  A  war  ensued  between 
him  and  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Norway, 
which  ended  in  Albert's  defeat,  and  on  July 
20,  1397,  by  the  "union  of  Calmar,"  Mar 
garet,  "the  Semiramis  of  the  North,"  became 
queen  of  the  confederate  monarchy  of  Swe 
den,  Norway,  and  Denmark.  She  retained 
possession  of  the  triple  government  till  her 
death  in  1412,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  grand- 
nephew  Eric  of  Pomerania  (XIIL).  The  union 
of  Calmar  was  maintained  with  great  difficulty 
for  more  than  100  years,  though  in  1434-'6 


SWEDEN 


509 


it  was  seriously  perilled  by  the  efforts  of  the 
Swedes  under  the  leadership  of  Engelbert,  a 
patriotic  Dalecarlian  miner,  and  but  for  his 
assassination  by  the  treachery  of  a  Swedish 
noble  in  1436  would  have  been  overthrown. 
In  1439  Eric  was  deposed,  and  his  nephew 
Christopher  of  Bavaria  chosen  king;  and  on 
his  death  in  1448  Karl  Knudsson,  who  had 
been  regent  at  the  deposition  of  Eric,  suc 
ceeded  him.  Anarchy  ensued  under  him  and 
his  successors  till  1520,  when  Christian  II.  of 
Denmark  became  king.  He  exasperated  the 
people  by  his  cruelty,  and  they  found  a  leader 
in  Gustavus  Ericsson,  a  noble  of  high  rank, 
better  known  as  Gustavus  Vasa.  (See  GUSTA 
VUS  I.)  Christian  had  executed  as  traitors  and 
heretics  many  of  the  principal  nobles,  among 
them  the  father  of  Gustavus,  and  a  great  num 
ber  of  peasants.  The  resistance  of  the  Swedes 
under  Gustavus  to  the  government  of  the  Da 
nish  king  was  successful,  and  in  1523  they 
elected  their  leader  king.  In  1529  he  intro 
duced  the  reformation.  At  his  death  in  15  GO 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Eric  XIV.,  who 
was  deposed  on  account  of  alleged  insanity  in 
1568  by  his  brother  John  III.  (See  ERIC  XIV.) 
John  reigned  till  his  death  in  1592,  when  his 
son  Sigismund,  who  had  been  elected  king  of 
Poland  and  had  become  a  Roman  Catholic, 
succeeded  him,  the  late  king's  brother,  Duke 
Charles,  being  regent  till  he  could  leave  his 
kingdom  of  Poland.  Sigismund  determined  to 
establish  Romanism  in  the  kingdom,  against 
the  will  of  the  people,  and  showed  himself  so 
reckless  and  unscrupulous,  that  in  1599  he  was 
deposed,  and  in  1604  his  uncle  Charles  IX., 
who  had  acted  as  regent,  was  raised  to  the 
throne.  (See  CHAELES  IX.)  His  reign  was 
one  of  tranquillity  in  the  kingdom,  and  in  1611 
he  died,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Gusta 
vus  Adolphus.  (See  GUSTAVUS  II.)  After  a 
reign  of  21  years,  the  greater  part  of  which 
was  spent  in  wars  with  Poland  and  Russia  for 
the  possession  of  Ingria,  Livonia,  and  other 
territories  on  the  Baltic,  and  in  the  defence 
of  Protestantism  in  Germany,  while  his  affairs 
at  home  were  managed  successfully  by  the  wise 
Oxenstiern,  Gustavus  closed  his  glorious  career 
at  the  bfcttle  of  Ltitzen  in  1632,  and  his  daugh 
ter  Christina,  then  six  years  of  age,  succeeded 
him.  (See  CHRISTINA.)  Oxenstiern  was  in 
vested  with  the  chief,  management  of  affairs ; 
Baner,  Torstenson,  and  other  Swedish  generals 
won  new  victories ;  and  the  kingdom  for  a 
time  prospered,  and  by  the  peace  of  Westpha 
lia  in  1648  received  western  Pomerania  and 
other  accessions  of  territory.  After  Chris 
tina's  coming  of  age,  her  want  of  fixed  prin 
ciples  and  the  violence  of  her  disposition  soon 
plunged  the  country  into  debt  and  trouble,  and 
in  1654  she  abdicated  in  favor  of  her  cousin 
Charles  X.  His  reign  of  six  years  was  marked 
by  brilliant  campaigns  against  the  Danes  and 
in  Poland,  and  acts  of  great  personal  bravery ; 
but  his  victories  brought  no  advantage  to 
Sweden,  and  only  wasted  her  resources.  (See 


CIIAELES  X.)  He  died  in  1660,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  young  son  Charles  XL,  during 
whose  minority  a  peace  was  concluded  by 
which  the  kingdom  had  10  or  12  years  of  tran 
quillity.  In  1676  began  a  war  with  the  elec 
tor  of  Brandenburg  and  the  Danes,  which  was 
continued  with  varying  success,  though  for  the 
most  part  with  disaster,  till  1679,  when  the 
peace  of  St.  Germain,  leaving  the  Danes  at  the 
mercy  of  the  Swedes,  enabled  the  latter  to 
regain  more  than  they  had  lost.  An  advan 
tageous  peace  was  concluded  between  the  two 
kingdoms,  and  confirmed  by  the  marriage  of 
Charles  to  Ulrica,  the  daughter  of  the  Danish 
king.  During  the  remainder  of  his  life  he 
devoted  his  attention  assiduously  to  the  set 
tlement  of  the  troubles  existing  between  the 
nobles  and  the  peasants,  and  in  1693  prevailed 
upon  both  parties  to  give  him  the  power  to 
alter  the  constitution  as  he  pleased.'  He  died 
in  1697,  bequeathing  to  his  son  Charles  XII. 
this  absolute  power.  (See  CHAELES  XII.)  The 
warlike  career  of  this  remarkable  but  reckless 
king,  who  humbled  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark 
and  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  and  dethroned 
Augustus  II.  in  Poland,  but  succumbed  at  Pol 
tava,  well  nigh  reduced  his  country  to  ruin. 
At  his  death  in  1718,  his  sister  Ulrica  Eleo- 
nora,  wife  of  Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel,  after 
renouncing  absolute  authority  and  accepting  a 
constitution  from  the  nobles  which  restored 
their  power,  was  elected  by  the  diet  to  the 
succession.  She  soon  surrendered  the  govern 
ment  to  her  husband,  whose  reign  was  a  pe 
riod  of  humiliation,  during  which  Sweden  made 
peace  with  her  enemies  on  most  disadvanta 
geous  terms,  and  gave  up  most  of  her  Trans- 
baltic  possessions,  including  Livonia,  Esthonia, 
and  Ingria,  which  had  been  occupied  by  Peter 
the  Great.  War  with  Russia  in  1741  resulted 
in  defeat,  and  the  cession  in  1743  of  eastern 
Finland.  Frederick  died  childless  in  1751,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Adolphus  Frederick  of  Hol- 
stein-Eutin,  bishop  of  Ltibeck,  whose  election 
as  successor  had  been  made  by  the  empress 
Elizabeth  of  Russia  a  condition  of  the  peace 
of  1743.  French  influence  corrupted  the  sen 
ate  during  his  administration,  and  involved 
the  country  in  a  disastrous  war  with  Prussia. 
After  a  turbulent  reign  of  20  years  he  died  in 
1771,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Gustavus. 
(See  GUSTAVUS  III.)  The  revolution  of  Au 
gust,  1772,  by  which  Gustavus  attained  abso 
lute  power,  and  the  wars  which  followed  with 
Russia  and  Denmark  in  1787,  and  the  act  of 
safety  of  1789,  which  abolished  the  senate, 
were  the  most  marked  events  in  the  Swedish 
history  of  that  time.  He  was  assassinated  in 
1792,  and  his  son  Gustavus  IV.  (see  GUSTAVUS 
IV.)  ascended  the  throne ;  but  as  he  was  a 
minor,  his  uncle  the  duke  of  Sodermanland 
(Sudermania)  was  appointed  regent.  In  1809 
the  king's  imprudence  and  tendency  to  insanity 
led  to  his  compulsory  abdication,  and  his  uncle 
was  declared  king  under  the  title  of  Charles 
XIII.  (See  CHAELES  XIII.)  The  peace  made 


510 


SWEDEN   (LANGUAGE  AND   LITEEATUEE) 


with  Russia  at  this  time  deprived  Sweden  of 
Finland.  A  new  constitution  was  decreed, 
and  the  prince  of  Holstein-Augustenburg  was 
elected  heir  to  the  throne  as  crown  prince. 
The  sudden  death  of  this  prince  in  April,  1810, 
led  very  unexpectedly  to  the  nomination  of 
Bernadotte,  prince  of  Ponte  Corvo  (see  BEE- 
NADOTTE),  as  crown  prince,  whose  success  in 
securing  Norway  to  Sweden  (the  rest  of  Swe 
dish  Pomerania  being  given  up)  endeared  him 
to  the  people.  In  1818,  on  the  death  of  Charles 
XIII.,  he  ascended  the  throne  as  Charles  XIV. 
John.  During  his  reign  Sweden  prospered, 
commerce,  the  arts,  and  manufactures  made 
rapid  progress,  and  the  moral  and  social  con 
dition  of  the  people  was  greatly  advanced. 
His  son  Oscar  I.  succeeded  him  at  his  death 
in  1844,  and  encouraged  the  moral,  social,  and 
political  progress  of  the  country.  (See  OSCAE 
I.)  At  his  death  in  1859,  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Charles  XV.,  who  had  been  regent 
of  the  kingdom  since  1857  in  consequence  of 
King  Oscar's  illness.  (See  CIIAELES  XV.)  Du 
ring  the  Crimean  war  Sweden  and  Norway  re 
mained  neutral.  Many  constitutional  reforms 
were  effected  during  Charles's  reign.  On  his 
death  in  1872  without  male  offspring,  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Oscar  II.,  who  has 
continued  his  liberal  policy.  (See  OSCAE  II.) 

SWEDEN,  Lansuase  and  Literature  of.  Th e  S  we- 
dish  is  one  of  the  Scandinavian  tongues,  and  as 
such  belongs  to  the  Germanic  (or  Teutonic) 
branch  of  the  family  of  the  Indo-European 
languages.  (See  GERMANIC  RACES  AND  LAN 
GUAGES.)  Though  Old  Norse  proper  was  the 
speech  of  the  whole  Scandinavian  peninsula 
and  of  Denmark  until  the  llth  century,  its 
dialects  varied  considerably  even  in  the  most 
primitive  times,  and  out  of  one  or  more  of 
those  ancient  dialects  the  modern  Swedish  was 
developed.  The  change  was  so  slow  that  the 
Icelandic  lays  and  sagas  were  still  understood 
at  the  Swedish  courts  as  late  as  the  14th  cen 
tury.  (See  ICELAND,  LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEA- 
TITKE  OF.)  In  its  earlier  stages  the  Swedish 
was  influenced  by  the  German  through  the 
commercial  connection  of  Sweden  with  the 
Hanseatio  towns,  by  the  Latin  through  the 
Catholic  priesthood  and  the  monastic  institu 
tions,  and  by  the  Danish  through  the  political 
union  of  Sweden  and  Denmark  subsequent  to 
tlio  pact  of  Calmar  (1397).  The  reformation 
again  subjected  it  to  German  influences,  but 
it  was  less  affected  by  them  than  was  the  Da 
nish.  The  language  was  greatly  purified  and 
a  multitude  of  foreign  vocables  driven  out  by 
the  efforts  of  the  zealous  Icelandic  scholars  of 
the  latter  half  .of  the  17th  and  first  quarter  of 
the  18th  century.  But  later  in  the  last  cen- 
tury^the  French  tastes  prevalent  at  the  court 
and  in  the  literature  introduced  a  large  num 
ber  of  Gallic  words,  many  of  which,  how 
ever,  have  been  since  superseded  by  genuine 
Scandinavian  derivatives.  Several  dialects  are 
now  spoken.  In  the  northern  provinces  the 
approximation  to  the  Old  Norse  or  Icelandic 


forms  is  much  more  marked  than  in  the  south 
ern,  where  Danish  and  German  influences  have 
been  felt ;  the  southern  dialects  of  Scania  and 
Blekinge  have  great  similarity  to  the  Danish, 
and  that  of  Dalecarlia  presents  the  greatest 
departure  from  the  written  language,  while 
that  of  Soderinanland  approaches  it  the  near 
est.  Swedish  is  also  the  language  of  the  edu 
cated  classes,  and  partly  of  the  press,  in  the 
Russian  grand  duchy  of  Finland. — The  Swe 
dish  alphabet  has  28  letters,  the  same  as  in 
English,  with  the  omission  of  w  (in  Swedish 
formerly  the  equivalent  of  0,  by  which  it  is  now 
generally  replaced)  and  the  addition  of  a,  d,  6. 
Formerly  the  German  character  was  mostly 
used  in  Swedish  works,  but  now  the  Latin 
character  prevails,  though  the  former  is  still 
sometimes  to  be  found.  A  letter  peculiar  to 
the  Swedish  is  a,  which  is  pronounced  almost 
like  the  English  o  in  note.  The  vowels  a,  e,  i, 
a,  and  o  are  pronounced  as  in  German ;  o  has 
two  sounds,  either  similar  to  that  of  the  Eng 
lish  o  in  move,  but  intermediate  between  o  and 
u,  or  equivalent  to  the  English  a  mfall.  The 
sound  of  u  is  intermediate  between  the  Ger 
man  u  and  u.  Yis  pronounced  almost  like 
the  German  it.  G  before  e,  i,  y,  «,  t>,  has  a 
sound  like  the  English  y  in  you.  J  has  the 
same  sound.  D,  g,  h,  and  I  before  j,  and  h 
and  f  before  v,  are  mute.  K  before  e,  /,  y, 
a,  oy  is  soft  and  pronounced  like  ch  in  much. 
8k  before  the  same  letters,  and  the  combina 
tions  sZ'J,  sj,  8tj,  are  pronounced  like  the  Eng 
lish  sh.  The  indefinite  article  en  (masc.  and 
fern.)  and  ett  (neut.)  is  placed  before  the  noun ; 
as  en  hast,  a  horse,  ett  l>ord,  a  table.  The 
definite  -article  is  den  in  the  masculine  and 
feminine,  det  in  the  neuter,  and  de  in  the  plu 
ral  for  all  genders ;  but  it  is  also  expressed  by 
only  adding  in  the  singular  number  en  or  n  to 
masculine  and  feminine  substantives,  and  et  or 
t  to  the  neuter,  and  in  the  plural  nc,  na,  a, 
en  ;  or,  thirdly,  both  these  ways  may  be  com 
bined,  as  den  mannen,  the  man,  det  bordet,  the 
table,  de  hastarne,  the  horses.  Substantives 
have  a  distinct  case  ending  only  in  the  geni 
tive,  which  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  s. 
The  plural  of  substantives  is  formed  by  add 
ing  or,  ar,  er,  or  en;  and  in  some  words  the 
singular  and  plural  are  alike.  The  adjectives 
are  formed  after  two  declensions,  the  first  of 
which  has  a  separate  form  for  the  neuter 
gender,  while  the  second  has  only  one  form 
for  all  the  three  genders.  The  second  person 
singular  pronoun  is  used  in  conversation  only 
among  intimates  or  when  addressing  inferiors ; 
otherwise  the  title  of  the  person  addressed,  or 
Herr.  (sir,  Mr.),  Fru  (madam),  or  Mamsell  or 
Froken  (miss),  with  the  verb  in  the  third  per 
son,  must  be  used;  thus:  Have  you  seen  the 
book  ?  Ear  Jlerrn  (Has  the  Mr.)  sett  loJcen  ? 
\erbs  have  a  strong  and  a  weak  form  of  con 
jugation,  and  two  simple  tenses,  present  and 
imperfect.  The  passive  is  formed  by  adding  s 
to  the  active ;  as,  att  shara,  to  cut,  at  skdras, 
to  be  cut ;  jag  Tcallar,  I  call,  jag  ~kallas,  I  am 


SWEDEN  (LANGUAGE   AND  LITEEATTJEE) 


511 


called.  Throughout  the  verbs  the  singular  is 
the  same  in  all  three  persons  ;  in  the  plural  the 
first  and  third  are  alike,  and  the  second  ends 
in  en.  Among  the  best  grammars  of  the  lan 
guage  are  those  of  Kydqvist,  Svenska  SprdkeU 
Lagar  (4  vols.,  Stockholm,  1850-'73) ;  Strom- 
borg,  SvensTc  Sprdldara  (Stockholm,  1858) ; 
Funk,  PralctiscJier  Lehrgang  zur  schnellen  und 
leichten  Erlernung  der  schwedischen  Sprache 
(Leipsic,  1872);  and  May,  "A  Practical  Gram 
mar  of  the  Swedish  Language  "  (4th  ed.,  Stock 
holm,  1873).  Among  the  best  lexicons  are 
Dalin's  (2  vols.,  Stockholm,  1850-'54),  and  es 
pecially  Kindblad's  (3  vols.,  Stockholm,  1840- 
'73). — LITERATUEE.  The  literary  history  of 
Sweden  has  been  very  conveniently  divided 
into  six  periods.  I.  1250  to  1520.  The  ear 
liest  writings  extant  in  the  Swedish  language 
are  the  ancient  provincial  laws,  of  which  the 
oldest  compilation,  that  of  the  province  of 
Westergotland,  was  probably  made  about  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century.  The  poetical 
spirit  of  the  nation  was  first  developed  in 
the  Kampavisor,  or  heroic  ballads,  and  a  lit 
tle  later  in  the  Riddarvisor,  or  chivalric  bal 
lads.  Of  these  several  collections  have  been 
edited ;  a  few  of  them  may  perhaps  be  as 
cribed  to  the  latter  part  of  the  13th  century, 
but  the  greater  part  of  them  belong  to  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries.  Of  greater  influence 
upon  the  written  language  were  the  romances 
of  chivalry,  mostly  translations  and  imitations 
of  those  then  popular  in  central  Europe. 
As  many  of  them  were  translated  between 
1300  and  1312  by  order  of  Euphemia,  queen 
of  Norway,  they  are  collectively  called  Drott- 
ning  EupJiemias  Visor,  "  Queen  Euphemia's 
Songs,"  though  many  are  in  prose.  The 
only  noteworthy  productions  of  the  14th  cen 
tury  are  De  stora  och  de  gamla  Kronilcarna, 
"  The  Great  and  the  Old  Chronicles,"  narra 
ting  the  leading  events  of  Swedish  history ;  a 
translation  of  the  life  of  St.  Anscarius,  and  a 
"  Legend  of  the  Nun  Elisif,"  by  Bishop  Her- 
manni  ;  some  lyrics  composed  by  Bishop 
Thomas;  the  "Revelations"  of  St.  Brigitta, 
abbess  of  Wadstena,  and  her  daughter's  Sjel- 
lina  Trost,  "  Soul's  Trust,"  a  paraphrase  of  a 
Latin  treatise.  The  literary  monuments  of  the 
15th  century  are  principally  the  Codex  Vad- 
stenensis,  a  collection  of  legends,  essays,  let 
ters,  and  diaries,  made  by  the  nuns  and  monks 
of  Wadstena;  an  anonymous  judicial  treatise, 
Doma/rereglorna,  "Rules  for  Judges;"  and  a 
curious  political  work,  Om  Konunga-  och  Hof- 
dinga-styrelsen,  "  On  the  Government  of  Kings 
and  Rulers,"  based  upon  the  book  of  an  ob 
scure  Latin  author,  ^Egidius  Romanus.  Print 
ing  was  introduced  into  Stockholm  in  1483, 
the  first  book  printed  being  a  collection  of 
fables  styled  Dialogus  Creaturarum  Moralisa- 
tus.  II.  1520  to  1600.  The  religious  contests 
of  the  16th  century  gave  a  theological  or  rather 
polemical  character  to  almost  the  entire  litera 
ture.  Two  brothers,  Olaus  Petri  (1497-1552) 
and  Laurentius  Petri  (1499-1573),  are  almost 
VOL.  xv. — 33 


the  only  literary  representatives  of  this  period ; 
they  made  translations  of  the  Bible,  wrote 
chronicles,  and  composed  verses.  A  liturgy 
known  as  Rodloken,  the  "Red  Book,"  and 
other  minor  Roman  Catholic  productions,  called 
forth  a  mass  of  unimportant  polemical  writings. 
All  the  prose  and  poetry  of  this  period  deserv 
ing  of  mention  are  some  chronicles  of  the 
reign  of  Gustavus  Vasa  by  R.  Ludviksson  (died 
1594),  P.  Svart  (died  1562),  and  S.  Elofsson  ; 
a  few  hymns  translated  from  the  German,  and 
some  popular  ballads ;  a  dull  religious  drama, 
Judas  Redimvus,  by  Rondelitius ;  some  hymns 
and  a  love  song  by  King  Eric  XIV. ;  and  a 
Visa,  or  lay,  by  J.  af  Hoja  (died  1535).  III. 
1600  to  1718.  The  learned  foreigners  who 
flocked  to  the  court  of  Christina,  among  them 
Descartes,  Bochart,  the  younger  Heinsius,  Gro- 
novius,  Pufendorf,  and  Scheffer,  gave  an  im 
petus  to  higher  culture  in  Sweden ;  but  as 
they  wrote  in  Latin,  they  did  little  for  the  de 
velopment  of  the  vernacular  literature.  The 
investigations  of  the  Icelandic  literary  monu 
ments  by  Olof  Verelius  (1618-'82),  Olof  Rud- 
beck  (1630-1702),  and  Johan  Peringskjold 
(1654-1720),  causing  the  publication  of  Icelan 
dic  texts,  principally  the  Eddas,  were  of  more 
importance  in  this  respect.  The  historical  wri 
tings  of  Eric  Tegel  (died  1638),  A.  Girs  (died 
1639),  Widekindi  (1620-'97),  Werwing  (died 
1697),  and  Adlerfeldt  (1671-1709)  exhibit  a  con 
siderable  improvement  in  the  use  of  language, 
though  they  can  hardly  claim  to  be  much 
more  than  heavy  compilations  of  facts  and 
materials.  The  continued  religious  controver 
sies,  at  this  time  between  Lutheranism  and 
Calvinism,  called  into  the  field  but  few  theo 
logians  who  wrote  in  any  language  but  Latin. 
The  exegetical  works  and  ecclesiastical  his 
tories,  among  which  those  of  Paulinus  (died 
1646),  Rndbeckius  (1581-1646),  and  Winstmp 
(died  1679)  stand  prominent  for  theological 
learning,  were  also  written  in  Latin,  as  well  as 
the  works  that  appeared  on  other  subjects  of 
scientific  research.  In  jurisprudence  the  names 
of  M.  Vexionius  and  J.  Stjernhok  (1596-1675) 
are  well  known ;  in  geography  and  travels, 
Count  E.  Dahlberg  (1625-1703)  published  a 
Svecia  Antigua  et  Hodierna,  with  353  maps 
and  engravings  of  Swedish  towns  and  castles ; 
in  classical  philology,  Gezelius,  Lagerlof,  and 
Freinshemius  distinguished  themselves ;  and  in 
botany,  Rudbeckius  paved  the  way  for  Lin- 
neeus.  But  the  progress  made  in  the  literary 
use  of  the  vernacular  is  almost  wholly  due  to 
the  few  who  attempted  romance  and  poetry. 
In  poetry  Georg  Stjernhjelm  (1598-1672)  held 
the  foremost  place.  His  most  complete  poeti 
cal  work  is  Hercules,  a  sort  of  didactic  epic  in 
hexameters,  exhibiting  large  imaginative  power 
and  much  poetic  skill.  Of  his  masques  the 
best  is  Den  fangne  Cupido,  "The  Captive  Cu 
pid."  Stjernhjelm  was  the  first  writer  of  son 
nets  in  Swedish.  The  drama  consisted  gener 
ally  of  dull  imitations  of  Olaus  Petri  and  Ron 
delitius,  the  chief  writers  being  the  historian 


512 


SWEDEN"  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


Messenius,  who  attempted  to  exhibit  the  whole 
of  Swedish  history  in  a  series  of  dramas,  S.  P. 
Brask  (1613-'68),  and  A.  J.  Prytz  (1590-1655). 
More  classically  dramatic  in  form,  but  scarcely 
better  in  style,  are  the  Rebecca  of  J.  Beronius 
and  the  Rosimunda  of  U.  Hjiirne,  while  but 
little  more  praise  can  be  bestowed  upon  the 
dramatic  allegories  of  J.  P.  Chronander.  The 
lyric  writers  may  be  divided  into  the  Italian 
and  the  German  school.  To  the  former  be 
longed  G-.  Dahlstjerna  (1 058-1709),  author  of 
the  Kungaslcald,  a  half  heroic,  half  elegiac 
poem  in  ottave  rime  on  Charles  XL,  and  of  an 
unsuccessful  translation  of  Guarini's  Pastor 
fido ;  and  G.  Rosenhane  (1619-'84),  whose 
longest  metrical  attempt,  Venerid,  is  a  collec 
tion  of  100  sonnets.  The  chief  representatives 
of  the  German  school  were  S.  Columbus  (1642- 
'79),  whose  lyrics  and  pastorals  are  now  nearly 
forgotten;  L.  Johansson  (died  1674),  whose 
Helicons  Blomster,  "  Flowers  from  Helicon," 
published  under  the  pseudonyme  of  Lucidor, 
is  a  collection  of  epithalamiums,  elegies,  and 
erotic  songs,  which  are  less  remarkable  than 
his  hymns,  and  P.  Lagerlof  (1648-'99),  au 
thor  of  a  love  song  of  great  popularity  in 
its  day.  The  many-sided  Spegel,  some  of 
whose  hymns  are  worthy  of  mention,  wrote 
two  heavy  and  monotonous  poems,  borrowing 
his  titles  from  the  two  epics  of  Milton.  C. 
Arosell  is  known  as  the  author  of  a  volume  of 
Ofversfcrifter,  or  epigrams,  a  few  of  which  are 
of  merit.  IV.  1718  to  1772.  These  years  em 
brace  a  time  of  great  literary  activity.  The 
natural  sciences,  under  the  influence  of  the 
world-famous  Linne  or  Linnreus,  occupy  the 
first  place.  (See  LINN.EUS.)  That  great  natu 
ralist  was  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  pupils, 
a  large  number  of  whom  became  celebrated ; 
among  them  P.  Forskal  (1736-'G3),  who  under 
took  a  scientific  journey  to  Egypt  and  Arabia, 
and  whoso  researches  were  published  by  Nie- 
buhr ;  and  C.  Bjerkander  and  J.  G.  Wahlbom, 
who  illustrated  the  flora  of  northern  Europe. 
P.  Artedi  (I705-'3o)  wrote  a  treatise  on  ich 
thyology,  which  Linnaaus  edited  in  1738.  To 
physiology  belong  the  (Economia  Itegni  Ani- 
malis  and  Rcgnum  Animale  of  Swedenborg 


(1688-17; 


The  entomological  works  of  C. 


F.  de  Geer  (1720-'7S),  in  French,  are  still  es 
teemed.  Eminent  in  chemistry  were  Torbern 
Olof  Bergman  (l735-'84),  who  laid  the  foun 
dation  for  the  science  of  crystallography ;  A. 
F.  Cronstedt  (1722-'65),  the  discoverer  of 
nickel ;  and  J.  G.  Wallerius  (l709-'85).  Much 
attention  was  paid  to  mining  by  M.  von 
Bromel  (1679-1731),  Swedenborg,  and  others. 
Olof  Rudbeck  the  younger  (died  1740)  distin 
guished  himself  in  several  sciences ;  he  pub 
lished  among  others  a  work  on  ornithology 
in  three  volumes.  N".  Rosen  von  Rosenstein 
(died^  1773)  was  the  reformer  of  medical  sci 
ence  in  Sweden.  Astronomy  was  illustrated  by 
such  names  as  A.  Celsius  (l701-'44),  S.  Klin- 
genstjerna  (1689-1785),  and  P.  W.  Wareentin 
(!7l7-'83);  mechanics  by  C.  Polhem  (1661- 


1751)  and  Swedenborg;  and  mathematics  by 
J.  Faggot,  C.  Falkengren,  E.  O.  Runeberg,  and 
others.  Jurisprudence  was  represented  by  D. 
Nehrman  (died  1769)  and  O.  Rabenius  (1730- 
'72).  S.  Alnander,  J.  Benzelius,  P.  Munch,  L. 
P.  Halenius,  P.  Muhrbech,  and  J.  Serenius 
were  the  chief  writers  in  the  various  depart 
ments  of  theology;  but  the  science  produced 
no  very  eminent  man  except  Swedenborg.  (See 
SWEDENBORG.)  The  best  known  metaphysician 
was  the  Cartesian  A.  Rydelius  (1671-1738); 
the  system  of  Wolf  was  supported  by  P.  Ilog- 
strom,  N.  Wallerius,  and  C.  Mesterton ;  that 
of  Locke  by  A.  Schonberg  (1737-1811),  F. 
Kryger  (l707-'77),  and  Runeberg.  Johan  Ihro 
(1707-'80)  won  fame  by  his  Glossarium  Sveo- 
Gothicum,  a  Swedish  dialect  lexicon,  and  by 
his  researches  concerning  Ulfilas  and  the  Mo3so- 
Gothic  language.  The  Icelandic  scholars  of 
the  preceding  generation  were  followed  in 
the  earlier  portion  of  this  period  by  J.  F.  Pe- 
ringskjold  (1688-1725),  E.  J.  Bjorner,  Count  G. 
Bonde  (1682-1764),  J.  Goransson,  and  N.  R. 
Brocman ;  but  before  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  the  taste  for  Icelandic  studies  had 
greatly  declined.  In  geography  and  travels, 
E.  Tuneld's  description  of  Sweden  and  J.  J. 
Bjornstahl's  travels  through  Europe  deserve 
mention.  In  history,  as  in  polite  literature, 
Olof  Dalin  (1708-'63)  stands  at  the  head  of  this 
period.  His  journal  Den  SvensTca  Argus,  "  The 
Swedish  Argus"  (1732-'4),  i\p  imitation  of  the 
English  "  Spectator,"  exerted  a  weighty  influ 
ence  upon  the  prose  style  of  the  language  and 
the  literary  taste  of  the  nation  ;  and  his  Svea 
Rikcs  Historic,  "  History  of  the  Swedish 
Realm,"  though  wanting  in  critical  ability,  is 
eloquent  and  pleasing.  A  more  rigorous  ex 
amination  of  evidence  characterizes  the  Swe 
dish  histories  of  A.  af  Botin  (1724-' 90)  and  P. 
Schonstrom.  The  history  of  Charles  XII.  by 
G.  Norberg  (1677-1744),  and  the  "Memoirs 
of  Christina "  by  J.  Arckenholtz,  written  in 
French,  have  been  of  great  assistance  to  suc 
ceeding  writers.  O.  Celsius  the  younger  (1716- 
'94)  wrote  histories  of  the  reigns  of  Gustavus 
Vasa  and  Eric  XIV.,  and  rendered  a  great  ser 
vice  to  Swedish  letters  by  establishing  the  Tid- 
ningar  om  de  Ldrdes  Arbeten,  "Journal  of  the 
Works  of  the  Learned,"  the  first  critical  peri 
odical  in  the  language.  A.  A.  von  Stjernman, 
C.  G.  Warmholtz  (1710-'S4),  E.  Benzelins 
(1675-1743),  B.  Bergius  (l723-'84),  G.  Wallin 
(1686-1760),  and  S.  Loenbom  (died  1776)  were 
laborious  critics,  editors,  and  collectors,  and 
brought  to  light  or  illustrated  a  great  number 
of  early  Swedish  monuments.  Dalin's  alle 
gorical  epic,  Den  Svenska  FriJieten  ("  Swedish 
Freedom  "),  his  tragedy  Brynhilda,  and  his 
comedy  Den  Afundsjulce  ur  qvick  ("  The  Jealous 
Man  is  sharp-witted  "),  are  generally  pleasing, 
though  without  much  depth  or  vigor.  II.  C. 
Nordenflycht  (!7l8-'63),  a  lady,  left  a  high 
name  as  a  writer  of  lyrics.  Count  G.  P.  Creutz 
(died  1785)  was  the  author  of  a  tolerably  felici 
tous  pastoral,  Atis  och  Camilla,  and  Count  G. 


SWEDEN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


513 


F.  Gyllenborg  (1731-1809)  composed  lyrics, 
elegies,  satires,  and  fables,  in  a  smooth  and 
correct,  but  too  often  prosaic  style.  Poets  of 
less  note  were  Odel  (died  1773),  U.  Euden- 
schold  (1098-1783),  O.  Bergklint  (1733-1805), 
and  O.  Kolmodin  (1690-1753).  Subsequent  to 
the  time  of  Dalin  the  dramatic  compositions, 
as  those  of  E.  Wrangel,  H.  Hesselius,  O.  Cel 
sius  the  younger,  and  others,  were  lifeless  imi 
tations  of  Gallic  prototypes.  Such  was  the 
case  too  with  the  tedious  romances  of  J.  H. 
Mork  (1714-'63),  the  first  Swedish  novelist. 
Moliere,  Voltaire,  Boileau,  La  Fontaine,  Mar- 
montel,  and  Fenelon  were  translated  and  sed 
ulously  imitated.  V.  1772  to  1809.  The  ear 
lier  portion  of  this  period  took  its  impress 
to  a  great  extent  from  the  character  of  the 
sovereign,  Gustavus  III.  His  influence  was 
not  beneficial  to  the  higher  walks  of  literature, 
but  he  founded  the  u  Swedish  Academy  of 
Eighteen "  (1786),  and  otherwise  sought  to 
encourage  letters.  The  pupils  of  Linnaeus  con 
tinued  to  be  the  chief  scientific  men  of  the 
time,  and  labored  earnestly  for  the  advance 
ment  of  science  ;  among  them  especially  C.  P. 
Thunberg,  A.  Afzelius,  A.  Sparrman,  E.  Acha- 
rius,  O.  Swartz,  A.  J.  Eetzius,  and  C.  Qvensel. 
As  chemists  and  mineralogists,  the  period  fur 
nished  0.  V.  Scheele  (l742-'86),  regarded  as 
one  of  the  founders  of  organic  chemistry,  J.  G. 
Gahn  (died  1818),  to  whom  several  chemical 
discoveries  are  due,  J.  J.  Ankarstrom,  and  S. 
Einman.  D.  Manderhjelm  (died  1810),  F.  Mal 
let,  and  H.  Nicander  were  widely  known  for 
their  astronomical  labors.  Juridical  writers 
were  M.  Calonius  (died  1817),  L.  Tengvall, 
and  others.  Medical  writers  were  0.  af  Acrel 
(died  1807)  and  D.  Schulz  von  Schulzenheim 
(1732-1823).  There  was  little  literary  activ 
ity  in  the  theology  of  the  age,  but  the  .labors 
of  A.  Knos  in  dogmatics  and  of  S.  Odman 
(1750-1829)  in  exegetics  were  of  high  repu 
tation  in  their  day.  An  festhetico-metaphysi- 
cal  writer  was  Thomas  Thorild  (1759-1819); 
another  name  of  note  in  aesthetics  is  C.  A. 
Ehrensvard  (1745-1800).  The  philosopher  B. 
C.  H.  Horjer  (1767-1812)  based  his  system 
upon  those  of  Fichte  and  Schelling.  D.  Djur- 
berg  and  0.  B.  Wadstrom  (1746-'99)  wrote  on 
geography  and  travels.  Sven  Lagerbring's  Svea 
Rikes  Historia,  though  often  inaccurate,  was 
looked  upon  as  a  national  work  by  his  con 
temporaries,  and  its  author  was  richly  reward 
ed  by  the  Swedish  estates.  His  other  wri 
tings  are  numerous.  E.  M.  Fant  (1754-1817) 
compiled  a  Diplomatarium  and  an  extremely 
valuable  collection  of  Scriptores  Eerum  Sveci- 
carum.  Jonas  Hallenberg  (1748-1834)  wrote 
a  universal  history  from  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century,  and  many  other  works,"histori- 
cal,  archaeological,  and  philological.  IT.  G.  Por- 
than  (1739-1804)  investigated  the  history  and 
antiquities  of  Finland.  Special  periods  or  de 
partments  of  Swedish  history  were  illustrated 
by'C.  G.  Nordin  (1749-1812),  O.  Knos  (died 
1804),  J.  A.  Eehbinder,  S.  L.  Gahm,  and  U. 


von  Troil  (1746-1803).  G.  Gezelius  (1736-'89) 
compiled  the  first  noteworthy  biographical 
lexicon  of  distinguished  Swedes.  Under  the 
direct  influence  of  Gustavus  III.,  the  French 
taste  now  became  almost  entirely  prevalent. 
Gustavus  himself  wrote  some  dramatic  pieces 
of  much  merit,  but  all  frigidly  French.  The 
favorite  poets  of  his  court  were  Kellgren,  Leo 
pold,  and  Oxenstjerna.  J.  H.  Kellgren  (1751- 
'95)  was  famous  in  his  time  in  almost  every 
branch  of  the  poetic  art ;  0.  G.  af  Leopold 
(1756-1829),  sometimes  styled  "the  Voltaire  of 
Sweden,"  wrote  mainly  didactic  poems  in  the 
style  of  Pope,  and  serious  lyrical  pieces;  Count 
J.  G.  Oxenstjerna  (1750-1818)  was  the  transla 
tor  of  Milton,  and  author  of  some  descriptive 
poems.  The  lyrics  of  M.  Chorseus  (1774-1806), 
the  Spastara  and  Medea  of  B.  Liclner  (1759-'93), 
the  poet  of  the  passions,  and  the  translations 
from  Virgil,  Horace,  and  Ovid  by  G.  G.  Adler- 
beth  (1751-1818),  are  still  read  with  pleasure. 
A  few  poets  escaped  the  general  contagion. 
Foremost  among  these  was  Carl  Michael  Bell 
man  (1740-'95),  a  song  wrriter  of  the  highest 
powers,  who  set  his  songs  to  appropriate  melo 
dies  himself.  Two  of  his  friends,  C.  I.  Hall- 
man  (1732-1800)  and  O.  Kexel  (1748-'96),  were 
comic  dramatic  writers  of  worth.  The  verso 
of  a  female  writer,  A.  M.  Lenngren  (1754- 
1817),  possesses  unusual  grace  and  smoothness. 
A  curious  book  of  travels  entitled  Min  /Son  pd 
Galejan,  "  My  Son  in  the  Galley,"  by  J.  Wal 
lenberg  (1746-'78),  is  partly  in  verse,  and 
abounds  in  a  coarse  but  lively  wit.  The  last 
years  of  this  period,  comprising  the  reign  of 
Gustavus  IV.,  exhibited  little  literary  life. 
Freedom  of  the  press  was  abolished  in  1798,  and 
a  systematic  censorship  enforced.  The  Swe 
dish  academy  was  suspended  for  some  months 
in  1795,  Thorild  was  banished,  Leopold  was  or 
dered  away  from  the  capital,  and  Iloijer  was 
not  allowed  to  write.  VI.  1809  to  the  present 
time.  With  the  political  revolution  of  1809, 
the  literature  of  Sweden  was  endowed  with 
a  new  spirit,  and  greatly  developed  by  a  gen 
eral  use  of  the  vernacular  instead  of  Latin  or 
French.  Schools  have  largely  improved  both  in 
number  and  character,  and  libraries  have  in 
creased.  The  chemist  Johan  Jakob  Berzelius 
(1779-1848)  was  a  luminary  of  the  scientific 
world  scarcely  less  lustrous  than  Linnams.  (See 
BERZELIUS.)  As  botanists  the  reputation  of 
three  men  has  extended  beyond  their  native 
land  :  Elias  Fries  (born  1794),  K.  A.  Agardh 
(1785-1859),  and  G.  Wahlenberg  (1780-1851); 
while  C.  J.  Hartman  and  K  Lilja  are  later 
laborers  in  this  department.  A  geologist  of 
great  note  was  A.  J.  Erdman  (died  1869). 
Zoology  has  a  famous  cultivator  in  Sven  Nils- 
son,  also  the  author  of  ethnographical  and  an 
tiquarian  works  which  have  exercised  a  last 
ing  influence  on  archaeological  studies.  Other 
zoologists  of  note  are  Thorell,  Stolpe,  Zetter- 
stedt,  Sundevall,  and  Malmgren.  Entomology 
has  been  treated  by  J.  W.  Dalman  (died  1828), 
C.  J.  Schonherr,  J.  W.  Zetterstedt  (died  1874), 


514: 


SWEDEN   (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEE) 


0.  G.  Thomson,  whose  Skandinamens  Coleop- 
tera  (1857-70;  is  well  known,  and  T.  Thorell, 
author  of  a  valuable  work  on  European  spi 
ders.  The  chief  laborer  in  ornithology,  be 
sides  Nilsson,  has  been  C.  J.  Sundevall  (died 
1875).  Among  mathematicians  J.  Svanberg, 
and  among  physicists  Z.  Nordmark  (died  1828), 
F.  Rudberg,  F.  W.  von  Ehrenheim  (died  1828), 
A.  J.  Angstrom  (1814-'74),  and  A.  G.  Theo- 
rell  (died  1875),  have  gained  considerable  emi 
nence.  Medical  science  furnishes  the  names 
of  A.  O.  Retzius  (died  1860),  his  brother  M. 
0.  Eetzius,  and  J.  Hvasser.  Prominent  legal 
scholars  have  been  L.  G.  Eabenius  and  his  son 
T.  Rabenius,  E.  Bergfalk  (also  known  as  a  po 
litical  economist),  J.  J.  Nordstrom,  F.  Schreve- 
lius,  C.  Nauman,  J.  C.  Lindblad,  J.  G.  Carlen 
(died  1874),  and  0.  J.  Schlytte  (born  1795), 
the  able  editor  of  Sweden's  ancient  provin 
cial  codes.  Sweden  has  a  native  philosophical 
school,  whose  founder,  C.  J.  Bostrom  (died 
1806),  developed  the  most  purely  idealistic  sys 
tem  that  has  appeared.  The  Fichte-Schelling 
school  is  represented  by  the  historian  Geijer, 
the  poet  Atterbom,  S.  Grubbo,  and  1ST.  F.  Bi- 
berg  (died  1827) ;  while  Hegel's  theories  have 
found  defenders  in  E.  S.  Bring  and  J.  W.  Snell- 
man.  The  Bostromian  philosophy  has  recent 
ly  been  ably  expounded  by  G.  Nyblams  in  a 
most  important  work  on  the  history  of  Swe 
dish  philosophy  (1873).  Purely  resthetical  are 
Atterbom,  llammarskold,  and  A.  Torneros. 
Swedish  geography  and  statistics  are  much  in 
debted  to  W.  Tham  and  C.  af  Forsell.  F.  W. 
Palmblad,  G.  Thomee,  Rietz,  P.  Lrestadius,  J. 
Berggren,  G.  von  Heidenstam,  Hedenborg,  G. 
von  Diiben,  A.  Klinkowstrom,  C.  D.  Arfweds- 
son,  F.  Bremer,  C.  A.  Gosselman,  and  N".  J. 
Andersson  are  prominent  names  in  the  litera 
ture  of  travels;  and  of  late  C.  W.  Paijkull 
(died  1872),  by  his  account  of  Iceland,  and  A. 

E.  Nordenskjold,  by  his  arctic  researches,  have 
gained  an  extended  reputation.     The  study  of 
Icelandic  and  its  literature  has  been  promoted 
by  the  labors  of  A.  A.  Afzelius,  A.  J.  D.  Cnat- 
tingius.  Carl  Siive,  A.  O.  Lindfors.  and  G.  Ce- 
derschjold.     A.  Uppstrom  published  a  critical 
edition  of  Ulfilas.     In  other  philological  de 
partments  M.  Xorberg  (died  1826),  C.  M.  Agrell 
(died  1840),  O.  F.  Tullberg,  J.  Berggren,  C. 
Landberg,  and  P.  J.  Petterson  (died  1874)  have 
distinguished  themselves.     The  chief  names  in 
doctrinal  theology  are  II.  Reuterdahl,  M.  E. 
Ahlman,  G.  Knos  (died  1837),  L.  G.  Anjou, 

F.  G.  Iledberg,  A.  Wiberg,  and  N".  Ignell.     Pe 
culiarly  attractive  from  the  union  of  candor, 
faith,  and  dialectical  power  are  the  popular 
religious  works  of  P.  Vikner.     Among  ration 
alists  V.  Rydberg  is  the  most  famous.     In  ex- 
egetics  the  prominent  writers  are  B.  J.  Berg- 
qvist,  J.  H.  Thomander  (died  1865),  and  Bishop 
Agardh ;  in  pastoral  theology  the  most  noted 
are  A.  G.  Knos  and  A.  Z.  Pettersson  ;  in  eccle 
siastical  history,  Reuterdahl,  L.  G.  Anjou,  and 
J.  J.^ThomsBus  (died  1845).     Among  theologi 
cal  literature  may  also  be  included  the  elabo 


rate  work  of  Backman,  FiJrsdk  till  en  Svensk 
PsalmJiistoria  (1873).  The  teachings  of  Swe- 
denborg  have  been  zealously  followed  by  J. 
Tybeck,  C.  U.  Beurling,  and  A.  Kahl.  In  Swe 
dish  history  the  first  place  is  duo  to  Eric  Gus- 
taf  Geijer  (1783-1847),  whose  works  are  mod 
els  of  historic  composition.  Anders  Fryxell 
(born  1795)  and  Strinnholm  also  rank  high  as 
historians.  Minor  historical  writers  are  P.  A. 
Granberg,  G.  A.  Silfverstolpe  (1772-1824),  J. 

F.  af  Lundblad  (born  1791),  A.  Cronholm,  A. 
A.  Afzelius,  C.  G.  Styffe,  II.  Jarta,  A.  I.  Ar- 
widsson,  F.  F.  Carlson  (born  1811),  G.  Swe- 
derus,  and  J.  Ilellstenius.     Political  literature 
is  chiefly  devoted  to  questions  of  internal  gov 
ernment,  and  one  of  its  prominent  works  is 
a  study  on  "  The  Swedish  Parliament "  (Den 
Svenska  Itiksdagen,   1873)  by  Rydin ;    recent 
publicists  and  political  writers  of  high  reputa 
tion  are  P.  E.  Svedbom  (died  1857)  and  A. 
Sohlman  (1824-'74),  successive  editors  of  the 
Aftoribladet,  the   most  influential  journal  of 
the  capital,  J.  A.  Hazelius  (died  1871),  and  M. 
J.  Crtisenstolpe  (1795-1865).     The  works  on 
Swedish  statistics  by  E.  Sidenbladh  and  C.  E. 
Ljungberg  are  highly  esteemed.     The  foremost 
archaeologists  of  the  period  are  N".  Sjoborg,  J. 

G.  Liljegren  (died  1837),  A.  E.  Holmberg,  B.  E. 
Ilildebrand,  II.  Ilildebrand,  Montelius,  C.  G. 
Brunius,  and  R.  Dybeck.     Works  on  Swedish 
literary  history  have  been  published  by  L.  llam 
marskold   (1785-1827),    P.    Wieselgren    (born 
1800),  J.  E.  Rydqvist,  J.  Lenstrom,  and  Ljung- 
gren.     The  Biograpliisk  Lexicon  a  biographical 
dictionary  of  celebrated  Swedes,  edited  by  Palm 
blad  and  subsequently  by  Wieselgren,  is  in  25 
volumes.     This  is  the  brightest  age  in  the  an 
nals  of  Swedish  poetry.     F.  M.  Franzen  (1772- 
1847)  has  gained  a  lasting  renown  by  his  naive 
and  idyllic  lyrics.     J.   6.  Wallin  (1779-1839) 
revised"  in   1819   the   Swedish  psalm  book,  a 
collection  of  religious  verse  hardly  excelled  in 
modern  hymnology,  and  added  117  psalms  by 
himself  and  73  by  Franzen,  inferior  to  none  in 
the  book.     J.  D.  Valerius,  best  known  by  his 
bacchanalian   songs,    and  J.  M.  Silfverstolpe 
(1777-1831),  rather  a  translator  than  an  ori 
ginal  poet,  both  belonged  to  the  earlier  part 
of  the  century.     Two  new  poetic  schools,  of 
vast  influence  upon  polite  literature,  arose  at 
the  beginning  of  this  period,  the  romantic  and 
the  Gothic.     The  former  was  represented  by 
the  journals  Polyfem  (1810-'12),  edited  by  J. 
G.  Askelof  (1787-1848),  and  Fosforcs,  whence 
its  members  are  sometimes  styled  Fosforister 
or  phosphorists.     At  the  head  of  this  school 
stood  P.  D.  A.  Atterbom  (1790-1855)  as  a 
poet,  and  Palmblad  and  llammarskold  as  crit 
ics.     Atterbom's  long  poem,  Lycksalighetens 
0'("The  Island  of  Bliss"),  his  Blommorna 
("The   Flowers"),  and   many  of  his  shorter 
lyrics,  are  characterized  by  depth  of  fancy  and 
feeling.     Other  Fosforister  were  C.  F.  Dahl- 
gren  (1791-1844),  author  of  Mollbergs  Epis- 
tlar,  an  imitation  of  the  songs  of  Bellman  ; 
C.  E.  Fahlcrantz  (1790-1866),  a  successful  hu- 


SWEDEN  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEE) 


SWEDENBOEG 


515 


morist  in  his  Noaks  ArTc,  but  less  happy  in  his 
religious  epic,  Ansgarius ;  and  J.  C.  Nyberg 
(Svardstrom,  born  1785),  a  female  writer  of 
considerable  ease  and  grace,  better  known  as 
Euphrosyne.  The  Gothic  school,  which  has 
left  a  more  permanent  impress  upon  poetry, 
developed  its  theories  through  a  society,  the 
Gothiska  Forbund  (the  "  Gothic  Union, " 
1811),  and  a  journal,  Iduna  (1811-'24)._  It 
sought  its  sources  of  inspiration  in  the  ancient 
literature  and  mythology  of  the  North.  Fore 
most  among  its  members,  and  foremost  among 
all  the  poets  of  Sweden,  stands  Esaias  Tegner 
(1782-1846).  (See  TEGNEB.)  The  historian 
Geijer  was  another  member  of  the  Qotliiska 
Fdrbund  ;  his  lyrics  are  original,  strong,  and 
clear.  There  is  more  novelty  and  force  than 
good  poetic  taste  in  Asarne  ("The  Gods  of 
the  North  "),  Tirfing,  and  the  historical  trage 
dies  of  P.  II.  Ling  (1776-1839),  who  is  bet 
ter  known  out  of  Sweden  as  the  founder  of 
a  new  system  of  medicine  or  medical  gymnas 
tics.  Far  better  in  style  was  0.  A.  Nicander 
(1799-1839),  author  of  Runewardet  ("The 
Runic  Sword  ")  and  other  poems.  Influenced 
by  one  or  other  of  these  two  schools,  but  to 
a  certain  extent  independent  of  both,  are  E. 
J.  Stagnelius  (1793-1823),  whose  dramas,  such 
as  Martyrerna  ("The  Martyrs"),  epical  poems, 
as  Wladimir,  and  minor  pieces,  are  marked 
by  an  admirable  spirit  and  great  beauty  of 
diction;  Erik  Sjoberg  (1794-1828),  better 
known  by  his  assumed  name  Vitalis,  who,  like 
Nicander  and  Stagnelius,  died  early ;  A.  Lin- 
deblad  (born  1800),  a  composer  of  religious  and 
secular  lyrics  in  the  spirit  of  Tegner ;  and  A. 
A.  Grafstrom  (1790-1865),  whose  poetical  de 
velopment  was  strongly  influenced  by  Franzen. 
The  highest  rank  among  living  poets  is  held 
by  Johan  Ludvig  Runeberg  (born  1804),  a  na 
tive  and  resident  of  Finland,  in  whose  Fanrik 
Stdls  Sagner  ("  Ensign  Stal's  Stories  "),  a  series 
of  patriotic  lyrics  on  the  Swedish-Russian  war 
of  1808-'9,  are  displayed  an  energy  of  expres 
sion  and  a  depth  of  poetic  thought  unknown  to 
Swedish  literature  since  the  death  of  Tegner. 
0.  TV.  Bottiger  (born  1807),  the  son-in-law  of 
Tegner,  has  written  some  musical  dramas  and 
minor  pieces,  distinguished  by  a  lively  fancy 
and  a  cultivated  taste.  O.  P.  Sturzen-Becker 
(1811-' 6 9)  wrote  lyrics  after  the  manner  of 
Heine,  and  humorous  sketches.  Other  poets 
are  \V.  von  Braun  (1813-'60),  whose  humor  is 
striking,  but  too  often  broad  and  coarse ;  Ny- 
bom  (died  1865)  ;  C.  W.  A.  Strandberg,  whose 
pseudonymous  name  is  Talis  Qualis,  and  who 
has  translated  Byron  and  written  some  lyrics 
of  great  excellence;  B.  E.  Malmstrom  (1816- 
'66),  Siitherberg,  J.  M.  Lindblad  ;  Tekla  Knos, 
a  poetess,  whose  claims  to  fame  have  been 
sanctioned  by  the  Swedish  academy ;  G.  Silf- 
verstolpe,  Wennstrom,  V.  E.  Noren,  Z.  Tope- 
lius,  a  Finlander  (born  1818),  E.  Sehlstedt  (died 
1874),  and  many  others.  Charles  XV.  and  his 
brother  and  successor  Oscar  II.  are  poets  of 
some  merit ;  the  latter's  translation  of  Herder's 


Oid  has  great  excellence.  Tragedies  and  his 
torical  dramas  have  been  written  by  J.  Bor- 
jesson  (1790-1866),  one  of  the  Fosforister, 
whose  Eric  XIV.  is  one  of  the  masterpieces 
of  the  Swedish  drama ;  C.  E.  Hylten-Cavallius, 
Dahlgren,  and  Kullberg ;  and  comedies  by  A. 
Blanche  (died  1868),  Jolin,  Cramer,  F.  Hed- 
berg  (at  present  the  leading  writer  for  the 
stage),  Granlund,  Beskow,  and  others.  No 
romances  stand  higher  than  those  of  three 
female  writers,  Fredrika  Bremer  (died  1865), 
whose  first  work  (1828)  was  styled  Tecknin- 
gar  ur  Hvardagslifxet  ("Sketches  of  Every- 
Day  Life");  E.  S.  Carlen  (born  1807),  a  pro 
lific  and  popular  authoress  of  novels  of  soci 
ety  ;  and  Baroness  Knorring  (died  1833).  All 
of  these  are  Avidely  known  both  in  Europe 
and  America  through  numerous  translations. 
Of  the  imitators  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  the  high 
est  name  is  perhaps  the  learned  and  versatile 
V.  F.  Palmblad  (1788-1852),  celebrated  as  a 
geographer,  critic,  biographer,  and  politician 
of  the  ultra  conservative  school,  whose  Aurora 
KonigsmarTc  was  one  of  the  earliest  readable 
fictions  in  Swedish.  Equally  versatile  was  C. 
J.  L.  Almquist  (1793-1866),  whose  tales,  and 
especially  a  collection  called  Turnrosens  Bole, 
are  rich  in  variety  and  fancy.  Other  romancers 
are  Count  P.  G.  Sparre  (born  1790) ;  F.  Ce- 
derborg  (born  1784),  author  of  Ottar  Trailing 
and  Uno  von  Trasenl>crg,  historical  fictions  of 
much  interest;  C.  F.  Ridderstad  (born  1807), 
an  imitator  of  the  Dumas  school ;  Kjellman- 
Goransson,  Zeipel,  Bjursten,  O.  P.  Sturzen- 
Becker;  C.  A.  Wetterberg  (born  1804),  a  pop 
ular  writer  of  sketches  and  tales  under  the  as 
sumed  name  of  Onkel  Adam;  G.  II.  Mellin 
(born  1803) ;  and  Viktor  Rydberg,  statesman, 
metaphysician,  and  essayist,  who  has  produced 
at  least  one  powerful  work  of  fiction,  Den  siste 
Atenaven  (" The  last  Athenian  ").  Claude  Ge 
rard  (a  pseudonyme)  and  Mrs.  M.  S.  Schwartz 
(born  1819)  enjoy  at  present  the  greatest 
popularity  as  novelists.  As  translators  may 
be  mentioned  C.  A.  llagberg,  author  of  an  ac 
curate  and  spirited  version  of  the  complete 
works  of  Shakespeare;  Andersson,  translator 
of  Goethe ;  and  N.  Loven,  who  has  rendered 
the  poems  of  Dante  and  Camoens  into  Swe 
dish  verse.  Most  of  the  higher  efforts  of  lit 
erature  in  English,  French,  German,  Italian, 
and  Danish,  especially  in  fiction,  have  been 
translated  -within  the  last  30  years.  Sweden 
supports  271  newspapers,  one  of  which,  Sven- 
slca  Veckoltladet,  has  a  circulation  of  50,000 
copies.  On  the  whole  the  last  15  years  has 
been  a  period  rather  of  political  than  of  liter 
ary  activity,  yielding  comparatively  few  works 
of  high  resthetical  value. 

SWEDENBORG,  Emamiel,  a  Swedish  philoso 
pher,  born  in  Stockholm,  Jan.  29,  1688,  died  in 
London,  England,  March  29, 1772.  He  was  the 
son  of  Jesper  Swedberg,  bishop  of  Skara  (see 
SWEDBEEG),  the  name  being  changed  to  Swe- 
denborg  in  1719  on  the  occasion  of  the  enno 
bling  of  the  family.  This  advancement  enti- 


516 


SWEDENBORG 


tied  him,  as  head  of  the  family,  to  a  seat  in  the 
house  of  nobles  of  the  Swedish  diet,  but  did 
not  confer  the  title  of  baron,  as  has  been  sup 
posed.  Emanuel  was  educated  at  Upsal,  com 
pleting  his  studies  in  1709.  After  two  years 
of  travel  in  England,  Holland,  and  France, 
he  went  to  reside  at  Greifswald  in  Pomera- 
nia,  then  a  Swedish  town,  and  busied  himself 
with  scientific  research.  He  also  wrote  some 
Latin  fables,  which  were  published  under  the 
title  of  Camena  Borea.  A  collection  of  Latin 
poems,  written  by  him  during  his  travels,  was 
also  published  about  the  same  time  in  a  volume 
entitled  Ludus  Heliconius.  In  1716  he  re 
turned  to  Sweden  and  established  a  periodical 
called  Da'dalus  Hyperboreus,  devoted  to  math 
ematics  and  mechanics,  which  appeared  irreg 
ularly  for  two  years.  During  this  time  he  had 
become  intimate  with  Christopher  Polhem,  an 
eminent  engineer,  and  Polhem  introduced  him 
to  Charles  XII.,  who  appointed  him  assessor 
extraordinary  of  the  college  of  mines,  and  as 
sociate  engineer  with  Polhem.  For  two  years 
Swedenborg  maintained  close  personal  rela 
tions  with  the  king,  and  assisted  him  much  in 
his  military  operations.  During  the  siege  of 
Frederickshald,  at  which  Charles  met  his  death, 
Swedenborg  constructed,  under  Polhem's  di 
rection,  the  machines  by  which  several  vessels 
were  transported  overland  from  Stromstad  to 
the  Iddetiord,  14  miles.  At  the  king's  sugges 
tion,  it  is  said,  Polhem  betrothed  his  daughter 
to  Swedenborg;  but  as  the  young  lady  pre 
ferred  another  man,  Swedenborg  relinquished 
his  claim  and  never  married.  From  1717  to 
1722  he  published  pamphlets  on  scientific  sub 
jects  ;  among  them  one  describing  a  method 
of  determining  longitude  by  means  of  the 
moon.  In  1721  he  made  a  short  tour  on  the 
continent,  visiting  mines  and  smelting  works. 
On  his  return  in  1722  he  was  promoted  to  be 
full  assessor  of  mines,  and  for  the  next  12 
years  he  devoted  himself  to  the  duties  of  that 
office,  refusing  the  professorship  of  mathe 
matics  at  Upsal  in  1724.  In  1734  he  pub 
lished  Opera  PkilosopJiica  ct  Mineralia  in 
three  large  folio  volumes,  illustrated  with  nu 
merous  plates,  viz. :  vol.  i.,  Principia  ;  vol.  ii., 
De  Ferro  ;  vol.  iii.,  De  Cupro  et  OricJialco. 
In  the  same  year  also  appeared  his  Prodromus 
de  Infinito.  In  1736  he  began  another  tour 
of  travel,  which,  with  study  and  writing,  oc 
cupied  him  for  several  years.  In  1740-'41  he 
published  his  CEconomia  Regni  Animalis,  in 
two  parts,  and  in  l744-'5  his  Regnum  Ani- 
male,  in  three  parts.  Between  1729  and  1741 
he  was  elected  successively  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  at  Upsal,  corresponding 
member  of  the  imperial  academy  of  sciences 
at  St.  Petersburg,  and  member  of  the  academy 
of  sciences  at  Stockholm.  His  series  of  scien 
tific  publications  ended  in  1745  with  the  trea 
tise  De  Cultu  et  Amore  Dei,  &c.,  in  which  is 
set  forth,  under  the  form  of  a  prose  poem  or 
allegory,  his  theory  of  the  process  of  creation. 
Thereafter,  as  he  says,  he  was  called  by  God 


to  the  work  of  revealing  to  men  a  new  system 
of  religious  truth.  For  that  end  he  was  per 
mitted  to  converse  with  spirits  and  angels,  and 
behold  the  wonders  of  the  spiritual  world. 
That  he  might  be  more  free  to  perform  his 
task,  he  resigned  his  assessorship,  retaining 
half  the  salary  by  way  of  pension.  He  devo 
ted  himself  first  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  in 
the  original,  and  then  to  the  writing  of  books 
explanatory  of  his  new  doctrines,  which  were 
published  entirely  at  his  own  expense.  From 
1749  to  1756  appeared  the  Arcana  Calestia  (8 
vols.  4to),  containing  a  commentary  on  Gene 
sis  and  Exodus,  interspersed  with  accounts  of 
u  wonderful  things  seen  and  heard  in  heaven 
and  in  hell."  This  was  followed  in  1758  by 
the  De  C'oslo  ct  Inferno,  De  Telluribus  in  Mun- 
do,  De  Ultimo  Judicio,  De  Nova  Hierosolyma, 
and  De  Equo  ATbo.  In  1763  were  published 
the  four  doctrinal  treatises:  Doctrina  Vitce, 
De  Fide,  De  Domino,  and  De  Scriptura  Sacra, 
with  a  Continuatio  de  Ultimo  Judicio,  and  the 
treatise  De  Divino  Amore  et  de  Divina  Sa- 
pientia.  In  1764,  the  Divina  Provident  ia 
appeared  ;  in  1766,  the  Apocalypsis  Revelata  ; 
in  1768,  De  Amore  Conjugiali  ;  in  1769,  Sum- 
mar  ia  Expositio  Doctrines  and  De  Commercio 
Animai  et  Corporis  ;  and  in  1771,  the  Vera 
Christiana  Religio.  Besides  these,  he  left  at 
his  death  an  immense  mass  of  manuscripts,  of 
which  the  following  have  been  since  printed : 
Itinerarium,  Clavis  HieroglypMca,  Opuscula, 
Apocali/psis  Explicata,  Adversaria  in  Libros 
Veteris  Testamenti,  Diarium  Spirituals,  In 
dex  Bi~blicus,  Sensus  Internus  Pt-opJietarum  et 
Psalmorum,  Dicta  Probantia,  De  Athanasio 
Symbolo,  De  Charitate,  Canones,  Coronis  Verm 
Christiana  Religionis,  and  Invitatio  ad  Novam 
Ecclesiam.  Copies  of  a  few  of  these  manu 
scripts  have  recently  been  reproduced  by  the 
photolithographic  process,  by  subscription,  not 
so  much  for  circulation  as  for  the  sake  of  pre 
serving  the  contents  of  the  originals  from  de 
struction  by  decay. — Swedenborg^  manner  of 
life  was  simple  and  modest.  He  spent  much 
of  his  time,  in  later  years,  in  Holland  and 
England,  for  which  countries  ho  expressed 
great  admiration  on  account  of  the  freedom  of 
speech  and  writing  permitted  there.  He  made 
no  efforts  to  gain  proselytes  to  his  doctrines 
further  than  by  printing  and  distributing  his 
writings,  and  never  referred  to  his  intercourse 
with  the  spiritual  world  except  when  ques 
tioned.  Several  instances  are  reported  of  his 
obtaining  information  from  departed  souls  re 
specting  affairs  unknown  even  to  their  families, 
and  describing  events  in  distant  places  in  ad 
vance  of  newrs  by  the  ordinary  means  of  com 
munication.  It  is  related  that,  as  he  lay  on 
his  deathbed  in  London,  Ferelius,  a  Swedish 
clergyman,  solemnly  adjured  him  to  tell  the 
truth  in  regard  to  his  teachings.  Swedenborg 
raised  himself  half  upright  in  bed,  and  placing 
his  hand  on  his  breast  said  with  emphasis : 
"As  true  as  you  see  me  before  you,  so  true  is 
everything  I  have  written.  I  could  have  said 


SWEDENBORG 


517 


more  had  I  been  permitted.  When  you  come 
into  eternity,  you  will  see  all  things  as  I  have 
stated  and  described  them,  and  we  shall  have 
much  to  say  concerning  them  to  each  other." 
He  then  received  the  holy  supper  from  Fere- 
lius,  and  presented  him  with  a  copy  of  his 
Arcana  Cosiest ia.  A  day  or  two  afterward  he 
peacefully  breathed  his  last.  His  body  was 
buried  in  a  vault  of  the  Swedish  church  in 
Prince's  square,  a  little  east  of  the  tower.  A 
eulogium  was  pronounced  upon  him  in  the 
Swedish  house  of  nobles  in  October,  1772,  by 
Samuel  Sandels,  which  accords  him  high  praise, 
not  merely  for  learning  and  talent,  but  also 
for  uprightness  and  fidelity  in  the  discharge  of 
his  duties  as  a  public  functionary.  Several  of 
his  acquaintances  have  also  left  written  testi 
mony  to  his  virtuous  character. — Swedenborg's 
scientific  works  have  long  since  ceased  to  be 
of  practical  value,  but  are  still  highly  interest 
ing  as  collections  of  facts,  and  as  exhibiting 
their  author's  peculiar  method  of  philosophi 
zing.  The  system  he  followed  was  substan 
tially  that  of  Descartes,  of  whom  he  continued 
to  the  end  of  his  life  to  speak  with  admiration, 
and  this  led  him  to  conclusions  resembling  in 
some  striking  points  those  of  Spinoza,  who 
was  likewise  a  Cartesian.  His  "  Economy  of 
the  Animal  Kingdom  "  is  the  best-  of  his  many 
productions  anterior  to  his  theological  career. 
In  it  he  attempts  to  deduce  a  knowledge  of 
the  soul  from  an  anatomical  and  physiologi 
cal  knowledge  of  the  body,  and  evolves  many 
doctrines  which  he  afterward  elaborated  in 
his  theological  works.  Indeed,  some  of  his 
disciples  hold  that  his  seership  was  the  natural 
result  of  his  intellectual  and  moral  develop 
ment,  and  by  no  means  an  abnormal  condition 
of  mind.  According  to  his  own  account,  it 
came  upon  him  gradually,  and  neither  aston 
ished  nor  alarmed  him,  although  in  its  early 
stages  he  was  subject  to  great  mental  excite 
ment,  the  phenomena  of  which  may  have 
given  rise  to  exaggerated  stories  of  his  insan 
ity.  The  works  written  by  him  subsequent  to 
this  change  in  his  mind  are  quite  as  system 
atic  and  coherent  as  his  earlier  productions, 
and  only  his  claim  to  a  divine  mission,  and  his 
frequent  descriptions  of  what  he  saw  and 
heard  in  the  spiritual  world,  mark  them  as  pe 
culiar.  They  are  consistent  from  first  to  last, 
and  though  they  appeared  at  intervals  during 
a  period  of  27  years,  they  nowhere  deviate 
from  the  fundamental  principles  laid  down  at 
the  outset. — The  general  features  of  Sweden 
borg's  theology  are  presented  in  his  treatise 
called  the  "True  Christian  Religion."  He 
teaches  that  God  is  one  in  essence  and  in  per 
son,  and  has  been  revealed  to  men  as  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  In  the  Lord  is  a  trinity,  not  of 
persons  but  of  principles,  and  it  is  these  prin 
ciples  which  are  spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures 
as  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.  The  Father 
is  the  divine  love,  the  Son  the  divine  wisdom, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  the  divine  operation  or 
energy  acting  upon  the  universe.  The  Lord  is 


infinite,  eternal,  self-existent,  omnipresent,  om 
niscient,  and  omnipotent,  and  not  only  the 
creator  but  the  sustainer  of  all  creation,  which 
without  him  would  cease  to  exist.  For  the 
sake  of  redeeming  mankind  he  assumed  a  nat 
ural  body  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  glo 
rified  it  or  made  it  divine,  so  that  it  is  now 
invisible  to  men,  and  also  usually  to  the  an 
gels  except  as  the  sun  of  heaven.  Redemp 
tion  consisted,  not  in  suffering  vicariously  the 
punishment  of  men's  sins  (for  that  could  not 
be  done,  and,  if  it  could,  would  be  useless), 
but  in  actual  combats,  by  means  of  the  as 
sumed  humanity,  with  the  powers  of  hell, 
and  overcoming  them.  This  victory  restored 
to  man  spiritual  freedom,  which  had  begun 
to  be  impaired  by  diabolic  possessions  as  nar 
rated  in  the  Gospels,  and  enabled  him  to  work 
out  his  salvation.  This  he  does  by  looking 
to  the  Lord,  with  faith  in  him,  by  repen 
tance,  and  above  all  by  a  life  according  to  the 
commandments  of  the  decalogue.  The  chief 
points  that  Swedenborg  insists  on  in  religion 
are  faith  in  the  Lord  and  the  avoidance  of 
evils  as  sins  against  him.  Upon  everything 
else,  such  as  outward  worship,  prayer  and 
meditation,  and  works  of  eleemosynary  chari 
ty,  he  lays  but  little  stress.  The  essence  of 
charity  is  love  to  the  neighbor  and  occupa 
tion  in  some  useful  employment.  The  Word, 
he  says,  is  the  divine  truth  itself,  written  to 
reveal  the  Lord  to  man  and  to  serve  as  a  me 
dium  of  conjunction  between  earth  and  heav 
en.  This  Word  consists  of  the  books  of  Gen 
esis,  Exodus,  Numbers,  Deuteronomy,  Leviti 
cus,  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  the  Psalms, 
the  prophecies,  the  four  Gospels,  and  the  Apoc 
alypse.  The  other  books  bound  up  with  these 
in  our  Bibles  are  not  the  Word,  although  good 
and  useful  to  the  church.  The  distinction  be 
tween  the  two  consists  in  this :  that  the  Word 
contains  an  internal  or  spiritual  sense,  which 
the  rest  of  the  Bible  has  not.  This  spiritual 
sense  is  symbolical,  and  may  be  discerned  by 
the  application  of  the  law  of  symbolism  re 
sulting  from  the  universal  correspondence  of 
natural  with  spiritual  things.  Thus,  the  gar 
den  of  Eden  and  all  things  mentioned  as  ex 
isting  in  it  symbolize  the  human  soul  and  its 
affections  and  thoughts ;  and  the  disobedience 
of  Adam  and  Eve,  the  alienation  of  mankind 
at  a  remote  period  from  their  original  state 
of  innocence.  Hence,  too,  the  decalogue  for 
bids  not  merely  outward  sins,  but  the  inward 
spiritual  sins  corresponding  to  them,  and  the 
Psalms  and  prophecies  relate  not  merely  to 
David  and  the  Jews,  but  to  experiences  of  the 
human  soul  independent  of  dates  and  locali 
ties.  At  the  same  time  the  literal  sense  alone 
can  be  relied  on  as  a  basis  of  doctrine,  and 
Swedenborg  is  careful  to  cite  it  profusely  in 
support  of  his  teachings.  The  reason  he  gives 
for  his  mission  is  that  the  knowledge  of  true 
doctrine  had  been  lost  and  the  church  de 
stroyed  by  a  false  theology  and  accompanying 
evils  of  life.  By  the  promulgation  of  the 


518 


SWEDENBORG 


truth  revealed  to  him  a  new  church  has  been 
established  by  the  Lord,  and  thus  the  prophe 
cies  in  the  Apocalypse  of  the  descent  of  the 
New  Jerusalem  have  been  fulfilled  in  their 
symbolical  sense.  The  second  coming  of  the 
Lord,  predicted  in  Matt,  xxiv.,  has  also  been 
accomplished  in  the  same  way,  a  last  judg 
ment  having  been  effected  in  the  spiritual 
world  in  the  year  1757,  so  that  AVO  are  now 
living  under  a  new  dispensation.  The  treatise 
on  "Heaven  and  Hell"  embodies  Sweden- 
borg's  teachings  on  the  nature  of  those  two 
realms,  and  their  relations  to  this  world.  They 
exist,  he  says,  not  in  some  other  region  of 
space,  but  within  the  natural  world,  as  the 
soul  of  man  exists  within  his  body,  being  in 
fact  in  the  souls  of  men  and  resting  in  them  as 
our  souls  rest  in  our  bodies.  At  death  the 
body,  which  is  the  material  envelope  of  the 
soul,  is  cast  aside,  never  to  be  resumed,  and 
consequently  its  resurrection  is  not  to  be 
looked  for.  The  soul  is  the  man  himself,  and 
is  a  perfect  human  being,  with  a  spiritual  body 
of  its  own,  and  rises  into  a  conscious  percep 
tion  of  the  spiritual  world,  of  which  the  man 
had  previously  been  unconsciously  an  inhabi 
tant.  He  sees  and  feels  and  possesses  all  the 
other  senses,  and  retains  all  his  personal  char 
acteristics.  After  a  longer  or  shorter  prepara 
tion  in  an  intermediate  state  called  the  world 
of  spirits,  which  lies  between  heaven  and  hell, 
he  is  drawn  by  his  own  elective  affinity  to  the 
place  where  he  belongs,  and  remains  there  to 
eternity.  Both  heaven  and  hell  consist  of  in 
numerable  societies,  each  composed  of  human 
beings  of  similar  and  concordant  affections ; 
and  both  are  divided  into  three  distinct  re 
gions,  according  to  the  degrees  of  perfection 
or  depravity  of  their  inhabitants.  The  Arcana 
Coziest ia,  Swedenborg's  largest  work,  is  mainly 
an  exposition  of  the  internal  or  symbolical 
sense  of  Genesis  and  Exodus,  with  accounts 
of  his  experiences  in  the  spiritual  world,  and 
various  doctrinal  teachings  interspersed  be 
tween  the  chapters.  "The  Apocalypse  Re 
vealed"  and  "The  Apocalypse  Explained"  are 
similar  expositions  of  the  Apocalypse.  In  his 
"Conjugial  Love"  Swedenborg  expounds  his 
doctrine  of  the  relations  of  the  sexes.  Males, 
he  says,  are  masculine  and  females  feminine 
in  soul  as  well  as  in  bod)'.  The  masculine  ele 
ment  is  love  clothed  with  wisdom,  while  the 
feminine  is  wisdom  clothed  with  love.  Hence 
the  characteristic  of  man  is  wisdom  or  under 
standing,  and  that  of  woman  love  or  affection. 
Marriage  is  the  conjunction  of  two  souls  who 
complement  each  other,  and  by  their  union 
make  one  complete  being,  just  as  the  will  and 
the  understanding  make  the  individual.  Hence 
the  only  true  marriage  is  of  one  man  and  one 
woman,  and  it  exists  in  the  next  world  as  well  as 
in  this.  Polygamy  is  a  degraded  state,  but  not 
a  sin  with  those  whose  religion  permits  it ;  but 
adultery  is  destructive  of  the  life  of  the  soul, 
and  closes  heaven  against  those  who  confirm 
themselves  in  it.  The  treatises  on  the  "  Divine 


Love  and  Wisdom"  and  the  "Divine  Provi 
dence  "  embody  Swedenborg's  spiritual  phi 
losophy,  and  exhibit  the  symmetrical  relations 
of  the  various  parts  of  his  religious  system. 
Love,  he  says,  is  the  life  of  man.  God  alone 
is  Love  itself  and  Life  itself,  and  angels  and 
men  are  but  recipients  of  life  from  him.  He 
is  very  Man,  and  our  humanity  is  derived  from 
him,  so  that  it  is  literally  true  that  we  are  cre 
ated  in  his  image  and  likeness.  His  infinite 
love  clothes  itself  with  infinite  wisdom  and 
manifests  itself  in  ceaseless  operation,  produ 
cing,  maintaining,  and  reproducing  the  bound 
less  universe,  with  all  its  innumerable  parts 
and  inhabitants.  In  like  manner  men,  being 
made  in  the  image  of  God,  also  have  love  or 
the  will,  and  wisdom  or  the  understanding, 
and  the  two  produce  in  them  their  finite  oper 
ation.  It  being  the  nature  of  love  to  desire 
objects  upon  which  to  exercise  itself,  God 
could  not  but  create  the  universe.  The  crea 
tion  of  this  and  other  solar  systems,  all  of 
which  are  inhabited,  was  effected  by  a  spiritual 
sun,  which  is  the  first  emanation  proceeding 
from  God,  and  which  is  seen  in  the  spiritual 
Avorld  as  our  sun  is  seen  by  us.  By  means  of 
this  spiritual  sun  natural  suns  were  created, 
and  from  them  atmospheres,  waters,  earths, 
plants,  animals,  and  finally  man.  Angels, 
spirits,  and  devils  are  men  who  have  been 
born  and  died  on  this  or  some  similar  planet. 
Hence,  all  tilings  were  created  from  God,  and 
not  out  of  nothing.  The  spiritual  world  is  re 
lated  to  fho  natural  as  cause  is  to  effect,  and 
the  supreme  first  cause  of  all  is  God  himself. 
These  three,  end,  cause,  and  effect,  constitute 
three  distinct  or  discrete  degrees,  which  are 
repeated  in  various  forms  in  all  created  things, 
and  on  a  grand  scale  in  the  universe  as  a  whole. 
Creation,  being  from  God,  is,  like  the  indi 
vidual  man,  an  image  of  him,  and  hence  is  in 
the  human  form  in  its  greatest  and  least  parts, 
and  with  more  or  less  approximation  to  per 
fection.  As  we  are  finitely  men,  because  God 
is  an  infinite  Man,  so  all  animals,  plants,  and 
even  minerals  wear  a  resemblance  to  man,  and 
throughout  all  nature  there  is  an  incessant 
effort  to  evolve  the  human  form.  In  the  sight 
of  God  and  the  angels,  larger  and  smaller 
bodies  of  human  beings  and  the  societies  of 
heaven  and  hell  appear  organized  like  men, 
and  Swedenborg  calls  the  universe  the  Grand 
Man  (Maximus  Homo).  As  infinite  love  was 
the  end  and  infinite  wisdom  the  cause  of  crea 
tion,  so  the  divine  life  and  power  are  constant 
ly  active  in  sustaining  and  directing  it.  This 
activity  is  the  Divine  Providence,  and  it  reach 
es  to  every  smallest  particular  of  nature  and 
humanity.  Man  has  freedom,  because  without 
it  he  could  not  be  an  adequate  recipient  of  the 
divine  love,  and  by  the  abuse  of  his  freedom 
he  has  introduced  evil  into  the  world.  The 
Divine  Providence  seeks,  without  destroying 
this  freedom,  to  lead  man  back  to  his  original 
integrity.  Hence  all  the  wonderful  dealings 
of  God  with  man  recorded  in  the  Scriptures ; 


SWEET  BRIER 


SWIFT 


510 


hence  the  incarnation ;  and  hence  the  various 
forms  of  religion  which  exist  in  the  world,  all 
of  which  embody  more  or  less  the  essentials 
of  salvation,  namely,  the  worship  of  God  and 
abstinence  from  evils  as  sins  against  him.  The 
smaller  treatises  of  Swedenborg  are  mostly 
extracts  from  his  larger  works,  with  amplifica 
tions  and  additions. — The  fullest  account  of 
him  and  his  writings  is  that  of  William  White 
(2  vols.,  London,  1867,  since  republished  in  one 
volume).  See,  also,  u  Documents  concerning 
Swedenborg,"  by  R.  L;  Tafel  (London,  1875  et 
seq.\  All  of  his  theological  and  some  of  his 
scientific  works  have  been  translated  into  Eng 
lish.  The  theological  works  have  also  been 
reprinted  in  Latin  by  Dr.  J.  F.  I.  Tafel,  of  Tu 
bingen,  Germany,  and  partially  translated  and 
published  in  French,  German,  Italian,  Danish, 
and  Swedish.  Societies  for  promoting  their 
circulation  are  in  operation  both  in  the  Uni 
ted  States  and  in  Europe.  The  principal  wri 
ters  who  have  undertaken  the  exposition  of 
Swedenborg's  doctrines  in  England  are  John 
Clowes,  Robert  Hindmarsh,  C.  A.  Tulk,  Sam 
uel  Noble,  J.  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  and  Jonathan 
Bayley;  in  France,  E.  Richer  and  J.  F.  Les 
Boys-des-Guays ;  and  in  the  United  States, 
George  Bush,  Theophilus  Parsons,  E.  H.  Sears, 
Henry  James,  B.  F.  Barrett,  W.  B.  Hayden, 
and  Chauncey  Giles.  For  an  account  of  the 
ecclesiastical  organization  based  upon  Sweden 
borg's  doctrines,  see  NEW  JERUSALEM. 

SWEET  BRIER.     See  EGLANTINE. 

SWEET  GUM.     See  LIQUIDAMBAK. 

SWEET  POTATO.     See  POTATO,  SWEET. 

SWEETVVATER,  a  central  county  of  Wyoming, 
extending  across  the  territory  from  Montana 
on  the  north  to  Colorado  and  Utah  on  the 
south;  area,  about  35,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,916.  It  is  crossed  by  the  Wind  River  and 
Rocky  mountains,  and  is  watered  in  the  north 
by  the  Big  Horn  river  and  its  head  streams, 
and  in  the  south  by  the  Sweetwater  and  Green 
rivers.  It  contains  deposits  of  coal  and  gold. 
The  S.  part  is  crossed  by  the  Union  Pacific 
railroad.  In  1870  there  were  3  saw  mills  and 
4  quartz  mills.  Capital,  South  Pass  City. 

SWEET  WILLIAM.     See  PINK. 

SWETCHINE,  or  Svetdiiii,  Anne  Sophie,  a  French 
writer,  born  in  Moscow  in  1782,  died  in  Paris, 
Sept.  10,  1857.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of 
Gen.  Boltin,  a  translator  of  the  Encyclopedie 
into  Russian,  and  daughter  of  Soimonoff,  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  academy  of  sciences  at 
Moscow,  and  private  secretary  to  Catharine 
II.,  at  whose  court  she  was  brought  up.  In 
1799  she  married  Gen.  Svetchin  (born  in  1758, 
died  Nov.  23,  1850)  to  please  her  father,  who 
was  banished  from  St.  Petersburg  and  died 
soon  afterward  at  Moscow.  Her  mother  hav 
ing  died,  the  education  of  her  younger  sister 
(the  future  princess  Gregory  Gagarin)  devolved 
upon  her,  in  addition  to  that  of  her  hus 
band's  adopted  daughter.  At  the  same  time 
she  gathered  round  her  the  most  eminent  Rus 
sians  and  French  emigrants,  who  cultivated 


I  her  society  even  after  the  sudden  removal  in 
1801  of  her  husband  from  his  offices  as  mili 
tary  commandant  and  provisional  governor 
of  St.  Petersburg.  Her  delicate  health  and 
her  sorrow  for  the  loss  of  her  father  in 
creased  her  proneness  to  religious  meditation, 
which  was  still  further  developed  by  her  filial 
relations  with  the  count  Joseph  de  Maistre, 
French  ambassador  at  the  Russian  court,  al 
though  her  final  conversion  in  1815  to  Roman 
Catholicism  was  more  directly  ascribed  to  the 
writings  of  the  abbe  Fleury.  As  soon  as  the 
proscriptive  measures  against  the  Jesuits  were 
announced,  she  publicly  avowed  her  change  of 
religion  ;  and  as  it  was  feared  that  her  ascen 
dancy  over  the  emperor  Alexander  might  be 
come  as  great  as  that  of  Mme.  Kriidener,  she 
was  compelled  to  depart  from  Russia  by  vexa 
tious  proceedings  against  her  husband  on  this 
and  subsequent  occasions.  She  spent  the  win 
ter  of  1816-'!  7  in  Paris.  In  1818  she  and  her 
husband  were  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  she  never 
returned  again  to  Russia  excepting  once  about 
12  years  later.  After  spending  several  years 
in  Italy,  she  settled  permanently  in  Paris  in 
1825.  De  Falloux,  her  literary  executor,  has 
published  Mme.  Sicetchine,  sa  tie  et  scs  ceuvres 
(2  vols.,  1859,  vol.  ii.  comprising  her  Pensees, 
&c.);  her  Lettres  (2  vols.,  1862);  Journal 
de  so,  conversion  (1863)  ;  and  Lettres  inedites 
(1866).  Harriet  W.  Preston  has  translated 
the  "Life  and  Letters  of  Madame  Swetchine" 
(Boston,  1867;  8th  ed.,  1875),  and  "The  Wri 
tings  of  Madame  Swetchine  "  (1869).  See  also 
Mme.  Swetchine's  correspondence  with  Lacor- 
daire  (Paris,  1864),  and  with  Lagrange  (1875). 

SWIETEN,  Gerard  van,  a  Dutch  physician,  born 
in  Ley  den,  May  7,  1700,  died  in  Schonbrunn, 
Austria,  June  18,  1772.  He  was  a  favorite 
pupil  of  Boerhaave,  arid  after  a  f CAV  years'  prac 
tice  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Leyden  ; 
but  on  account  of  his  adherence  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith  he  was  compelled  to  resign.  In 
1745  he  went  to  Vienna  as  physician-in-chief 
to  the  empress  Maria  Theresa,  and  professor  of 
medicine  and  anatomy;  and  he  held  several 
other  important  offices  there.  His  great  medi 
cal  work,  Commentarii  in  H.  Boerliaavii  Apho- 
rismos  de  Cognoscendis  et  Ciirandis  Morris  (5 
vols.  4to,  Leyden,  1741-'72),  was  translated 
into  German,  English,  and  French. 

SWIFT,  the  general  name  of  the  cypselidm,  a 
subfamily  of  birds  formerly  placed  among  the 
swallows,  but  by  modern  ornithologists  ranked 
as  a  separate  family  coming  near  the  humming 
birds,  on  account  of  certain  anatomical  pecu 
liarities,  and  particularly  of  the  absence  of  sing 
ing  muscles  in  the  lower  larynx.  The  swifts 
resemble  the  swallows  in  habits  and  in  their 
general  form ;  the  bill  is  more  suddenly  curved, 
unprovided  with  bristles  at  the  base  ;  nostrils 
very  large,  oblong,  with  an  elevated  margin ; 
wings  extremely  long,  curved  and  narrow,  with 
ten  primaries ;  tarsi  short  and  weak,  and  more 
or  less  feathered ;  toes  short  and  thick,  and  all 
four  are  or  may  be  directed  forward ;  claws 


520 


SWIFT 


strong  and  curved ;  ten  feathers  in  the  tail. 
They  are  very  swift  and  graceful  fliers,  feeding 
exclusively  on  insects,  which  they  capture  on 
the  wing;  they  are  migratory  like  the  swal 
lows,  but  do  not  mingle  with  them  and  are  less 
hardy ;  most  of  them  nestle  in  hollow  trees, 
holes  in  buildings,  or  crevices  in  rocks ;  some 
species  rear  two  or  three  broods  in  a  season. 
—In  the  genus  cijpselus  (Illig.)  the  second  quill 
is  the  longest,  and  the  tarsi  are  feathered  to 
the  base  of  the  toes ;  it  is  peculiar  to  the  old 
world.  The  common  European  swift  or  black 
martin  (C.  apus,  Illig.)  is  7£  in.  long,  with  a 
forked  tail ;  it  is  blackish  brown  above  with  a 
green  gloss,  and  the  throat  grayish  white.  It 
appears  in  Great  Britain  in  May,  departing  in 
August.  *  The  extreme  shortness  of  the  legs 
renders  walking  and  rising  from  a  flat  sur 
face  almost  impossible,  but  the  stout  toes  and 
sharp  claws  form  admirable  clinging  organs  for 
climbing  in  and  out  the  holes  where  the  nests 
are  placed.  The  white-bellied  swift  (C.  mella, 
Illig.)  is  8£  in.  long,  grayish  brown  above  and 
white  below,  the  legs  covered  with  brown 
feathers ;  it  is  common  in  southern  Europe, 
especially  in  mountainous  regions. —  In  the 
genus  chcetura  (Steph.)  or  acanthylis  (Boie) 
the  tail  is  very  short,  about  two  fifths  of  the 
wings,  slightly  rounded,  the  shafts  stiffened 
and  extending  beyond  the  feathers  as  rigid 
spines ;  first  quill  the  longest ;  legs  covered 
with  a  naked  skin.  The  species  are  found  in 
North  and  South  America,  Australia,  arid  the 
East  Indies ;  they  live  in  flocks,  and  breed  usu 
ally  in  holes  of  trees,  but  sometimes  in  crevices 


White-bellied  Swift  (Cypselus  melba). 


The 


in  rocks,  and  the  eggs  are  usually  four. 
American  swift  or  chimney  swallow  (G.jyeln- 
gica,  Baird)  is  5±  in.  long  and  124  in.  in  alar 
extent  ;  it  is  sooty  brown  above  with  a  green 
ish  tinge,  a  little  paler  on  the  rump,  and  con 
siderably  lighter  from  the  bill  to  the  breast  ;  it 
is  found  from  the  eastern  states  to  the  slopes 
of  the  Bocky  mountains,  arriving  from  the 


south  by  the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of  May, 
and  departing  during  the  first  half  of  Septem 
ber.  This  species  naturally  makes  its  nest  in 
hollow  trees,  but  in  the  neighborhood  of  man 
builds  in  such  chimneys  as  are  not  used  in 
summer  for  fires ;  the  nest  is  made  of  twigs 
snapped  off  from  a  dead  tree  during  flight, 
fastened  together  by  viscid  saliva,  without  soft 


Esculent  Swift  (UoUocalia  esculenta). 

lining,  and  is  generally  placed  from  5  to  8  ft. 
from  the  entrance ;  the  eggs  are  pure  white. 
They  pass  in  and  out  the  chimney  with  great 
rapidity,  making  a  whirring  sound  like  distant 
thunder ;  there  are  sometimes  200  in  a  single 
chimney. — In  the  genus  collocalia  (Gray)  the 
bill  is  very  small,  Avings  very  long,  tail  moder 
ate  and  nearly  even,  and  tarsi  naked.  The 
esculent  swift  or  swallow  (C.  \Mrundo]  escu 
lenta,  Gray)  is  the  principal  maker  of  the  cele 
brated  nests  so  highly  esteemed  by  the  Chi 
nese  as  articles  of  food.  (See  BIRDS'  NEST, 
EDIBLE.)  The  eggs  are  two  in  this  genus. 
There  are  many  other  species  of  swifts,  both 
in  the  old  world  and  the  new. 

SWIFT,  a  W.  county  of  Minnesota,  bordering 
S.  W.  on  the  Minnesota  river,  and  intersected 
by  the  Chippewa  and  Pomme  de  Terre  rivers ; 
area,  about  750  sq.  m.  It  has  been  formed 
since  the  census  of  1870.  The  surface  is  roll 
ing,  with  numerous  small  lakes ;  the  soil  is 
good.  The  St.  Paul  and  Pacific  railroad  tra 
verses  the  county.  Capital,  Benson. 

SWIFT,  Jonathan,  a  British  author,  born  in 
Dublin,  Nov.  30,  1667,  died  there,  Oct.  19, 
1745.  He  was  of  purely  English  descent;  his 
father,  dying  before  the  birth  of  his  son,  left 
his  family  in  dependent  circumstances.  In  his 
15th  year  he  entered  Trinity  college,  Dublin, 
where  from  his  insufficiency  in  some  respects 
he  received  his  bachelor's  degree  only  speciali 
gratia,  in  February,  1685;  but  he  remained 
in  college  studying  for  a  master's  degree  till 
the  revolution  of  1689  drove  him  to  England, 
where  he  became  private  secretary  to  Sir  Wil- 


SWIFT 


521 


liam  Temple,  whose  wife  was  related  to  his 
mother.  He  employed  his  leisure  hours  in 
study,  and  acquired  a  remarkable  familiarity 
with  public  affairs.  In  1692  Swift  took  his 
master's  degree  at  Oxford,  and  two  years 
later,  finding  Temple  unwilling  to  make  any 
definite  provision  for  him,  he  went  to  Ireland. 
In  October,  1694,  he  was  ordained,  and  soon 
after  received  the  prebend  of  Kilroot,  in  the 
diocese  of  Connor;  but  in  a  few  months  he 
returned  to  his  secretaryship.  .  Temple,  dying 
in  January,  1099,  left  him  a  legacy,  coupled 
with  the  task  of  editing  his  posthumous  works 
(London,  1699).  Swift  next  became  chaplain 
to  Lord  Berkeley,  one  of  the  lords  justices 
of  Ireland,  whom  in  1699  he  accompanied  to 
Dublin,  acting  as  his  secretary  during  the  jour 
ney.  He  was  supplanted  in  the  secretaryship 
by  a  person  who  subsequently  interfered  so 
that  the  rich  deanery  of  Deny,  at  Berkeley's 
disposal,  and  to  which  Swift  deemed  himself 
entitled,  was  given  to  another.  Swift  ex 
claimed  to  the  earl  and  his  secretary,  "  Con 
found  you  both  for  a  couple  of  scoundrels!" 
and  left  the  castle.  But  he  soon  came  back, 
the  new  dean  of  Derry  (Dr.  Bolton)  being  re 
quired  to  resign  to  him  the  vicarage  of  Lara- 
cor  and  several  other  livings,  amounting  alto 
gether  to  nearly  £400  a  year.  In  1700  Swift 
assumed  his  parochial  duties  at  Laracor,  and 
shortly  after  received  the  prebend  of  Dunlavin 
in  St.  Patrick's  cathedral,  Dublin,  and  in  Feb 
ruary  following  took  his  doctor's  degree  in 
Dublin  university.  In  1701  he  made  the  first 
of  a  number  of  annual  visits  to  England,  and 
published  anonymously  in  London  his  "  Dis 
course  on  the  Contests  and  Dissensions  be 
tween  the  Nobles  and  Commons  of  Athens  and 
Rome,"  vindicating  the  conduct  of  the  whig 
leaders,  Somers,  Halifax,  Harley,  and  Portland, 
in  respect  to  the  partition  treaty.  It  was  gen 
erally  attributed  to  Somers  himself  or  Burnet ; 
but  Swift  avowed  the  authorship  in  the  suc 
ceeding  year,  and  was  immediately  admitted 
into  the  society  of  the  statesmen  he  had  de 
fended,  and  into  that  of  Addison,  Steele,  Ar- 
buthnot,  and  others  of  the  leading  wits  of  the 
time.  Some  trifles  in  prose  and  verse  had 
shown  an  original  vein  of  humor,  but  he  had 
.signally  failed  in  a  series  of  "Pindaric  Odes." 
In  1704  appeared  his  "Battle  of  the  Books," 
written  at  Moor  Park  in  1697,  in  support  of 
Sir  William  Temple's  views  in  the  controversy 
respecting  the  relative  merits  of  ancient  and 
modern  learning.  This  was  succeeded  by  the 
"Tale  of  a  Tub,"  a  satire  upon  the  Roman 
Catholics  and  dissenters.  It  is  one  of  Swift's 
most  perfect  and  labored  efforts,  but  its  impu 
ted  irreligious  tendency  proved  an  insurmount 
able  obstacle  to  his  hopes  of  high  preferment. 
In  1708  he  published  his  "Argument  to  prove 
the  Inconvenience  of  Abolishing  Christianity," 
a  masterpiece  of  grave  irony ;  "  Sentiments 
of  a  Church  of  England  Man  with  respect  to 
Religion  and  Government;"  the  humorous  at 
tacks  on  Partridge  the  almanac  maker,  enti 


tled  "Predictions  for  1708,  by  Isaac  Bicker- 
staff;"  and  "Letters  on  the  Sacramental  Test," 
in  which  he  differed  with  the  whigs,  and  this 
may  partially  explain  his  subsequent  abandon 
ment  of  that  party.  In  1709  ho  published  the 
only  work  to  which  he  ever  attached  his  name, 
"A  Project  for  the  Advancement  of  Religion 
and  the  Reformation  of  Manners."  Failing  to 
receive  preferment  from  the  whigs,  he  went 
over  to  the  tories  in  October,  1710  ;  and  for 
several  months  the  "Examiner,"  a  weekly 
paper  established  by  St.  John  and  others  in 
the  interest  of  the  ministry,  was  the  vehicle 
for  bitter  attacks  from  his  pen  upon  promi 
nent  whig  statesmen.  About  this  time  he 
formed  the  society  of  Brothers,  composed  of 
16  influential  tories,  of  which  he  was  the  most 
active  member.  His  powerful  pamphlet  on 
the  "  Conduct  of  the  Allies,"  published  in  No 
vember,  1711,  which  had  a  considerable  in 
fluence  in  bringing  the  war  to  a  close,  raised 
his  reputation  to  the  highest  pitch,  and  lie 
found  himself  in  a  position  to  confer  substan 
tial  favors.  But  he  himself,  while  dictating, 
as  Dr.  Johnson  has  observed,  the  political 
opinions  of  the  English  nation,  remained  un 
rewarded  ;  and  the  efforts  of  Harley  and  St. 
John,  now  become  Lords  Oxford  and  Boling- 
broke,  aided  by  Mrs.  Masham,  were  unavailing 
to  procure  him  a  bishopric,  the  queen,  under 
the  advice  of  Archbishop  Sharp  and  other 
prelates,  positively  refusing  him  any  high  pre 
ferment.  On  the  failure  of  an  application  in 
his  behalf  for  the  vacant  see  of  Hereford, 
through  the  opposition  of  the  duchess  of  Somer 
set,  whom  he  had  lampooned,  Swift  threatened 
to  withdraw  his  support  from  the  ministry, 
but  was  pacified  by  his  appointment,  in  Feb 
ruary,  1713,  to  the  deanery  of  St.  Patrick's 
cathedral,  Dublin,  the  income  of  which  amount 
ed  to  £700.  He  had  scarcely  got  settled  in 
his  deanery  when  he  was  summoned  back  to 
England  to  reconcile  the  difficulties  between 
Oxford  and  Bolingbroke.  About  this  time  he 
wrote  his  "Public  Spirit  of  the  Whigs,"  which 
reflected  so  bitterly  upon  the  Scottish  nation 
and  nobility  that  the  latter  in  a  body  present 
ed  a  complaint  to  the  queen.  In  June,  1714, 
appeared  his  "  Free  Thoughts  on  the  State  of 
Public  Affairs ;"  and  on  the  dismissal  of  Oxford 
a  few  Aveeks  later  he  declined  the  flattering 
overtures  of  Bolingbroke,  in  order  to  be  of 
service  to  the  disgraced  minister.  The  death 
of  the  queen  immediately  after  this  event  and 
the  overthrow  of  the  tories  sent  Swift  back  to 
Ireland,  where  he  remained  during  the  next  12 
years. — Swift's  history  was  painfully  involved 
with  that  of  three  young  ladies.  One  was  Miss 
Jane  Waring,  sister  of  a  college  friend,  of  whom 
he  became  enamored  in  Belfast ;  he  called  her 
Varina.  His  offer  of  marriage  she  at  first  de 
clined  on  account  of  her  own  ill  health  and 
his  insufficient  income ;  and  the  hopelessness 
of  settling  differences  on  both  sides  led  to  a 
cessation  of  their  intercourse.  While  secre 
tary  for  Sir  William  Temple,  Swift  had  con- 


522 


SWIFT 


SWIMMING 


ceived  a  strong  friendship  for  Esther  Johnson, 
daughter  of  a  woman  who  was  for  many  years 
an  attendant  upon  Temple's  sister,  Lady  Gif- 
fard.  Swift's  account  of  Esther  is  that  "her 
father  was  a  younger  brother  of  a  good  family 
in  Nottinghamshire,  her  mother  of  a  lower  de 
gree."  Swift  on  his  first  settlement  in  Ireland 
invited  this  young  lady  (named  Stella  in  his 
poems)  to  Laracor,  and  with  a  friend,  Mrs. 
Dingley,  she  came  and  resided  near  him.  They 
were  intimate,  saw  each  other  often,  and  cor 
responded  when  apart ;  and  she  attended  to 
his  household  in  his  absence.  Subsequently, 
in  London,  he  became  acquainted  with  Hester 
Vanhomrigh,  a  spirited,  intelligent,  and  accom 
plished  girl,  whom  he  kindly  noticed  and  aided 
in  her  studies.  She  conceived  for  him  a  pas 
sion  so  earnest  that  she  proposed  marriage, 
which  he  declined,  but  without  discouraging 
her  advances ;  and  after  the  death  of  her  moth 
er  she  went  to  Ireland  (1714)  to  dwell  in  his 
vicinity.  Vanessa  (the  name  he  gave  her), 
ignorant  for  a  time  of  his  relations  to  Stella, 
endured  his  coldness  with  hope  of  a  favorable 
change,  till  in  1717  she  retired  with  her  sister 
to  Marley  abbey  to  live  in  deep  seclusion. 
Meantime  Stella  urged  her  claims,  and  won 
his  consent  under  the  stipulation  of  perpetual 
secrecy ;  and  they  were  married  privately  in 
the  garden  of  the  deanery  in  1716.  Their  re 
lations  had  been,  and  because  of  this  secrecy 
continued  to  be,  equivocal.  Vanessa's  sister 
being  ill,  Swift  several  times  visited  the  ab 
bey;  but  receiving  no  other  encouragement, 
and  tormented  by  suspicion  and  impatience, 
Vanessa  wrote  to  Stella  to  ascertain  the  na 
ture  of  her  intimacy  with  Swift.  The  dean, 
getting  possession  of  the  letter,  rode  directly 
to  Marley  abbey,  flung  it  upon  the  table  be 
fore  Vanessa  with  a  frown  which  struck  her 
dumb  with  terror,  and  instantly  departed. 
The  unhappy  woman  survived  this  shock  but 
a  few  weeks,  and  Swift,  overcome  by  shame 
and  remorse,  retired  for  two  months  to  soli 
tude  in  the  south  of  Ireland.  After  her  death 
appeared  his  poem  "Cadenus  and  Vanessa," 
describing  the  manner  in  which  Swift  (per 
sonified  as  Cadenus,  an  anagram  of  Decanus, 
the  dean)  received  the  early  advances  of  Miss 
Vanhomrigh.  Five  years  later  Stella  herself 
died,  without  any  public  recognition  of  her 
marriage. — Swift  produced  in  1720  "A  De 
fence  of  English  Commodities,  being  an  An 
swer  to  the  Proposal  for  the  Universal  Use 
of  Irish  Manufactures,"  followed  in  1724  by 
the  celebrated  "Drapier's  Letters,"  in  oppo 
sition  to  the  royal  grant  authorizing  Wood 
to  coin  £108,000  in  halfpence  and  farthings 
for  general  circulation  in  Ireland.  The  au 
thor  denounced  the  whole  system  of  govern 
ment  in  Ireland  with  a  vigor  and  point  which 
aroused  a  powerful  popular  feeling  in  his  fa 
vor.  His  effigy  was  produced  on  signs  and 
medals,  and  distributed  broadcast  in  innumer 
able  prints;  and  so  powerful  became  his  in 
fluence  with  the  lower  classes  that  Walpole, 


when  meditating  legal  proceedings  against  him, 
was  told  that  it  would  require  10,000  men 
to  arrest  him.  In  1720  appeared  his  "  Gulli 
ver's  Travels,"  a  series  of  satires  on  human 
nature  and  society,  the  most  original  and  ex 
traordinary  of  all  his  productions,  and  that 
by  which  he  will  be  known  while  the  lan 
guage  lasts.  In  1726  and  1727  he  made  vis 
its  to  England,  renewing  his  intimacy  with 
Pope,  Gay,  Bolingbroke,  Arbuthnot,  and  others 
of  his  early  friends;  but  after  the  death  of 
Stella  he  never  left  Ireland.  For  several  years 
he  wrote  with  vigor  and  increasing  bitterness 
on  Irish  affairs,  and  amused  himself  with  com 
posing  verses,  the  humor  of  which  is  more 
than  equalled  by  the  fierceness  and  obscenity 
of  the  satire ;  but  by  1736  his  health  became 
so  undermined  by  frequently  recurring  attacks 
of  deafness  and  vertigo,  to  which"  he  had 
been  subject  from  an  early  age,  as  to  preclude 
further  literary  labors.  His  infirmities  rapidly 
increased  after  this,  and  in  a  corresponding 
degree  his  memory  and  intellect  decayed.  In 
the  latter  part  of  1740  his  memory  almost  en 
tirely  left  him,  and  frequent  fits  of  passion  at 
length  terminated  in  furious  lunacy.  This  sub 
sided  in  1742,  and  he  passed  the  last  three 
years  of  his  life  in  a  condition  of  speechless 
torpor.  He  was  interred  in  the  cathedral, 
amid  extravagant  demonstrations  of  popular 
respect.  He  bequeathed  the  bulk  of  his  prop 
erty,  amounting  to  £10,000,  to  found  a  hos 
pital  for  insane  persons.  Swift  was  tall  and 
well  made,  with  a  swarthy  complexion,  and  a 
cast  of  face  that  would  have  been  heavy  but 
for  the  pleasing  expression  of  his  eyes. — Some 
posthumous  works  of  Swift  were  published 
long  after  his  death,  including  "A  History  of 
the  four  last  Years  of  Queen  Anne;  "  "  Polite 
Conversation,"  a  satire  on  the  frivolities  of 
fashionable  life;  and  "Directions  for  Ser 
vants."  A  complete  edition  of  his  writings 
was  published  in  19  vols.  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
whose  biography  of  him  is  still  the  standard 
one.  That  by  Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  "Lives  of 
the  Poets,"  reflects  too  closely  the  dislike  which 
the  biographer  always  entertained  for  Swift. 
There  is  also  a  copious  life  by  Thomas  Sheri 
dan,  and  an  account  of  his  latter  years  by  Dr. 
Wilde  of  Dublin,  written  on  the  occasion  of 
the  remains  of  Swift  and  Stella  being  exhumed, 
during  some  repairs  in  St.  Patrick's  cathedral, 
in  1835.  The  character  of  Swift  is  the  subject 
of  an  elaborate  essay  by  Thackeray,  included 
in  his  "  British  Humorists."  See  also  the 
"Life  of  Jonathan  Swift,"  by  John  Forster, 
including  numerous  poems  and  other  matter 
hitherto  unpublished  (London,  1875  el  seq."). 

SWIMML\G,  the  art  of  keeping  the  body  afloat 
and  propelling  it  by  means  of  the  hands  and 
feet.  The  swimming  of  man  is  artificial,  but 
as  the  specific  gravity  of  the  human  body  is 
very  little  greater  than  that  of  water,  it  can 
be  floated  with  little  difficulty.  The  support 
is  greatly  increased  by  propulsion,  just  as  a 
thin  flat  stone  is  prevented  from  sinking  by 


SWIMMING 


523 


projecting  it  with  force  against  the  surface  of 
the  water.  In  learning  to  swim,  the  first  es 
sential  is  confidence ;  the  pupil  then  learns  to 
keep  the  body  afloat ;  and  when  he  knows 
how  to  apply  the  extremities  to  the  water  with 
a  view  to  propulsion  he  can  swim.  Confidence 
is  best  assured  in  this  way :  Let  the  pupil  wade 
out  breast  deep,  face  about,  and  toss  an  egg  or 
a  white  pebble  into  the  water  between  him 
self  and  the  shore  and  plunge  after  it.  In 
struggling  to  reach  it  he  will  find  himself 
buoyed  up  by  the  water,  and  will  learn  that  it 
is  easier  to  swim  than  to  sink.  This  was  Dr. 
Franklin's  suggestion,  and  the  most  recent 
manuals  recommend  it.  Some  teachers  in 
spire  confidence  and  at  the  same  time  teach 
the  propulsory  movements  by  holding  the  pu 
pil  on  the  flat  of  the  hand  and  then  removing 
the  support,  leaving  him  to  float  and  propel 
himself.  The  use  of  corks,  bladders,  and  life 
preservers  retards  instruction,  and  is  now 
nearly  obsolete.  The  pupil  learns  first  to 
swim  on  the  chest,  lie  assumes  as  nearly  as 
he  can  a  horizontal  position,  with  the  breast 
prone  to  the  water  and  the  heels  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  surface.  To  effect  propulsion, 
the  arms  and  legs  are  simultaneously  flexed 
and  drawn  slowly  toward  the  body,  and  then 
are  simultaneously  and  rapidly  extended.  The 
two  hands  should  be  kept  flat,  the  fingers  closed, 
the  thumb  placed  by  the  side  of  the  first  finger, 
and  the  pupil  should  reach  forward  with  his 
hands  as  far  as  he  can,  for  the  farther  forward 
he  reaches  the  faster  will  he  swim.  He  then 
draws  both  legs  well  up,  and  while  each  hand 
is  brought  around,  one  to  the  right  and  the 
other  to  the  left,  he  strikes  out  simultaneously 
and  strongly  with  his  legs.  The  secret  of  a 
good  stroke  is  to  kick  out  with  the  legs  wide 
apart.  The  propelling  power  is  secured  by 
the  legs  being  brought  from  a  position  in  which 
they  are  placed  wide  apart  to  one  in  which 
they  are  close  together  like  the  blades  of  a 
pair  of  scissors.  In  this  position  the  heels 
should  touch  each  other,  and  in  drawing  up 
the  legs  the  toes  should  be  pointed  backward 
to  avoid  the  resistance  of  the  water  against 
the  insteps.  It  is  a  fallacy  to  suppose  that  the 
speed  of  the  swimmer  in  any  degree  depends 
upon  the  resistance  of  the  water  against  the 
soles,  or  that  large  flat  feet  are  aids,  unless  it 
may  be  in  treading  water.  Breast  swimming 
is  the  commonest  and  easiest  method,  and  the 
only  one  possible  for  long  distances.  But  the 
prone  position  of  the  body  presents  a  large 
resisting  surface ;  the  arms  and  legs  are  spread 
out  on  either  side  of  the  trunk,  and  so  are 
applied  but  partially  as  propellers,  the  most 
effective  part  of  the  stroke  corresponding  say 
to  a  quarter  of  an  ellipse,  while  the  remaining 
three  quarters  are  devoted  to  getting  the  arms 
and  legs  into  position,  which  wastes  power  and 
increases  friction.  To  obviate  these  difficulties, 
scientific  swimmers  have  recently  adopted  the 
side  stroke.  The  swimmer  throws  himself  on 
the  left  side  (a  good  swimmer  on  either  side), 


and  advances  the  left  arm  in  a  curve,  making 
it  act  as  a  cutwater,  while  the  right  arm  di 
rected  downward  and  backward  and  the  legs 
make  a  powerful  stroke.  The  right  arm  and 
legs  thus  give  three  limbs  moving  simultane 
ously  in  the  same  direction,  the  left  arm  always 
I  moving  in  an  opposite  direction.  The  right 
arm  and  legs  are  flexed  and  carried  forward 
while  the  left  arm  is  forced  backward,  and  vice 
versa.  The  strong  backward  stroke  of  the 
three  limbs  gives  a  powerful  forward  impulse, 
and  as  the  body  is  on  the  side,  as  on  a  keel, 
the  resistance  is  much  reduced.  The  overhand 
stroke  is  similar,  only  in  reaching  forward  the 
arm  is  brought  out  of  the  water,  and  the  swim 
mer,  advancing  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the 
body  alternately,  secures  greater  continuity  of 
motion  and  materially  reduces  the  friction. 
Both  these  methods  are  much  faster  but  more 
exhausting  than  breast  swimming,  and  are 
practicable  only  for  short  distances,  in  saving 
life  and  in  races.  The  speed  attained  by  these 
strokes  is  indicated  by  the  recent  record  of 
professional  swimmers  in  London ;  in  baths 
400  yards  have  been  swum  in  5  m.  10  sec.,  500 
in  7  m.  27  sec.,  and  1,000  in  the  Serpentine  in 
16  m.  43  sec.  With  a  strong  favoring  tide  in 
the  Thames  a  mile  has  been  swum  in  11  m.  43 
sec.,  two  in  23  m.  13  sec.,  three  in  85  m.  23 
sec.,  four  in  48  m.  19  sec.,  and  five  in  64  m. 
23  sec.  Swimming  on  the  back  is  more  easily 
learned  than  breast  swimming,  and  the  body 
being  more  nearly  horizontal,  it  is  not  difficult 
to  swim  by  using  the  legs  only,  with  the  arms 
folded  over  the  chest.  In  treading  water,  the 
swimmer's  body  is  in  an  upright  position,  with 
the  head  well  out,  and  a  rapid  movement  of 
the  feet  as  in  ascending  steps  is  the  sustaining 
and  propelling  power ;  the  hands  may  be  out 
of  the  water  or  may  be  used  to  assist  in  pro 
pulsion.  Both  these  methods  are  reliefs  in 
long  swims.  In  diving,  the  hands  are  brought 
together  in  front  to  cleave  the  water  and  pro 
tect  the  head,  and  the  legs  are  kept  straight, 
the  heels  touching  each  other.  If  the  diver 
desires  to  come  almost  instantly  to  the  surface 
again,  he  has  only  to  direct  his  hands  upward 
above  his  head.  To  float  on  the  back,  the 
swimmer  suffers  the  back  of  the  head  to  be 
submerged,  the  face  only  being  above  water ; 
the  hands  are  extended  and  the  legs  partially 
flexed  and  spread  so  as  to  offer  the  greatest 
possible  floating  surface.  In  attempting  to  save 
a  drowning  person,  the  swimmer  should  ap 
proach  him  from  behind,  and  keep  him  from 
sinking  by  raising  him  by  the  hair,  or  by  pla 
cing  the  hands  under  his  armpits,  taking  care 
that  the  struggler  does  not  seize  him,  or  both 
may  be  drowned.  An  exhausted  or  cramped 
swimmer  may  be  supported  by  placing  his  hand 
on  the  shoulder  of  another  swimmer.  As  salt 
water  is  more  buoyant  than  fresh,  it  is  easier 
to  swim  in  it.  The  best  time  for  the  exercise 
is  in  the  forenoon  between  breakfast  and  lunch 
eon,  when  the  stomach  is  neither  full  nor 
empty.  For  swimming  matches  the  training 


524 


SWIMMING 


SWITZERLAND 


is  like  that  for  any  other  exercise,  which,  ac 
cording  to  Oapt.  Webb,  the  channel  champion, 
"simply  means  a  healthy  life."— In  ancient 
times  Leander,  according  to  Greek  tradition, 
swam  the  Hellespont  from  Abydos  to  Sestos ; 
and  on  March  3,  1810,  Lord  Byron  and  Lieut. 
Eckenhead  swam  over  the  same  course  in  70 
minutes,  which  till  recently  has  been  regarded 
as  the  greatest  feat  of  the  kind  in  modern 
times.  In  1849  John  Leahy,  then  a  British 
soldier  in  quarters  at  Aden,  and  since  1868 
teacher  of  SAvimming  at  Eton  college,  swam 
in  the  Eed  sea  2J-  m.  in  three  quarters  of  an 
hour.  In  August,  1868,  Harry  Parker  swam 
in  the  Serpentine  500  yards  in  7  m.  45  sec. 
On  Aug.  5,  1872,  in  the  lake  at  Hendon,  near 
London,  J.  B.  Johnson  swam  a  mile  in  26 
minutes,  doing  the  first  half  mile  in  12  min 
utes.  In  1874  Matthew  Webb,  then  26  years 
old,  swam  out  as  far  as  Varne  buoy,  10  m.  off 
Folkestone,  and  was  in  the  water  4|-  hours. 
The  year  1875  is  memorable  for  extraordinary 
swimming  feats.  On  April  10  Paul  Boyton  of 
New  Jersey  attempted  to  cross  the  English 
channel  from  Dover  in  a  swimming  costume 
invented  by  Capt.  C.  S.  Merriman  of  New  York. 
He  was  in  the  water  nearly  three  hours,  pro 
pelling  himself  with  a  paddle  having  a  blade  at 
each  end,  accomplishing  as  the  tide  and  waves 
carried  him  about  27  m. ;  and  after  tossing  about 
three  hours  more  in  the  surf,  he  was  taken  on 
board  a  steamer.  On  May  20  he  successfully 
crossed  from  Cape  Gris  Nez  to  South  Foreland, 
3  m.  from  Dover,  by  his  course  about  36  m.,  in 
23  hours.  These  were  hardly  swimming  feats, 
but  the  usefulness  of  the  costume  and  means 
of  propulsion  in  saving  life  and  property  on 
the  water  was  fully  demonstrated.  On  July  3 
Webb  swam  from  Blackball  pier  to  Gravesend, 
20  m.,  in  4  h.  42  m.  44  sec.  On  July  23,  at 
Chester,  Pa.,  in  a  match  with  Coyle,  J.  B. 
Johnson  swam  10J-  m.  in  3  h.  10  m.  On  Aug. 
12  Webb  made  his  first  attempt  to  cross  the 
channel.  He  swam  out  from  Dover  18|  m.  in 
6  h.  45  m.,  when  on  account  of  the  roughness 
of  the  sea  he  was  taken  on  board  a  lugger. 
On  Aug.  24-25  he  successfully  crossed  from 
Dover  to  Calais,  the  tide  making  his  course  a 
zigzag  of  about  50  m.,  in  a  little  less  than  22  h. 
He  had  no  other  covering  than  a  coating  of 
porpoise  oil,  and  received  no  refreshment  but 
hot  coffee,  beef  tea,  cod-liver  oil,  and  an  oc 
casional  sip  of  brandy,  which  he  took  while 
treading  water.  On  Sept.  1  Agnes  Beckwith, 
14  years  old,  daughter  of  a  teacher  of  swim 
ming,  swam  from  London  bridge  to  Green 
wich  pier,  about  5  m.,  in  1  h.  7  m.  45  sec.  On 
Sept.  4  Emily  Parker,  14  years  and  6  months 
old,  sister  and  pupil  of  Harry  Parker,  the 
champion  swimmer  of  London,  swam  the  same 
distance  in  1  h.  8  m. — Illustrated  treatises  on 
swimming  with  instructions  may  be  found  in 
Walker's  "British  Manly  Exercises"  (London, 
1844;  latest  ed.,  1874),  and  in  "Animal  Loco 
motion,  or  Walking,  Swimming,  and  Flying," 
by  J.  Bell  Pettigrew  (London  and  New  York, 


1875).  Sergeant  Leahy  has  published  "The 
Art  of  Swimming  in  the  Eton  Style,"  with  a 
preface  by  Mrs.  Oliphant  (Norwich,  1875),  and 
Capt.  Webb  "The  Art  of  Swimming,"  edited 
by  A.  G.  Payne  (London,  1875). 

SWINBURNE,  Algernon  Charles,  an  English  poet, 
born  in  London,  April  5,  1837.  He  is  a 
son  of  Admiral  Charles  Henry  Swinburne. 
After  studying  in  France,  he  entered  Balliol 
college,  Oxford,  in  1857,  but  left  the  university 
without  graduating.  He  has  published  "  The 
Queen  Mother"  and  "Rosamond,"  two  plays 
(1860);  "Atalanta  in  Calydon,"  a  tragedy  in 
the  Greek  form  (1864) ;  "  Chastelard,  a  Trage 
dy  "  (1865)  ;  "  Poems  and  Ballads  "  (1866  ;  re- 
published  in  New  York  under  the  title  "Laus 
Yeneris  "),  which  was  soon  suppressed  by  the 
publisher;  "Notes  on  Poems  and  Reviews" 
(1866),  a  reply  to  his  critics;  "A  Song  of 
Italy"  (1867);  "William  Blake,  a  Critical  Es 
say"  (1868);  "Notes  on  the  Royal  Academy 
Exhibition  "  (1868),  of  which  the  first  part  was 
written  by  W.  M.  Rossetti ;  "  Siena,  a  Poem  " 
(1868);  "Ode  on  the  Proclamation  of  the 
French  Republic  "  (1870) ;  "  Bothwell,  a  Trage 
dy"  (1870);  "Songs  before  Sunrise"  (1871); 
"  Essays  and  Studies  "  (1875) ;  "  George  Chap 
man,  a  Critical  Essay"  (1875);  and  "Erech- 
theus,"  a  play  on  the  Greek  model  (1875).  He 
has  also  edited  "  Christabel,  and  the  Lyrical 
and  Imaginative  Poems  of  S.  T.  Coleridge  " 
(1869),  and  the  works  of  Chapman  (1875). 

SWIiVE.     See  HOG. 

SWITZERLAND  (Lat.  Helvetia;  Ger.  Schwciz; 
Fr.  La  /Suisse),  a  federal  republic  of  central  Eu 
rope,  between  lat.  45°  50'  and  47°  50'  N.,  and 
Ion.  5°  55'  and  10°  30'  E.  It  is  bounded  N.  by 
Germany,  E.  by  Austria  and  Liechtenstein,  S. 
by  Italy  and  France,  and  W.  by  France ;  and 
nearly  the  entire  boundary  line  is  formed  by 
rivers  (the  Rhine  and  Doubs),  lakes  (of  Con 
stance  and  Geneva),  and  mountains  (the  Alps 
and  Jura).  In  its  greatest  length  it  measures 
210  m. ;  in  its  greatest  breadth,  140  m.  Switz 
erland  is  the  most  mountainous  region  of  Eu 
rope,  and,  with  Tyrol  and  Savoy,  which  border 
it  on  the  east  and  southwest  respectively,  the 
most  elevated.  Even  the  most  level  part  in 
the  north  presents  mountains  rising  upward 
of  2,000  ft.  It  is  covered  throughout  almost 
its  whole  extent  by  the  Alps,  of  which  the 
following  groups,  with  their  various  branches, 
belong  properly  to  Switzerland:  1,  the  Pen 
nine  Alps,  separating  the  canton  of  Valais 
from  upper  Savoy  on  one  side  and  Piedmont 
on  the  other;  2,  the  Lepontine  or  Helvetian 
Alps,  including  the  divergent  Bernese  Alps, 
extending  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhone,  and 
separating  Switzerland  from  Lombardy ;  3,  the 
Rhastian  Alps,  beginning  at  Monte  Bernardino 
and  extending  along  the  frontiers  of  Switzer 
land,  Italy,  and  Tyrol.  (See  ALPS.)  The  prin 
cipal  Alpine  summits  in  Switzerland,  such  as 
the  Monte  Rosa,  Matterhorn  or  Mont  Cervin, 
Finsteraarhorn,  and  Jungfrati,  ranging  between 
15,200  and  13,700  ft.,  are  treated  separately 


I.  II  Y 

U  N  I  V  !•:  it  8  1  T  Y   O  V 

rALSPORNI 


•• 


SWITZERLAND 


525 


under  their  respective  names.  To  the  west 
of  the  Alps,  between  France  and  Switzerland, 
extends  the  Jura  range  of  mountains.  (See 
JURA.)  There  are  many  points  of  view  whence 
the  semicircular  array  of  peaks,  presented  at 
once  to  the  eye,  extends  for  more  than  120 
m.,  and  comprises  between  200  and  300  dis 
tinct  summits,  capped  with  snow  or  bristling 
with  bare  rocks.  Of  the  heights  commanding 
such  panoramas,  the  Rigi  is  probably  the  finest 
and  is  one  of  the  most  accessible.  (See  RIGI.) 
The  Faulhorn,  in  the  Bevnese  Oberland,  af 
fords  a  fine  view  of  the  High  Alps  rising  close 
at  hand.  For  a  near  view  of  Alpine  scenery, 
among  the  spots  which  afford  a  concentration 
of  the  grandest  objects  are  the  valleys  of  the 
Bernese  Oberland,  and  those  which  descend 
from  Monte  Rosa  in  Valais.  In  these  districts 
the  glaciers  are  seen  to  great  advantage.  A 
description  of  the  Swiss  Alpine  passes,  the  car 
riage  roads,  including  those  recently  opened, 
and  the  railway  over  the  St.  Gothard  pass  now 
(1876)  in  course  of  construction,  is  given  in 
ALPS.  Of  the  Alpine  defiles,  the  ravine  of  the 
Via  Mala,  on  the  upper  Rhine  in  Grisons,  is 
one  of  the  most  sublime  scenes.  The  gorge 
of  the  Schollenen  on  the  St.  Gothard,  that  of 
Gondo  on  the  Siuiplon,  and  the  glen  in  whose 
depths  the  baths  of  Pfiifers  are  sunk,  also  de 
serve  mention.  The  glaciers  of  Switzerland 
are  the  reservoirs  which  feed  some  of  the  lar 
gest  rivers  of  western  Europe,  including  the 
upper  Rhine,  which  flows  within  and  along  the 
boundary  line  of  Switzerland,  and  then  enters 
Germany,  and  the  Rhone,  which  rises  among 
the  glaciers  of  the  St.  Gothard  range  near  the 
Furca,  receives  the  Visp,  Borgne,  and  Dranse, 
and  on  quitting  the  canton  of  Geneva  becomes 
a  French  river.  The  next  largest  river  in 
Switzerland  is  the  Aar,  which  rises  in  the  Ber 
nese  mountains,  receives  the  Saane,  Reuss, 
and  other  affluents,  and  carries  the  waters  of 
14  cantons  to  the  Rhine.  The  Ticino  flows 
through  the  canton  of  that  name,  and  passes 
through  Lago  Maggiore  into  Italy ;  and  the  Inn 
waters  a  part  of  the  canton  of  Grisons.  There 
are  numerous  waterfalls,  among  which  are  the 
fall  of  the  Aar,  at  Handeck,  in  the  canton  of 
Bern;  the  Staubbach  or  Dost  fall,  in  the  Ber 
nese  Oberland;  the  Giesbach,  on  the  lake  of 
Brienz ;  the  fall  of  the  Sallenche,  known  as  the 
Pissevache,  near  Martigny,  Valais;  Reichenbach 
falls,  near  Meiringen,  Bern ;  the  fall  of  Pianaz- 
zo,  on  the  Splugen,  Grisons ;  the  Tourtemagne 
fall,  near  the  Simplon  road,  in  Valais ;  and  the 
falls  of  the  Rhine,  near  Schaffhausen.  There 
are  several  lakes,  and  the  more  important,  Bi- 
enne,  Constance,  Geneva,  Lago  Maggiore,  Lu 
cerne,  and  Lugano,  are  described  in  separate 
articles. — The  more  marked  geological  features 
of  Switzerland  are  noticed  in  the  articles 
ALPS  and  JURA  ;  and  the  glacial  phenomena 
which  have  been  most  carefully  studied,  and 
which  throw  so  much  light  upon  the  dynam 
ics  of  geology,  are  specially  treated  in  the  ar 
ticle  GLACIER.  Xo  country  possesses  greater 


interest  for  geologists  than  Switzerland,  whose 
formations  are  exhibited  upon  the  grandest 
scale,  and  reveal  in  the  most  striking  manner 
the  metamorphism  to  which  rocks  are  sub 
ject,  converting  strata  of  comparatively  recent 
formation  into  schistose  and  crystalline  rocks ; 
but  its  mineral  resources,  including  iron,  lead, 
and  copper,  are  of  no  great  importance.  An 
thracite  of  inferior  quality  is  found  in  several 
places.  The  salt  mines  near  Basel  and  those 
at  Bex  (Vaud)  are  the  most  important.  Gyp 
sum  is  found  with  the  salt,  and  slate  is  ex 
tensively  quarried.  There  is  a  large  number 
of  mineral  springs,  many  of  which  are  fa 
mous  as  watering  places.  The  most  celebrated 
are  Leuk  (Valais),  St.  Moritz  in  the  valley  of 
Engadine  (Grisons),  Pfafers  (St.  Gall),  and  Ba 
den  and  Schinznach  (Aargau). — The  climate  is 
more  severe  than  might  be  expected  from  the 
geographical  position  of  Switzerland.  On  the 
highest  summits  snow  and  ice  are  perpetual.  On 
the  lower  mountains  and  the  table  land  snow 
falls  in  greater  abundance  than  in  other  coun 
tries  of  the  same  latitude  in  Europe.  In  Valais 
the  fig  and  grape  ripen  at  the  foot  of  ice-clad 
mountains,  while  near  their  summits  the  rhodo 
dendron  and  the  lichen  grow  at  the  limit  of  the 
snow  line.  Ticino  has  the  climate  of  Italy,  yet 
the  weather  is  more  changeable.  Switzerland 
on  the  whole  is  very  healthful,  with  the  excep 
tion  of  a  few  places  in  swampy  or  very  nar 
row  and  deep  valleys.  In  the  middle  ages  the 
country  of  the  Jura  suffered  much  from  earth 
quakes,  which  have  entirely  ceased  for  several 
centuries ;  but  floods,  avalanches,  and  snow 
storms  still  threaten  the  inhabitants  with  fre 
quent  dangers.  About  two  thirds  of  the  sur 
face  consists  of  lakes  and  other  waters,  glaciers, 
naked  rocks,  and  other  uninhabitable  heights. 
Some  districts  are  very  fruitful,  yet  the  grain 
raised  is  not  sufficient  for  the  supply  of  the 
population.  The  vine  is  cultivated  on  the  slopes 
of  the  Jura  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rhine, 
Rhone,  Reuss,  Limmat,  and  Thur,  and  in  some 
places  ripens  at  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The 
annual  production  is  valued  at  about  $0,000,000. 
Flax  and  hemp  are  extensively  grown.  Irriga 
tion  is  judiciously  managed,  and  in  general 
agriculture  is  making  progress.  The  forests 
cover  about  17  per  cent,  of  the  soil,  and  al 
though  their  cultivation  is  imperfect,  the  pro 
duction  of  timber  exceeds  the  home  consump 
tion.  Fishing  still  yields  considerable  produce, 
but  hunting  is  not  practised  to  the  same  extent 
as  formerly,  and  in  some  of  the  cantons  it  is 
forbidden  by  law.  Chamois  are  still  found  in 
the  Alps ;  other  animals  are  bears,  wolves,  wild 
boars,  and  roebucks ;  foxes  and  hares  are  nu 
merous,  and  otters  are  found  in  some  of  the 
lakes.  Switzerland  is  celebrated  for  its  rich 
and  excellent  pastures ;  the  finest  breeds  of 
cattle  are  those  of  the  Simmenthal  and  Saanen 
(Bern),  Gruyere  (Fribourg),  Zng,  and  Schwytz. 
In  1866  there  were  993,000  horned  cattle  (about 
one  fourth  milch  cows),  100,000  horses,  447,- 
000  sheep,  375,000  goats,  and  304,000  swine. 


526 


SWITZEKLAND 


The  sheep  and  swine  do  not  supply  the  home 
demand.  The  best  cheese  is  made  in  Gruyere 
and  in  Urseren  (Uri),  and  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Emmen,  Saane,  and  Simmen. — While  Switzer 
land  is  mainly  agricultural,  certain  classes  of 
manufactures  are  prosperous  and  important. 
The  chief  seats  of  the  cotton  manufacture  are 
Aargau,  Appenzell,  St.  Gall,  Zug,  and  Zurich. 
The  number  of  mills  in  1870  was  168,  and  of 
spindles  2,059,350,  employing  20,000  opera 
tives,  besides  38,000  hand-loom  weavers.  This 
estimate  includes  6,000  workers  in  Appenzell 
and  St.  Gall  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
embroidery  alone,  to  the  annual  value  of  $2,000,- 
000.  Basel  employs  6,000  persons  in  the  man 
ufacture  of  silk  ribbons,  to  the  annual  value 
of  $7,000,000,  and  12,000  operatives  in  Zurich 
make  silk  stuffs  of  the  annual  value  of  $8,000,- 
000.  In  Bern,  Geneva,  Neufchatel,  Solothurn, 
and  Vaud  36,000  persons  produce  annually 
1,600,000  watches,  valued  at  $17,600,000.  The 
movements  of  many  of  these  are  exported  to 
be  cased  in  other  countries.  Wood  carving  is 
carried  on  in  most  of  the  cantons.  Vaud  pro 
duces  annually  80,000  musical  boxes.  The  ex 
ports  of  Switzerland  to  the  United  States  for 
the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1874,  amounted  to 
$12,270,368,  including  watches  to  the  value  of 
$2,423,993.  The  value  of  the  foreign  trade  in 
1868  was  set  down  at  $93,600,000  of  exports 
and  $84,000,000  of  imports.  The  principal 
articles  of  import  are  grain,  flour,  wine  and 
cider,  iron,  raw  cotton,  coal,  and  petroleum. 
The  aggregate  length  of  railway  lines,  Jan.  1, 
1874,  was  916  m.  They  are  all  private  roads, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Bern  railway,  which 
belongs  to  the  state.  The  aggregate  length  of 
telegraph  in  1873  was  6,322  in.,  with  715  sta 
tions. — Switzerland  consists  of  22  cantons,  or, 
as  three  cantons,  Unterwalden,  Appenzell,  and 
Basel,  are  divided  into  two  independent  half 
cantons  each,  of  25  states,  the  area  and  popu 
lation  of  which  are  as  follows : 


CANTONS. 

Area  in 

sq.  m. 

Population 
in  1870. 

Catholics. 

Protes 
tants. 

Aargau  
Appenzell  Outer  Rhodes 
Appenzell  Inner  Rhodes 
Basel  City  
Basel  Country. 

542 

100 
63 
14 
362 
2,660 
613 
109 
267 
2,774 
579 
8  12 
7SO 
116 
850 
803 
382 
1,095 
183 
112 
415 
2.026 
1,244 
92 
G65 

198,873 
48,726 
11,913 
47,760 
54,127 
506,561 
110,832 
93,239 
35,150 
91,782 
132,338 
97,284 
191,015 
37,721 
47,705 
74,713 
93.300 
119,619 
14.415 
11,701 
16,107 
96.887 
231,700 
20,993 
284,786 

89.180 
2,358 
11,720 
12,301 
10.245 
66,015 
93,951 
47,868 
6,888 
39,843 
128.338 
11,500 
116,060 
3,051 
47,047 
62,07? 
23,454 
119.350 
14,055 
11.632 
16.018 
95.963 
17,592 
200S2 
17,942 

107,703 
46,175 
188 
34.455 
43.523 
436,304 
16,819 
43,639 
28,238 
51.887 
3,823 
84,334 
74,573 
34,466 
647 
12.448 
69,231 
194 
358 
66 
80 
900 
211,686 
878 
263,730 

Bern  .'  

Fribourg  

Geneva  . 

Glarus 

Orisons  

Lucerne  . 

Neufchatel  

St.  Gall  
Schaffhausen.  .  . 

Schwytz  
Solothurn  
Thurgau  
Ticino  
Unterwalden,  Upper... 
Unterwalden,  Lower.. 
Uri  

Valais  
Vaud.... 
Zu?  
Zurich  

Total  

15,988  '-'.609,247  ,1,084.525   1,566,345 

Fourteen  of  these  divisions  have  capitals  of  the 
same  names;  those  of  the  remaining  eleven 
are  as  follows :  Aargau,  Aarau ;  Appenzell 
Outer  Rhodes,  Trogen  and  Herisau,  alterna 
ting  ;  Basel  Country,  Liestal ;  Grisons,  Coire  ; 
Thurgau,  Frauenf eld  ;  Ticino,  Lugano,  Locarno, 
and  Bellinzona,  alternating;  Upper  Unter 
walden,  Sarnen  ;  Lower  Unterwalden,  Stanz  ; 
Uri,  Altorf ;  Valais,  Sion ;  Vaud,  Lausanne. 
Of  the  entire  population  94*3  per  cent,  were 
natives,  and  5'7  foreigners,  including  63,000 
Germans,  62,000  French,  and  18,000  Italians. 
The  number  of  communes  in  1870  was  3,052,  of 
which  5  had  a  population  of  more  than  20,000, 
7  from  10,000  to  20,000,  31  from  5,000  to 
10,000,  and  251  more  than  2,000.  The  number 
of  houses  was  387,148,  and  of  families  557,018. 
The  excess  of  females  over  males  was  about 
59,500.  The  number  of  births  in  1871  was 
81,629,  and  of  deaths  77,998.  The  popula 
tion  has  increased  since  1816  about  50  per  cent., 
more  slowly  than  that  of  the  United  States  arid 
Great  Britain,  but  in  a  much  larger  ratio  than 
that  of  France.  Geneva,  Basel,  and  Neufchatel 
have  increased  nearly  100  per  cent. ;  Lucerne 
and  Bern  more  than  50 ;  Zurich  nearly  50. 
Since  1860  every  canton  except  Appenzell  In 
ner  Rhodes  shows  an  increase  of  population. 
Of  the  entire  population  in  1870,  1,095,447 
were  wholly  or  partly  supported  by  agricul 
ture ;  the  manufactories  employed  216,468, 
and  the  handicrafts  241,425.  The  difference 
of  language  points  to  the  difference  of  origin 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  several  cantons.  The 
1ST.,  N.  E.,  and  central  cantons  speak  a  German 
dialect ;  French  prevails  in  Vaud,  Geneva,  and 
Neufchatel,  and  in  parts  of  Valais,  Fribourg, 
and  Bern ;  Italian  in  Ticino  and  in  a  part  of 
Grisons ;  and  Romansh,  a  corrupted  dialect 
of  the  Latin,  in  a  part  of  Grisons.  The  popu 
lation  speaking  these  four  languages  is  classi 
fied  by  the  census  of  1870  as  follows  :  German 
is  spoken  in  384,538  families,  French  in  133,- 
575,  Italian  in  30,079,  Romansh  in  8,778,  and 
other  languages  in  48.  A  majority  of  the  in 
habitants  are  Protestants,  but  the  Roman 
Catholics  are  most  numerous  in  11  cantons 
and  one  half  canton,  viz. :  Appenzell  Inner 
Rhodes,  Fribourg,  Geneva,  Lucerne,  St.  Gall, 
Schwytz,  Solothurn,  Ticino,  Unterwalden,  Uri, 
Aralais,  and  Zug.  They  have  five  bishops,  viz. : 
of  Basel,  Coire,  Fribourg,  St.  Gall,  and  Sion. 
There  are  also  priests  with  the  functions  of 
prefects  apostolic  to  minister  to  scattered 
Catholics.  In  1872  the  pope  erected  Geneva 
into  a  new  diocese,  but  the  cantonal  govern 
ment  denounced  the  measure  as  contrary  to 
law.  In  1873  the  pope  made  it  an  independent 
vicariate  apostolic,  and  the  bishop  of  Fribourg 
resumed  the  former  additional  title  of  Lau 
sanne,  but  the  federal  council  refused  to  recog 
nize  it.  In  1873-' 4  several  parish  churches, 
especially  in  the  cantons  of  Aargau,  Bern,  Ge 
neva,  and  Solothurn,  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  Old  Catholics.  The  Jesuits  and  Re- 
demptorists  are  excluded  by  the  federal  con- 


SWITZERLAND 


52T 


stitution  from  Switzerland,  and  the  number  of 
the  convents  of  other  religious  orders  has  been 
somewhat  reduced  during  the  present  century; 
in  1874  it  amounted  to  88.  The  constitution  [ 
of  1874  forbids  the  founding  of  new  convents. 
The  Protestants  belong  mostly  to  the  Reformed 
church.  Since  1857  deputies  of  the  Reformed 
cantonal  churches  meet  annually  in  a  Helvetic 
conference.  Faculties  of  Protestant  theology 
are  connected  with  the  universities  of  Bern, 
Zurich,  and  Basel,  and  there  are  also  several 
theological  schools  in  French  Switzerland ;  in 
Bern  a  faculty  of  Old  Catholic  theology  was 
established  in  1874.  Basel  is  the  seat  of  the 
greatest  missionary  and  Bible  society  of  con 
tinental  Europe,  while  the  religious  societies 
of  French  Switzerland  have  their  centre  in 
Geneva.  Free  churches  (Presbyterian  or  In 
dependent)  have  been  formed  during  the  pres 
ent  century  by  secession  from  the  state  church 
es,  and  are  especially  numerous  in  the  can 
tons  of  Geneva,  Neufchatel,  and  Vaud,  in  each 
of  which  they  have  a  theological  school.  The 
Methodists  and  Baptists  have  congregations  in 
several  cantons,  and  the  former  also  a  book 
concern  at  Zurich.  In  1870  the  number  of 
Jews  amounted  to  6,996.  —  Switzerland  has 
three  full  universities,  at  Basel,  Bern,  and  Zu 
rich.  The  former  was  founded  in  1460,  the 
.two  latter  since  1832.  All  are  organized  after  j 
the  model  of  the  German  universities,  gov 
erned  by  a  rector  and  a  senate,  and  divided 
into  faculties,  of  which  Basel  has  four,  Zurich 
five,  and  Bern  six.  There  are  also  four  acade 
mies,  at  Geneva,  Lausanne,  and  Neufchatel, 
each  with  three  faculties,  and  Fribourg  with 
two  faculties;  three  lyceums,  at  Lugano,  Ein- 
siedeln  (Schwytz),  and  Sion;  and  nine  theo 
logical  schools.  The  academy  at  Geneva  (called 
also  university),  founded  in  1368,  the  scene 
of  Calvin's  and  Beza's  teaching,  has  hitherto 
lacked  a  medical  faculty.  This  will  soon  be 
added,  completing  the  university.  All  the 
academies  except  that  of  Fribourg  are  Prot 
estant,  all  the  lyceums  Catholic.  The  number 
of  gymnasia  and  cantonal  schools  is  47.  The 
federal  constitution  of  1848  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  a  federal  university  (the  three 
above  mentioned  being  cantonal  institutions) ; 
but  the  conflicting  claims  of  several  cantons  as 
to  its  location,  and  of  the  Reformed  and  Ro 
man  Catholic  churches  as  to  its  organization, 
have  prevented  the  execution  of  the  plan.  A 
federal  polytechnic  school  was  founded  in  1854 
at  Zurich,  and  has  attained  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity  and  celebrity.  In  1874  it  had  73 
professors  and  676  students,  and  275  pupils 
who  study  one  or  more  branches  at  their  op 
tion.  The  number  of  public  schools  amounts 
to  about  7,000,  educating  upward  of  400,000 
pupils.  There  is  a  federal  military  academy 
at  Thun  (Bern).  The  expenses  of  public  in 
struction  are  partly  paid  by  the  communities, 
partly  by  special  school  funds,  and  partly  by 
appropriations  of  the  cantonal  governments; 
and  the  constitution  requires  that  all  children 
VOL.  xv. — 34 


must  attend  school  from  their  7th  to  their 
14th  year.  Many  private  educational  institu 
tions  have  gained  a  world-wide  celebrity  since 
the  days  of  Pestalozzi  and  Fellenberg,  who 
conducted  establishments  of  this  kind  at  Yver- 
dun  (Vaud)  and  Hofwyl  (Bern).  Considerable 
attention  is  given  to  musical  instruction,  and 
in  1874  the  federal  singing  societies  numbered 
8,552  members.  The  Alpine  valleys  are  re 
markable  for  their  peculiar  local  melodies. 
(See  RANZ  DES  VACHES.)  The  number  of  pe 
riodicals  published  in  Switzerland  in  1872  was 
412,  of  which  266  were  in  German,  118  in 
French,  16  in  Italian,  5  in  Romansh,  1  in 
English,  and  6  in  German  and  French.  The 
aggregate  number  of  copies  issued  was  90,800,- 
000. — The  first  federal  constitution  of  Switz 
erland,  which  superseded  the  federal  contract 
of  Aug.  7,  1815,  and  changed  the  federal  union 
of  states  into  a  federal  republic,  was  promul 
gated  Sept.  12,  1848.  ,  A  revised  constitution 
was  submitted  to  the  people  on  April  19, 1874, 
and,  having  received  the  constitutional  ma 
jority,  came  into  force  on  May  29.  It  pro 
vides  that  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty  which 
are  not  expressly  transferred  to  the  confed 
eracy  are  exercised  by  the  25  cantons  and 
half  cantons.  Among  the  prerogatives  of  the 
federal  government  are  the  rights  of  declar 
ing  war,  of  concluding  peace  or  treaties,  and 
of  sending  diplomatic  representatives.  The 
formation  of  separate  alliances  between  the 
cantons,  without  special  permission,  is  pro 
hibited.  The  constitution  of  every  canton  is 
guaranteed,  if  it  is  republican  in  form,  if  it 
has  been  adopted  by  the  people,  and  if  it  can 
be  revised  on  the  demand  of  a  majority  of  the 
citizens.  All  Swiss  are  equal  before  the  law, 
and  the  former  relation  of  subjects  as  well  as 
all  privileges  of  place  or  birth  are  abolished. 
There  shall  be  complete  and  absolute  liberty 
of  conscience  and  of  creed.  No  one  can  incur 
any  penalties  whatsoever  on  account  of  his  re 
ligious  opinions.  The  father  or  guardian  has 
the  right  to  dispose  of  the  religious  education 
of  the  children  up  to  the  age  of  16  years.  No 
one  is  bound  to  contribute  to  the  expenses  of 
a  church  to  which  he  does  not  belong.  The 
free  exercise  of  worship  is  guaranteed.  Civil 
marriage  is  compulsory,  and  a  subsequent  re 
ligious  ceremony  is  optional.  The  cantons 
have  the  right  to  maintain  peace  and  order 
between  different  religious  communities,  and 
to  prevent  encroachments  of  ecclesiastical  au 
thorities  upon  the  rights  of  citizens.  No  new 
bishoprics  can  be  created  without  the  appro 
bation  of  the  federal  government,  Liberty  of 
the  press,  Of  petition,  and  of  association  is 
guaranteed;  but  the  Jesuits  and  all  religious 
orders  and  associations  which  are  affiliated  to 
them  are  prohibited ;  all  functions,  clerical 
and  scholastic,  are  forbidden  to  Jesuits,  and 
this  interdiction  can  be  extended  to  any  other 
religious  order  whose  action  may  be  deemed 
dangerous  to  the  state.  The  confederacy  lias 
the  right  of  sending  away  dangerous  foreign- 


528 


SWITZERLAND 


crs.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the 
federal  assembly,  which  consists  of  a  national 
council  and  a  council  of  states  (Ger.  Stdnde- 
rath ;  Fr.  comeil  des  etats).  The  national  coun 
cil  consists  of  deputies  of  the  people,  in  the 
ratio  of  about  one  for  every  20,000  persons, 
so  that  every  canton  and  every  independent 
half  canton  has  the  right  of  electing  at  least 
one  councillor.  On  the  basis  of  the  census 
of  1870  the  council  consists  of  135  members. 
The  national  council  is  elected  for  the  term 
of  three  years,  and  every  citizen  who  is  20 
years  of  age  has  the  right  of  voting,  and  any 
voter,  not  a  clergyman,  is  eligible.  Natural 
ized  citizens  may  be  elected  after  being  citi 
zens  for  five  years.  The  council  of  states 
has  44  members,  two  for  every  canton  and 
one  for  every  half  canton.  The  members  of 
the  national  council  are  paid  out  of  the  fed 
eral  treasury,  those  of  the  council  of  states  by 
the  cantons.  The  executive  power  is  exer 
cised  by  a  federal  council,  consisting  of  seven 
members,  who  are  chosen  for  a  term  of  three 
years  by  the  federal  assembly  (the  national 
council  and  the  council  of  states  in  joint  ses 
sion).  They  divide  among  themselves  the  seven 
departments  of  foreign  affairs,  of  the  post  and 
telegraphs,  of  justice  and  police,  of  finance, 
of  war,  of  the  interior,  and  of  commerce  and 
duties,  each  member  taking  one  department 
and  being  at  the  same  time  the  substitute  in  a 
second  department.  The  president  and  vice 
president  of  the  federal  council,  who  are  also 
president  and  vice  president  of  the  confedera 
tion,  are  chosen  for  one  year  only,  and  by  the 
council  itself  from  among  its  own  members, 
and  are  not  reeligible  till  after  the  expiration 
of  another  year.  The  federal  court,  which  is 
also  chosen  by  the  federal  assembly  for  a  term 
of  six  years,  consists  of  nine  members  and  nine 
substitutes,  and  has  its  seat  at  Lausanne.  The 
constitution  may  at  any  time  undergo  a  revision 
in  the  regular  way  of  legislation ;  if  the  two 
councils  disagree,  or  if  50,000  citizens  demand 
it,  the  question  of  a  revision  has  to  be  submit 
ted  to  a  direct  vote  of  the  people.  The  re 
vised  constitution,  in  order  to  become  effec 
tive,  must  be  adopted  by  a  majority  of  all  citi 
zens  of  Switzerland  as  well  as  by  a  majority 
of  the  cantons.  The  cantonal  constitutions 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  1.  Pure 
democracies,  in  which  the  rights  of  sovereign 
ty  are  exercised  by  a  general  assembly  of  all 
citizens,  which  meets  once  a  year,  mostly  in 
April  or  May,  votes  upon  laws,  fixes  the  taxes, 
and  elects  the  cantonal  officers.  The  execu 
tive  is  called  Landraih,  and  consists  of  the 
cantonal  officers  and  the  councillors  elected 
by  the  several  political  communities.  This 
is  the  constitution  of  Uri,  Appenzell,  Unter- 
walden,  and  Glarus.  2.  Representative  de 
mocracies,  in  which  the  people  elect  a  legisla 
tive  assembly,  called  the  grand  council,  which 
chooses  from  its  own  number  the  executive, 
called  little  council.  In  many  cantons  the 
people  have  the  right  of  vetoing  every  bill 


passed  by  the  grand  council.  In  most  of  the 
cantons  the  members  of  the  grand  council  re 
ceive  no  pay.  Instead  of  printed  law  books, 
some  of  the  smaller  cantons  used  until  recent 
ly  written  traditions ;  but  now  nearly  every 
canton  has  its  printed  code  of  laws.  Many 
old  Germanic  elements  are  to  be  found  in 
Swiss  law  ;  the  Roman  law  has  had  a  predom 
inating  influence  only  in  a  few  border  can 
tons.  The  institution  of  the  jury,  which  was 
first  tried  in  Geneva,  has  since  been  intro 
duced  into  several  other  cantons.  The  federal 
capital  is  Bern. — The  finances  of  Switzerland 
are  in  a  very  favorable  condition.  In  1873 
the  entire  revenue,  the  greater  part  of  it  de 
rived  from  duties  and  the  postal  system,  was 
$7,152,704,  and  the  expenditures  were  $7,154,- 
712.  Since  1848  duties  are  levied  only  on 
the  frontiers  of  the  republic,  and  not,  as  be 
fore,  on  the  limits  of  each  canton.  A  por 
tion  of  the  customs  dues,  as  well  as  a  great 
portion  of  the  postal  revenue,  are  paid  over  to 
the  cantonal  governments,  in  compensation  for 
the  loss  of  such  former  sources  of  income.  In 
extraordinary  cases,  the  federal  government 
may  levy  a  rate  upon  the  various  cantons  after 
a  scale  settled  for  20  years.  The  public  debt 
at  the  close  of  1873  amounted  to  $5,650,000, 
and  the  federal  property  to  $5,691,000.  The 
aggregate  income  of  all  the  cantons  in  1868 
amounted  to  $8,320,000,  the  aggregate  ex 
penditures  to  $8,630,000.  Schaffhausen  and 
Appenzell  Inner  Rhodes  had  no  public  debt ; 
many  other  cantons  formerly  without  debt 
have  of  late  contracted  one  for  the  purpose 
of  building  railways.  In  the  majority  of  can 
tons  the  public  property  exceeds  the  debt. 
In  1868  the  aggregate  property  belonging  to 
the  cantonal  governments  amounted  to  $54,- 
770,000,  and  the  aggregate  debts  to  only  $33,- 
660,000.— The  military  establishment  of  Switz 
erland  is  based  upon  purely  democratic  prin 
ciples.  The  fundamental  laws  of  the  republic 
forbid  the  maintenance  of  a  standing  army 
within  the  limits  of  the  confederation.  Every 
able-bodied  citizen  is  actually  a  defender  of 
the  republic.  The  federal  army  consists  of 
citizens  from  20  to  44  years  of  age,  and  is 
divided  into  three  classes  according  to  age. 
The  first  class,  comprising  men  from  20  to  34 
years  of  age,  constitutes  the  active  field  army ; 
the  second  class,  34  to  40  years,  the  reserve 
army;  and  the  third  class,  40  to  44  years,  the 
sedentary  militia.  The  constitution  of  1874 
considerably  extends  the  federal  control  in 
military  matters.  Both  the  army  and  the  war 
material  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  confed 
eration,  which  in  cases  of  emergency  has  the 
exclusive  right  to  dispose  of  the  men  who  do 
not  belong  to  the  federal  army.  All  the  laws 
relative  to  the  army  are  enacted  by  the  con 
federation,  which  also  provides  for  the  educa 
tion  of  the  troops.  The  Thun  military  acade 
my  furnishes  the  army  with  the  highest  class 
of  officers  and  with  instructors  for  the  lower 
grades.  There  are  special  schools  for  different 


SWITZERLAND 


529 


branches  of  the  service,  especially  for  the  ar 
tillery  and  riflemen.  All  the  different  classes 
are  required  to  devote  a  certain  number  of 
days  in  each  year  to  battalion  and  brigade 
drills  and  field  manoeuvres.  The  Swiss  are 
accurate  marksmen  with  the  rifle,  and  meet 
constantly  to  practise  and  engage  in  trials  of 
skill.  There  are  clubs  and  societies  in  almost 
every  valley  and  parish,  and  frequent  match 
es  ;  besides  which  a  federal  rifle  match  is  held 
every  year.  The  number  of  riflemen  in  the 
army  list  of  1874  was  13,918.  Annual  con 
tests  in  wrestling  also  are  held  in  many  parts 
of  Switzerland.  In  September,  1874,  the  field 
army  numbered  84,369  men,  the  reserve  army 
50,069,  and  the  militia  65,981 ;  making,  with 
administrative  troops  and  the  sanitary  corps, 
a  total  of  201,257.— The  first  inhabitants  of 
Switzerland  are  supposed  to  have  been  of  Cel 
tic  origin,  and  to  have  immigrated  from  the 
northeast.  Their  collective  name  was  Hel 
vetians.  (See  HELVETII.)  The  high  valleys 
near  the  sources  of  the  Rhine,  in  the  present 
canton  of  Grisons,  were  occupied  by  a  tribe 
akin  to  the  Tyrrhenians  or  Etruscans,  called 
the  RhaBtians.  In  113  B.  C.  two  tribes  of 
Helvetians,  the  Tigurini  and  Tugeni  (from 
which  are  derived  the  names  of  Zurich  and 
Zug),  joined  the  Cimbri  and  Teutons  in  their 
inroads  into  Italy.  In  this  war  the  Helvetian 
Divico,  in  107,  completely  routed  the  Romans 
under  their  consul  L.  Cassius  Longinus.  Af 
ter  the  defeat  of  the  Cimbri  in  101,  the  Hel 
vetians  returned  unmolested  to  their  moun 
tains,  followed,  it  is  believed,  by  the  scattered 
remnants  of  the  Cimbri,  to  whom  the  founda 
tion  of  the  town  of  Schwytz  is  ascribed.  In 
the  time  of  CaBsar  an  entire  tribe  of  the  Hel 
vetians,  instigated  by  their  leader  Orgetorix, 
determined  to  conquer  scats  in  Gaul,  destroyed 
their  towns  and  villages,  and  under  the  com 
mand  of  Divico  crossed  the  Saone ;  but  they 
were  conquered  by  Cassar  at  Bibracte  (Autun), 
and  driven  back  to  their  country.  Soon  after 
ward  the  Helvetian  tribes  were  gradually  sub 
dued  by  the  Romans,  and  even  the  Rhastians, 
who  were  the  last  to  maintain  their  freedom, 
were  compelled  at  length  to  yield.  For  sev 
eral  centuries  Switzerland  remained  a  province 
of  the  Romans,  who  introduced  their  manners, 
laws,  and  civilization,  and  founded  several 
towns,  as  Augusta  Rauraooruin  (Angst,  near 
Basel),  Curia  Rhsetorum  (Coire),  Vindonissa 
(Windisch,  in  Aargau),  Aventicum  (Avenches, 
in  Vaud),  and  Eburodunum  (Yverdun).  In 
the  2d,  3d,  and  4th  centuries  the  country  was 
often  harassed  by  the  invasion  of  German 
tribes,  especially  the  Alemanni ;  the  Celtic  and 
Roman  elements  of  the  population  mostly 
perished,  the  towns  were  sacked,  and  the 
country  laid  waste.  In  the  5th  century  the 
Burgundians,  Alemanni,  and  Goths  divided 
the  country  among  themselves ;  but  their  do 
minion  was  short,  and  in  the  6th  century 
they  were  all  brought  into  subjection  by  the 
Franks.  Christianity,  which  had  already  be 


gun  to  take  root  in  Burgundian  Switzerland, 
became  under  the  rule  of  the  Franks  the  re 
ligion  of  the  entire  country.  Many  bishoprics 
and  convents  were  founded,  and  the  bishops 
and  many  abbots  obtained  great  political  in 
fluence.  Though  wholly  incorporated  with 
the  empire  of  the  Franks,  the  country  was 
in  point  of  administration  divided  into  two 
parts:  the  one,  extending  from  the  lake  of 
Constance  and  the  Rhine  to  the  Aar  and  St. 
Gothard,  was  called  Rhgetia  and  Thurigau ; 
and  the  other,  comprising  the  present  cantons 
of  Geneva,  Valais,  Neufchatel,  Bern,  Fribourg, 
Solothurn,  &c.,  was  called  Little  Burgundia. 
Under  the  weak  reign  of  Charles  the  Fat  (died 
888),  Switzerland,  like  many  other  parts  of 
the  empire,  was  lost  to  the  Franks.  The  N. 
part  came  into  the  possession  of  the  duke  of 
Alemannia  (Swabia),  and  thus  became  part  of 
the  German  empire,  while  the  S.  part  be 
longed  to  Burgundy.  During  the  invasion  of 
Germany  by  the  Hungarians  in  the  10th  cen 
tury,  many  towns,  as  St.  Gall,  Basel,  Zurich, 
and  Lucerne,  were  fortified,  and  rose  in  im 
portance.  During  the  reign  of  the  emperors 
of  the  house  of  Saxony  the  country  was  mostly 
held  as  fiefs  by  the  vassals  of  the  empire,  in 
particular  by  the  bishops  and  abbots,  the  counts 
of  Kyburg  (Zurich),  Hapsburg  and  Lenzburg 
(Aargau),  and  Rapperswyl  and  Toggenburg 
(St.  Gall)  ;  later  also  by  the  count  of  Savoy 
and  the  duke  of  Zahringen.  Many  of  these 
noble  families  became  extinct  during  the  cru 
sades  ;  and  the  power  and  prosperity  of  the 
towns  rose  still  higher,  Bern  and  Fribourg 
even  becoming  free  cities  of  the  German  em 
pire.  Zurich,  Bern,  and  Basel  formed  an  al 
liance,  and  tried  to  make  themselves  inde 
pendent.  Yet  the  independence  of  Switzer 
land  did  not  proceed  from  them,  but  from  the 
three  ancient  cantons  of  Schwytz,  Uri,  and 
Unterwalden,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are 
believed  to  have  descended  from  immigrants 
from  Sweden,  and  which  had  never  been  con 
quered.  They  were  only  under  the  protection 
of  the  German  emperor,  near  whom  their 
rights  were  guarded  by  a  vogt,  first  a  count 
of  Lenzburg,  and  afterward  a  count  of  Haps 
burg.  The  elevation  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg 
to  the  imperial  throne  of  Germany  in  1273, 
and  his  conquest  of  Austria  and  other  posses 
sions  of  Ottocar  of  Bohemia,  greatly  increased 
the  influence  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  in  Switz 
erland.  Albert,  the  son  of  Rudolph,  sought 
to  incorporate  the  Swiss  with  Austria.  Bern 
and  Zurich  at  once  resisted  successfully ;  but 
in  Schwytz,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden  he  succeed 
ed  for  a  time.  The  convention  entered  into 
by  33  distinguished  men  of  the  three  cantons 
on  the  Grutli  or  Riitli,  a  meadow  on  their 
common  frontier,  during  the  night  of  Nov.  7- 
8,  1307,  led,  on  Jan.  1,  1308,  to  the  expul 
sion  of  the  Austrian  officers  and  the  destruc 
tion  of  their  castles.  The  legend  of  Tell  be 
longs  to  this  period.  The  relation  of  the  three 
cantons  to  the  German  empire  remained  at 


530 


SWITZERLAND 


first  unchanged;  but  the  war  of  Austria  for 
reestablishing  its  rule  in  the  emancipated  can 
tons,  which  "lasted  with  many  interruptions 
for  about  200  years,  ended  with  severing  also 
the  ties  which  bound  Switzerland  to  Germa 
ny.  The  Hapsburgs  also  lost  their  possessions 
lying  between  the  Alps  and  the  Ehine,  and 
their  old  family  castles  of  Hapsburg  and  Ky- 
burg.  The  league  of  the  three  old  cantons, 
which  had  first"  been  formed  in  1291  and  re 
newed  in  1308,  was  again  established  as  a 
perpetual  confederacy  in  1315,  after  the  great 
victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Morgarten  on 
the  confines  of  Schwytz  and  Zug.  In  1332 
Lucerne  joined  the  confederacy,  which  re 
ceived  the  name  of  the  Four  Forest  Cantons 
(  Vierwaldstatte).  Zurich  came  in  in  1351,  Gla- 
rus  and  Zug  in  1352,  and  Bern  in  1353,  when 
the  eight  united  cantons  erected  the  "perpet 
ual  league  of  the  eight  old  places  of  the  con 
federacy,"  so  called  because  no  new  members 
were  added  to  the  confederacy  till  1481,  and 
these  eight .  enjoyed  many  privileges  till  1798. 
Other  victories  over  Austria  were  gained  at 
Sempach  (Lucerne),  July  9,  1386,  and  at  Na- 
fels  (Glarus),  April  9,  1388;  after  which  the 
Swiss  became  aggressive,  and  at  length,  not 
withstanding  their  defeats  at  Arbedo  (Ticino) 
in  1422  and  at  St.  Jacob  (Basel)  in  1444,  an 
nexed  a  considerable  portion  of  Austrian  ter 
ritory.  These  protracted  conflicts  awakened 
such  a  fondness  for  warfare  that  many  Swiss 
soldiers  entered  foreign  armies,  where  until 
a  very  recent  period  they  earned  the  ques 
tionable  reputation  of  being  the  most  loyal 
defenders  of  the  cause  which  they  espoused, 
even  if  it  were  that  of  despotism.  Foreign 
enlistment  without  permission  was  forbidden 
by  the  federal  government  in  I860.  There 
were  occasional  internal  dissensions,  and  Zu 
rich  from  1440  to  1450  seceded  from  the  con- 
.federacy.  As  at  this  time  Schwytz  had  a  pre 
dominant  influence  in  the  councils  of  the  con 
federacy,  its  cantonal  colors  (white  and  red) 
were  adopted  as  the  confederate  ensign,  and 
the  party  name  Swiss  (Schwytz)  became  the 
designation  of  the  entire  people.  In  1475  the 
cantons  joined  France,  Austria,  and  some  of 
the  Alsatian  free  towns  in  the  league  against 
Burgundy.  The  Swiss  gained  a  great  victory 
over  Charles,  duke  of  Burgundy,  at  Granson, 
in  March,  1476 ;  the  confederates  annihilated 
his  army  at  Morat  in  June;  and  the  war 
terminated  with  the  defeat  and  death  of  the 
duke  at  Nancy  in  January,  1477.  (See  CHARLES 
THE  BOLD.)  The  admission  of  Solothurn 
and  Fribourg  into  the  confederacy  in  1481 
threatened  a  civil  war,  which  was  averted  by 
the  exhortations  of  the  hermit  Nicholas  von 
der  Flue.  Other  internal  dissensions  were  ter 
minated  by  a  war  against  the  German  emperor 
(1498),  which  was  concluded  by  the  peace  of 
Basel  in  1499,  and  Basel  and  Schaffhausen,  for 
faithful  assistance,  were  admitted  as  members 
of  the  confederacy,  to  which  Appenzell  was 
added  in  1513.  The  number  of  cantons  thus 


rose  to  13,  and  remained  so  till  1798.  The 
Swiss  conquered  Lombardy  for  Duke  Maximil 
ian  Sforza  in  1512,  and  routed  the  French  at 
Novara  in  1513,  but  in  1515  lost  the  great 
battle  at  Marignano.  They  found  France  will 
ing  to  conclude-  with  them  an  advantageous 
peace  in  1516,  which  was  kept  till  1798.  The 
reformation  of  the  16th  century  led  to  open 
war  between  the  Reformed  and  Catholic  can 
tons,  but  soon  after  the  battle  at  Cappel  (Zurich) 
in  1531  peace  was  concluded,  and  every  canton 
left  at  liberty  to  introduce  or  to  oppose  the 
reformation.  (See  REFORMATION,  vol.  xiv., 
pp.  246-'7.)  Geneva  freed  itself,  with  the  aid 
of  Bern,  from  Savoy,  and  in  1536  became  a 
Protestant  republic,  but  without  being  admit 
ted  into  the  confederacy.  Vaud  was  conquered 
by  Bern  from  Savoy  in  1536  and  reformed; 
but  on  the  other  hand,  the  Catholic  cantons 
of  Lucerne,  Uri,  Schwytz,  Unterwalden,  Solo 
thurn,  and  Fribourg  formed  in  1586,  by  the  ad 
vice  of  Archbishop  Charles  Borrorneo  of  Milan, 
the  "  golden  league  "  for  the  common  defence 
of  the  Catholic  religion.  The  religious  split 
long  continued  a  prolific  source  of  dissension 
between  the  cantons.  In  1597  the  canton  of 
Appenzell,  in  order  to  prevent  a  religious  war, 
was  separated  into  two  independent  half  can 
tons,  the  Catholic  part  being  called  Inner 
'Rhodes,  and  the  Reformed  Outer  Rhodes.  In 
1602  the  Reformed  were  expelled  from  Valais, 
and  in  1620  Protestantism  was  forcibly  sup 
pressed  in  the  Valtellina.  In  Grisons  a  bloody 
civil  war  was  kindled,  in  which  other  cantons 
also  took  part,  and  which  made  the  country 
one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  war  between 
France,  Spain,  and  Austria.  As  the  federal 
courts  of  Germany  still  made  claims  on  Switz 
erland  as  belonging  to  the  German  empire,  the 
Swiss  sent  the  burgomaster  Weltstein  of  Basel 
as  their  representative  to  the  peace  congress  of 
Miinster,  which  at  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648)  pronounced  Switzerland  entirely  inde 
pendent  of  Germany.  From  this  time  until 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  revolution  in  1789, 
the  history  of  Switzerland  presents  few  events 
of  general  importance.  It  had  no  foreign  war, 
and  the  occasional  religious  contests  at  home 
were  generally  of  short  duration.  The  most 
important  of  them  was  the  second  war  of 
Toggenburg  in  1712,  when  150,000  Swiss  were 
in  arms  against  each  other.  Other  internal 
commotions  arose  out  of  the  oligarchic  form  of 
government  which  was  gradually  established  in 
the  cantons  of  Bern,  Fribourg,  Solothurn,  and 
Lucerne,  and  out  of  the  oppressed  condition 
of  the  subjected  territories  whose  inhabitants 
were  excluded  from  all  political  rights.  In 
1798  two  French  armies  marched,  without  any 
respectable  pretext,  into  Swiss  territory,  cap 
tured  on  March  5  the  city  of  Bern,  plundered 
its  armory  and  treasury,  and  on  April  12 
proclaimed  at  Aarau  the  one  and  indivisible 
Helvetic  republic,  divided  into  18  cantons, 
with  Aarau  as  the  federal  capital.  By  the 
new  constitution  Bern  was  divided  into  four 


SWITZERLAND 


531 


cantons,  the  subjected  districts  of  Baden,  Thur- 
gau,  Lugano,  and  Bellinzona  were  erected 
into  cantons,  Zug,  Uri,  Schwytz,  and  Unter- 
walden  united  into  the  one  canton  of  the  For 
est  Towns,  and  Appenzell,  St.  Gall,  and  the 
valley  of  the  Rhine  formed  into  the  canton  of 
Sentis.  Geneva,  Bienne  (Bern),  and  several 
other  portions  of  Swiss  territory  were  incor 
porated  with  the  French  republic.  The  resist 
ance  of  the  old  forest  cantons  proved  useless, 
and  the  new  constitution  was  gradually  intro 
duced.  Overthrown  on  the  entrance  and  ad 
vance  of  the  allied  armies  under  the  command 
of  Suvaroff,  it  was  reestablished  after  the  vic 
tories  of  the  French  under  Massena.  The 
withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  in  1802  led 
at  once  to  revolutions  in  almost  every  canton, 
and  a  general  diet,  consisting  of  an  equal  num 
ber  of  deputies  from  the  formerly  governing 
and  the  governed  districts,  was  convoked  at 
Schwytz;  but  again  France  interfered,  12,000 
French  troops  subdued  the  old  cantons,  and 
deputies  from  all  the  cantons  were  ordered  by 
Bonaparte  to  assemble  at  Paris  for  the  pur 
pose  of  reorganizing  Switzerland.  On  Feb.  19, 
1803,  Bonaparte  transmitted  to  them  the  act 
of  mediation,  by  which  the  former  cantonal 
system  was  restored,  although  the  relation  of 
subjected  territories  remained  abolished.  To 
the  13  old  cantons  6  new  ones  were  added, 
viz. :  St.  Gall  and  Grisons,  which  had  formerly 
been  allied  with  the  confederacy  without  being 
members,  and  Aargau,  Thurgau,  Ticino,  »and 
Vaud,  which  had  been  subjected  territories. 
At  the  head  of  the  confederacy  was  again  placed 
a  diet  (Ger.  Tagsatzung),  consisting  of  commis 
sioners,  voting  according  to  instructions.  It 
was  to  assemble  in  turn  in  the  cities  of  Bern, 
Zurich,  Lucerne,  Basel,  Fribourg,  and  Solo- 
thurn,  and  the  burgomaster  of  the  temporary 
capital  (Ger.  Vorort\  under  the  name  of  Lan- 
dammann  of  Switzerland,  was  to  preside  at 
the  diet  and  to  attend  to  all  the  current  af 
fairs  of  the  year.  In  the  democratic  cantons 
the  sovereign  popular  assemblies  were  reestab 
lished  ;  in  the  others  grand  and  little  councils, 
the  former  being  elected  by  a  direct  vote  of 
the  people,  and  the  latter  by  the  grand  coun 
cil.  This  new  constitution  was  on  the  whole 
well  received,  and  under  it  Switzerland  for 
ten  years  enjoyed  peace  at  home  and  abroad. 
After  the  battle  of  Leipsic  the  troops  of  the 
allied  powers  marched  through  Switzerland. 
Bern  and  others  of  the  aristocratic  cantons 
severed  their  connection  with  the  Helvetic 
government  instituted  by  the  act  of  media 
tion,  and  civil  broils  ensued  in  a  number  of 
cantons.  Yet  the  attempt  to  restore  the  for 
mer  order  of  things  had  soon  to  be  given  up, 
and  a  new  constitution,  adopted  by  the  fed 
eral  diet  on  May  27,  1815,  and  sworn  to  at 
Zurich  on  Aug.  7,  acknowledged  all  the  19 
cantons  constituted  by  the  .act  of  mediation, 
and  added  three  new  ones,  Geneva,  Valais,  and 
the  Prussian  principality  of  Neufchatel.  This 
constitution  was  ratified  by  the  great  powers 


of  Europe,  which  also  declared  the  perpetual 
neutrality  and  inviolability  of  the  confedera 
tion  (Nov.  20).  The  territory  of  Switzerland 
was  enlarged  by  portions  of  land  ceded  by 
France  (the  Dappes  valley),  Savoy  (Carouge  and 
several  villages  on  the  lake  of  Geneva  and  on 
the  Rhone),  and  Austria  (Rhaziins,  the  Frick- 
thal,  Laufenburg,  and  Rheinfelden).  The  can 
tons  of  Solothurn,  Grisons,  Schwytz,  and  Ap 
penzell  Inner  Rhodes  adopted  the  constitution 
only  with  reluctance,  and  Nidwalden  (one  half 
or  Unterwalden)  had  to  be  coerced  into  sub 
mission  by  force  of  arms.  According  to  the 
new  confederation  the  cantons  guaranteed  to 
each  other  their  constitution,  and  united  for 
the  common  defence  of  their  independence. 
The  diet  was  to  assemble  annually  on  June  1, 
alternately  at  Bern,  Lucerne,  and  Zurich,  and 
to  it  was  reserved  the  right  of  declaring  war, 
concluding  peace,  and  forming  alliances  with 
foreign  powers.  The  cantons  retained  the 
right  of  forming  with  foreign  states  special 
military  agreements.  The  existence  of  the 
convents  and  cathedral  chapters  was  guaran 
teed  by  a  special  article.  The  administration 
of  federal  affairs,  during  the  time  that  the  diet 
was  not  in  session,  was  left  to  the  temporary 
capital.  In  1817  Switzerland,  on  the  invitation 
of  Alexander  of  Russia,  joined  the  holy  alli 
ance,  and  from  1823  to  1828  it  conceded  to 
the  urgent  requests  of  the  great  powers  of  Eu 
rope  a  restriction  of  the  liberty  of  the  press 
and  of  the  right  of  asylum.  The  aristocracy 
recovered  in  most  cantons  part  of  their  former 
prerogatives,  and  several  capital  towns  greatly 
enlarged  their  influence  at  the  expense  of  the 
country  people.  The  French  revolution  of 
July,  1830,  led  to  violent  political  agitations 
in  Switzerland.  In  several  cantons  the  coun 
try  people  rose  against  the  capital  towns, 
and  forced  them  to  reorganize  the  cantonal 
constitutions  on  a  more  liberal  and  demo 
cratic  basis.  In  the  canton  of  Basel  a  perma 
nent  division  into  two  independent  half  can 
tons,  Basel  City  and  Basel  Country,  was  ef 
fected  in  1832.  In  November  some  of  the 
most  conservative  cantons,  Uri,  Schwytz,  Un 
terwalden,  Neufchatel,  and  Basel  City,  formed 
the  "league  of  Sarnen,"  and  threatened  to 
send  no  more  commissioners  to  the  federal 
diet  if  the  commissioner  from  Basel  Country 
were  admitted.  The  federal  diet  interfered; 
the  separate  league  was  declared  dissolved, 
and  the  refractory  cantons  had  to  submit  to 
the  federal  authority.  Altogether,  liberal  can 
tonal  reforms  were  introduced  in  about  two 
thirds  of  Switzerland.  Encouraged  by  suc 
cess,  the  progressive  party  conceived  also  the 
plan  of  revising  the  federal  constitution,  with 
the  view  of  effecting  a  closer  political  union. 
The  diet,  on  July  17,  1832,  pronounced  in 
favor  of.  the  revision ;  yet,  when  the  amend 
ments  adopted  by  the  diet  were  subjected  to 
a  direct  popular  vote,  they  were  voted  down 
by  a  coalition  of  the  Catholic  and  radical 
parties.  The  large  number  of  political  refu- 


532 


SWITZERLAND 


gees,  who  gathered  in  Switzerland  in  conse 
quence  of  the  revolutionary  movements  of 
1830,  involved  the  country  in  serious  difficul 
ties  with  the  great  powers,  which  complained 
of  the  liberty  granted  to  them  by  the  federal 
diet.  The  latter  endeavored  to  conciliate  the 
powers  by  several  resolutions  restricting  the 
liberty  of  the  refugees  (in  1834  and  1838), 
and  even  by  the  expulsion  of  some  of  the  lead 
ing  men  among  them  (1836);  yet  the  diplo 
matic  collisions  continued.  The  demand  of 
the  French  government  in  1838  for  the  expul 
sion  of  Louis  Napoleon,  who  had  been  since 
1832  a  citizen  of  the  canton  of  Thurgau,  was 
declined  by  Switzerland,  and  almost  led  to  a 
war,  which  was  only  avoided  by  his  voluntary 
departure.  An  occasion  for  new  religious  con 
tests  was  given  by  the  conference  at  Baden  in 
1834,  at  which  delegates  of  Bern,  Basel  Coun 
try,  Aargau,  Thurgau,  Lucerne,  Solothurn,  and 
St.  Gall  undertook  to  regulate  the  relations 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  a  manner 
which  was  rejected  by  the  pope  and  the  bishop 
of  Basel  as  contrary  to  the  rights  and  the 
spirit  of  the  church.  The  articles  of  the  con 
ference  provoked  several  insurrections,  espe 
cially  in  the  canton  of  Aargau,  the  govern 
ment  of  which,  to  punish  the  revolted  Catho 
lic  districts,  decreed  in  1841  the  abolition  of 
all  the  convents.  Against  this  measure  most 
of  the  Catholic  cantons  and  the  ambassador 
of  Austria  protested,  as  a  direct  violation  of 
that  article  of  the  constitution  of  1815  which 
guaranteed  the  continuance  of  convents  and 
chapters.  Upon  the  representations  of  the 
federal  diet  Aargau  restored  four  female  con 
vents,  a  concession  which  did  not  satisfy  Aus 
tria  and  the  Catholic  cantons;  hut  the  fed 
eral  diet  by  12^  votes  dismissed  the  subject 
from  its  docket  (Aug.  31,  1843).  A  cause  of 
still  greater  trouble  was  a  motion,  made  by 
Aargau  at  the  diet  of  1844,  for  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  from  Switzerland.  It  was  laid 
on  the  table  by  the  diet;  but  when  the  Catho 
lic  Vorort  Lucerne  resolved  (Oct.  24,  1844)  to 
call  the  Jesuits  to  a  cantonal  institution,  a  great 
excitement  spread  throughout  Switzerland. 
Two  volunteer  expeditions  (December,  1844, 
and  March,  1845)  were  undertaken  for  the 
purpose  of  overthrowing  the  government  of 
Lucerne,  but  both  were  unsuccessful.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  governments  of  Vaud,  Born, 
and  Zurich,  which  had  voted  against  the  ex 
pulsion,  had  to  give  way  to  others  which  were 
in  favor  of  the  project.  As  thus  the  danger 
threatening  the  existence  of  the  schools  of  the 
Jesuits  increased,  the  cantons  which  either 
had  called  Jesuits  to  cantonal  institutions,  or 
which  patronized  them  (viz.,  Lucerne,  Uri, 
fv-hwytz,  Unterwalden,  Zug,  Fribourg,  and 
Valais),  strengthened  a  separate  alliance  (Son- 
<!erlund)  which  had  already  been  formed  in 
1843,  and  appointed  a  council  of  war  for  the 
emergency  of  a  civil  contest.  A  motion  of 
Zurich  at  the  diet  of  1845  to  declare  the  Son- 
derbund  dissolved  received  only  10|  votes,  but 


a  change  of  government  of  Geneva  and  St. 
Gall  secured  for  the  motion  a  majority  of  12| 
votes  on  July  20,  1846.  One  Protestant  can 
ton  (Neufchatel),  one  Protestant  half  canton 
(Basel  City),  and  one  Catholic  half  canton 
(Appenzell  Inner  Rhodes)  voted  with  the 
cantons  of  the  Sonderbund.  In  September 
another  resolution  declared  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits  from  all  Switzerland.  The  diet 
collected  an  army  of  nearly  100,000  men  under 
the  command  of  Gen.  Dufour,  and  on  Nov. 
4  resolved  to  execute  the  decree  of  July  20  by 
force  of  arms.  The  Sonderbund  had  raised  a 
force  of  36,000,  which  was  to  be  supported  by 
a  Landsturm  of  47,000  men.  The  isolated  Fri 
bourg  was  first  attacked,  and  surrendered  after 
an  insignificant  skirmish.  On  Nov.  23  the  army 
of  the  Sonderbund  was  routed  at  Gislikon,  near 
the  frontier  of  the  canton  of  Lucerne,  the  coun 
cil  of  war,  the  government  of  Lucerne,  and 
the  Jesuits  fled,  and  all  the  seven  cantons  sub 
mitted.  In  this  war  Lucerne  was  the  head  and 
centre  of  the  seven  Catholic  cantons.  Austria, 
France,  and  Prussia  had  openly  declared  du 
ring  the  war  their  sympathy  with  the  Sonder 
bund,  and  in  1848  issued  a  joint  note  to  Switz 
erland,  demanding  that  the  cantons  of  the  Son 
derbund  be  evacuated,  and  no  change  be  made 
in  the  constitution  of  1815,  except  by  the  con 
sent  of  all  the  cantons.  But  the  revolutions 
of  1848  drew  off  the  attention  of  the  great 
powers  from  Switzerland,  and  gave  the  latter 
an  opportunity  to  hasten  a  thorough  reforma 
tion  of  the  federal  constitution.  The  commit 
tee  of  revision  began  its  labors  on  Feb.  17, 
1848,  and  on  June  27  the  draft  of  the  consti 
tution  was  submitted  to  a  direct  vote  of  the 
people.  A  majority  of  the  cantons  and  a  large 
majority  of  the  total  population  voting  in  favor 
of  it,  it  was  promulgated  Sept.  12.  In  the 
same  year  the  canton  of  Neufchatel  declared 
itself  independent  of  Prussia,  which  entered 
against  this  act  an  inefficient  protest.  On  Sept. 
2,  1855,  the  royalists  of  Neufchatel  made  an 
attempt  to  overthrow  the  government  of  the 
canton  and  to  reestablish  the  sovereignty  of 
the  king  of  Prussia.  The  movement  was  at 
once  suppressed  (Sept.  3),  but  led  to  serious 
complications  with  Prussia,  which  demanded 
the  unconditional  pardon  of  the  captured  roy 
alists.  The  demand  was  supported  more  or 
less  by  all  the  great  powers  of  Europe;  and 
when  the  federal  council  refused  to  accede  to 
it,  Prussia  broke  off  diplomatic  relations,  and 
made  some  warlike  demonstrations.  When, 
however,  France  and  England  promised  their 
intercession  with  Prussia  in  behalf  of  a  recog 
nition  of  the  independence  of  Neufchatel,  in 
case  Switzerland  would  release  the  royalist 
prisoners,  their  advice  was  followed  by  the 
federal  council.  Prussia  in  1857,  at  a  con 
ference  of  the  great  powers  in  Paris,  resigned 
for  ever  its  claims  to  Neufchatel.  In  1860 
Switzerland  protested  against  the  annexation 
of  Savoy  to  France,  as  a  violation  of  the  trea 
ties  of  1564  and  1816,  by  which  the  neutrality 


SWITZERLAND 


SWORD 


533 


of  the  districts  of  Chablais  and  Faucigny  had 
been  guaranteed.  It  demanded  from  France 
the  cession  of  these  two  districts,  but  as  it 
received  little  aid  from  the  great  powers,  its 
representations  were  of  no  effect.  The  boun 
dary  question  between  Switzerland  and  Italy, 
submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  George  P. 
Marsh,  United  States  minister  to  Italy,  was 
decided  on  Sept.  23,  1874,  in  favor  of  Italy, 
definitely  fixing  the  Swiss  frontier  at  the  point 
called  the  Cravaviola  Alps,  and  was  promul 
gated  as  obligatory  on  the  two  countries,  June 
11,  1875.  In  1875  Switzerland  and  Italy  con 
cluded  a  new  commercial  treaty  for  ten  years. 
— The  principal  works  on  the  history  of  Switz 
erland  are :  GescJiiclite  der  schweizerischen  Eid- 
genossenschaft,  by  Johannes  von  Muller  and 
others  (7  vols.,  1780-1829),  to  the  end  of  the 
16th  century,  continued  in  a  French  transla 
tion  by  Monnard  and  Vulliemin  to  the  19th 
century  (19  vols.,  Paris,  1837-'51)  ;  Heinrich 
Zschokke^s  GescMcJite  des  ScJiweizerlandes  (Zu 
rich,  1822;  English  translation  by  Francis 
George  Shaw,  embracing  Emil  Zschokke's  con 
tinuation  to  1848,  New  York,  1855;  new  ed., 
1875) ;  Bluntschli's  GeschicMe  des  schweizer- 
iscfien  Bundesrechts  (2  vols.,  Zurich,  1846-'52) ; 
and  A.  Morin's  Precis  de  VMstoire  politique 
de  Suisse  (5  vols.,  Geneva,  1855-'75). 

SWITZERLAND,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Indiana, 
bordering  on  Kentucky,  from  which  it  is  sep 
arated  by  the  Ohio  river;  area,  220  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  12,134.  The  surface  is  undula 
ting  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  132,865  bushels  of  wheat, 
15,020  of  rye,  309,183  of  Indian  corn,  27,970 
of  oats,  126,116  of  potatoes,  19,446  tons  of 
hay,  20,964  Ibs.  of  wool,  174,821  of  butter,  and 
17,342  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  3,526  horses,  2,626  milch  cows,  3,225 
other  cattle,  8,473  sheep,  and  9,407  swine;  7 
manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  7  of 
cooperage,  1  of  woollen  goods,  6  flour  mills, 
and  8  saw  mills.  Capital,  Vevay. 

SWORD,  a  weapon  used  in  hand  encounters, 
commonly  made  like  a  large  knife,  and  some 
times  pointed  like  a  dagger.  The  ancient  Egyp 
tians  possessed  the  art  of  imparting  to  bronze 
extraordinary  hardness  and  elasticity,  and  em 
ployed  this  material  for  swords  and  daggers. 
Wilkinson  describes  the  former  as  straight 
and  short,  from  2^  to  3  ft.  in  length,  having 
generally  a  double  edge  and  tapering  to  a  sharp 
point.  The  Greeks  had  several  varieties  of 
swords  of  bronze,  and  at  a  later  period  of 
iron ;  and  as  seen  upon  coins,  vases,  &c.,  they 
appear  to  have  been  short  cut-and-thrust  blades, 
leaf-shaped  or  tapering  from  hilt  to  point,  and 
provided  with  a  scabbard,  which  was  attached 
on  the  left  side  to  a  belt  suspended  from  the 
shoulder  or  round  the  waist.  The  Lacedte- 
monian  sword  was  curved  on  the  sharp  side, 
while  the  back  was  blunt,  and  the  end  was 
pointed  obliquely  toward  the  back.  The  Ro 
mans  first  used  the  Gallic  sword,  which  had 
no  point  and  was  sharp  on  one  side  only ;  but 


after  the  battle  of  Cannae  they  adopted  the 
Spanish  sword,  which  was  short  and  straight, 
made  for  cutting  and  thrusting.  The  Gallic 
sword  was  worn  on  the  left  side,  the  Spanish 
always  on  the  right.  The  swords  used  by  bar 
barian  soldiers  and  by  gladiators  were  curved. 


1.  Greek  Sword,  from  a  Monument.  2.  Greek  Sword  in  the 
Koyal  Antiquarium,  Berlin.  3.  Lacedaemonian  Sword, 
from  a  Vase.  4.  Greek  Sword  in  Scabbard,  from  a  Vase. 
5.  Barbarian  Sword,  from  the  Column  of  Antoninus.  6 
and  7.  Eoman  Swords,  in  the  Museo  Nazionale,  Naples. 

The  most  famous  swords  were  the  Damascus 
blades  of  the  middle  ages,  made  probably  of 
East  Indian  wootz,  on  the  shores  of  the  Med 
iterranean.  (See  DAMASCUS  BLADES.)  Next 
to  these  the  swords  of  Toledo  in  Spain  at 
tained  celebrity.  Milan  also  was  famous  for 
its  excellent  swords  during  the  middle  ages. 
A  manuscript  psalter  of  the  time  of  King 
Stephen  gives  a  representation  of  two  men 
grinding  a  sword  blade,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
of  the  ear]y  manufacture  of  swords  in  Eng 
land.  In  the  17th  century  those  made  by  the 
Germans  were  in  good  repute,  and  about  the 
year  1689  unsuccessful  efforts  were  made  to 
establish  the  manufacture  in  Cumberland,  Eng 
land.  In  1786  Mr.  Gill  of  Birmingham,  com 
peting  with  German  and  English  makers  for 
supplying  the  East  India  company,  produced 
a  large  number  which  bore  the  required  test 
of  bending  till  the  length  of  the  blade  was 
reduced  from  36  to  29-|  in.  Swords  are  still 
made  at  Toledo  of  as  goo'd  quality  as  ever,  but 
the  manufacture  employs  only  70  or  80  hands. 
—The  best  of  cast  steel  is  required  for  good 
swords.  The  bars  are  hammered  down  by  two 
men  striking  alternately;  and  if  the  blade  is 
to  have  concave  sides  or  other  peculiarities 
of  shape,  these  are  obtained  from  the  dies  in 
which  it  is  swaged.  WThen  shaped,  it  is  hard 
ened  by  heating  in  the  fire  to  dull  red  and 
dipping  point  downward  in  a  tub  of  cold 
water.  It  is  tempered  by  drawing  it  through 
the  fire  until  it  acquires  a  blue  color,  and  is 
then  set  or  straightened  by  springing  it  with 


534 


SWORD  FISH 


SYBEL 


the  tongs  in  any  required  direction  as  it  is 
held  in  a  sort  of  fork  standing  in  the  anvil. 
After  this  it  is  ground  upon  a  stone  with 
a  face  adapted  to  that  of  the  sword,  flat  or 
otherwise  ;  is  slightly  heated  to  restore  the 
temper  impaired  by  grinding;  and  is  finally 
polished  with  emery  and  crocus.— The  small 
sword  used  in  fencing  is  a  slender  weapon  for 
the  thrust  only,  and  is  the  court  dress  sword. 
The  broad  sword,  called  sometimes  the  back 
sword,  has  but  one  edge. 

SWORD  FISH,  the  name  of  the  xiphiida,  a 
family  of  marine  spiny-rayed  fishes,  allied  to 
the  mackerels,  so  called  from  the  prolongation 
of  the  snout  into  a  long,  horizontally  flattened, 
sword-like  weapon.  The  sword  consists  of  the 
vomer  and  intermaxillary  bones,  supported  at 
the  base  by  the  frontals,  nasal,  and  upper  jaw. 
In  form  this  fish  resembles  the  mackerel ;  the 
scales  are  very  small;  the  jaws  proper,  and 
sometimes  the  sword,  are  crowded  with  small, 
acute  teeth,  often  hardly  perceptible ;  the  lam 
inae  of  each  branchial  arch  are  united  into  a 
band-like  organ,  with  only  superficial  marks  of 
separation,  as  in  no  other  bony  fishes;  branchi- 
ostegal  rays  in  the  typical  genus  xipJiias  (Linn.) 
seven.  The  spinous  dorsal  begins  near  the 
head,  high  and  sickle-shaped,  extending  nearly 
to  the  tail,  and  followed  by  a  small  soft  fin  ; 
the  anal  is  similar,  but  much  shorter;  ventrals 
wanting,  or  represented  only  by  a  pair  of  spi 
nous  rays  on  the  throat ;  caudal  deeply  forked, 
on  the  sides  having  one  or  two  large  cutane 
ous  folds  ;  the  pyloric  appendages  are  collected 
into  bundles  and  connected  by  areolar  tissue, 
the  branches  forming  two  trunks  inserted  into 
the  intestine  close  to  the  pylorus  ;  the  stomach 
ccocal  and  conical,  and  the  air  bladder  large ; 
the  lower  jaw  in  the  young  is  proportionally 
longer  than  in  the  adult ;  the  sclerotic  forms  a 
bony  box,  with  a  circular  opening  in  the  front 
for  the  cornea,  rendering  the  eyes  very  mova 
ble.  They  are  very  swift  swimmers,  and  feed 
on  mackerel  and  other  fishes  collecting  in 
shoals.  The  common  sword  fish  (X.  gladius, 
Linn.)  attains  a  length  of  12  to  20  ft,,  and  is 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic  ;  it  uses  its  sword  to  destroy 
its  enemies,  and  sometimes  strikes  at  vessels, 
burying  its  weapon  deep  in  their  timbers. 
There  are  no  ventral  fins,  and  the  sword  is 


Common  Sword  Fish  (Xiphias  gladius). 

about  three  tenths  as  long  as  the  body.  It  oc 
curs  ^on  the  North  American  coast  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  New  York,  being  common  in  the 
summer  in  Vineyard  sound  and  between  No 
Man's  Land  and  Block  island;  it  is  silvery 
white  below,  and  tinged  above  with  blackish 


blue,  the  sword  dark  brown  above  and  lighter 
below.  It  is  fond  of  pursuing  the  shoals  of 
mackerel,  and  may  be  detected  by  the  dorsal 
fin  projecting  above  the  water.  They  are 
taken  by  means  of  harpoons.  The  flesh  is 
esteemed  as  food,  both  fresh  and  salted. 

S1BARIS,  an  ancient  Greek  city  of  Lucania, 
in  S.  Italy,  on  the  W.  shore  of  the  Tarentine 
gulf,  between  the  rivers  Crathis  (now  Crati) 
and  Sybaris  (Coscile),  a  short  distance  from 
the  sea.  It  was  founded  by  an  Achaean  col 
ony  about  720  B.  C.  The  surrounding  coun 
try  was  very  fertile,  and  having  large  acces 
sions  from  native  Italian  tribes,  freely  admit 
ted  to  citizenship,  the  city  rose  rapidly  to 
great  wealth  and  power.  When  most  pros 
perous,  about  200  years  after  its  foundation, 
Strabo  says  it  was  50  stadia  in  circumference, 
ruled  over  25  subject  cities,  and  could  muster 
an  army  of  300,000  men;  while  the  knights 
in  their  religious  processions  numbered  5,000, 
or  four  times  as  many  as  the  same  class  of 
citizens  in  Athens.  Sybaris  founded  Posido- 
nia,  Laus,  and  Scidrus,  and  traded  extensive 
ly.  Its  citizens  were  famed  for  effeminacy 
and  love  of  luxury.  Athenseus  said  no  craft 
was  permitted  in  the  city  which  made  a  noise 
that  might  disturb  the  citizens;  yet  the  arts 
conducive  to  pleasurable  life  were  amply  fos 
tered.  The  aristocracy  ruled  till  about  510  B. 
C.,  when  Telys,  a  demagogue  heading  a  demo 
cratic  party,  drove  out  the  wealthier  citizens 
and  rulers,  and  raised  himself  .to  the  position 
of  tyrant.  Of  the  exiled  nobles  500  took  ref 
uge  at  Crotona,  and  Telys  demanded  their  sur 
render.  This  was  refused,  and  a  war  ensued 
in  which  a  large  army  of  Sybarites  was  beaten 
by  one  third  the  number  of  the  Crotfmiats, 
who  sacked  Sybaris,  and  turned  the  course  of 
the  river  Crathis  so  that  the  city  was  inunda 
ted  and  buried  in  the  deposits  that  the  river 
brought  down.  Sybaris  was  never  restored; 
its  site  is  now  a  malarious  marsh,  and  its  ex 
act  position  cannot  be  determined.  Its  sur 
viving  inhabitants,  after  remaining  for  many 
years  at  Laus  and  Scidrus,  founded  near  it, 
with  Athenian  colonists,  the  city  of  Thurii. 

S1BEJL,  Heinrich  von,  a  German  historian,  born 
in  Diisseldorf,  Dec.  2,  1817.  He  studied  in 
Berlin  under  Kanke,  graduated  in  1841  at 
Bonn,  and  was  professor  there  in  1844-'5, 
then  at  Marburg  till  1856,  and  subsequently 
at  Munich,  where  he  founded  the  first  histori 
cal  seminary  established  in  Germany.  He  re 
sumed  his  chair  at  Bonn  in  1861,  and  in  1875 
was  appointed  director  of  the  archives  at  Ber 
lin.  In  1862-'6  he  was  a  member  of  the  Prus 
sian  chamber,  and  in  1867  of  the  constituent 
Reichstag  of  the  North  German  confederation. 
His  works  include  Geseliiclite  der  JRevolutions- 
zeit  1789-'95  (3  vols.,  Dusseldorf,  1853-'7; 
English  translation  by  Perry,  London,  1868; 
new  ed.,  continued  to  1800,  5  vols.,  Diissel- 
dorl  1874  et  seq.} ;  Kleine  historiscJie  Schrif- 
ten  (2  vols.,  Munich,  1862-'9)  ;  Die  deutschen 
und  auswdrtiyen  Universitaten  (enlarged  ed., 


SYCAMORE 


SYDNEY 


535 


Bonn,  1874) ;  and  Kleirikale  Politik  im  neun- 
zehnten  Jalirhundert,  in  defence  of  Prince  Bis 
marck's  policy  (1874;  English  translation  by 
J.  S.  Henderson,  London,  1874). 

SYCAMORE,  a  name  properly  belonging  to  a 
species  of  fig  (ficus  sycomorus),  the  cvn6ij.opog 
of  the  Greeks,  and  'the  plant  so  called  in  the 
Scriptures.  The  tree  is  common  in  Egypt ;  its 
light  and  durable  wood  was  formerly  used  for 
mummy  cases,  and  it  is  now  planted  as  a  shade 
tree  and  for  its  fruit.  In  the  sacred  dramas  in 
the  middle  ages,  the  true  sycamore  not  being 
at  hapd,  the  large  maple  was  used  to  represent 
the  tree  into  which  Zacchams  climbed,  and  that 
in  which  the  Virgin  hid  with  the  infant  Jesus 
to  avoid  the  fury  of  Herod.  From  this  use  the 
name  sycamore  was  transferred  to  the  maple 
(acer  pseudoplatanus).  (See  MAPLE.)  In  the 
United  States  the.  plane  or  buttonwood  tree 
is  frequently  called  sycamore,  as  the  leaves 
resemble  in  shape  those 
of  the  sycamore  maple. 

SYDEAHAM,  Floyer,  an 
English  scholar,  born  in 
1710,  died  April  1,  1787. 
He  was  educated  at  Ox 
ford,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  M.  A.  in  1734. 
He  translated  the  great 
er  part  of  Plato's  works 
(3  vols.  4to,  1759-180). 
Thomas  Taylor  comple 
ted  the  translation  in 
1804.  Sydenham  also 
published  "A  Disserta 
tion  on  the  Doctrine  of 
Heraclitus"  (1775),  and 
Onomasticon  Theologi- 
cum  (1784).  His  suffer 
ings  from  poverty  in  his 
old  age,  and  his  death 
in  the  debtors'  prison, 
led  to  the  foundation  of 
the  literary  fund. 

SYDENHAM,  Thomas,  an  English  physician, 
born  at  Winford  Eagle,  Dorsetshire,  in  1624, 
died  in  London,  Dec.  29,  1689.  He  graduated 
at  Oxford,  and  in  1648  obtained  a  fellowship 
in  All  Souls'  college,  and  studied  there  some 
years,  visiting  Erance  in  the  mean  while  and 
attending  the  lectures  of  Barbeyrac.  About 
1660  he  went  to  Westminster,  and  soon  ob 
tained  a  large  practice  and  great  reputation. 
Abandoning  the  routine  system  then  in  vogue, 
he  based  his  practice  on  principles  which 
recognize  that  there  is  in  the  human  system  a 
recuperative  power,  the  rismedicatrix  nature?, 
and  that  this  should  be  aided,  not  thwarted. 
He  was  the  first  who  treated  smallpox  with 
cooling  remedies,  or  intermittent  fever  with 
cinchona.  The  preparation  known  as  Syden- 
ham's  laudanum  was  one  of  many  valuable 
additions  which  he  made  to  the  materia  med- 
ica.  A  collective  edition  of  his  works  in  Latin 
was  published  in  London  in  1785  (English 
translation,  1696). — In  1843  a  society,  com 


posed  mainly  of  members  of  the  medical  pro 
fession,  was  founded  in  London  under  the 
name  of  the  Sydenham  society,  having  for 
its  object  the  republication  of  the  works  of 
Sydenham  and  of  other  eminent  physicians 
of  former  times,  otherwise  inaccessible  to 
professional  readers  in  general,  and  published 
his  works  translated  from  the  Latin  by  R.  G. 
Latham  (2  vols.,  London,  1848-'50). 

SIDNEY,  a  city  of  Australia,  capital  of  flic 
colony  of  New  South  Wales,  in  Cumberland 
county,  on  the  S.  shore  of  Port  Jackson,  about 
4  m.  from  its  entrance,  450  m.  N.  E.  of  Mel 
bourne;  lat.  33°  51'  S.,  Ion.  151°  14'  E. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  75,945,  or  including  the  suburbs,  134,- 
758.  Part  of  the  town  stands  on  a  promon 
tory,  with  Darling  harbor  on  the  W. ;  part 
occupies  a  narrow  valley  E.  of  this ;  and  the 
remainder  is  on  undulating  ground  extending 
S.  and  still  further  E.,  with  extensive  water 


Parliament  Buildiugs,  Sydney. 

frontage  on  the  N.  and  N.  E.  The  greatest 
length  of  the  city  is  3f  m.  N.  and  S.,  and  its 
breadth  2|  m.  E.  and  W.  The  total  length 
of  the  streets  is  115  m.,  and  the  number  of 
houses  14,500.  The  main  streets  are  laid  out 
at  right  angles,  hut  many  are  crooked  and 
narrow,  giving  the  city  the  appearance  of  an 
old  English  town.  It  is  well  supplied  with 
water  and  lighted  with  gas.  Public  traffic  is 
carried  on  by  about  600  omnibuses  and  hack 
ney  coaches,  and  30  steam  ferry  boats  connect 
with  the  transmarine  -suburbs.  Most  of  the 
public  buildings,  banks,  and  warehouses  are 
of  freestone  in  the  Italian  composite  style. 
The  exchange  in  the  Corinthian,  the  govern 
ment  house  in  the  Tudor,  and  the  university  in 
the  perpendicular  English  style,  are  fine  speci 
mens  of  .architecture.  The  new  post  office, 
opened  in  September,  1874,  and  the  town  hall, 
which  is  very  large,  are  imposing  edifices. 
Other  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  new  rail 
way  station,  the  courts  of  justice,  the  parlia- 


536 


SYDNEY 


SYLLABUS 


ment  buildings,  and  the  treasury.  There  are 
two  cathedrals,  Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic, 
and  about  120  other  churches  and  chapels. 
There  are  three  theatres,  spacious  markets, 
and  several  parks  and  gardens.  Hyde  park 
contains  40  acres,  the  Domain  138  acres,  and 
the  botanical  gardens,  the  finest  in  the  colo 
nies,  38  acres.  Prince  Alfred  park,  Belmore 
park,  and  Moore  park  (500  acres)  have  all 
been  recently  laid  out  on  the  S.  and  S.  E.  sides 
of  the  city.  Sydney  is  the  residence  of  an 
Anglican  bishop,  who  is  the  metropolitan  of 
the  Australian  dioceses,  and  of  a  Roman  Cath 
olic  archbishop.  Connected  with  the  univer 
sity,  whose  degrees  confer  the  same  rank  as 
those  of  the  English  universities,  are  St.  Paul's 
Anglican  college,  St.  John's  Roman  Catholic 
college,  a  Presbyterian  college,  and  a  Wesleyan 
college.  There  are  also  a  normal  school,  a  nau 
tical  school,  many  public  and  private  schools,  a 
free  museum,  a  free  public  library,  an  observa 
tory,  three  daily  newspapers,  and  twelve  week 
ly  and  eight  monthly  periodicals.  Since  1855 
a  branch  of  the  royal  mint  has  been  established 
here.  The  harbor  is  completely  landlocked, 
and  the  largest  vessels  can  come  close  to  the 
wharves ;  and  extensive  ship  yards  and  dry 
docks  furnish  every  facility  for  repairing  ves 
sels.  The  port  is  well  defended  by  several 
forts  and  batteries.  The  entrances  at  Port 
Jackson  in  1872  were  1,022  vessels,  tonnage 
418,104;  clearances,  854,  tonnage  360,735. 
The  exports  to  the  United  States  for  the  year 
ending  Sept.  30,  1874,  amounted  to  $335,405. 
— Sydney  was  founded  in  1788,  and  named  in 
honor  of  Viscount  Sydney,  the  colonial  secre 
tary  of  state.  It  was  incorporated  in  1842. 
In  1875  an  intercolonial  industrial  exposition 
was  held  there. 

SIDNEY,  a  port  of  entry  and  the  capital  of 
Cape  Breton  co.,  Nova  Scotia,  the  chief  town 
of  the  island  of  Cape  Breton  and  its  capital 
when  a  separate  colony,  situated  in  the  E.  part 
of  the  island,  195  m.  N.  E.  of  Halifax ;  lat.  46° 
18'  N.,  Ion.  60°  9'  W. ;  pop.  in  1871,  2,900. 
The  harbor  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
In  the  vicinity  are  rich  mines  of  bituminous 
coal,  which  are  connected  with  the  town  by 
railway.  There  is  considerable  trade  with 
Newfoundland  and  St.  Pierre.  Sydney  con 
tains  an  iron  foundery,  a  tannery,  a  boot  fac 
tory,  ship  yards,  three  branch  banks,  a  court 
house,  a  masonic  hall,  a  weekly  newspaper, 
and  churches  of  six  denominations.  The  value 
of  imports  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874, 
was  $70,554;  exports,  $588,935. 

SYDOW,  Karl  Leopold  Adolf,  a  German  theolo 
gian,  born  in  Berlin,  Nov.  23, 1800.  He  studied 
under  Schleiermacher,  and  was  chaplain  at 
Potsdam  from  1837  to  1846,  and  for  the  last 
30  years  has  been  pastor  of  the  Neue  KircJie  at 
Berlin.  He  was  arraigned  in  1872  for  heresy, 
and  was  censured  and  fined,  but  retained  his 
pastorate.  Jointly  with  F.  A.  Schulze  he  has 
translated  into  German  a  collection  of  Chan- 
ning's  works  (15  vols.,  Berlin,  1850-'53). 


SYMEo     See  ASSWAN. 

SYENITE.     See  GKANITE. 

SYLLA,     See  SULLA. 

SYLLABUS  (Gr.  <n>;Ua/3dc,  a  collection),  the 
title  given  to  a  list  of  80  propositions  con 
demned  at  various  times  as  erroneous  by  Pope 
Pius  IX.,  which  was  sent  by  his  order  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  hierarchy,  Dec.  8,  1864.  Sev 
eral  previous  popes  had  condemned  at  one  and 
the  same  time  a  series  of  propositions  or  heads 
of  doctrine  held  to  be  heterodox  or  dangerous. 
Such  were  the  5  propositions  containing  the 
principal  tenets  of  the  Waldenses,  condemned 
in  1318  by  John  XXII. ;  21  from  Huss,  Wyc- 
liffe,  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  condemned  by 
Martin  V.  in  1418;  6  on  the  sacraments,  from 
the  writings  of  Peter  de  Osma,  proscribed  in 
1481  by  Sixtus  I,V. ;  41  from  the  works  of 
Luther  and  the  early  reformers,  condemned 
in  the  bull  Exsurge,  Domine,  by  Leo  X.  in 
1520;  76  from  Baius,  proscribed  successively 
by  Pius  V.,  Gregory  XIII.,  and  Urban  VIII. ;  5 
from  the  Augustinus  of  Jansenius,  condemned 
by  Innocent  X.  in  1653;  101  relating  to  Jan 
senism,  condemned  by  Clement  XI.  in  the  bull 
Unigenitus  in  1713 ;  and  85  from  the  acts 
of  the  synod  of  Pistoja  (l786-'7),  condemned 
by  Pius  VI.  in  1794.  Pius  IX.  was  moved  to 
a  similar  act  by  a  pastoral  letter  issued  by 
Bishop  Gerbet  of  Perpignan  in  July,  1860, 
censuring  85  propositions  taken  from  various 
contemporary  writers.  On  reading  this  docu 
ment,  the  pope  commissioned  some  Roman 
theologians  to  draw  up  a  list,  with  references, 
of  the  errors  which  he  had  denounced  du 
ring  the  18  preceding  years,  in  his  consisto- 
rial  allocutions  or  in  his  official  letters.  This 
list  was  annexed  to  the  bull  Quanta  cur  a, 
issued  Dec.  8,  1864,  and  communicated  to  the 
hierarchy  by  Cardinal  Antonelli.  In  the  bull, 
coming  soon  after  the  convention  of  Sept. 
15  between  France  and  Italy,  the  suppres 
sion  of  religious  orders,  and  the  confiscation 
of  church  property  in  Italy,  the  pope  recalled 
the  censure  pronounced  in  the  consistorial  al 
locutions  of  Nov.  9,  1854,  and  June  9,  1862, 
against  certain  capital  errors  of  the  day,  re 
garded  as  "the  sources  of  all  others"  detri 
mental  to  civil  society  and  to  the  church,  and 
"  opposed  to  the  natural  law  written  on  the 
heart  and  in  the  very  reason  of  man."  He 
then  formally  condemned  as  erroneous  vari 
ous  current  doctrines,  which  inculcate  that 
the  perfection  of  civil  government  and  social 
progress  imperiously  require  that  religion  shall 
be  ignored  in  the  constitution  and  adminis 
tration  of  states,  or  that  no  distinction  shall 
be  made  between  true  and  false  religion  ;  that 
the  best  government  is  that  which  represses 
or  punishes  acts  committed  against  the  Cath 
olic  religion  only  when  these  disturb  the  pub 
lic  peace,  and  that  the  most  unlimited  free 
dom  of  uttering  one's  opinions  on  every  sub 
ject  in  public  or  in  private,  by  writing  or  in 
print,  shall  be  deemed  an  inherent  right  of 
every  citizen  in  every  form  of  government; 


SYLLABUS 


SYLVESTER 


537 


that  the  popular  will,  as  expressed  in  public 
opinion  or  otherwise,  is  the  supreme  law,  inde 
pendent  of  all  other,  divine  or  human ;  and  that 
in  the  political  order  accomplished  facts,  as 
such,  have  the  force  of  right.  Next  came  errors 
relating  to  the  constitution  and  rights  of  the 
family,  especially  such  as  aim  at  refusing  re 
ligious  bodies  all  control  over  or  share  in  edu 
cation ;  the  denial  to  the  church  as  founded 
by  Christ  of  all  proper  authority  or  jurisdic- 
tional  rights,  distinct  from  or  independent  of 
the  state;  the  denial  of  power  in  the  church  to 
bind  the  conscience  by  any  laws  of  hers,  save 
only  in  so  far  as  these  are  promulgated  by  the 
state ;  the  denial  of  any  validity  to  spiritual 
penalties  decreed  against  secret  societies  in 
states  which  tolerate  their  existence,  or  of  force 
in  excommunications  pronounced  against  per 
sons  usurping  property  belonging  to  the  church, 
to  religious  orders,  or  ecclesiastical  corpora 
tions,  &c.  This  bull  and  the  syllabus  are  to 
be  taken  as  one  authoritative  act,  the  80  errors 
designated  in  the  latter  being  grouped  under  | 
ten  different  heads,  including  pantheism  and  | 
its  adjuncts  naturalism  and  absolute  rational 
ism,  moderate  rationalism,  and  religious  indif- 
ferentism ;  20  propositions  adverse  to  the  con 
stitution  and  rights  of  the  church,  17  on  civil 
society  and  its  relations  to  the  church,  10  on 
Christian  marriage,  2  on  the  temporal  prince- 
ship  of  the  pope,  and  4  on  modern  liberalism 
in  its  bearings  on  religion. — The  appearance  of 
both  these  documents  created  much  excitement 
in  France,  where  Jules  Baroche,  the  minister 
of  public  worship,  issued  on  Jan.  1,  1865,  a 
circular  letter  to  the  French  bishops  forbidding 
the  publication  by  them  of  the  syllabus  and 
of  the  doctrinal  part  of  the  bull.  The  liberal 
French  press  and  the  government  journals  also 
attacked  these  wide  condemnations  as  "  an 
act  subversive  of  social  order,"  "a  monstrous 
error  in  politics  as  well  as  in  the  intellectual 
and  moral  order,"  "an  attempt  to  restore  an 
absolute  theocracy,  to  set  up  a  tyranny  over 
everybody  and  everything."  The  minister  de 
clared  the  doctrine  of  the  pope  to  be  "con 
trary  to  the  principles  on  which  the  empire 
reposed,"  and  the  Journal  des  Debats  transla 
ted  and  analyzed  the  propositions  condemned. 
Bishop  Dupanloup  replied  to  the  latter,  point 
ing  out  over  TO  mistranslations  and  misconcep 
tions  ;  while  nearly  all  the  French  prelates, 
including  Archbishop  Darboy,  replied  to  the 
former,  denouncing  the  ministerial  prohibition. 
The  bishop  of  Belley  and  the  cardinal-arch 
bishop  of  Besancon  read  both  documents  from 
the  pulpit,  and  were  prosecuted  by  the  gov 
ernment.  Elsewhere,  though  the  proceeding 
of  Pius  IX.  was  generally  condemned  by  the 
secular  press,  the  civil  governments  did  not 
feel  called  upon  to  interfere  with  the  bishops, 
for  whose  special  guidance  the  syllabus  had 
been  drawn  up.  In  the  beginning  of  1871  Dr.  I 
Schulte,  professor  of  canon  and  German  law  j 
in  the  university  of  Prague,  in  a  pamphlet  en-  I 
titled  "  The  Power  of  the  Roman  Popes  over  | 


Princes,  Countries,  Peoples,  and  Individuals," 
assumed  that  the  syllabus  with  all  its  80  prop 
ositions  was  an  utterance  ex  cathedra,  as  de 
fined  by  the  council  of  the  Vatican.  This 
assumption,  as  well  as  the  whole  argument  of 
Dr.  Schulte,  was  assailed  by  Bishop  Fessler  of 
St.  Polten  in  Lower  Austria,  who  had  been 
secretary  of  the  council,  in  his  "True  and 
False  Infallibility  of  the  Popes  "  (Vienna, 
1871 ;  English  translation,  London  and  New 
York,  1875),  for  which  he  received  a  congrat 
ulatory  letter  from  Pius  IX.  In  the  autumn 
of  1874  the  doctrines  condemned  in  the  syl 
labus  were  brought  prominently  before  the 
public  by  Mr.  Gladstone's  pamphlet,  "  The 
Vatican  Decrees  in  their  Bearing  on  Civil  Al 
legiance."  From  the  syllabus  and  the  bull 
Quanta  cura  he  selected  18  propositions  bear 
ing  principally  on  the  liberty  of  the  press,  of 
conscience,  worship,  and  speech,  on  the  es 
sential  rights  of  both  church  and  state,  and 
their  mutual  subordination,  on  education,  mar 
riage,  the  abolition  of  the  pope's  temporal 
power,  tolerance,  and  the  reconciliation  of  the 
papacy  with  modern  liberalism.  The  interpre 
tation  of  the  various  propositions  by  Mr.  Glad 
stone,  and  his  conclusions  therefrom,  drew 
forth  replies  from  Dr.  Newman,  Cardinal  Man 
ning,  and  other  Roman  Catholic  writers,  who 
accused  him  of  mistranslating  several  proposi 
tions  and  misstating  their  sense.  With  regard 
to  the  doctrinal  authority  both  of  the  bull 
Quanta  cura  and  of  the  annexed  syllabus,  it 
is  generally  admitted  by  Roman  Catholic  theo 
logians  that  the  former  has  the  character  of  an 
ex  cathedra  utterance,  while  the  specific  char 
acter  of  the  latter  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute. 
All  agree  that  the  propositions  condemned  are 
erroneous,  and  that  the  condemnation  should 
be  accepted  by  all  Catholics  as  final,  while  it  is 
maintained  by  some  that  the  syllabus  has  the 
same  official  and  doctrinal  value  as  the  bull 
itself,  and  by  others  that  the  list  of  errors  is 
only  compiled  for  the  convenience  of  bishops 
and  theologians,  each  proposition  bearing  only 
that  censure  pronounced  on  it  specially  in  the 
original  document. 

SYLVESTER,  the  name  of  two  popes,  besides 
an  antipope.  I.  Sylvester  I.,  Saint,  born  in  Rome 
about  270,  died  there,  Dec.  31,  335.  lie  suc 
ceeded  Pope  Melchiades  Jan.  31,  314,  and  con 
curred  with  the  emperor  Constantine  in  con 
vening  the  council  of  Nice.  (See  NICE,  COUN 
CILS  OF.)  He  is  frequently  mentioned  in  his 
tory  in  connection  with  the  "donation"  said 
in  the  false  decretals  to  have  been  made  to 
him  by  Constantine  of  Rome  and  its  tempo 
ralities.  His  feast  is  held  on  Dec.  31.  II. 
Sylvester  II.,  Gerbert,  born  at  Aurillac  in  Au- 
vergne  about  920,  died  in  Rome,  May  12,  1003. 
He  was  a  Benedictine  monk  of  St.  Gerold, 
Auvergne,  studied  under  Hatto,  archbishop  of 
Vich  in  Catalonia,  and  at  Rheims,  and  opened 
in  that  city  a  university  course  under  the  pa 
tronage  of  the  emperor  Otho  II.,  which  became 
famous  throughout  Europe.  He  constructed 


538 


SYLVIUS 


SYMBOLS 


terrestrial  and  celestial  globes  to  illustrate  his 
lessons,  and  a  steam  organ  to  explain  his  les 
sons  on  music;  and  he  is  said  to  have  intro 
duced  the  use  of  the  Arabic  figures  in  arith 
metic,  and  to  have  invented  the  first  wheel 
and  weight  clock.  He  was  subsequently  ap 
pointed  abbot  of  Bobbio  by  Otho  II.  ;  but 
being  unable  to  agree  with  the  monks,  he  re 
turned  to  Rheims  after  the  death  of  Otho,' 
resumed  his  teaching,  and  became  secretary 
to  Archbishop  Adalberon  of  Rheims,  and  his 
successor  through  a  contested  election.  He 
was  deposed  by  Pope  John  XVI.,  and  fled  to 
the  court  of  Otho  III.,  who  made  him  arch 
bishop  of  Ravenna  and  had  him  elected  pope, 
April  2,  999.  He  displayed  uncommon  zeal, 
talent,  and  severity  in  his  administration.  His- 
universal  knowledge  caused  him  to  pass  for  a 
magician.  His  letters,  numbering  149,  were 
published  by  Papire  Masson  (4to,  Paris,  1(521), 
and  by  Andre  Duchesne  in  vol.  ii.  of  his  His 
toric  Francorum  Seriptores.  His  complete 
works  are  published  in  vol.  cxxxix.  of  Migne's 
Patrologie  latine. — See  Bzovius,  Silvester  II. 
(4to,  Rome,  1G29)  ;  Hock,  Gerlert,  oder  Pabst 
Sylvester  II.  und  sein  Jahrhundert  (Vienna, 
1837;  French,  Paris,  1842);  and  Milman,  "Lat 
in  Christianity,"  vol.  iii. 

SYLVIUS,  Jacobus,  the  Latinized  name  of  a 
French  anatomist,  JACQUES  DU  Bois,  born  at 
Louville,  near  Amiens,  in  1478,  died  in  Paris, 
Jan.  13,  1555.  He  graduated  as  A.  B.  in  1531, 
delivered  lectures,  and  was  appointed  profes 
sor  of  medicine  in  the  royal  college  of  France 
in  1550.  He  is  said  to  have  originated  the 
practice  of  injecting  the  blood  vessels  to  fa 
cilitate  their  dissection.  The  oblique  fissure 
separating  the  anterior  and  middle' lobes  of 
the  cerebrum  is  called  from  him  the  fissure 
of  Sylvius. 

SYMBOLS,  Chemical,  abbreviations  of  the  chem 
ical  names  of  the  elements,  which  are  com 
bined  into  formulas,  with  or  without  quanti 
tative  signs,  to  represent  the  composition  of 
compound  bodies.  The  idea  of  representing 
the  names  of  chemical  substances  by  conven 
tional  signs  or  abbreviations  appears  to  be  a 
very  old  one.  The  alchemists  were  in  pos 
session  of  a  set  of  hieroglyphics  by  which  the 
metals  and  the  four  so-called  elements,  fire,  air, 
earth,  and  water,  and  indeed  many  other  sub 
stances,  were  designated.  At  a  later  period,  as 
chemical  knowledge  became  more  consolidated, 
various  modifications  of  the  alchemistical  no 
tation  were  from  time  to  time  proposed,  and 
adopted  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Among 
these  should  be  specially  mentioned  the  sys 
tem  of  notation  offered  in  1787  by  Hassen- 
fratz  and  Adet,  as  an  appendix  to  Guyton  de 
Morveau's  revised  system  of  nomenclature, 
since  its  failure  enables  us  the  better  to  ap 
preciate  the  peculiar  excellence  of  the  system 
which  now  prevails.  Here  was  a  system  of 
symbols  by  no  means  devoid  of  ingenuity,  and 
much  more  complete  than  any  previous  meth 
od,  published  in  connection  with  a  new  sys 


tem  of  nomenclature,  which  was  soon  univer 
sally  adopted,  and  recommended  by  the  com 
mittee  of  the  French  academy  by  whom  this 
nomenclature  had  been  prepared  ;  yet  it  met 
with  little  or  no  favor  among  chemists,  and 
was  soon  forgotten.  This  last  remark  applies 
as  w^ell  to  the  symbols  proposed  by  Dalton  in 
1808,  in  connection  with  his  writings  upon 
the  atomic  theory.  None  of  these  systems 
ever  came  into  general  use,  nor  does  it  appear 
that  they  were  of  much  value  as  instruments 
of  study  even  in  the  special  cases  in  which 
they  were  employed.  It  is  to  Berzelius  that 
chemical  science  is  chiefly  indebted  for  the 
simple  and  rational  system  of  notation  now 
in  use,  which  has  done  so  much  to  advance 
knowledge  and  to  lighten  the  labors  of  chem 
ical  investigators.  This  system,  in  its  first 
outlines  at  least,  appears  not  to  have  been  the 
result  of  any  premeditated  plan  or  special 
study,  but  to  have  followed  incidentally  as  a 
natural  result  from  the  investigation  of  the 
combining  proportions  of  bodies  with  which 
its  author  was  occupied.  Thus  in  1814  he 
first  mentions  his  symbols  in  a  foot  note  to  a 
memoir  upon  nitrous  acid  (Gilbert's  Annalen 
der  Physik,  xlvi.,  154),  as  convenient  abbre 
viations  for  expressing  the  composition  of 
bodies,  which  he  has  himself  frequently  em 
ployed  in  his  private  memoranda.  Subse 
quently  a  more  complete  exposition  of  the 
plan  appeared  in  his  Lelirbuch,  and  in  Poggen- 
dorff' s  Annalen,  1826,  viii.,  7.  As  a  sign  to 
express  the  name  and  combining  equivalent 
of  an  element,  Berzelius  chose  the  initial  let 
ter  of  its  Latin  name ;  and  in  those  cases 
where  the  names  of  several  elements  com 
mence  with  the  same  letter,  he  annexed  to 
the  common  initial  the  first  of  the  following 
letters  in  the  Latin  name  of  the  element  which 
is  peculiar  to  it ;  thus,  the  symbol  C  indicates 
an  equivalent  of  Carbon,  Cl  an  equivalent  of 
chlorine,  and  Or  an  equivalent  of  chromium. 
(For  a  complete  list  of  these  symbols,  see 
EQUIVALENT,  CHEMICAL.)  There  are  various 
other  symbols  used  in  chemistry,  some  to  ex 
press  qualities  as  well  as  the  atoms  or  mole 
cules  of  substances,  as,  for  instance,  the  signs 
which  express  the  quanti  valence  of  bodies. 
(See  ATOMIC  TIIEOEY,  vol.  ii.,  p.  88.)  The 
signs  +,  — ,  and  =  are  also  used  in  chemical 
writing  for  the  purpose  of  joining  the  sym 
bols  of  the  elements  together  in  formulas,  as 
KaO  +  H3S04=KaS04+2H,  or  C6H12O6-H2O 
=C6HioO6.  When  united  by  the  sign  =  the 
formulas  are  called  equations.  Thus  the  lat 
ter  formula  is  an  equation  which  represents 
starch  as  being  formed  from  the  elements  of 
glucose  or  grape  sugar,  by  the  abstraction  of 
a  molecule  of  water  or  of  the  elements  of  such 
molecule.  The  quantity  of  any  substance  is 
usually  expressed  by  placing  a  numeral  before 
it,  whether  the  substance  is  an  element  or  a 
compound,  unless  where  the  numeral  is  used 
to  express  the  number  of  separate  elements  or 
substances  which  enter  into  the  composition  of 


SYME 


SYMPHONY 


539 


a  compound.  Thus  311  signifies  three  atoms  of 
hydrogen,  and  3H2O  three  molecules  of  water, 
one  molecule  of  water  being  composed  of  two 
atoms  of  hydrogen  and  one  of  oxygen.  The 
prefixed  numeral  however  only  includes  those 
symbols  which  are  not  separated  by  a  +  sign 
or  a  comma,  or  which  are  included  in  paren 
theses;  as  2KCl,PtCl4,  which  is  the  formula  of 
potassic-platinic  chloride,  and  which  contains 
two  molecules  of  chloride  of  potassium  united 
to  one  molecule  of  tetrachloride  of  platinum. 
Two  molecules  of  potassic-platinic  chloride 
would  be  written  2(2KCl,PtCl4).  A  numeral 
placed  at  the  right  of  a  symbol  and  a  little  be 
low  (or  sometimes  above)  multiplies  that  sym 
bol  only.  Thus,  the  formula  of  sulphuric  acid, 
H2SO4,  signifies  that  it  contains  two  atoms 
of  hydrogen,  four  of  oxygen,  and  one  of  sul 
phur.  A  numeral  placed  in  the  same  position 
with  regard  to  any  number  of  symbols  placed 
in  parentheses  has  the  same  function.  Thus 
(H4N)2CO3,  which  is  the  formula  of  normal 
ammouic  carbonate,  indicates  that  two  mole 
cules  of  the  compound  basyle  ammonium, 
H4N,  are  united  to  one  molecule  of  the  oxion 
CO3,  or  carbion.  A  capital  letter  with  a  dash 
above  it  is  often  used  to  stand  for  a  compound 
instead  of  an  element,  as  A  for  acetic  acid, 
C2H4O2;  o  for  oxalic  acid,  C2H204.  Other 
symbols  and  abbreviations  are  also  given  in 
the  article  ATOMIC  THEORY. 

S1ME,  James,  a  Scottish  surgeon,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1799,  died  there,  June  26,  1870. 
He  received  his  diploma  as  surgeon  in  1821, 
and  in  1823  became  a  fellow  of  the  royal  col 
lege  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1843  of  the  English 
college  of  surgeons.  From  1821  to  1833  he 
lectured  on  surgery,  and  in  1833  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  clinical  surgery  at  Edinburgh. 
He  originated  or  aided  in  establishing  many 
improvements,  including  the  resection  of  dis 
eased  joints  in  place  of  amputation  (a  prac 
tice  already  introduced  by  Roux  in  1812),  the 
process  for  amputation  of  the  foot  at  the  ankle 
joint  (known  as  "  Syme's  operation "),  and 
the  removal  of  large  tumors  of  the  lower  jaw 
by  exsection  of  the  entire  bone.  His  works 
include  "  The  Excision  of  Diseased  Joints " 
(1831),  and  "Principles  of  Surgery"  (1832), 
both  republished  in  Philadelphia  (1866). — See 
"Memorial  of  the  Life  of  James  Syme,"  by 
Robert  Paterson,  M.  D.  (Edinburgh,  1871). 

SYMMACHCS,  Coelins,  a  pope  and  saint,  born 
at  Sinagia  in  Sardinia  about  440,  died  in  Rome, 
July  19,  514.  He  was  appointed  archdeacon 
of  the  Roman  church  by  Pope  Felix  III.,  and 
was  elected  to  succeed  Anastasius  II.,  Nov.  22, 
498.  A  strong  minority  of  Eutychians,  head 
ed  by  the  patrician  Festus  arid  favored  by  the 
Greek  emperor  Anastasius  L,  elected  at  the 
same  time  the  archpriest  Laurentius,  who  had 
consented  to  sign  the  Henoticon  of  the  empe-  j 
ror  Zeno.  The  claims  of  the  two  parties  were 
referred  to  the  arbitrament  of  Theodoric,  king 
of  Italy,  who  decided  in  favor  of  Symmachus, 
Laurentius  being  appointed  bishop  of  Nocera. 


A  council  held  in  Rome  in  March,  499,  having 
enacted  decrees  against  all  bribery  and  intrigue 
in  papal  elections,  the  opposition  was  renewed, 
and  Laurentius  secretly  returned  to  Rome. 
Symmachus  was  accused  of  peculation  and  adul 
tery,  and  Rome  became  the  scene  of  rioting  and 
bloodshed.  A  council  of  all  the  Italian  bish 
ops  was  convened'  at  Rome  in  502,  and  The 
odoric  hastened  thither  to  secure  tranquillity. 
The  pope  was  unanimously  acquitted  of  the 
charges  brought  against  him.  In  France  the 
bishops  declined  to  acknowledge  the  competen 
cy  of  a  local  synod  to  sit  in  judgment  on  their 
superior,  and  a  third  council  met  in  Rome  in 
503,  to  which  the  emperor  Anastasius  (whom 
Symmachus  had  excommunicated)  sent  repre 
sentatives,  who  accused  the  pope  of  Manichae- 
ism  and  of  promoting  sedition.  Symmachus, 
through  his  legate  Ennodius,  declared  that  he 
had  freely  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the 
former  bishops,  proved  that  he  had  combated 
ManicliEeism,  and  promised  to  restore  the  em 
peror  to  his  communion  as  soon  as  the  latter 
ceased  to  protect  Eutychianism.  With  the 
council  ended  the  schism  in  Rome,  but  Anas 
tasius  persecuted  all  who  sustained  Symma 
chus.  The  latter  published  a  treatise  in  which 
he  refuted  the  charges  against  his  doctrine 
and  morality.  His  feast  is  held  on  July  19. 

SYMMACHIS,  Quintns  Aureliis,  a  Roman  au 
thor  of  the  4th  century  A.  D.  He  was  edu 
cated  in  Gaul,  and,  after  being  quaestor  and 
prsstor,  was  appointed  in  A.  D.  365  corrector 
of  Lucania  and  the  Bruttii.  In  373  lie  was 
proconsul  of  Africa,  in  384  prefect  of  Rome, 
and  in  391  consul.  He  was  a  sincere  pagan, 
and  labored  to  maintain  his  faith.  His  ex 
tant  works  are  10  books  of  epistles  containing 
965  letters,  and  fragments  of  orations  which 
Angelo  Mai  discovered  in  one  of  the  palim 
psests  of  the  Ambrosian  library,  and  others 
from  a  Turin  and  Vatican  manuscript.  The 
first  edition  of  the  epistles  was  published  in 
the  pontificate  of  Julius  II.  One  of  the  best 
is  that  of  Scioppius  (4to,  Mentz,  1608). 

SYMMES,  John  Cleves,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  New  Jersey  about  1780,  died  at  Ham 
ilton,  Butler  co.,  Ohio,  May  28,  1829.  He  en 
tered  the  army  as  ensign  in  1802,  fought  in 
the  war  of  1812,  settled  at  Newport,  Ky.,  and 
wrote  and  lectured  on  his  theory  that  the  earth 
is  hollow,  open  at  the  poles,  and  capable  of 
being  inhabited  within.  He  published  "  The 
ory  of  Concentric  Spheres"  (12mo,  Cincin 
nati,  1826).  For  an  abstract  of  Symmes's  the 
ory  and  arguments,  see  the  "Atlantic  Month 
ly"  for  April,  1873. 

SYMPATHETIC  INK.    See  INK,  vol.  ix.,  p.  284. 

SYMPHONY  (Gr.  cvv^  Avith,  and  <^w/;,  voice), 
a  term  originally  signifying  merely  a  concor 
dance  of  tones,  but  applied  successively  to  cer 
tain  vocal  compositions,  to  compositions  partly 
vocal  and  partly  instrumental,  to  short  intro 
ductory  or  intermediate  instrumental  passages 
in  compositions  which  are  predominantly  vo 
cal,  and  finally  to  elaborate  and  extended  com- 


540 


SYMPLEGADES 


SYPHAX 


positions  for  instruments  only  and  in  the  so 
nata  form.  In  this  sense  the  word  is  now 
generally  used.  The  germ  of  the  modern  sym 
phony  may  be  found  in  the  suites  prefixed  by 
Scarlatti  to  his  operas,  which  he  designated  as 
the  symphony,  consisting  of  three  movements : 
1,  allegro;  2,' andante;  3,  allegro.  But  it  was 
not  till  the  time  of  Haydn,  called  the  father 
of  the  symphony,  that  this  kind  of  composition 
took  its  present  form.  He  added  a  fourth 
movement,  the  minuetto,  and  elaborated  the 
whole  structure  of  the  symphony.  He  com 
posed  118  works  of  this  kind.  The  form  that 
Haydn  fixed  upon  was  adopted  by  Mozart  and 
Beethoven,  the  latterespecially giving  a  breadth, 
dignity,  and  grandeur  to  his  symphonies  that 
have  made  them  the  masterpieces  of  this  form 
of  musical  art.  In  the  final  movement  of  his 
ninth  or  choral  symphony  he  introduced  vocal 
music,  an  example  which  has  not  been  followed 
by  later  composers.  Mendelssohn,  Gade,  Rei- 
necke,  Liszt,  and  Raff  are  among  the  more 
modern  composers  of  works  of  this  class. 

SYMPLEGADES.     See  ARGONAUTS. 

SYNAGOGUE  (Gr.  ovvayuyfa  assembly,  place 
of  assembly ;  Ileb.  leth  hilckeneseth,  house  of 
assembly),  a  building  appropriated  to  worship 
and  the  performance  of  public  religious  rites 
in  Jewish  congregations.  Corresponding  to 
the  word  church  in  Christian  terminology,  the 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  Jewish  community 
in  general.  The  earliest  synagogues,  estab 
lished  in  the  times  of  Persian  and  Greek  rule 
in  Judea,  were  also  for  deliberative  purposes. 
(For  the  "great  synagogue1'  or  assembly  see 
HEBREWS,  vol.  viii.,  p.  591.)  In  subsequent 
centuries  they  were  also  used  as  seats  of  popu 
lar  as  well  as  higher  instruction.  In  modern 
Jewish  communities  this  is  mostly  imparted  in 
a  separate  building,  called  leth  liammidrash, 
house  of  study.  The  synagogue  is  generally  a 
high  building,  facing  the  four  cardinal  points, 
and  provided  with  seats  and  desks  on  the  floor 
for  the  male  members  of  the  congregation,  and 
with  galleries  for  the  females.  The  east  wall, 
which  all  must  face  during  the  recital  of  cer 
tain  prayers,  encloses  the  "holy  ark"  (aron 
h(Mcodesh\  in  which  Hebrew  copies  of  the 
Pentateuch,  written  on  vellum,  are  deposited ; 
and  opposite  it,  near  the  centre,  is  the  platform 
(bimah)  on  which  the  reading  from  the  same  is 
performed  by  the  reciter  or  cantor  ('hazan),  or 
by  a  special  reader  (/core).  Sermons  or  lec 
tures  are  delivered  from  a  smaller  platform 
adjoining  the  "  holy  ark,"  by  the  rabbi  or  a 
special  preacher  or  lecturer.  The  offices  of 
reciter,  reader,  and  lecturer  are  often  united 
in  the  same  person.  Of  late  the  use  of  the 
choir  has  become  frequent,  and  the  internal 
arrangements  of  the  synagogues  have  been 
more  and  more  assimilated  to  those  of  Chris 
tian  churches. 

SYNESIUS,  a  philosopher  of  the  5th  century, 
born  in  Gyrene,  Africa,  about  379,  died  at 
Ptolemais  about  430.  He  was  of  an  ancient 
Greek  family,  studied  at  Alexandria  under 


Hypatia,  and  at  Athens,  and  on  his  return  to 
Gyrene  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits. 
Famine  having  come  upon  Cyrene  about  397, 
Synesius  was  sent  to  Constantinople  to  solicit 
aid,  and  was  successful.  After  three  years' 
stay  in  the  Byzantine  capital,  he  returned  to 
Cyrene,  and  soon  afterward,  under  the  influ 
ence  of  a  Christian  wife,  renounced  paganism. 
In  410,  on  the  death  of  the  bishop  of  Ptolemais 
(now  Tolmeta  in  Barca),  Synesius  was  chosen 
to  the  see,  although  he  had  not  been  bap 
tized,  was  married,  and  held  opinions  not  re 
garded  in  the  church  as  orthodox.  He  accept 
ed  the  post  with  reluctance,  was  baptized,  and 
after  seven  months  of  preparation  entered  upon 
his  episcopal  duties.  He  was  a  Neo-Platonist 
before  he  became  a  Christian,  and  during  his 
episcopate  explained  Christian  dogmas  in  the 
light  of  his  philosophy,  inclined  to  the  preex- 
istence  of  the  human  soul,  believed  in  its  im 
mortality,  held  the  resurrection  to  be  a  myth, 
and  conceived  the  Trinity  as  a  triple-headed 
energy  displaying  the  innate  nature  of  the 
"  unity  of  unities."  His  works  consist  of  epis 
tles,  treatises,  and  hymns.  The  best  complete 
collection  of  them  is  that  of  Petau,  in  Greek 
with  a  Latin  translation,  editions  of  which 
appeared  at  Paris  in  1612,  1633,  and  1640.  A 
new  and  more  critical  edition  was  published 
byKrabinger  (2  vols.  Svo,  Berlin,  1851).  Many 
editions  of  the  hymns  have  been  published 
Avith  translations  into  various  tongues.  A 
French  version  first  appeared  in  1581,  and 
new  ones  in  1836  and  1839.  See  also  Migne's 
Patrologie  grecque,  vol.  Ixvi. ;  and  Kolbe,  Der 
Bischof  Synesius  von  Cyrene  (Berlin,  1870). 

SYPHAX,  a  Numidian  prince,  born  about  250 
B.  C.,  died  in  201.  In  213  he  was  king  of  the 
Massjiesylians,  the  westernmost  tribe  of  the 
Numidians,  and  was  at  war  with  Carthage,  in 
which  he  was  encouraged  by  the  Romans. 
Carthage,  however,  induced  Gala,  king  of  the 
Massylians,  to  declare  war  against  him,  and 
Syphax  was  defeated  by  Hasdrubal  and  Gala's 
son  Masinissa.  Syphax  fled  to  Mauritania  and 
collected  a  new  force,  but  was  again  defeated 
by  Masinissa.  He  subsequently  regained  pos 
session  of  his  throne,  and  Hasdrubal,  to  pre 
vent  his  yielding  to  the  overtures  of  Scipio  for 
an  alliance,  gave  him  his  daughter  Sophonisba 
in  marriage.  On  the  death  of  Gala,  Syphax 
with  Carthaginian  aid  wrested  the  throne  from 
Masinissa,  and  made  him  a  fugitive.  When 
Scipio  landed  in  Africa  in  204,  Syphax  joined 
the  Carthaginians  with  an  army  of  50,000  foot 
and  10,000  horse.  He  encamped  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Romans,  and  during  the  siege  of  Utica 
held  prolonged  negotiations  with  Scipio ;  but 
the  latter  suddenly  fell  upon  his  camp  in  the 
night,  set  fire  to  its  straw  huts,  and  nearly  de 
stroyed  his  army.  Syphax  raised  two  more 
armies,  but  both  were  defeated,  and  he  was 
finally  made  a  prisoner  and  sent  to  Rome.  Ac 
cording  to  Polybius,  he  appeared  in  Scipio's 
triumphal  procession;  but  according  to  Livy, 
he  died  at  Tibur  a  few  days  before. 


SYPHON 


SYRACUSE 


541 


'SYPHON,  an  inverted  U-shaped  tube  used  to 
draw  liquids  over  the  containing  walls  of  res 
ervoirs.  It  acts  upon  the  principle  that  the 
flow  will  be  in  the  direction  of  that  leg  which 
contains  the  greatest  vertical  height  of  liquid. 
The  instrument  will  act  only  when  the  bend 
at  the  top  is  not  higher  above  the  level  of  the 
water  in  the  reservoir  than  the  atmospheric 
pressure  at  the  locality  is  capable  of  sustaining 
a  column  of  the  liquid  acted  upon,  which  for 
water  could  only  be  a  little  over  33  ft.  at  the 
sea  level,  and  at  a  height  of  15,700  ft.  less  than 
20  ft.  (See  PUMP,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  82.)  If  the 
liquid  is  mercury,  the  bend  of  the  syphon  could 
not  be  more  than  29  or  30  in.  above  the  level 
in  the  reservoir  at  the  sea  level.  In  practice 
the  outer  or  discharge  leg  is  usually  longer  than 
the  one  immersed  in  the  liquid;  but  the  only 
requirement  is  that  its  orifice  shall  be  lower 
than  the  level  of  the  liquid.  It  is  convenient 
to  have  a  suction  pipe  attached  to  the  outer 
leg  for  producing  exhaustion,  the  lower  ori 
fice  in  that  leg  being  closed  at  the  time. 

SYRi,  or  Syros.  I.  A  Grecian  island,  included 
in  the  Cyclades,  20  m.  N.  W.  of  Paros ;  area, 
45  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  26,480.  It  is  of  very 
irregular  outline,  with  steep  and  rugged  coasts. 
The  chief  productions  are  wheat,  barley,  cot 
ton,  figs,  silk,  and  especially  wine,  whose  praises 
have  been  sung  by  Homer.  II.  Syra,  New  Syros, 
or  Hermopolis,  the  capital  of  the  island  and  of 
the  Greek  nomarchy  of  the  Cyclades,  situated 
at  the  head  of  a  bay  on  the  E.  coast,  near  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city;  pop.  in  1870,  20,996. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  and 
of  the  Greek  bishop  of  the  Cyclades.  It  is 
the  principal  commercial  port  of  Greece  and 
an  important  station  for  steamers.  The  im 
ports  in  1873  amounted  to  £791,500,  and  the 
exports  to  £172,337.  The  old  part  of  the 
town,  originally  built  on  a  hill  as  a  protection 
against  pirates,  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Roman 
Catholics,  and  the  lower  part  by  Greeks.  At 
the  close  of  the  Cretan  war  in  1869,  the  port 
was  blockaded  by  Hobart  Pasha. 

SYRACUSE  (It.  Siracusa  or  Siragosa).  I.  A 
province  of  Sicily,  on  the  E.  coast,  bordering 
on  Catania  and  Caltanisetta,  and  the  Mediter 
ranean  ;  area,  1,429  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  294,- 
885.  It  is  chiefly  mountainous,  but  the  south 
is  a  plain.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Ana- 
po,  Abisso,  and  Ragusa.  The  valleys  of  these 
rivers,  the  bases  of  the  mountains,  and  the 
districts  along  the  coast  are  very  fertile,  and 
contain  excellent  pastures  and  some  good  tim 
ber.  Agriculture  and  cattle  raising  are  the 
chief  occupations.  The  principal  products  are 
grain,  barley,  olives,  wines,  fruit,  flax,  and 
hemp.  Among  the  mineral  products  are  mar 
ble,  agates,  stalactites  of  various  colors,  and 
bitumen.  The  province  is  divided  into  the 
districts  of  Syracuse,  Noto,  and  Modica,  II. 
A  city  (anc.  Syracusce),  capital  of  the  prov 
ince,  on  the  E.  coast,  30  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Cata 
nia,  and  81  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Messina;  pop.  in 
1872,  22,179.  It  is  fortified,  and  maintains  a 


garrison,  but  is  commanded  by  the  heights 
of  Achradina.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and 
has  a  fine  cathedral,  partly  on  the  site  and 
partly  composed  of  the  ancient  temple  of  Mi 
nerva,  numerous  palaces,  and  several  churches 
and  convents.  The  streets  are  narrow,  and 
there  are  extensive  ruins  of  amphitheatres, 
baths,  &c.  The  city  has  some  trade  in  wine, 
oil,  brandy,  fruits,  salt,  saltpetre,  sulphur, 
and  a  little  grain. — The  ancient  Syracusse  was 
the  largest  city  of  Sicily;  its  walls,  flanked 
by  towers,  were  about  22  in.  in  circuit,  and 
the  number  of  inhabitants  in  its  most  pros 
perous  period  is  stated  by  different  writers  at 
500,000,  900,000,  and  even  1,200,000.  It  really 
consisted  of  five  towns  adjoining  each  other, 
but  separated  by  walls,  viz.,  Ortygia,  Achra 
dina,  Tyche,  Neapolis,  and  the  Epipolse,  and 
hence  was  sometimes  called  Pentapolis.  The 
original  city  was  Ortygia,  on  an  oblong  island 
about  2  m.  in  circuit,  between  the  Great  or 
Greek  harbor  on  the  west  and  the  Little  har 
bor  on  the  east ;  after  a  time  it  was  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a  causeway,  and  was 
then  spoken  of  as  Ortygia  on  the  peninsula. 
Achradina,  which  was  next  in  age,  was  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Little  harbor,  and  extended 
along  the  sea  coast  for  about  3  m.,  E.  of  the 
port  of  Trogilus,  without  the  limits  of  the 
city ;  it  was  built  partly  on  the  lowlands  along 
the  shore,  and  partly  on  the  heights  which 
rise  in  a  wall  of  rocks  some  little  distance 
inland.  N.  W.  of  Achradina  and  on  the  same 
range  of  heights  stood  Tyche,  separated  from 
it  only  by  a  double  wall  and  a  highway  be 
tween  ;  it  extended  northward  about  2  m., 
and  at  its  W.  extremity  were  several  heights 
named  the  Epipolse,  which  were  enclosed  by 
Dionysius  the  Elder  and  formed  one  vast  for 
tress.  S.  of  Tyche,  and  opposite  Ortygia,  on 
the  lowlands  and  extending  to  the  wall  of 
Achradina,  at  the  foot  of  the  heights,  was  Ne- 
apolis  or  the  new  town.  W.  and  S.  of  Orty 
gia,  around  the  marshy  shores  of  the  Great 
harbor  as  far  as  the  rocky  peninsula  of  Plem- 
myrium,  were  suburbs  and  gardens.  After 
the  Roman  conquest,  as  the  city  declined  in 
wealth  and  population,  its  limits  became  more 
restricted  ;  at  the  time  of  Augustus  it  occupied 
only  Ortygia  and  the  lower  part  of  Achra 
dina,  and  since  its  capture  by  the  Saracens  it 
has  been  confined  to  the  Ortygian  peninsula. 
The  heights  of  Achradina  now  present  only  a 
surface  of  rock,  the  ancient  buildings  and  the 
soil  having  been  alike  removed.  The  sea  has 
undermined  the  shore,  the  walls  have  disap 
peared,  and  over  the  elevated  and  extensive 
plain  only  steps  hewn  in  the  rock  or  a  few 
courses  of  stone  give  evidence  of  the  vast  pop 
ulation  which  once  inhabited  it.  On  the  pen 
insula  and  the  lowland  portion  of  Achradina 
and  Neapolis,  evidences  of  the  former  great 
ness  of  Syracuse  are  more  abundant.  Near  the 
borders  of  Tyche,  Achradina,  and  Neapolis  is 
the  ancient  theatre  hewn  out  of  the  rock  and 
now  much  overgrown  with  bushes;  it  is  440 


542 


SYRACUSE 


ft.  in  diameter,  contained  60  ranges  of  seats, 
all  cut  in  the  rock,  and  could  accommodate 
24,000  spectators.  Not  far  from  this  are  the 
ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  of  the  Roman  period. 
Nearer  to  Ortygia  are  the  ruins  of  the  pal 
ace  of  Agathocles,  and  on  the  peninsula  are 


traces  of  several  other  palaces.  The  lautumm 
or  latomice,  originally  quarries  cut  in  the  wall 
of  rocks  which  formed  the  face  of  the  heights 
of  Achradina,  and  excavated  to  the  depth  ot 
60  to  80  ft.,  are  still  perfect.  Some  of  them 
were  used  as  prisons;  in  one  the  Athenian 


Syracuse — Kuins  of  Theatre  in  the  Foreground. 


prisoners  were  confined  on  the  surrender  of 
Nicias,  and  most  of  them  perished.  Near  the 
site  of  the  ancient  theatre,  on  one  side  of  the 
quarry,  is  that  remarkable  prison  cut  in  the 
rock,  now  called  the  "  ear  of  Dionysius." 
There  are  also  catacombs  of  great  extent  con 
taining  subterranean  streets  of  tombs,  in  which 
Greek  and  Roman,  Christian  and  Saracen,  have 
all  found  burial.  The  remains  of  a  great  aque 
duct  begun  by  Gelon  and  improved  by  Hiero 
also  exist.  Near  the  left  bank  of  the  Anapo, 
outside  the  walls  and  S.  W.  of  the  city,  are 
the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius. 
The  celebrated  fountain  of  Arethusa,  long  in  a 
ruinous  condition  and  used  by  washerwomen, 
has  been  repaired  and  beautified  by  the  city 
authorities;  a  wall  separates  it  from  the  sea. 
There  are  also  remains  of  several  baths,  one 
of  them  with  a  spiral  staircase.  In  the  mu 
seum  of  the  modern  city  are  preserved  stat 
ues,  vases,  coins,  and  inscriptions  gathered 
from  the  ruins. — Syracuse  was  founded  by  the 
Corinthians,  under  Archias,  about  734  B.  C. 
Within  70  years  it  began  to  send  out  colo 
nies,  among  which  were  Acra3  (664),  CasmenfB 
(about  644),  and  Camarina  (599).  In  486  an 
oligarchy  called  the  Geomori,  or  Gamori,  who 
had  usurped  the  government,  were  overthrown. 
They  withdrew  to  CasmensB,  but  Gelon,  despot 
of  Gela,  restored  them  to  power,  reserving 
for  himself  the  supreme  government.  (See 
GELOX.)  TTiero,  his  successor  (about  478),  was 
a  patron  of  literature  and  the  arts.  His  broth 
er  Thrasybulus  succeeded  him  in  467,  but  his 


tyranny  soon  caused  his  expulsion,  and  a  pop 
ular  government  was  instituted.  (See  HIERO.) 
In  415  the  Athenians  formed  a  league  against 
Syracuse,  and  besieged  it  the  following  year. 
The  Spartans  came  to  the  aid  of  the  Syra- 
cusans,  and  in  September,  413,  a  great  naval 
battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  Athenians, 
under  Nicias  and  Demosthenes,  were  defeat 
ed,  their  ships  destroyed,  about  30,000  men 
killed,  and  10,000  made  prisoners.  In  405 
Dionysius  the  Elder,  taking  advantage  of  the 
popular  alarm  at  the  aggressions  of  the  Car 
thaginians,  made  himself  despot  of  the  city, 
concluded  a  peace  with  Carthage,  and  ruled 
vigorously  but  tyrannically  for  38  years.  He 
fortified  the  town,  and  in  397  commenced  war 
against  the  Carthaginians,  and  defeated  them. 
Twelve  years  later  he  had  extended  his  do 
minion  over  the  greater  part  of  Sicily  and  a 
part  of  Magna  Grsocia.  He  was  succeeded  in 
367  by  his  son  Dionysius  the  Younger,  whose 
tyranny  and  debauchery  brought  about  his  ex 
pulsion  by  Dion  in  357 ;  he  regained  his  power 
in  346,  but  was  finally  expelled  by  Timoleon 
in  343.  (See  DIONYSIUS.)  The  restoration  of 
liberty  to  Syracuse  by  the  latter  was  followed 
by  unexampled  though  brief  prosperity;  and 
26  years  later  Agathocles  acquired  despotic 
power  over  the  city,  and  used  it  for  28  years 
to  plunge  her  in  new  and  destructive  wars. 
(See  AGATHOCLES.)  After  his  death  (289)  a 
short  respite  was  had,  but  soon  new  tyrants 
assumed  the  sway,  till  in  270  Iliero  II.  ob 
tained  supreme  power,  and  maintained  a  firm 


SYRACUSE 


543 


and  judicious  administration  for  54  years.  In 
263  he  made  a  treaty  with  Rome,  whose  stead 
fast  ally  he  thenceforward  became.  During 
his  reign  Syracuse  attained  to  its  highest  splen 
dor.  With  his  death  (216)  a  great  change 
took  place.  His  grandson  and  successor  Hie- 
ronymus  abandoned  the  alliance  of  Rome  for 
that  of  Carthage,  and  after  his  death  the  Car 
thaginians  brought  about  an  open  rupture  with 
Rome,  which  led  to  the  siege  of  Syracuse  by 
Marcellus  (214-212),  a  siege  rendered  illustri 
ous  by  the  patriotic  efforts  of  Archimedes,  but 
which  finally  resulted  in  the  capture  and  plun 
der  of  the  city.  The  magnificent  works  of  art 
then  carried  as  plunder  to  Rome  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  the  love  of  Greek  art  among  the 
Romans.  Syracuse  fell  into  decay,  and  lost 
in  wealth  and  population.  Augustus  in  vain 
endeavored  in  21  B.  C.  to  restore  it  by  send 
ing  a  Roman  colony.  In  the  4th  century  A. 
D.,  though  much  decayed,  it  was  still  one  of 
the  largest  cities  of  Sicily.  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Goths  at  the  overthrow  of  the 
western  empire,  but  was  recaptured  by  Belisa- 
rius  in  535,  and  remained  a  fief  of  the  Byzan 
tine  emperors  till  878,  when,  after  a  siege  of 
nine  months,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Sara 
cens,  who  massacred  its  inhabitants,  destroyed 
its  fortifications,  and  burned  the  city.  In  1088 
Count  Roger  of  Sicily  made  himself  master  of 
Syracuse.  It  was  partially  rebuilt  and  forti 
fied  by  Charles  V.,  but  in  1542,  1693,  and  1757 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  earthquakes.  On 
April  8,  1849,  during  the  Sicilian  insurrection, 
it  surrendered  to  the  Neapolitan  fleet,  and  in 
1860  it  espoused  the  cause  of  Garibaldi. 

SYRACUSE,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Onondaga  co.,  New  York,  at  the  head  of  Onon- 
daga  lake,  on  a  creek  of  the  same  name,  147^- 
m.  by  the  New  York  Central  railroad  "W.  by  N. 
of  Albany  and  150^  in.  E.  of  Buffalo;  lat.  43° 
3'  N.,  Ion.  76°  9'  W. ;  pop.  in  1850,  22,271 ;  in 
1860,  28,119;  in  1870,  43,051,  of  whom  13,990 
were  foreigners,  including  5,062  Germans  and 
5,172  Irish ;  in  1875,  49,808.  The  main  por 
tion  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  creek,  while  the 
E.  part  is  on  two  ridges,  the  summits  being 
about  200  ft.  above  the  lake.  It  is  very  regu 
larly  laid  out ;  but  few  of  the  streets  are  less 
than  66  ft.  wide,  and  many  of  them  99  ft., 
well  shaded,  with  occasional  small  ornamented 
squares.  The  business  portion  is  substantially 
built  of  brick ;  but  the  great  majority  of  the 
dwellings  are  of  wood,  surrounded  with  lawns 
and  gardens.  The  court  house,  of  Onondaga 
dressed  limestone,  besides  the  usual  court 
rooms,  contains  the  library  of  the  court  of 
appeals  (6,000  volumes) ;  it  cost  $40,000.  The 
city  hall  is  of  brick,  on  the  N.  side  of  a  little 
park.  The  state  armory,  on  Armory  park 
(about  two  acres),  is  of  brick,  covers  an  area 
of  35,000  sq.  ft.,  and  cost  $85,000.  The  Onon 
daga  County  savings  bank  is  a  fine  building  of 
Onondaga  limestone  in  the  renaissance  style, 
costing  $300,000.  The  Syracuse  savings  bank, 
in  course  of  construction,  is  of  Ohio  buff  sand- 
VOL.  xv. — 35 


stone  with  trimmings  of  New  Jersey  red  sand 
stone.  The  first  Presbyterian  church,  the  cost 
liest  in  the  city,  is  of  Fulton  brown  stone  in 
the  middle  Gothic  style,  with  a  lofty  spire. 
Syracuse  university  is  on  an  elevation  in  the 
S.  E.  part  of  the  city,  with  diversified  grounds 
comprising  50  acres.  The  building  is  of  rough 
dressed  limestone  ashlar,  with  fine  cut  trim 
mings  in  the  Italian  style,  is  80  ft.  by  180, 
and  three  stories  above  the  basement.  On 
a  beautiful  elevation  just  W.  of  the  corpo 
rate  limits  of  the  city  stands  the  New  York 
state  asylum  for  idiots,  an  elegant  structure 
in  the  Italian  style  erected  in  1855.  (See  IDI 
OCY,  vol.  ix.,  p.  174.)  The  principal  cemetery 
is  Oakwood,  comprising  about  150  acres,  in  a 
fine  natural  situation  in  the  S.  E.  quarter  of 
the  city.  It  has  been  handsomely  laid  out,  and 
contains  many  fine  monuments. — Syracuse  is 
an  important  railroad  centre  ;  38  passenger  and 
60  freight  trains  arrive  and  depart  daily.  The 
diverging  lines  are  as  follows :  the  Oswego 
and  Syracuse;  Syracuse,  Phoenix,  and  Oswe 
go  ;  Syracuse  and  Northern ;  New  York  Cen 
tral  ;  Syracuse  and  Chenango  ;  Syracuse,  Bing- 
hamton,  and  New  York;  and  the  Auburn 
branch  of  the  New  York  Central.  The  Erie 
canal  passes  through  the  city,  and  the  Oswego 
canal  runs  N.  from  near  the  centre.  In  1874, 
110,000  tons  of  freight,  exclusive  of  wood  and 
lumber,  cleared  at  the  collector's  office.  The 
controlling  interest  has  always  been  the  manu 
facture  of  salt.  The  springs  were  first  visited 
by  Jesuit  missionaries  in  1654,  who  made  some 
salt  and  carried  it  to  Quebec.  From  this  time 
to  the  settlement  of  the  whites  in  1787  it  was 
manufactured  by  the  Indians  and  was  an  article 
of  traffic.  The  manufacture  has  steadily  in 
creased  since  the  settlement.  In  1797  the  state 
took  control  of  the  springs  and  passed  laws  for 
the  regulation  of  the  business.  From  1797  to 
1806  inclusive,  78,000  bushels  were  made  ;  1807 
to  1816,  267,000  ;  1817  to  1826,  608,000  ;  1827 
to  1836,  1,594,000 ;  1837  to  1846,  3,058,000  ; 
1847  to  1856,  5,083,000.  In  1874,  6,029,300 
bushels  were  manufactured  on  the  reservation, 
mostly  in  the  city.  There  are  20  salt  com 
panies,  which  manufacture  both  by  solar  and 
artificial  heat,  employing  a  vast  amount  of 
capital  and  hundreds  of  men.  There  are  about 
90  other  manufactories,  producing  articles  in 
1874  to  the  value  of  about  $14,000,000.  The 
most  important  are  a  blast  furnace,  Bessemer 
steel  works,  two  rolling  mills,  three  engine  and 
boiler  works,  five  founderies  and  machine  shops, 
a  bolt  and  nut  factory,  a  manufactory  of  mower 
and  reaper  knives,  a  railroad  journal-box  fac 
tory,  seven  planing  mills  and  sash,  door,  and 
blind  factories,  two  fruit-canning  establish 
ments,  an  extension  table  factory,  five  manufac 
tories  of  musical  instruments  (organs,  pianos, 
&c.),  one  of  picture  frames,  one  of  glass,  two 
of  matches,  one  of  agricultural  implements, 
one  of  mowers  and  reapers,  three  of  saddlery 
hardware,  three  of  boots  and  shoes,  seven  of 
ready-made  clothing,  many  of  cigars,  two  of 


54:4 


SYRACUSE 


SYEIA 


furniture,  two  of  paper  boxes,  two  of  silver 
ware  and  jewelry,  numerous  barrel  factories, 
seven  breweries,  three  flouring  mills,  gas  works, 
and  six  stone-dressing  yards.  There  are  five 
national  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$1,130,000  ;  two  state  banks,  capital  $440,000; 
a  trust  and  deposit  company ;  two  private  bank 
ing  houses,  and  three  savings  institutions,  with 
upward  of  $7,000,000  deposits.— The  city  is 
divided  into  eight  wards,  and  is  governed  by 
a  mayor  and  a  board  of  eight  aldermen  (one 
from  each  ward).  It  has  an  effective  police 
force,  a  good  fire  department,  water  works,  and 
street  railroads.  The  assessed  value  of  prop 
erty  is  $12,310,937;  funded  debt  of  the  city, 
$1,339,000.  The  principal  charitable  institu 
tions  are  the  county  orphan  asylum,  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul's  asylum  for  children,  the  "  Home  " 
for  aged  and  indigent  females,  St.  Joseph's  hos 
pital,  and  the  house  of  the  Good  Shepherd. 
There  are  a  high  school  and  15  other  public 
schools,  with  graded  departments  and  an  aver 
age  attendance  of  6,434  pupils.  The  central 
library  in  the  high  school  building,  a  free  cir 
culating  library  under  the  direction  of  the 
board  of  education,  contains  about  12,000  vol 
umes. — Syracuse  university  was  established 
by  the  Methodists  in  1870,  and  opened  in  1871. 
The  plan  is  that  of  an  assemblage  of  colleges 
of  both  undergraduate  and  professional  grades, 
and  three  of  these  have  been  established,  viz. : 
the  college  of  the  liberal  arts,  opened  in  1871, 
which  in  1875  had  11  professors  and  148  .stu 
dents,  and  which  confers  degrees  in  the  arts, 
philosophy,  and  science ;  the  college  of  phy 
sicians  and  surgeons,  established  in  1872,  which 
in  1875  had  15  professors  and  60  students; 
and  the  college  of  the  fine  arts,  established  in 
1873,  which  in  1875  had  8  professors  and  22 
students.  The  number  of  students  in  the  sev 
eral  preparatory  departments  in  1875  was  142, 
making  a  total  of  372  students.  The  library 
contains  about  8,000  volumes.  All  the  colleges 
are  open  to  students  of  both  sexes,  who  pursue 
the  same  courses  of  instruction  in  the  same 
classes.  While  the  responsibility  of  support 
and  direction  devolves  mainly  upon  the  Metho 
dist  Episcopal  church,  all  sectarian  differences 
are  ignored,  and  attendance  upon  chapel  exer 
cises  is  not  compulsory.  In  1875  the  assets  of 
the  university  amounted  to  about  $600,000,  of 
which  the  city  contributed  $100,000,  and  the 
rest  was  derived  from  private  subscriptions. — 
The  Onondaga  historical  association,  incorpo 
rated  in  1863,  has  a  library  of  1,500  volumes 
and  valuable  cabinets.  The  young  men's  Chris 
tian  association,  organized  in  1858,  has  an  ex 
cellent  library  and  reading  room.  There  are 
three  daily  and  eleven  weekly  newspapers, 
including  two  issued  on  Sundays.  The  num 
ber  of  churches  is  41,  viz. :  2  Baptist,  1  Church 
of  Christ,  2  Congregational,  4  Episcopal,  1  In 
dependent  Christian,  3  Jewish,  5  Lutheran,  9 
Methodist,  4  Presbyterian,  1  Reformed,  7  Ro 
man  Catholic,  1  Unitarian,  and  1  Universalist. 
—The  first  settlement  within  the  corporate  lim 


its  was  made  by  Ephraim  Webster,  an  Indian 
trader,  near  the  mouth  of  Onondaga  creek,  in 
1787.  In  1789  Asa  Danforth  settled  in  that 
part  now  known  as  the  first  ward,  then  called 
Salt  point,  and  began  the  manufacture  of  salt. 
It  soon  took  the  name  of  Salina,  and  became 
the  most  important  place  in  the  county.  The 
first  settlement  in  the  central  portion  of  the 
city  was  made  in  1797.  It  increased  slowly, 
and  assumed  successively  the  names  of  Bogar- 
dus  Corners,  Milan,  South  Salina,  Cossitt's 
Corners,  Corinth,  and  Syracuse  (in  1824).  It 
was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1825.  The 
Erie  canal  having  been  completed  in  that  year, 
the  rival  villages  of  Salina  and  Syracuse  rap 
idly  increased  in  population,  and  in  1847  were 
consolidated  in  the  city  of  Syracuse. 

SYRIA  (Turk.  Suristan;  Arab.  Esh-SJiam),  a 
territory  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  bounded  N.  by 
Adana  and  Marash,  E.  by  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Syro- Arabian  desert,  S.  by  Arabia,  and  W. 
by  the  Mediterranean,  between  lat.  31°  and  37° 
20'  K,  and  Ion.  34°  and  about  40°  E. ;  area, 
about  60,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  1,000,000.  It 
includes  parts  of  the  vilayets  of  Syria  (capital 
Damascus ;  area,  inclusive  of  a  part  of  the 
desert,  66,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  518,750) 
and  Aleppo,  the  latter  including  Marash  and 
some  districts  E.  of  the  Euphrates  (area,  40,- 
750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  535,714).  Besides  the  large 
gulf  of  Iskanderun  (the  ancient  gulf  of  Issus), 
at  the  extreme  north,  which  extends  between 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  the  coast  is  indented 
by  several  small  bays,  as  those  of  Tripoli,  Bey- 
rout,  Saida,  and  Acre.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Jordan,  the  Asi  or  Aasy  (the  ancient 
Orontes),  the  Litany  (Leontes),  the  Yarmuk 
(llicromax),  the  Barada  (supposed  to  be  the 
Scriptural  Abana),  and  the  Awaj  (Pharpar). 
The  Euphrates  drains  the  N.  E.  border.  The 
only  important  lakes  are  the  Dead  sea  and  the 
lake  of  Tiberias  or  Gennesaret.  The  Taurus 
range  forms  a  part  of  the  1ST.  boundary,  and 
separates  Syria  from  Asia  Minor.  The  two 
parallel  chains  which  extend  through  Syria 
from  N.  to  S.,  the  Libanus  or  Lebanon  and 
the  Anti-Libanus,  are  offsets  of  the  S.  W.  con 
tinuation  of  that  range  known  to  the  ancients 
as  the  Amanus  (now  Alma  Dagh).  The  W. 
or  Lebanon  chain  runs  parallel  to  the  coast, 
and  seldom  more  than  12  m.  distant  from  it, 
to  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  below  Mt.  Tabor ;  it 
is  broken  by  the  passage  of  the  Orontes  and 
the  Leontes.  Its  highest  summits  are  10,000 
ft.  above  the  sea.  This  chain  contains  the 
remnant  of  the  ancient  "  cedars  of  Lebanon." 
Separated  from  this  by  a  beautiful  and  fertile 
valley,  Crcle-Syria,  from  10  to  20  m.  in  width, 
is  the  Anti-Libanus  chain,  generally  lower, 
though  in  its  loftiest  summit,  Mt.  Ilermon, 
rivalling  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Lebanon 
range.  E.  of  Hermon  a  chain  of  low  moun 
tains  stretches  eastward  past  Damascus ;  be 
low  it  the  country  is  hilly,  and,  viewed  from 
the  deep  depression  of  the  Jordan  valley,  seems 
mountainous.  The  mountains  of  Gilcad  E.  of 


SYRIA 


545 


the  Jordan  form  the  culminating  point  of  these 
hills.  Further  E.,  in  the  Hauran,  is  a  lofty 
table  land,  waterless,  and  with  vast  black 
bowlders  and  rocks  scattered  over  its  face. 
The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  topog 
raphy  of  Syria  is  the  extraordinary  depression 
of  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  The  valley  of 
Ccele-Syria  (now  El-Bukaa),  between  the  Li- 
banus  and  the  Anti-Libanus,  is  about  2,300  ft. 
above  the  sea;  it  formerly  contained  Heliop- 
olis  or  Baalbek,  and  other  great  cities.  Near 
its  southern  termination  it  divides  into  two 
branches,  one  cutting  through  the  Lebanon 
range  in  the  narrow  gorge  through  which  the 
Leontes  finds  its  way  to  the  sea,  the  other 
striking  off  southward  and  descending  rapidly 
for  15  m.  to  the  source  of  the  Jordan  at  the 
base  of  Hermon.  The  continuation  of  the  lat 
ter,  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  descending  with 
a  steady  but  rapid  slope,  at  the  plain  of  Huleh 
is  at  the  sea  level;  at  the  lake  of  Tiberias  it 
is  about  650  ft.  below  it;  and  within  60  m. 
of  direct  distance,  though  by  the  circuitous 
channel  of  the  river  200  m.,  at  the  Dead  sea, 
it  is  about  1,300  ft.  below  the  Mediterranean. 
No  similar  river  valley  is  known.  Among  the 
level  tracts  of  Syria  are  the  great  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  that  of  Sharon,  and  the  arid  sandy 
plain  of  Gaza.  Around  Damascus,  an  oasis 
in  the  desert,  vast  plains  of  sand  extend  E. 
and  S.,  and  cover  the  region  that  contains 
the  ruins  of  Palmyra. — The  geology  of  Syria 
is  interesting.  In  the  extreme  south  are  only 
primitive  rocks,  the  variegated  granite  of  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula ;  the  deep  chasm  of  the 
Dead  sea,  with  its  bitumen  pits,  salt  moun 
tains,  and  warm  springs,  belongs  to  the  car 
boniferous  era ;  the  calcareous  and  sandstone 
formations  of  Hermon  and  Lebanon  abound  in 
fossils  of  the  era  of  the  new  red  sandstone; 
and  the  porphyry  and  basalt  of  the  Hauran 
give  evidence  of  their  igneous  origin.  The 
soil  is  exceedingly  fertile  wherever  there  are 
sufficient  rains,  or  irrigation  can  be  practised ; 
but  where  there  is  no  water,  it  is  sandy  and 
utterly  barren.  The  region  around  the  Dead 
sea  is  thoroughly  impregnated  with  salt  and 
alkalies,  and  is  entirely  devoid  of  vegetation. 
In  the  south  and  east  there  are  vast  sandy 
wastes.  The  mineral  productions  of  Syria  are 
iron  of  excellent  quality,  a  little  quicksilver 
and  some  coal  in  the  south,  and  in  the  Dead 
sea  region  salt  and  bitumen.  Good  salt  is 
also  made  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterra 
nean. — There  are  few  countries  of  the  same 
extent  in  which  the  climate  is  so  varied  as  in 
Syria.  On  the  slopes  of  Lebanon  it  is  cool 
and  pleasant  in  the  summer  months,  and  in 
the  winter  heavy  rains  fall,  but  the  cold  is 
not  severe.  In  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  the 
summer  heat  is  equal  to  that  of  the  hottest 
portion  of  the  tropics,  and  on  the  coast  the 
summers  are  also  very  hot  and  unhealthful.  In 
winter  Beyrout  and  some  of  the  other  cities  of 
the  coast  are  favorable  for  invalids.  In  Jeru 
salem  the  heat  is  oppressive  during  the  day  in 


summer;  rain  seldom  falls  between  the  end 
of  April  and  the  beginning  of  October,  and 
there  are  few  clouds,  and  hence  everything  is 
parched  till  the  rainy  season.  Damascus  is 
colder  in  winter  than  the  western  slopes  of 
Lebanon,  and  snow  frequently  falls ;  yet  the 
orange  and  fig  thrive  there.  The  average  range 
of  heat  in  the  hottest  part  of  summer  at  Je 
rusalem  and  Damascus  is  from  84°  to  86°  F. 
In  Aleppo  the  animal  range  is  very  great,  the 
thermometer  falling  below  zero  in  winter  and 
rising  above  100°  in  summer. — The  implements 
and  modes  of  agriculture  are  nearly  identical 
with  those  in  use  2,500  years  ago.  Still  the 
crops,  wrherever  there  are  rains  or  irrigation 
can  be  practised,  are  large.  Wheat,  barley, 
durra,  and  spelt  are  largely  produced,  as  well 
as  rice,  lentils,  peas,  &c. ;  cotton,  hemp,  silk, 
madder,  indigo,  sesamum,  castor  oil,  tobacco, 
potatoes,  capsicum,  melons,  cucumbers,  and  ar 
tichokes  are  also  important  crops.  Figs,  olives, 
mulberries,  grapes,  almonds,  apricots,  peach 
es,  pomegranates,  oranges,  lemons,  dates,  and 
other  fruits  abound.  Vineyards  are  numerous 
on  the  mountain  slopes  and  in  the  hill  country 
of  Judea;  the  grapes  are  large  and  luscious, 
and  the  wine  made  from  them  is  excellent. 
Storax  is  produced  for  the  market.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Damascus  are  extensive  fields  of 
roses,  the  petals  of  which  furnish  the  attar  of 
commerce.  The  sycamore,  Indian  fig,  carob, 
mulberry,  and  pistachio  trees  grow  abundantly, 
both  wild  and  cultivated.  Scammony  and  su 
mach  are  gathered  about  Mt.  Lebanon  for  ex 
portation.  The  cedar,  pine,  and  fir  are  found  in 
extensive  forests  on  the  mountains,  though  the 
true  cedar  of  Lebanon,  once  so  highly  prized 
for  building  purposes,  is  nearly  extinct.  The 
arbutus,  terebinth,  laurel,  and  several  species 
of  juniper  occur  on  the  table  lands,  and  also 
dwarf  oaks  which  produce  the  best  gall  nuts. 
The  domestic  animals  are  horses,  of  which  the 
wandering  tribes  possess  breeds  of  extraordi 
nary  speed  and  beauty  ;  cattle,  generally  small 
and  inferior ;  asses  and  mules,  large  and  very 
serviceable  ;  sheep  and  goats  of  several  kinds, 
the  broad-tailed  variety  of  the  former  being 
found  only  in  N".  Syria ;  camels  throughout  the 
country,  and  the  domesticated  buffalo  on  the 
coast  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes.  Jack 
als,  foxes,  and  hyssnas  are  common  in  the  des 
ert  mountains;  the  Syrian  bear  has  his  home 
in  Mt.  Lebanon ;  wolves  and  wild  boars  in  the 
northern  forests,  and  the  latter  also  occasional 
ly  further  S. ;  deer  are  also  found  in  the  north, 
and  antelopes  in  the  desert  regions ;  and  hares, 
porcupines,  and  jerboas  are  abundant.  There 
are  no  poisonous  serpents.  Silkworms  are 
reared  extensively  in  the  mountainous  districts. 
Turtles  and  tortoises  are  found  in  considerable 
numbers.  Fish  are  abundant  in  some  of  the 
inland  lakes,  though  not  plentiful  along  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  manufactures 
are  few  and  coarse.  Beyrout  is  now  the  chief 
commercial  city,  and  within  40  years  its  popu 
lation  has  increased  from  5,000  to  V0,000.— 


546 


SYRIA 


The  inhabitants  are  of  a  great  variety  of  races 
and  religions.  The  ruling  race  are  the  Osmanli 
Turks,  though  they  are  but  an  insignificant  por 
tion  of  the  Mohammedan  population,  who  are 
mostly  Arabs ;  they  are  bigoted  and  hostile  to 
Christians,  and  are  strict  in  their  adherence  to 
the  Sunna  or  orthodox  Islamism.  There  are 
four  sects  usually  considered  Mohammedan 
dissenters,  though  not  all  of  them  can  properly 
be  reckoned  as  Mohammedans.  The  Metua- 
lis  are  the  followers  of  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of 
Mohammed,  and  are  allied  to  the  Shiahs  of 
Persia;  they  number  about  30,000,  and  are 
found  "W.  of  the  Orontes  and  on  the  S.  part 
of  the  Lebanon  range.  The  Ansaries  or  Nos- 
sairians,  inhabiting  the  mountains  extending 
from  the  N".  extremity  of  Coele-Syria  to  the 
gorge  of  the  Orontes  at  Antioch,  and  number 
ing  about  30,000,  keep  their  religious  views  a 
secret.  The  Ismaelians,  occupying  the  moun 
tains  W.  of  Hamah,  are  few,  and  were  origi 
nally  Shiahs ;  they  are  the  descendants  of  the 
people  known  in  the  time  of  the  crusades  as 
Assassins.  The  fourth  sect  is  the  Druses,  in 
the  Lebanon  and  Anti-Libanus,  numbering 
about  70,000,  and  the  most  fanatical  of  all. 
The  largest  of  the  nominally  Christian  sects 
is  that  of  the  Maronites,  who  are  found  chief 
ly  in  the  Lebanon,  though  they  have  small 
communities  in  all  the  principal  towns  from 
Aleppo  to  Nazareth.  Their  number  in  1874 
was  about  140,000.  (See  ANSARIES,  ASSAS 
SINS,  DRUSES,  and  MAKONITES.)  The  orthodox 
Greeks  (Greeks  in  religion,  but  not  generally 
in  blood),  numbering  about  150,000,  are  scat 
tered  throughout  the  cities  and  more  level  por 
tions  of  Syria,  and  engage  in  agriculture  and 
trade ;  they  have  their  worship  in  their  own 
language.  There  are  dissenters  also  from  the 
Greek  church,  the  Syrians  or  Jacobites,  a  mere 
handful,  dwelling  mostly  1ST.  and  N.  E.  of  Da 
mascus.  The  Greek  Catholic  and  Syrian  Cath 
olic  churches  acknowledge  the  pope,  though 
in  some  particulars  they  approach  more  nearly 
to  the  Greek  than  the  Roman  church  ;  they 
are  about  50,000  in  all,  and  embrace  a  large 
number  of  the  more  wealthy  Christians  in 
Syria.  The  Armenians  are  50,000  or  60,000 
in  number.  There  are  about  25,000  Jews  in 
Syria;  those  in  Palestine  are  immigrants  from 
foreign  countries,  while  those  of  Aleppo  and 
Damascus  are  descendants  of  Jewish  families 
who  have  resided  there  for  many  centuries. 
There  are  Mohammedan  schools  in  the  cities, 
and  the  Christian  sects  also  maintain  some 
schools.  The  children  of  the  wealthy  are  fre 
quently  sent  to  France  or  England  for  educa 
tion,  but  the  great  mass  of  the  people  are  very 
illiterate.  Of  late  years,  however,  great  im 
provements  have  been  made  in  education  by 
means  of  schools  established  by  Greeks,  Cath 
olics,  and  especially  by  Protestant  missionaries. 
— The  central  part  of  Syria  is  designated  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures  as  Aram  Dammesek, 
or  the  Aram  of  which  Damascus  was  the  cap 
ital.  The  empire  of  the  kings  of  Damascus 


gradually  extended  eastward  over  a  part  of 
the  plain  of  Mesopotamia  and  westward  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Orontes.  It  was  finally  over 
thrown  by  the  Assyrians  under  Tiglath-pileser, 
about  740  B.  C.  From  the  head  waters  of  the 
Orontes  southward,  all  of  Palestine  W.  of  the 
Jordan,  and  probably  Gilead  and  the  Hauran 
E.  of  it,  were  peopled  by  the  Canaanites.  The 
Phoenicians  settled  mainly  along  the  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  became  the  earliest 
commercial  nation  of  the  world.  Sidon,  their 
first  metropolis,  is  said  by  tradition  to  have 
been  founded  by  Sidon,  the  oldest  son  of 
Ham ;  and  colonies  from  it  went  forth  to  Tyre 
and  Arvad  (Aradus),  and  thence  to  all  por 
tions  of  the  Mediterranean  and  beyond.  Phoe 
nicia  attained  its  greatest  power  about  1050 
B.  C.,  and  it  enjoyed  uninterrupted  prosperity 
for  full  300  years,  but  was  at  last  conquered 
by  the  Assyrians,  and  subsequently  by  the 
Babylonians  and  Persians.  The  southern  parts 
of  western  and  portions  of  eastern  Palestine 
were  inhabited  by  a  tall  race,  the  Anakim  and 
Rephaim,  traces  of  whose  cities  yet  remain  in 
the  Hauran.  The  S.  W.  coast  was  occupied  by 
the  Philistines,  and  the  region  adjoining  the 
Dead  sea  to  the  east  by  the  Semitic  Ammo 
nites  and  Moabites.  (See  PALESTINE.)  The 
equally  Semitic  Israelites  emigrated  from  Egypt 
to  Palestine  about  1500,  or  according  to  some 
authorities  about  1300  B.  C.,  and  thencefor 
ward  for  about  1,500  years  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  in  its  history.  (See  HEBREWS.)  The 
theocracy  under  which  they  existed  for  several 
centuries  was  terminated  by  the  election  of 
Saul  as  king  early  in  the  llth  century  B.  C., 
and  the  kingdom  was  divided  (about  975)  in 
the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  the  grandson  of  his 
successor  David.  The  ten  tribes,  or  Israel  as 
they  were  distinctively  termed,  were  conquered 
and  carried  into  captivity  by  the  Assyrians  in 
721,  and  their  place  was  supplied  by  colonists 
from  Babylonia,  Hamath,  and  elsewhere,  who 
became  the  Samaritans  of  a  subsequent  era, 
and  a  few  families  of  whom  still  exist  on  their 
ancient  site.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  fell  be 
fore  Nebuchadnezzar  133  years  later,  but  after 
a  70  years'  captivity  the  people  were  restored 
to  their  own  land,  and  the  second  temple  was 
built.  Syria  from  this  period,  until  Grecian 
power  became  paramount  there,  was  governed 
by  a  Persian  satrap  resident  at  Damascus. 
The  battle  of  Issus,  in  333,  led  to  the  subjec 
tion  of  Syria  proper,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine 
to  Alexander  the  Great.  On  his  death,  and 
after  a  long  struggle  of  succession  on  the  par 
tition  of  his  empire,  the  Ptolemies  in  Egypt 
received  Palestine  and  Coale-Syria,  and  Se- 
leucus  Nicator  northern  Syria.  He  founded 
Antioch,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes,  and 
made  it  his  capital ;  and  for  several  centuries 
it  was  the  greatest  of  oriental  cities.  The 
kingdom  of  Syria  continued  flourishing  un 
der  the  Seleucidse  till  the  beginning  of  the  2d 
century  B.  C.  Antiochus  the  Great  wrested 
Palestine  and  Ccele-Syria  from  Egypt.  The 


u  N  i  \' 


SYRIA 

revolt  of  the  Jews  under  the  Asmonean  fam 
ily  against  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  after  a  strug 
gle  of  25  years,  ended  in  their  independence 
(142).  (See  ANTIOCHUS,  DEMETEIUS  SOTER,  HE 
BREWS,  and  SELETJCDS.)  About  63  B.  C.  Syria 
became  a  Roman  province,  and  subsequent 
ly  was  divided  into  several  provinces ;  the 
Herodian  family  ruled  over  Judea  and  some 
adjoining  districts,  while  northern  Syria  and 
the  coast  were  under  Roman  proconsuls.  Af 
ter  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (A. 
D.  70),  the  whole  of  Syria,  including  Judea, 
was  ruled  by  a  Roman  prefect,  and  Antioch 
was  the  capital.  It  continued  under  the  Ro 
man  arid  Byzantine  empire  till  its  conquest  by 
Chosroes  II.  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  cen 
tury,  followed  by  that  of  the  Mohammedans 
in  632-'8.  In  654  Damascus  again  became  the 
capital  of  Syria,  and  in  661  of  the  great  Mo 
hammedan  empire.  The  capital  was  removed 
to  Cufah  in  750,  and  afterward  to  Bagdad, 
and  Syria  thenceforth  became  only  a  province 
of  the  empire  of  the  caliphs.  About  the  mid 
dle  of  the  10th  century  the  rival  Mohammedan 
dynasty  of  the  Fatimites  in  Egypt  conquered 
it,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  llth  the  Seljuk 
Turks  made  it  a  part  of  their  empire.  The  cru 
elties  perpetrated  by  these  fanatics  on  Chris 
tian  pilgrims  visiting  the  Holy  Land  led  to 
the  crusades.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  assault 
(1099),  and  the  whole  of  Syria  except  Damas 
cus  and  a  part  of  Mesopotamia  conquered  by 
the  Christian  princes,  and  divided  into  prin 
cipalities.  Godfrey  was  chosen  ruler  of  Jeru 
salem,  Bohemond  reigned  at  Antioch,  Baldwin 
at  Edessa,  and  the  count  of  Toulouse  at  Tri 
poli.  Their  rule  was  of  short  duration ;  after 
repeated  attacks  by  Noureddin  and  his  suc 
cessors,  it  was  overthrown  by  Saladin  in  1187. 
The  crusades  which  followed  resulted  only  in 
their  regaining  a  few  points,  in  the  temporary 
acquisition  of  Jerusalem  by  treaty  in  1229,  and 
the  final  occupation  of  the  whole  country  by 
the  Mamelukes  in  1291.  (See  EGYPT.)  For  a 
long  period  the  country  was  the  prey  of  the 
two  contending  Tartar  powers,  Tamerlane  and 
his  successors  and  the  Mameluke  sovereigns  of 
Egypt.  In  1517  it  was  conquered  by  Sultan 
Selim  I.,  and  from  that  time  to  our  own  it 
has  formed  a  part  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  In 
1832  Ibrahim  Pasha  conquered  Syria  for  his 
father  Mehemet  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt;  but  in 
1841,  after  the  armed  intervention  of  England 
and  her  allies,  it  was  restored  to  the  sultan. 
In  the  summer  of  1860  an  insurrection  oc 
curred  on  the  part  of  the  Mohammedans  at  Da 
mascus,  in  which  many  Christians  were  slain, 
the  Dutch  consul  killed,  and  the  American  con 
sul  wounded.  At  the  same  time  sanguinary 
disturbances,  such  as  had  frequently  occurred 
before,  broke  out  in  Mt.  Lebanon,  between  the 
Druses  and  Maronites,  and  a  predatory  conflict 
of  several  months'  duration  followed,  in  which 
nearly  150  villages  were  destroyed.  France 
and  England  finally  interfered,  the  outbreak 
was  suppressed,  and  the  prime  movers  were 


SYRIAC  LANGUAGE,   &c.       547 

brought  to  punishment,  but  not  until  more 
than  15,000  men  had  been  killed,  and  tens  of 
thousands  of  people  were  homeless  and  desti 
tute,  and  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  cities 
of  the  coast. 

STRIAC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.  The 
Syriac  language  belongs  to  the  northern  branch 
of  the  Semitic  family.  (See  SEMITIC  RACE  AND 
LANGUAGES.)  It  is  an  Aramaic  dialect,  which 
rose  to  a  literary  language  under  the  name  of 
Syriac  in  the  Christian  schools  of  northern 
Mesopotamia.  In  writing  it  various  forms  of 
character  are  used,  all  of  them  of  kindred  ori 
gin,  and  coming  from  the  same  source  whence 
are  derived  the  other  Semitic  alphabets.  The 
oldest  character  is  the  Pahnyrene,  represented 
by  sundry  inscriptions  dating  from  the  time 
of  Christ.  Next  in  age  is  the  Estranghelo 
alphabet,  commonly  employed  by  the  Syri 
ans  till  the  8th  or  9th  century.  The  common 


A. 


0    °    0 

Estranprhelo 
of  MSS. 

Modern  Syriac 
type  (initial 
forms). 

Modern  Arabic 
type  (indepen 
dent  forms). 

Arabic 
names  of 
characters. 

Approxi 
mate 
sounds. 

Olaph  .  .  . 

r*SL 

1 

\ 

Elif  .  .  . 

Spiritus 
lenis. 

Beth  

bn 

£>     ^ 

Be.... 

B 

Gomal..  . 

•^ 

^     ^ 

Jim  .  .  . 

G 

Dolath.  .  . 

*n 

\*S 

Dal... 

D 

He 

{7-j       en 

K 

He  

H 

Vau 

^ 

o 

\J 

°> 

^Vaw.  . 

W  or  V 

Zain  

s 

1  IJ 

Ze.... 

Z 

Cheth  .  .  . 

j£ 

*F~ 

Kha  .  . 

Kh 

Teth  

\7 

4    ^ 

Tha... 

Th 

Yud  

J 

A          <*$ 

Ye.... 

Y 

Koph.  .  .  . 

^ 

a 

£i 

Qef.... 

K 

Lornad  .  . 

\ 

1     J 

Lam  .  . 

L 

Mim  .... 

^ 

So      / 

Mim  .  . 

M 

Nun  

± 

J     0 

Xun  .  . 

N 

Semkath  . 

Q£> 

SD    :  U* 

Sin  ... 

S 

Ee  

^ 

*  L 

Am.... 

Indefinite. 

Pe 

^^y 

£> 

A 

Phe... 

Ph 

Tsode  .  .  . 

^ 

Dhad.  . 

Ts 

Kuph  .  .  . 

S3 

0 

i3 

Kaf... 

K 

Rish  

1. 

9 

j 

Re.... 

R 

Shin  

X 

A 

J* 

Shin  .  . 

Sh 

Thau  

V 

i 

0 

Te.  .  .  . 

T 

548 


SYRIAC  LANGUAGE   AND  LITERATURE 


modern  Syriac  alphabet  is  an  adaptation  of 
the  Estranghelo  to  an  easier  and  more  rapid 
style  of  writing;  it  began  to  come  into  use 
in  the'  5th  and  6th  centuries,  and  by  degrees 
crowded  out  its  predecessor,  which  was  at 
last  employed  only  for  headings  and  similar 
purposes.  The  Estranghelo  is  also  the  parent 
of  the  Oufio,  from  which  the  modern  forms  of 
the  Arabic  are  derived.  Finally,  we  have  the 
Nestorian  character,  still  in  common  use  with 
modern  Nestorian  Christians ;  it  is  heavier  and 
squarer  than  the  last  named,  and  less  altered 
from  their  common  mother,  the  Estranghelo. 
All  the  Syriac  alphabets  contain  the  same  22 
characters  with  the  Phoenician  and  the  Hebrew. 
The  Syriac  contains  many  Greek  and  Latin 
words,  chiefly  nouns ;  it  has  also  partly  filled 
out  the  scanty  structure  of  the  Semitic  verb 
with  forms  of  periphrastic  origin.  Thus,  be 
sides  the  usual  perfect  and  imperfect  (or  pre 
terite  and  future),  each  of  which  is  capable  of 
standing  for  time  past,  present,  or  future,  it  has 
a  distinctive  present,  formed  by  a  participle 
and  following  pronoun ;  an  imperfect,  formed 
of  a  participle  and  the  verb  to  be ;  a  pluperfect, 
formed  of  the  perfect  (or  preterite)  and  the 
verb  to  be ;  and  even  a  future,  with  the  adjective 
ready,  about  to.  Of  the  Semitic  conjugations, 
the  Syriac  has  but  three,  each  with  its  passive; 
the  second  and  third  are  hardly  distinguished 
in  meaning,  both  expressing  intensive  or  cau 
sative  action.  The  dual  number  has  entirely 
disappeared.  The  ancient  Syriac  was  a  ver 
nacular  dialect  during  the  first  centuries  after 
Christ ;  after  being  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  cul 
tivated  literary  language,  it  maintained  itself 
as  such,  unaltered,  throughout  the  whole  peri 
od  of  growth  of  the  Syriac  literature ;  and  it 
is  still  the  sacred  language  of  the  scattered 
bodies  of  Christians  in  Asia  representing  the 
ancient  Syriac  church.  It  is  no  longer  prop 
erly  understood,  however,  even  by  the  best  in 
structed  among  them.  The  vernacular  dialect 
of  the  once  powerful  and  active  sect  of  Nes- 
torians  has  been  lately,  by  the  efforts  of  the 
American  missionaries  at  Urumiah,  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  printed  language,  with  a  Chris 
tian  literature,  school  and  scientific  books,  pe 
riodicals,  &c.  (See  NESTORIANS,  and  PERKIXS, 
JUSTIX.) — The  Syriac  literature  is  Christian, 
composed  under  Greek  influence  and  after 
Greek  models ;  and  besides  the  important  part 
it  has  played  as  the  intermediary  between 
Greek  and  Moslem  science  and  philosophy, 
it  is  a  source  of  valuable  historical  informa 
tion.  The  oldest  Syriac  work  still  existing  is 
the  translation  of  nearly  the  whole  Bible,  of 
unknown  authorship,  commonly  called  the  Pe- 
shito;  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  made  not 
later  than  about  A.  D.  200.  The  earliest  au 
thors  whose  names,  with  fragments  of  their 
works,  have  come  down  to  us,  are  a  few  years 
older;  they  are  Bardesanes  and  his  son  Har- 
monius.  Besides  philosophical  works,  they 
composed  the  first  hymns  in  the  language,  and 
fixed  its  poetic  style,  giving  it  a  properly  met 


rical  form,  dependent  on  accent  and  number 
of  syllables,  with  occasional  rhyme ;  it  was  the 
first  time  that  any  Semitic  dialect  had  been 
subjected  to  such  rules.  But  the  most  promi 
nent  early  Syriac  'author  is  St.  Ephraem,  or 
Ephraem  Syrus,  of  the  middle  of  the  4th  cen 
tury;  with  him  begins  the  full  career  of  the 
Syriac  literature,  which  continued  uninterrupt 
ed  until  the  9th  century.  A  great  part  of  this 
literature  has  been  lost,  and  what  remains  has 
as  yet  been  but  partially  worked  up  and  made 
accessible.  It  may  be  said  to  have  done  its 
principal  work  in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries, 
in  introducing  classical  learning  to  the  knowl 
edge  of  the  Arabs.  The  grammatical  study  and 
culture  of  the  Syriac  began  after  the  founding 
of  the  famous  school  of  Edessa,  long  a  chief 
centre  of  oriental  learning,  in  the  5th  cen 
tury.  The  works  of  previous  laborers  in  this 
field  were  effaced  by  those  of  Jacob  of  Edessa, 
of  the  7th  century,  whose  authority  gave  the 
classical  and  sacred  dialect  its  final  form. 
From  his  time  the  series  of  native  gramma 
rians  and  lexicographers  is  almost  unbroken ; 
of  most  note  among  the  former  are  Elias  of 
Nisibis  (llth  century),  John  Bar-Zugbi  (begin 
ning  of  the  13th  century),  and  Bar-Hebraeus, 
known  also  as  an  Arabic  author  by  the  name 
of  Abulfaraj  (13th  century);  of  the  latter  the 
most  important  are  Bar-Ali  and  Bar-Bahlul, 
of  the  9th  and  10th  centuries.  Bar-IIebroeus, 
who  is  distinguished  by  both  his  Syriac  and 
Arabic  works,  and  in  various  departments  of 
knowledge,  is  the  last  great  name  in  Syriac 
literary  history.  The  study  of  Syriac  was 
introduced  into  Europe  in  the  15th  century, 
and  the  names  of  Ambrosius,  Widmaristad,  the 
two  Ecchellenses,  and  Assemani  are  promi 
nent  among  its  cultivators.  The  only  compre 
hensive  dictionary  is  that  contained  in  Cas- 
tell's  polyglot  lexicon,  and  published  separate 
ly  by  Michaelis  (Gottingen,  1788).  Of  the 
Latin  grammar  of  Hoffmann  (Halle,  1827),  an 
English  abridged  translation  has  been  pub 
lished  by  Cowper  (London,  1858);  it  has  also 
been  worked  over  and  much  extended  and 
altered  by  Merx  (1867).  The  German  one  of 
Uhlemann  (Berlin,  2d  ed.,  1857)  includes  also 
a  chrestomathy  and  glossary ;  this,  too,  has 
been  reproduced  in  English  in  this  country 
by  E.  Hutchinson  (2d  ed.,  New  York,  1875). 
Among  the  other  chrestomathies  published, 
the  most  useful  are  those  of  Rodiger  (Halle, 
1838)  and  Kirsch,  edited  with  a  glossary  by 
Bernstein  (Leipsic,  1832).  A  complete  lexi 
con  was  begun  by  Bernstein,  but  interrupted 
by  his  death ;  his  collections  and  Quatremere's 
have  since  passed  into  the  hands  of  Dean  R. 
Payne  Smith,  who  is  now  (1876)  publishing 
a  very  full  and  learned  dictionary.  Besides 
Dean  Smith,  Cowper  and  Cureton  are  the  best 
English  cultivators  of  the  study,  and  the  latter 
especially  has  done  great  service  by  the  pub 
lication  of  extracts  from  the  precious  collec 
tion  of  MSS.  some  time  since  acquired  for 
the  British  museum  from  the  convent  of  St. 


SYRINGA 


SZEGEDIN 


549 


Maria  Deipara  in  Egypt.  A  grammar  of  the 
dialect  of  Urumiah,  by  the  Rev.  D.  T.  Stod- 
dard,  was  published  in  1856  by  the  Ameri 
can  oriental  society.  Noldeke  has  produced  a 
fuller  and  more  learned  one,  founded  on  this 
and  on  the  texts  published  by  the  missionaries, 
entitled  Grammatik  der  neusyrisclien  Sprache 
(Leipsic,  1868).  Dr.  Adalbert  Merx  has  pub 
lished  a  Neusyrisches  LesebucJi:  Texte  im  Dia- 
lekte  von  Urmia  (Breslau,  1874). 

SYRIJVGA.     See  LILAC,  and  PIIILADELPHUS. 

SYROS.     See  SYEA. 

SYRTIS  MAJOR  and  Syrtis  Minor,  the  ancient 
names  of  two  large  gulfs  on  the  N.  coast  of 
Africa,  now  called  respectively  the  gulf  of 
Sidra  and  the  gulf  of  Cabes  or  Gabes.  These 
gulfs  were  dangerous  on  account  of  their  shal- 
lowness,  the  number  of  quicksands,  and  the 
uncertainty  of  the  tides.  The  Greater  Syrtis, 
or  gulf  of  Sidra,  is  on  the  N.  coast  of  Tripoli, 
and  extends  from  the  promontory  of  Boreum 
(now  Ras  Teyonas)  on  the  E.  side  to  that  of 
Cephalge  (Ras  Kasr  Hamet)  on  the  W.  The 
distance  between  the  two  promontories  is 
about  270  m.,  and  the  greatest  extension  of 
the  gulf  inland  is  110  m.  The  Lesser  Syrtis, 
or  gulf  of  Cabes,  indents  the  E.  coast  of 
Tunis,  between  the  island  of  Jerbah  on  the 
south  and  Caput  Vadorum  (Ras  Kapudiah)  on 
the  north;  its  width  is  about  100  m.,  measur 
ing  from  these  points.  The  region  between 
the  two  gulfs,  formerly  called  Syrtica,  is  most 
ly  a  narrow  sandy  or  marshy  strip  of  land, 
now  belonging  to  Tripoli.  In  ancient  times  it 
was  peopled  by  the  Lothophagi,  Mac83,  Psylli, 
Nasamones,  and  other  Libyan  tribes,  besides 
Egyptians  and  Phoenicians  on  the  coast.  Cy- 
rene  and  Carthage  contended  for  it,  the  latter 
winning,  it  is  said,  through  the  self-sacrifice  of 
two  brothers,  the  Philaeni. 

SZABADRA  (Ger.  Maria-  Theresiopel],  a  town 
of  S.  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Bacs,  96  m. 
S.  S.  E.  of  Pesth;  pop.  in  1870,  56,323.  Its 
inhabitants  are  mostly  agriculturists,  but  there 
is  also  considerable  trade  in  cattle,  tobacco,  and 
other  products. 

SZABOLCS,  a  X.  E.  county  of  Hungary,  in  the 
Trans-Tibiscan  circle,  the  Theiss  constituting 
the  N.  and  part  of  the  W.  frontier;  area,  2,304 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  265,584,  chiefly  Magyars. 
It  is  a  wide,  sandy  plain,  with  large  marshes, 
especially  in  the  north  and  west,  but  the  soil  is 
fertile.  The  chief  products  are  cattle,  grain, 
tobacco,  and  wine.  Capital,  Nagy-Kallo. 

SZALA.     See  ZALA. 

SZALAY,  Laszlo,  a  Hungarian  historian,  born 
in  Buda,  April  18,  1813,  died  in  Salzburg,  July 
17,  1864.  He  studied  at  the  university  of 
Pesth,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833,  was  a 
member  of  the  diet  of  1839-'40,  and  prepared 
with  Deak  and  others  the  penal  code  adopted 
by  the  lower  house.  Having  edited  for  some 
time  the  Themis,  and  subsequently  the  Buda- 
pesti  szcmle  ("  Buda-Pesth  Review"),  he  suc 
ceeded  Kossuth  in  July,  1844,  as  editor  of  the 
Pestihirlap  (" Pesth  Journal").  In  1847-'52 


he  published  Statusferfiak  konyve  ("The  Book 
of  Statesmen  "),  a  collection  of  political  biogra 
phies.  In  1848  he  was  sent  by  the  Batthyanyi 
ministry  as  envoy  to  the  provisional  central 
government  of  Germany  at  Frankfort,  whence 
he  soon  after  retired  to  London,  and  subse 
quently  resided  in  Switzerland,  until  allowed 
to  return  to  Hungary  about  the  beginning  of 
1861,  where  he  became  a  prominent  member 
of  the  diet  at  Pesth.  His  principal  work  is 
Magyarorszdg  tortenete  ("  History  of  Hun 
gary,"  6  vols.,  Leipsic  and  Pesth,  1850-'63; 
German  ad.,  1866  et  seq.}. 

SZATMAR,  or  Szatlimar.  LAN.  E.  county  of 
Hungary,  in  the  Trans-Tibiscan  circle,  bounded 
N.  by  the  Theiss,  and  intersected  by  the  Sza- 
mos;  area,  2,260  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  280,- 
568,  chiefly  Magyars.  The  E.  part  is  moun 
tainous,  and  contains  the  gold  and  silver  mines 
of  JSTagy-Banya ;  the  remainder  is  level  and 
partly  marshy.  The  climate  is  healthful  and 
mild,  and  the  soil  fertile,  producing  corn, 
maize,  hemp,  flax,  wine,  and  tobacco.  Cattle, 
swine,  sheep,  and  bees  are  raised  in  great  num 
bers.  II.  A  town,  capital  of  the  county,  65 
m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Debreczin;  pop.  in  1870,  18,- 
353.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  Nemeti  on  the 
N.  bank  of  the  Szamos,  and  Szatmar  on  an 
island  in  the  river.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Catho 
lic  bishop,  and  has  a  Catholic  gymnasium,  a 
lyceum,  a  seminary,  and  Greek  and  Protestant 
churches.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on 
in  wine,  linen,  and  woollen  fabrics. 

SZECHENYI,  Ist\an,  count,  a  Hungarian  states 
man,  born  in  Vienna,  Sept.  21,  1791,  died  by 
his  own  hand  at  Dobling,  April  8,  1860.  He 
was  the  son  of  Count  Francis  Szechenyi,  the 
founder  of  the  national  museum  at  Pesth, 
served  in  the  last  campaigns  of  Austria  against 
Napoleon,  and  in  1825  took  his  seat  in  the 
upper  house  of  the  Hungarian  diet.  He  con 
tributed  the  sum  of  $30,000  toward  the  foun 
dation  of  the  Hungarian  national  academy,  and 
was  its  vice  president ;  and  as  leader  of  the 
national  party  he  carried  through  a  grand 
series  of  public  enterprises.  To  popularize  his 
schemes  of  reform,  he  published  Hitel  ("  Cred 
it,"  Pesth,  1830),  and  Vildg  ("Light,"  1832). 
Frightened  by  Kossuth's  radical  agitation,  he 
wrote  against  him  his  Kelet  nepe  ("  People  of 
the  East,"  1840),  and  combated  him  in  the 
diet  of  1847;  but  in  1848  he  yielded  to  the 
current,  and  entered  the  Batthyanyi-Kossuth 
cabinet  as  minister  of  public  works.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  he  became  insane,  and 
was  taken  to  an  asylum  at  Dobling  near  Vi 
enna,  in  which,  though  he  recovered  after 
some  time,  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
In  March,  1860,  his  abode  and  papers  were 
searched  by  the  Austrian  police,  and  shortly 
after  he  shot  himself. 

SZEGEDIN  (Hun.  Szeged),  a  city  of  Hungary, 
capital  of  the  county  of  Csongrad,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Theiss,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
Maros,  55  m.  W.  of  Arad  and  96  m.  S.  E.  of 
Pesth ;  pop.  in  1870,  70,179,  chiefly  Magyars 


550 


TABERNACLE 


and  Slavs.  It  stands  in  a  marshy  plain,  and 
is  divided  into  the  town  proper  and  the  upper 
and  lower  suburbs.  The  river  is  crossed  by  a 
bridge  of  boats,  and  the  town  is  defended  by 
an  old  fortress  built  by  the  Turks  in  the  16th 
century,  which  contains  extensive  barracks,  a 
house  of  correction,  and  a  church  of  its  own. 
There  are  six  Roman  Catholic  churches,  a 
Catholic  gymnasium,  and  a  beautiful  Greek 
church.  Cloth,  tobacco,  soda,  and  soap  are 
manufactured,  and  river  boats  are  built.  It  is 
connected  by  rail  with  all  parts  of  the  coun 
try,  and  carries  on  an  extensive  trade.  In  the 
summer  of  1849  it  was  the  seat  of  the  Hun 


garian  diet  till  it  was  taken  by  the  Austrians 
early  in  August. 

SZEKLERS.     See  TEAXSYLVANIA. 

SZOLNOK.  I.  Middle,  a  county  formerly  be 
longing  to  Transylvania,  and  now  to  Hungary, 
bounded  S.  E.  by  Transylvania ;  area,  855  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  113,639,  chiefly  Wallachs. 
It  is  mountainous,  and  watered  by  tributaries 
of  the  Szamos.  Capital,  Szilagy-Somlyo.  II. 
A  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Heves, 
on  the  Theiss,  56  in.  E.  S.  E.  of  Pesth ;  pop.  in 
1870,  15,847,  chiefly  Magyars.  It  is  connected 
with  Pesth,  Arad,  and  Debreczin  by  rail,  and 
has  considerable  trade  and  important  fisheries. 


T 


TTHE  20th  letter  and  16th  consonant  of 
?  the  English  and  other  alphabets  derived 
from  the  Roman,  the  19th  of  the  Greek  (tail), 
and  the  9th  of  the  Hebrew  (tetli).  It  is  of 
the  denti-lingual  class,  and  represents  the 
sound  produced  by  a  forcible  emission  of  the 
breath  after  placing  the  tongue  against  the 
roof  of  the  mouth  near  the  roots  of  the  teeth. 
This  forcible  emission  of  the  breath  is  the 
principal  distinction  between  the  sounds  of  t 
and  its  sonorous  counterpart  d.  In  etymol 
ogy  it  is  interchangeable  with  d,  and  some 
times  with  th,  p,  s,  and  I.  By  itself  it  has  but 
one  sound;  but  combined  with  h,  it  forms  a 
simple  sound,  hard  or  soft  in  quality,  distinct 
from  that  of  either  component;  as  the  th  in 
thigh,  which  the  Anglo-Saxons  represented  by 
S,  the  Greeks  by  6  (theta),  and  the  Hebrews 
by  n  (tav) ;  or  as  in  thy,  which  the  Anglo-Sax 
ons  represented  by  ]>.  This  sound  is  wanting 
in  all  the  other  European  languages  except 
Spanish  (d,  z,  and  c  before  e  or  «),  modern 
Greek  (d  and  6\  Danish  (d  between  vowels, 
very  faint),  and  Welsh  (dd).  In  French  t  is 
dropped  in  many  words  from  the  Latin  where 
it  is  preceded  and  followed  by  a  vowel ;  as  in 
pbre,  mere,  me,  from  pater,  mater,  vita ;  also 
from  the  termination  of  many  words.  In  Eng 
lish,  before  i  and  another  vowel,  t  has  the 
sound  of  sh,  as  in  nation ;  in  French,  of  s  ;  in 
German,  of  fe. — As  a  Greek  numeral  r  stood 
for  300,  tr  for  300,000.  Among  the  Latins  T 
represented  160,  and  with  a  dash  above  it  (T) 
160,000.  As  an  abbreviation  it  stands  for  the- 
ologia,  as  in  S.  T.  D.,  sacrce  theologies  doctor ; 
and  in  ancient  writings,  monuments,  or  coins, 
for  Titus,  Titius,  Tullius,  and  sometimes  tri- 
bunus.  (See  D.) 

TABASCO,  a  S.  E.  state  of  Mexico,  bounded 
N".  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  E.  by  Campeachy, 
S.  by  Guatemala  and  Chiapas,  and  W.  by  Vera 
Cruz;  area,  12,716  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,83,- 
707,  chiefly  Indians.  The  coast  is  indented 
by  several  bays  and  lagoons,  and  there  are 
islands  toward  its  1ST.  E.  extremity,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  Laguna,  Carmen,  and 


Puerto  Real.  The  surface  is  generally  flat  and 
in  some  places  marshy,  and  there  are  several 
small  lakes.  The  rivers,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Usumasinta  and  Tabasco,  are  generally 
small,  and  they  all  overflow  at  certain  seasons. 
The  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthf  ul ;  and  be 
tween  September  and  March  gales  render  navi 
gation  dangerous  even  on  the  rivers.  Oak, 
cedar,  ironwood,  and  mahogany  abound.  Ca 
cao,  coffee,  pepper,  sugar  cane,  palmetto,  to 
bacco,  maize,  and  rice  are  cultivated ;  in  some 
places  indigo  grows  spontaneously ;  and  wild 
bees  afford  large  supplies  of  wax  and  honey. 
Capital,  San  Juan  Bautista. 

TABERNACLE  (Lat.  tabernaculum,  tent;  Heb. 
oheT),  the  sanctuary  which  the  Israelites  car 
ried  with  them  through  the  desert,  and  which, 
after  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  was  set  up  in 
various  towns  of  Palestine  until  the  time  of 
Solomon,  when  it  was  replaced  by  the  temple 
of  Jerusalem.  It  was  constructed,  by  order 
of  Moses,  by  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab,  and  set 
up  for  the  first  time  on  the  first  day  of  the 
first  month  in  the  second  year  after  leaving 
Egypt.  Its  framework  consisted  of  48  per 
pendicular  gilded  boards  of  acacia  wood,  which 
were  kept  together  by  golden  rings  and 
fixed  into  silver  sockets.  Over  these  boards 
four  coverings  were  spread.  The  entrance,  at 
the  east  end,  was  closed  by  means  of  a  splen 
did  curtain,  supported  by  ^five  columns.  A 
curtain  divided  the  interior  into  two  rooms, 
the  sanctuary  and  the  holy  of  holies.  In  the 
sanctuary  was  placed,  on  the  north,  the  table 
with  the  12  loaves  of  shew  bread  (see  SHEW 
BREAD)  ;  toward  the  south  the  golden  candle 
stick  ;  and  in  the  middle  the  altar  of  incense. 
In  the  holy  of  holies  stood  the  ark  of  the  cov 
enant.  The  tabernacle  was  surrounded  by  a 
kind  of  courtyard  which  was  100  cubits  long 
and  50  cubits  wide.  The  typical  significance 
of  the  tabernacle  has  been,  ever  since  the  times 
of  Philo  and  Josephus,  a  subject  of  investiga 
tion.  The  most  important  treatises,  on  the  sub 
ject  in  modern  times  are  by  Creuzer,  Symfto- 
lik  des  mosaisclicn  Cultus  (2  vols.,  Heidelberg, 


TABERNACLES 


TAOHfi 


551 


1837-'9),  and  Friedrich,  Symbolik  der  mosai- 
schen  Stiftshutte  (Leipsic,  1841). 

TABERNACLES,  Feast  of  (Heb.  'hag  hassuTcoth), 
one  of  the  three  great  festivals  of  the  Jews, 
observed  after  harvest,  and  beginning  on  the 
15th  day  of  the  month  Tisri.  It  commemora 
ted  God's  protecting  care  over  his  people  while 
they  dwelt  in  the  wilderness.  It  was  also  a 
harvest  feast  or  thanksgiving.  It  continued 
eight  (among  the  exiled  Jews  nine)  days,  the 
first  and  last  (in  exile  the  first  two  and  last 
two)  of  which  were  the  most  important.  To 
the  ceremonies  of  the  festival  belongs  the  wa 
ving  toward  the  four  quarters  of  the  world  of 
fine  fruits  and  leafy  branches,  with  the  singing 
of  liturgical  songs,  commonly  called,  from  the 
repetition  of  the  words  hosia1  na  (Oh  save !), 
Hosanna.  On  the  seventh  day  this  was  re 
peated,  for  the  last  time,  with  greater  solem 
nity.  During  the  first  seven  days  the  living  in 
booths  was  obligatory,  which  is  still  partially 
observed  by  the  Jews  in  most  countries.  Sac 
rifices  took  place  in  the  temple,  and  in  later 
times  also  a  ceremony  of  u  pouring  water  "  on 
the  sacrifice,  and  a  great  illumination  of  the 
outer  court,  with  dances  by  torchlight. 

TABOR,  Mount  (Gr.  'Arapvptov ;  now  Jebel  et- 
Tur),  an  insulated  eminence  in  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  about  6  m.  S.  E.  of  Nazareth,  in 
Galilee,  commonly  regarded  as  the  scene  of  the 
transfiguration  of  Christ.  It  is  about  1,800  ft. 
high,  composed  entirely  of  limestone,  and  its 
sides  are  covered  up  to  the  summit  with  the 
valonia  oak,  wild  pistachios,  myrtles,  and  other 
shrubs.  Its  summit  is  a  plataau  about  600 
yards  in  extent  from  N.  to  S.  and  300  yards 
across.  All  around  this  plain  are  traces  of  an 
ancient  wall,  and  below  it  on  the  S.  E.  side  of 
the  hill  are  the  ruins  of  a  fortification,  a  gateway 
of  Saracenic  architecture  called  "  the  gate  of 
the  wind,"  and  a  small  vault  where  the  Latin 
monks  from  Nazareth  annually  celebrate  the 
transfiguration.  Among  the  ruins  of  a  church 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  mountain  the  Greeks  ob 
serve  the  same  festival.  Tabor  is  several  times 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  upon  it 
Deborah  and  Barak  assembled  the  warriors 
of  Israel  previous  to  the  battle  with  Sisera. 
There  was  upon  it  a  city  of  the  Levites  of  the 
tribe  of  Zebulon,  which  was  taken  and  forti 
fied  by  Antiochus  the  Great,  218  B.  C.  In  55 
B.  C.  a  battle  was  fought  near  it  between  the 
Romans  under  the  proconsul  Gabinius  and  the 
Jews  under  Alexander  the  son  of  Aristobu- 
lus,  in  which  10,000  Jews  were  slain.  Tabor 
is  not  named  in  the  New  Testament,  and  was 
first  mentioned  as  the  place  of  the  transfigura 
tion  in  the  4th  century.  At  the  foot  of  it  the 
crusaders  several  times  fought  the  Moslems, 
and  Napoleon  gained  a  victory  over  the  Turks. 

TABORITES.     See  HUSSITES. 

TABRIZ,  Tebriz,  or  Tanris,  a  walled  city  of 
Persia,  capital  of  the  province  of  Azerbijan,  in 
lat.  38°  4'  N.,  Ion.  46°  15'  E.,  near  the  river 
Aji ;  pop.  about  120,000.  It  stands  on  a  wide 
plain,  4,944  ft.  above  the  sea,  enclosed  on  all 


sides  but  the  west  by  low  mountains  or  hills. 
The  vicinity  is  very  fertile,  and  beautified  by 
innumerable  fruit  gardens,  celebrated  for  their 
peaches  and  apricots,  and  producing  ^grapes 
from  which  is  made  a  wine  resembling  Marsa 
la.  The  wall  of  sun-dried  bricks  is  about  3£ 
m.  in  circuit.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  tor 
tuous,  and  the  houses  low  and  flat,  but  there 
is  a  large  square,  and  the  bazaars  are  numer 
ous  and  spacious.  The  most  remarkable  build 
ings  are  the  citadel,  a  lofty  structure  with 
massive  brick  walls ;  the  Blue  mosque,  built  in 
the  17th  century  by  Abbas  the  Great,  but  now 
in  ruins;  and  the  villa  of  the  heir  apparent 
to  the  Persian  throne,  who  resides  here  as 
governor  of  Azerbijan.  Tabriz  is  one  of  the 
most  important  commercial  cities  in  Persia. 
It  is  on  the  caravan  route  between  the  interior 
and  Trebizond  and  Tiflis,  and  carries  on  a  large 
foreign  trade,  also  maintaining  manufactories 


City  Gate,  Tabriz. 

of  silk  and  cotton  goods. — According  to  Per 
sian  tradition,  Tabriz  was  founded  by  Zobeida, 
wife  of  Haroun  al-Rashid;  but  the  town  ex 
isted  in  antiquity,  and  under  the  name  of  Ga- 
zaca  was  the  capital  of  the  Median  province 
of  Atropatene.  At  a  later  period  it  was  the 
capital  of  Tiridates  III.,  king  of  Armenia.  It 
was  visited  by  Marco  Polo  about  1293,  and 
in  1320  there  appear  to  have  been  Venetians 
settled  there,  and  a  Genoese  factory  in  1341. 
The  present  number  of  European  inhabitants 
probably  does  not  exceed  100.  Tabriz  has  fre 
quently  been  captured  by  the  Turks,  and  it  has 
often  been  damaged  by  earthquakes.  The  An 
glo-Indian  telegraph  line  passes  through  the  city. 
TACHE,  Alexandre,  a  Canadian  archbishop, 
born  at  Kamouraska,  Lower  Canada,  in  1822. 
He  graduated  at  the  college  of  'St.  Hyacinthe, 
became  an  Oblate  of  the  Immaculate  Concep 
tion,  and  in  1843  asked  to  be  sent  to  the  Red 
River  mission.  lie  was  ordained  priest  at  St. 
Boniface,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  Indian 
tribes  beyond  the  civilized  regions  of  Canada, 
especially  along  the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan. 
Pie  was  among  the  first  to  penetrate  into  the 
unexplored  portions  of  the  northwestern  ter 
ritory,  and  contributed  toward  the  colonization 
and  progress  of  Manitoba.  He  was  consecrated 


552 


TACITUS 


TADOLINI 


coadjutor  to  Bishop  Provencher  of  St.  Boni 
face,  Nov.  23,  1851,  and  succeeded  him,  June 
7,  1853.  In  September,  1871,  he  was  made 
metropolitan.  During  the  troubles  attendant 
on  the  Kiel  insurrection  in  1869-'70  he  exerted 
his  influence  to  prevent  the  effusion  of  blood ; 
and  after  the  surrender  of  Kiel  and  the  latter's 
election  to  the  Dominion  house  of  commons, 
the  archbishop  resisted  successfully  all  attempts 
of  the  authorities  to  punish  him  as  a  traitor. 
He  has  established  a  college  and  theological 
seminary  at  St.  Boniface,  opposite  Fort  Garry, 
and,  besides  numerous  interesting  reports  on 
the  Indian  missions  printed  in  the  "Annals  of 
the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,"  has  published 
Vingt  annees  de  missions  dans  le  nord-ouest  de 
VAmerique  (Montreal,  1866),  and  Esquisse  sur 
le  nord-ouest  de  VAmerique  (1869). 

TACITUS,  Cains  Cornelius,  a  Roman  historian, 
born  probably  about  A.  D.  55,  died  probably 
after  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Hadrian 
(117).  He  was  early  appointed  to  a  public 
office  under  Vespasian,  and  married  a  daugh 
ter  of  Julius  Agricola.  He  held  a  prsetorship 
under  Domitian,  and  was  consul  sitffcctus  un 
der  Nerva.  Nothing  positive  is" known  of  his 
subsequent  career.  He  was  famous  as  an  ora 
tor  and  a  lawyer,  and  the  rhetorical  studies 
of  his  earlier  years  led  him  to  compose  his 
first  work,  the  Dialogus  de  Oratoribus,  which 
contrasts  strongly  with  his  later  writings  for 
diffuseness  and  negligence.  His  Vita  Julii 
Agricolce,  is  the  masterpiece  of  ancient  biogra 
phy,  and  specially  valuable  for  the  account  it 
gives  of  the  early  condition  and  history  of 
Britain.  The  Gefmania  (De  Origine,  Situ, 
Moribus  ac  Populis  Germanics)  appeared  soon 
after,  both  probably  in  98.  It  is  based  on  the 
works  of  Pliny  and  the  most  trustworthy 
sources  obtainable  at  the  time,  and  as  such  is 
of  great  importance  to  students  of  German 
antiquities.  Numerous  theories  have  been 
broached  in  regard  to  the  author's  purpose  in 
writing  it,  but  there  is  every  reason  for  sup 
posing  that  one  of  his  main  objects  was  to  re 
mind  the  Romans  of  the  virtues  of  their  former 
days,  and  to  warn  them  of  the  dangers  threaten 
ing  them  from  the  north.  Its  geographical  and 
historical  accuracy  has  often  been  attacked, 
and  as  often  successfully  vindicated,  though 
he  has  frequently  exaggerated  or  idealized  the 
customs  and  morals  of  the  German  people. 
About  the  year  105  appeared  the  first  portion 
of  his  history  of  Rome  after  the  time  of  Au 
gustus,  embracing  Historic  of  the  years  69-96, 
or  from  the  last  days  of  Galba  to  the  death  of 
Domitian.  Only  the  first  four  books  and  a 
part  of  the  fifth,  reaching  to  the  year  70,  are 
extant.  Next  appeared  the  Annales,  a  con 
cise  history  of  the  events  from  14  to  68.  Its 
original  title  was  Ab  Excessu  D.  Augusti  Libri. 
Of  the  original  16  books,  only  nine  complete 
and  parts  of  three  others  are  extant.  The 
portions  relating  to  the  last  two  years  of  Nero 
are  wanting.  Tacitus  is  commonly  compared 
to  Thucydides ;  but  the  latter  has  none  of  the 


psychological  characteristics  of  the  former. 
There  is  a  greater  resemblance  between  Taci 
tus  and  his  forerunner  Sallust.  His  style  is 
remarkable  for  its  vigor  and  conciseness.  A 
melancholy  and  almost  tragic  earnestness  per 
vades  his  pictures  of  imperial  history.  Nu 
merous  interpolations  disfigure  his  writings, 
especially  the  last  portion  of  the  Annales  and 
the  Historic^.  The  editio  princeps  of  Tacitus, 
which  is  far  from  complete,  was  printed  at 
Venice  in  1469  by  Vindelin  de  Spira;  and  of 
the  numerous  subsequent  editions  that  of  Er- 
nesti  (Leipsic,  1752),  successively  revised  by 
Oberlin,  Bekker,  Walther,  Ruperti,  and  oth 
ers,  and  Halm's  (Leipsic,  1874),  are  esteemed 
the  best.  The  best  translations  are:  in  Ger 
man,  by  Roth  (Stuttgart,  1855-'7);  in  French, 
by  Louandre  (Paris,  1858)  and  Dureau  de  la 
Malle  (1874);  and  in  English,  by  Church  and 
Brodribb  (London,  1864).  German  literature 
abounds  with  hermeneutical  treatises  on  Taci 
tus;  Pfitzner's  Die  Annalcn  des  Tacit\is  kri- 
tisch  ~beleucJitet  (Halle,  1869)  is  very  thorough. 

TACITIS,  Marcus  Claudius,  a  Roman  emperor, 
born  at  Interamna  (now  Terni),  Umbria,  about 
A.  D.  200,  died  at  Tyana,  in  Cappadocia,  in 
April,  276.  Previous  to  the  assassination  of 
the  emperor  Aurelian  in  March,  275,  he  held 
various  important  civil  offices,  the  last  being 
that  of  consul  in  273,  and  was  well  known 
for  his  love  of  letters,  his  great  wealth,  and 
his  integrity.  In  September,  275,  Tacitus  was 
unanimously  elected  emperor  by  the  senate. 
He  instituted  a  few  domestic  reforms,  and  at 
tempted  to  revive  the  authority  of  the  senate, 
but  died  within  little  more  than  half  a  year 
from  the  commencement  of  his  reign.  Ac 
cording  to  one  account,  he  was  assassinated 
by  his  soldiers  when  on  an  expedition  against 
the  Goths  in  Asia  Minor.  He  claimed  descent 
from  the  historian  Tacitus,  whose  works  he 
ordered  to  be  placed  in  all  public  libraries, 
and  to  be  multiplied  to  the  extent  of  ten 
copies  a  year  at  the  public  expense. 

TACRMAHACK,  or  Balsam  Poplar.     See  POPLAE. 

TACONIC  SYSTEM,  or  Taglikanic.  See  UNITED 
STATES  (geological  part). 

TADEMA,  Lou  re n z  Alma,  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  Drouryp,  West  Friesland,  Jan.  8,  1836.  He 
studied  under  Leys  at  Antwerp  in  1861,  and 
became  known  as  a  painter  of  classical  sub 
jects.  His  wife,  the  countess  Pauline  Dumou- 
lin,  died  in  1869,  and  in  1870  he  married  an 
English  woman  and  removed  to  London.  His 
works  include  "  Venantius  Fortunatus  and 
Radegond"  (1862),  "How  they  enjoyed  them 
selves  in  Egypt  3,000  Years  ago  "  (1863),  "  The 
Mummies""  (1867),  "The  Siesta  of  Ancient 
Romans"  (1868),  "The  Vintage  Celebration 
at  Rome  "  (1870),  "  The  Last  Plague  of  Egypt" 
(1872),  and  "The  Picture  Gallery"  (1874). 

TADMOR.     See  PALMYEA. 

TADOLIIVI,  Adamo,  an  Italian  sculptor,  born 
in  Bologna  in  1789.  He  studied  in  the  acade 
my  of  Bologna,  and  settled  in  Rome.  In  1812 
he  received  for  his  "Dying  Ajax"  the  grand 


TADPOLE 


TAHITI 


553 


prize  instituted  by  Canova,  under  whose  di 
rection  he  executed  from  1813  to  1820  many 
works,  including  a  statue  of  Washington.  His 
subsequent  productions  comprise  u  Venus  and 
Amor,"  "The  Abduction  of  Ganymede,"  "Fran 
cis  de  Sales,"  "  A  Bacchante,"  and  "  The  Arch 
angel  St.  Michael,"  a  colossal  marble  group  for 
which  an  American  is  said  to  have  paid  $40,- 
000  (1869). 

TADPOLE.     See  FROG. 

TAEL,  a  Chinese  measure  of  weight,  equal  to 
1£  oz.  avoirdupois.  The  Chinese  government 
does  not  coin  gold  or  silver.  All  payments  are 
made  in  bullion  or  foreign  coins,  by  weight ; 
hence  the  tael  (Chin.  liang)}ias  become  a  money 
of  account,  and  720  taels  are  received  at  Hong 
Kong  and  Shanghai  as  equivalent  to  1,000 
Mexican  dollars.  Taking  the  value  of  the 
Mexican  dollar  as  fixed  by  the  secretary  of 
the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  Jan.  1,  1875, 
the  tael  would  be  equivalent  to  1-3S6  United 
States  dollar.  The  name  is  sometimes  applied 
to  the  money  of  Japan,  Siam,  and  Sumatra, 
and  is  probably  of  Malay  origin. 

TJENARU1I.     See  CAPE  MATAPAX. 

TAFILET,  or  Tafilelt,  a  division  of  Morocco, 
consisting  of  the  oasis  of  the  same  name,  lying 
S.  E.  of  the  Atlas  mountains,  between  lat.  30° 
45'  and  31°  10'  !N".  and  Ion.  3°  3'  and  3°  25' 
W. ;  pop.  estimated  at  100,000.  The  oasis  of 
Tissimi  lies  N.  of  it,  and  that  of  Sahra  N.  E. 
Tafilet  is  a  fertile  plain  watered  by  two  rivers, 
both  of  which  are  lost  in  the  sands  of  the 
desert.  Rain  seldom  falls.  Wheat  and  barley 
are  cultivated  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  but 
dates  are  the  chief  product.  Large  herds  of 
sheep  and  goats  are  kept,  and  stuffs  and  car 
pets  are  manufactured.  There  are  mines  of 
lead  and  antimony.  The  oasis  is  divided  into 
five  districts,  Sfalet,  Rhorfa,  Iffli,  Shiffa,  and 
Tannajiut.  The  most  important  town  is  Abu- 
am,  about  240  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Morocco,  but  the 
official  centre  is  Rissani,  a  few  miles  N.  E.  of 
Abuam.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Shelloohs. 
A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with  other 
parts  of  Morocco  and  with  Algeria. — Tafilet, 
which  is  mentioned  by  the  earliest  Arab  chroni 
clers,  is  probably  identical  with  the  kingdom 
of  which  Sigilmessa,  founded  A.  I).  759,  was 
the  capital.  In  1648  a  king  of  Tafilet  founded 
the  dynasty  which  still  rules  Morocco. 

TAGANROG,  a  city  of  southern  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Yekaterinoslav,  on  a  prom 
ontory  formed  by  the  sea  of  Azov,  18  m.  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Don  and  27  m.  N".  W.  of 
Azov;  pop.  in  1867,  25,027,  including  many 
Armenians  and  Greeks.  It  is  strongly  forti 
fied,  and  despite  the  shallowness  of  the  harbor 
it  is  the  principal  port  of  the  sea  of  Azov. 
The  exports  in  1873,  chiefly  wheat,  amounted 
to  28,797,839  rubles,  and  the  imports  to  8,048,- 
663.  The  town  has  four  large  squares.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the  admi 
ralty,  the  marine  hospital,  the  quarantine,  the 
exchange,  the  theatre,  and  the  palace  near  the 
Greek  monastery  of  Jerusalem,  built  by  Alex 


ander  I.,  who  died  and  has  a  monument  here. 
It  was  originally  founded  in  1696,  but  the  pres 
ent  city  dates  from  1768.  Taganrog  was  much 
damaged  in  1855  by  the  bombardment  from 
French  and  English  gunboats,  as  well  as  the 
neighboring  seaport  Mariupol  (founded  in  1779 
by  Greeks;  pop.  about  6,000),  which  is  under 
the  municipal  authority  of  Taganrog. 

TAGLIACOZZI.     See  TALIACOTIUS. 

TAGLIONI.  I.  Filippo,  an  Italian  ballet  mas 
ter,  born  in  Milan  in  1777,  died  near  the  lake 
of  Corno,  Feb.  11,  1871.  He  was  successively 
connected  with  the  theatres  at  Stockholm, 
Cassel,  and  Warsaw  till  1853,  when  he  returned 
to  Italy.  The  most  celebrated  of  his  numerous 
ballets  is  the  "  Sylphide."  He  married  a  daugh 
ter  of  the  Swedish  tragedian  Karsten.  II. 
Maria,  a  dancer,  daughter  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Stockholm  about  1804.  In  1822  she  first 
appeared  at  Vienna,  in  1827  at  Paris,  and  in 
1832  at  Berlin.  In  the  last  year  she  married 
Count  Gilbert  de  Voisin.  She  retired  in  1847, 
and  has  since  lived  at  her  villa  on  the  lake 
of  Corno,  or  in  one  of  her  palaces  at  Venice. 
She  gained  her  greatest  triumphs  in  La  laya- 
dere,  La  Sylphide,  and  Lafilledu  Danube.  III. 
Paul,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Vienna 
about  1808.  After  performing  with  his  sister 
in  various  theatres,  he  married  the  dancer 
Amalia  Galster,  with  whom  he  made  tours  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  His  career  as 
a  dancer  ended  in  1847,  when  he  became  bal 
let  master  at  the  royal  theatre  in  Berlin.  He 
has  since  produced  Sardanapal,  Undine,  and 
other  celebrated  ballets. — His  daughter  MAEIA, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1834,  excelled  as  a  dancer, 
but  in  1866  retired  from  the  stage,  on  her 
marriage  with  Prince  Joseph  Windischgratz. 

TAGUS  (Span.  Tajo ;  Port,  Tejo),  a  river  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  the  longest  in  the  penin 
sula,  and  dividing  it  into  two  nearly  equal  parts. 
It  rises  in  the  Sierra  de  Cuenca,  in  the  prov 
ince  of  Teruel  near  the  border  of  Guadalajara, 
and  flows  N.  W.  for  about  35  m. ;  then  nearly 
W.  20  m.,  receiving  the  waters  of  the  Molina ; 
then  S.  W.  a  little  more  than  70  m.,  the  Gua- 
diela  and  other  streams  augmenting  it ;  then 
nearly  W.  till  it  becomes  for  about  20  m.  the 
boundary  of  Portugal,  its  principal  affluents 
being  the  Jarama,  Cedron,  Guadarrama,  Al- 
berche,  and  Alagon.  Entering  Portugal,  it  in 
clines  more  and  more  to  the  southwest,  receiv 
ing  below  Abrantes  the  Zezere,  and  from  that 
point  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  150  tons.  In 
the  lower  part  of  its  course  are  numerous  isl 
ands,  and  for  about  20  m.  it  spreads  out  into 
a  table-like  basin,  8  m.  or  more  in  width;  but 
as  it  approaches  Lisbon  the  hills  on  either  side 
close  up  the  valley,  and  at  its  mouth  it  is  not 
over  a  mile  wide.  The  banks  of  the  Tagus  are 
generally  rugged  and  precipitous,  and  the  adja 
cent  plains  are  dry  and  barren.  Lisbon,  San- 
tarem,  and  Abrantes  in  Portugal,  and  Talavera 
de  la  Reyna,  Toledo,  and  Aranjuez  in  Spain, 
are  on  its  banks.  Its  length  is  about  540  m. 

TAHlTIe     See  SOCIETY  ISLANDS. 


554 


TAHLEQUAH 


TALBOT 


TAHLEQUAH,  the  capital  of  the  Cherokee 
nation,  Indian  territory,  in  the  valley  of  Illi 
nois  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Arkansas,  170  m. 
W.  N".  W.  of  Little  Kock,  Ark.,  and  15  m.  E. 
of  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas  railroad ; 
pop.  about  300.  The  capital,  of  brick,  cost 
$20,000,  and  is  in  the  centre  of  the  public 
square.  There  are  two  schools  and  a  weekly 
newspaper  (Cherokee  and  English). 

TAOE,  Hlppolyte  Adolphe,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Vouziers,  April  21,  1828.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Bourbon  college,  was  con 
nected  with  the  normal  school  of  Paris  for 
five  years,  and  since  1864  has  been  professor 
of  the  history  and  aesthetics  of  art  in  the 
school  6f  fine  arts.  His  Essai  sur  Tite  Live 
(1854)  received  a  prize  from  the  French  acad 
emy.  His  other  works  are:  Voyage  aux  eaux 
des  Pyrenees  (1855)  ;  Les  philosophies  francais 
du  XIXe  siecle  (1856)  ;  Essais  de  critique  et 
d^histoire  (1857 ;  second  series,  1865)  ;  La  Fon 
taine  et  ses  fables  (1860)  ;  Histoire  de  la  litte- 
rature  annlaise  (4  vols.,  1864);  Idealisme  an 
glais:  etude  sur  Carlyle  (1864);  Le  positi- 
visme  anglais:  etude  sur  Stuart  Mill  (1864); 
PMIosop'hie  de  Vart  (1865);  PhilosopUe  de 
Part  en  Italie  (1866) ;  Voyage  en  Italie  (2  vols., 
1866) ;  Notes  sur  Paris  (1867) ;  I? ideal  dans 
Vart  (1867);  Philosophic  de  Vart  dans  les 
Pays-Bas  (1868);  De  ^intelligence  (2  vols., 
1869)  ;  Philosophic  de  Vart  en  Grece  (1870)  ; 
and  Notes  sur  VAngletcrre  (1874).  Most  of 
his  works  have  been  translated  into  English 
by  Durand,  Van  Laun,  Have,  Kae,  Fiske,  and 
Stevens.  In  1875  Taine  began  the  publication 
of  Les  origines  de  la  France  contemporaine, 
with  a  volume  on  the  Ancien  regime,  which  is 
to  be  followed  by  one  on  the  revolution. 

TAIPIXG.     See  CHIXA,  vol.  iv.,  p.  463. 

TAIT,  Archibald  Campbell,  an  English  clergy 
man,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  22,  1811.  He 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh 
and  at  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  and  was  after 
ward  public  examiner  of  the  university.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  opposition  to  the  trac- 
tarians.  In  1842  he  succeeded  Dr.  Arnold  as 
head  master  of  Eugby  school,  where  he  re 
mained  eight  years.  In  1850  he  was  made 
dean  of  Carlisle,  in  1856  bishop  of  London, 
and  in  1868  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He 
has  published  "The  Dangers  and  Safeguards 
of  Modern  Theology"  (London,  1861),  "The 
Word  of  God  and  the  Ground  of  Faith"  (1863), 
and  two  volumes  of  sermons. 

TAIT,  Peter  Gnthric,  a  British  mathematician, 
born  about  1825.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
was  fellow  of  St.  Peter's  college,  became  pro 
fessor  of  mathematics  in  Queen's  college,  Bel 
fast,  and  in  1862  was  elected  professor  of  nat 
ural  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
He  has  published  "A  Treatise  on  Dynamics  of 
a  Particle,"  in  conjunction  with  William  J. 
Steele  (8vo,  Cambridge,  1856);  "Value  of  the 
Edinburgh  Degree,  an  Address"  (8vo,  Edin 
burgh,  I860);  "Elementary  Treatise  on  Qua 
ternions"  (8vo,  Cambridge,  1867);  and  "Ther 


modynamics  "  (8vo,  Edinburgh,  1868).  He  has 
also,  in  conjunction  with  Sir  William  Thomson, 
published  an  "  Elementary  Treatise  on  Natural 
Philosophy"  (8vo,  London,  vol.  1,  1867). 

TALAVERA  DE  LA  REYNA  (anc.  Talabriga),  a 
town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Toledo,  on 
the  Tagus,  64  m.  S.  W.  of  Madrid ;  pop.  about 
9,000.  It  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and 
was  the  scene  of  many  conflicts  between  the 
Moors  and  Christians.  On  July  27  and  28, 
1809,  a  battle  was  fought  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  between  the  French,  under  Victor, 
Jourdan,  and  Sebastiani,  and  the  British,  under 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley.  In  the  decisive  contest 
of  the  28th,  30,000  French  were  driven  back 
by  16,000  British  troops. 

TALBOT.  I..  An  E.  county  of  Maryland, 
bounded  W.  by  Chesapeake  bay,  and  S.  and  E. 
by  the  Choptank  river ;  area,  250  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  16,137,  of  whom  6,666  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  generally  level,  and  the  soil 
highly  fertile.  The  Maryland  and  Delaware 
railroad  terminates  at  the  county  seat.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  302,078  bush 
els  of  wheat,  515,122  of  Indian  corn,  38,825 
of  oats,  41,770  of  Irish  and  10,725  of  sweet 
potatoes,  29,695  Ibs.  of  wool,  99,008  of  but 
ter,  and  990  tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,298 
horses,  3,309  milch  cows,  3,678  other  cattle, 
6,044  sheep,  and  9,411  swine;  3  manufactories 
of  carriages  and  wagons,  5  of  clothing,  3  ship 
yards,  and  7  saw  mills.  Capital,  Easton.  II. 
A  W.  county  of  Georgia,  bounded  N.  E.  by 
Flint  river  and  drained  by  several  large  creeks ; 
area,  524  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 11,913,  of  whom 
7,157  were  colored.  The  surface  is  hilly  and 
the  soil  good.  It  is  crossed  in  the  southeast 
by  the  Southwestern  railroad.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  18,372  bushels  of  wheat, 
200,645  of  Indian  corn,  12,940  of  oats,  27,- 
786  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  7,020  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  631  horses,  1,325  mules  and  asses, 
2,021  milch  cows,  3,435  other,  cattle,  1,093 
sheep,  and  9,308  swine.  Capital,  Talbotton. 

TALBOT,  William  Henry  Fox,  an  English  author, 
born  at  Chippenham,  Wiltshire,  Feb.  11,  1800. 
He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Cambridge, 
represented  the  liberal  interest  of  Chippenham 
in  the  first  reform  parliament,  1832-'4,  and 
became  high  sheriff  of  Wiltshire  in  1840.  In 
1833  he  began  the  experiments  which  in  1840 
resulted  in  the  discovery  which  laid  the  foun 
dation  for  the  photographic  art.  (See  PHO- 
TOGEAPHY.)  For  this  discovery  he  received  in 
1842  the  medal  of  the  royal  society;  and  al 
though  he  patented  his  process,  he  left  it  open 
to  the  public.  Of  late  years  he  has  devoted 
himself  to  deciphering  cuneiform  inscriptions. 
He  has  published  "Legendary  Tales  in  Verse 
and  Prose  "  (London,  1830) ;  "  Hermes,  or  Clas 
sical  and  Antiquarian  Researches"  (2  parts, 
1838-'9);  "Antiquity  of  the  Book  of  Gene 
sis  "  (1839) ;  "  The  Pencil  of  Nature,"  in  which 
he  details  his  experiments  and  discoveries  in 
photography  (6  parts,  1844-'6);  and  "English 
Etymologies"  (1846). 


TALC 


TALFOUED 


555 


TALC,  a  silicious  mineral  occurring  in  two 
forms,  crystalline  and  massive.  The  massive 
variety  was  formerly  called  steatite  (soapstone), 
and  was  regarded  as  a  distinct  species ;  but  it 
has  the  same  chemical  composition  as  crystal 
line  talc,  viz.,  4MgO,5Si02|H2O,  or  silica  62-14, 
magnesia  32-92,  and  water  4'94  per  cent.,  be 
ing  a  hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia.  Talc  is  com 
monly  in  the  form  of  lamellar  crystals,  which 
cleave  perfectly  in  one  direction,  but  are  usu 
ally  too  incompletely  developed  to  allow  of  an 
exact  determination  of  their  crystalline  sys 
tem  ;  but  hexagonal  prisms  and  plates  are  oc 
casionally  found.  They  are  optically  biaxial. 
The  lamellae  are  very  flexible  but  not  elastic, 
and  are  unctuous  to  the  touch.  Talc  is  very 
soft,  being  only  1  on  the  scale  of  10 ;  sp.  gr. 
from  2'6  to  2-8;  lustre  pearly;  color  apple- 
green  to  white,  also  greenish  gray  to  dark  green, 
subtranslucent.  Talc,  either  in  a  foliated  or  la 
mellar  form,  or  massive  as  steatite,  is  common, 
forming  extensive  beds  in  some  localities.  It 
is  often  associated  with  serpentine,  talcose,  or 
chloritic  schist.  Steatite  or  soapstone  is  known 
in  different  localities  as  potstone  (Topf stein), 
lapis  ollaris,  rensselaerite,  and  French  chalk 
(craie  de  Brian$ori).  There  are  extensive  quar 
ries  at  Grafton,  Athens,  Westfield,  and  Marl- 
borough,  Vt. ;  at  Francestown,  Pelham,  and 
Keene,  N".  II.;  at  Middlefield,  Chester,  and 
other  places  in  Massachusetts;  in  Maryland 
near  Baltimore,  in  Virginia  near  Washington 
and  in  London  co.,  and  in  Guilford  co.,  N.  0., 
and  numerous  other  places,  in  metamorphic 
rocks.  It  is  used  for  making  stoves,  ovens, 
and  hearths ;  for  sizing-rollers  in  cotton  fac 
tories,  on  account  of  its  not  being  affected 
by  acids;  and  sometimes  as  a  lubricant  for 
journals.  It  is  also  used  for  slate  pencils  and 
crayons,  and  for  the  stoppers  of  chemical  ves 
sels.  The  American  aborigines  use  it  for  cul 
inary  articles,  and  the  Chinese  for  the  carv 
ing  of  idols. 

TALENT  (Gr.  rahavrov,  Lat.  talentum\  a 
term  originally  applied  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
to  a  balance  for  weighing,  afterward  to  the 
substance  weighed,  and  finally  to  the  weight 
itself.  In  the  system  of  weights  in  use  the 
talent  was  the  highest  denomination,  and  was 
equivalent  to  60  minas,  each  of  which  was 
equal  to  100  drachmas,  and  each  of  these  to  6 
oboli.  The  values  of  these  weights  remained 
constant  in  relation  to  each  other,  while  that 
of  the  units  of  the  measure  varied  in  different 
times  and  in  different  places.  The  system  of 
money  being  based  upon  the  weight  of  silver, 
the  names  of  the  weights  employed  came  to  be 
used  as  money  values,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
English  pound  originally  represented  a  pound 
weight  of  silver.  No  coins  however  are  known 
to  have  been  made  larger  than  the  tetradrach- 
ma,  and  the  mina  and  talent  were  moneys  of 
account  only.  The  determination  of  the  weights 
of  the  different  talents  in  terms  of  our  modern 
standards  is  a  subject  involved  in  great  diffi 
culty,  and  there  is  a  marked  disagreement 


among  scholars.  The  oldest  talent  was  the 
Babylonian,  which  was  carried  into  the  Phoeni 
cian  and  Grecian  countries,  and  may  with  great 
probability  be  assumed  as  identical  with  the 
oldest  Greek  talent,  called  the  ^ginetan.  The 
Hebrew  talent  differed  but  little  if  at  all  from 
this.  The  Euboic  talent,  also  probably  derived 
from  the  East,  was  in  use  in  Attica  previous 
to  the  time  of  Solon,  and  is  often  called  the 
old 'Attic;  it  continued  in  use  after  the  time 
of  Solon,  and  hence  was  also  called  the  com 
mercial  talent.  Solon,  in  order  to  relieve  the 
debtor  class,  reduced  the  talent  so  far  as  money 
was  concerned,  and  the  talent  established  by 
him,  called  the  new  Attic  or  Attic  silver  talent, 
is  the  one  always  meant  in  the  classical  authors 
when  the  context  does  not  indicate  a  different 
one.  The  ratio  of  these  talents  to  each  other 
was  as  follows,  in  whole  numbers  :  15  ^Egine- 
tan  talents  were  equal  to  18  Euboic  or  commer 
cial  talents,  and  to  25  Solonian  or  Attic  silver 
talents.  Their  weights  compared  with  our 
avoirdupois  weight  were  probably  as  follows  : 
the  ^Eginetan  equalled  95  Ibs. ;  the  Euboic,  79 
Ibs.  2  oz.  291-63|  gr. ;  the  Attic  silver  talent, 
57  Ibs.  The  value  of  these  talents  in  pure 
silver,  taking  the  American  trade  dollar,  con 
taining  378  gr.  of  pure  silver,  as  the  standard, 
would  be  as  follows:  'the  .ZEginetan  talent 
equals  $1,759  26;  the  Euboic,  $1,466  05;  the 
Attic  silver  talent,  $1,055  56.  The  coins  in 
actual  use  fell  below  this  standard  both  in 
weight  and  in  purity,  and  varied  in  different 
ages.  For  approximate  calculation  the  coin 
value  of  the  above  named  talents  may  be  as 
sumed  as  equal  to  $1,700,  $1,400,  and  $1,000 
respectively.  Various  other  talents  are  named 
by  the  ancient  writers,  the  comparative  values 
of  whiph  have  been  treated  in  the  works  of 
Bdckh  and  of  Hussey.  The  gold  talent  of  the 
Greeks,  or  the  Sicilian  talent,  the  one  always 
meant  in  Homer,  contained  about  -£-  oz.  and  71 
gr.  avoirdupois  of  gold. 

TALFOIRD,  Sir  Thomas  Noon,  an  English  au 
thor,  born  at  Doxey,  a  suburb  of  Stafford, 
Jan.  26,  1795,  died  in  Stafford,  March  13, 1854. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  London  in  1821, 
and  in  1833  was  made  serjeant  at  law.  From 
1835  to  1841  he  was  member  of  parliament  for 
Reading,  and  again  from  1847  to  1849,  when 
he  was  made  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  In  parliament  he  was  distinguished  by 
his  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  rights  of  authors, 
for  whose  benefit  he  introduced  in  1837  the 
copyright  act  which,  somewhat  modified,  was 
passed  in  1842.  His  tragedy  of  "  Ion  "  (1835) 
was  acted  with  great  success  under  the  direc 
tion  of  Mr.  Macready,  and  was  followed  by 
"The  Athenian  Captive"  (1838),  "Glencoe" 
(1840),  and  "  The  Castilian  "  (1854).  The  last 
was  not  acted,  and  "  The  Athenian  Captive  " 
and  "  Glencoe  "  were  but  moderately  success 
ful  on  the  stage.  His  other  works  include  me 
moirs  and  correspondence  of  his  friend  Charles 
Lamb  (1837  and  1838,  subsequently  published 
as  one  work),  and  "Final  Memoirs"  (1848). 


556 


TALIACOTIUS 


TALLAPOOSA 


TALIACOTIUS,  Gasparo  (TAGLIACOZI,  or  TA- 
GLIACOZZIO),  an  Italian  surgeon,  born  about 
1516,  died  in  Bologna,  where  he  was  profes 
sor  of  anatomy  and  surgery,  in  1599.  He  at 
tained  high  renown  for  his  medical  lectures, 
but  is  now  mainly  remembered  for  what  has 
been  named  from  him  the  Taliacotian  opera 
tion  for  the  restoration  of  lost  noses,  ears,  &c. 
Though  this  operation  was  not  original  with 
him,  "yet  he  carried  it  to  greater  perfection 
and  was  more  successful  than  any  of  his  pre 
decessors.  His  process  was  fully  detailed  in 
his  work  De  Gurtorum  CMrurgia  per  Insi- 
tionem  Libri  II.  (2  vols.  fol.,  Venice,  1597; 
new  e<L,  Berlin,  1831).  (See  AUTOPLASTY.) 

TALIAFERRO,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Georgia, 
drained  by  affluents  of  the  Ogeechee  and  Little 
rivers;  area,  185  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,790, 
of  whom  2,987  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
hilly  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  Granite, 
gneiss,  sulphuret  of  iron,  and  magnetic  ore  are 
found.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Georgia  rail 
road.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
9,418  bushels  of  wheat,  78,815  of* Indian  corn, 
and  3,024  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  543 
horses,  2,120  cattle,  1,220  sheep,  and  3,714 
swine.  Capital,  Crawfordsville. 

TALIPOT  TREE.     See  PALM,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  20. 

TALLADEGA,  a  N".*  E.  county  of  Alabama, 
bounded  "W.  by  the  Coosa  river  and  drained 
by  Chockolocko  creek  and  other  streams ; 
area,  about  700  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,064, 
of  whom  9,595  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
moderately  hilly  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  Sel- 
ma,  Rome,  and  Dalton  railroad  traverses  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  69,321 
bushels  of  wheat,  284,783  of  Indian  corn,  42,- 
821  of  oats,  14,469  of  sweet  potatoes,  5,697 
bales  of  cotton,  5,784  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  53,167 
of  butter.  There  were  922  horses,  1,786  mules 
and  asses,  5,333  cattle,  2,355  sheep,  and  6,947 
swine  ;  4  tanneries,  3  currying  establishments, 
and  2  saw  mills.  Capital,  Talladega. 

TALLADEGA,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Talla 
dega  co.,  Alabama,  on  the  Selma,  Rome,  and 
Dalton  railroad,  78  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Montgom 
ery ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,933,  of  whom  1,013  were 
colored;  in  1875,  about  3,000.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  state  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
and  the  blind,  of  a  Presbyterian  female  semi 
nary,  and  of  Talladega  college.  The  college 
was  incorporated  in  1869,  and  is  sustained  by 
the  American  missionary  society.  It  admits 
both  sexes  and  colors,  and  has  in  operation 
preparatory,  theological,  and  normal  courses, 
and  grammar,  intermediate,  and  primary  de 
partments.  In  1874-'5  it  had  13  instructors 
and  247  students.  •  Talladega  has  two  weekly 
newspapers  and  six  churches,  and  trade  in  cot 
ton,  wheat,  &o.  On  its  site,  Nov.  9,  1813, 
Gen.  Jackson  gained  a  victory  over  the  Creeks. 

TALLAHASSEE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Flor 
ida,  county  seat  of  Leon  co.,  on  the  Jackson 
ville,  Pensacola,  and  Mobile  railroad,  at  the 
junction  of  a  branch  to  St.  Mark's,  155  m.  W. 
of  Jacksonville  and  21  m.  N.  of  the  gulf  of 


Mexico  ;  lat.  30°  25'  K,  Ion.  84°  18'  W.  ;  pop. 
in  1870,  2,023,  of  whom  820  were  white  and 
1,203  colored;  in  1875,  about  2,500;  including 
suburbs,  4,000.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on 
high  ground,  and  is  regularly  laid  out  in  a  plot 
a  mile  square,  with  broad  streets  and  several 
public  squares,  shaded  with  evergreens  and 
oaks.  The  abundance  and  variety  of  flowers 
and  shrubs  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  garden. 
The  business  portion  is  of  brick.  The  public 
buildings  are  the  capitol  (commenced  in  1826), 
a  large  three-story  brick  edifice,  with  pillared 
entrances  opening  east  and  west;  the  court 
house,  a  substantial  two-story  brick  structure ; 
and  the  West  Florida  seminary,  a  large  two- 
story  brick  building,  on  a  hill  commanding  a 
view  of  the  entire  city.  In  the  vicinity  are 
beautiful  springs,  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
is  Wakulla,  an  immense  limestone  basin,  16m. 
distant.  The  surrounding  country  is  fertile. 
The  city  contains  the  car  and  machine  shops 
of  the  railroad  company,  and  has  the  only  cot 
ton  factory  in  the  state.  The  seminary  has 
separate  male  and  female  departments,  and  is 
supported  by  the  proceeds  of  the  "seminary 
lands  "  granted  to  the  state  by  congress.  There 
are  several  free  public  schools,  two  weekly 
newspapers,  and  Baptist,  Episcopal,  Methodist, 
Presbyterian,  and  Roman  Catholic  churches. — 
The  site  of  Tallahassee  was  selected  as  the  seat 
of  the  territorial  government  in  1822;  it  was 
laid  out  in  1824,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1827.  In  1843  the  entire  business  portion, 
then  of  wood,  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

TALLAHATCHIE,  a  river  of  Mississippi,  the 
principal  tributary  of  the  Yazoo,  rising  in  the 
X.  E.  part  of  the  state,  and  flowing  in  a  circui 
tous  but  generally  S.  "W.  and  S.  course  250  m. 
to  its  junction  with  the  Yalobusha  river  to 
form  the  Yazoo.  It  is  navigable  by  steam 
boats  more  than  100  m. 

TALLAHATCHIE,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Missis 
sippi,  intersected  by  the  Tallahatchie  river; 
area,  about  750.sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,852,  of 
whom  4,637  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level 
and  in  many  places  swampy,  and  the  soil  fer 
tile.  The  Mississippi  and  Tennessee  railroad 
touches  the  N.  E.  corner.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  203,425  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  13,620  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  6,760  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  842  horses,  954  mules 
and  asses,  5,500  cattle,  908  sheep,  7,406  swine, 
and  6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Charleston. 

TALLAPOOSA,  a  river  of  Georgia  and  Ala 
bama,  which  rises  in  Paulding  co.,  Ga.,  flows 
S.  W.,  S.,  and  W.  250  m.,  and  unites  with  the 
Coosa,  forming  the  Alabama,  about  10  m.  1ST. 
of  Montgomery.  Its  principal  affluent  is  the 
Little  Tallapoosa.  It  is  navigable  for  steam 
boats  more  than  40  m.  above  the  Coosa. 

TALLAPOOSA,  an  E.  county  of  Alabama,  in 
tersected  by  the  Tallapoosa  river,  and  drained 
by  its  branches ;  area,  700  sq.  m. ;  pop  in  1870, 
16,963,  of  whom  4,190  were  colored.  The  sur 
face  is  hilly  and  the  soil  in  some  parts  fertile. 
The  Savannah  and  Memphis  railroad  traverses 


TALLEYEAND-PfiEIGORD 


557 


it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  48,468 
bushels  of  wheat,  267,764  of  Indian  corn,  33,- 
353  of  oats,  26,236  of  sweet  potatoes,  5,446 
bales  of  cotton,  and  10,439  Ibs.  of  wool.  There 
were  1,224  horses,  1,198  mules  and  asses,  8,251 
cattle,  3,538  sheep,  12,799  swine,  and  26  flour 
mills.  Capital,  Dadeville. 

TALLE1RMD-PERIGORD,  Charles  Maurice, 
prince  de,  a  French  statesman,  born  in  Paris, 
Feb.  13,  1754,  died  there,  May  17,  1838.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  the  count  de  Talleyrand- 
Perigord,  and,  having  been  lamed  by  accident 
when  about  a  year  old,  was  neglected  by  his 
family.  In  1766  he  was  placed  by  an  uncle  in 
the  college  of  Harcourt  at  Paris,  and  though 
he  there  greatly  distinguished  himself,  a  family 
council  in  1769  decided  that  in  consequence 
of  his  incurable  lameness  he  should  give  up  his 
birthright  to  his  younger  brother,  and  become 
a  churchman.  He  was  sent  immediately  to 
St.  Sulpice,  and  graduated  with  much  distinc 
tion  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1774.  He  was  then 
presented  at  court,  and  received  in  commen- 
dam  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis  in  the  diocese  of 
Eheims  and  several  other  livings.  Despite 
his  notorious  licentiousness,  he  was  ordained 
priest  soon  afterward,  and  displayed  uncom 
mon  business  tact  and  brilliant  conversational 
powers.  From  1780  to  1785  he  held  the  post 
of  general  agent  of  the  French  clergy.  He 
mingled  in  the  financial  discussions  of  the 
time,  became  acquainted  with  Mirabean,  Ca- 
lonne,  and  Xecker,  and  was  noted  for  his 
prudence  and  skill  as  a  speculator.  In  1787 
he  was  one  of  the  assembly  of  notables,  and 
in  1788  was  made  bishop  of  Autun,  which 
gave  him  a  yearly  income  of  60,000  francs. 
"When  the  states  general  were  summoned  in 
1789,  he  was  elected  one  of  the  deputies  of  the 
clergy,  insisted  that  his  colleagues  should  join 
at  once  the  representatives  of  the  third  estate 
who  had  assumed  the  name  of  "national  as 
sembly,"  figured  conspicuously  among  Mira- 
beau's  friends,  and  proved  a  strong  support 
er  of  every  liberal  measure.  It  was  he  who 
moved  the  celebration  of  the  great  patriotic 
feast,  styled  the  "federation,"  on  July  14, 
1790;  and  in  his  capacity  of  bishop,  at  the 
head  of  200  priests,  wearing  the  national  col 
ors  over  their  white  robes,  he  officiated  in  that 
solemnity  upon  the  great  altar  erected  in  the 
midst  of  the  Champ  de  Mars.  In  the  assem 
bly  he  reported  a  plan  for  the  reorganization 
of  public  instruction,  and  advocated  the  abo 
lition  of  ecclesiastical  tithes,  the  assumption 
by  the  government  of  the  lands  belonging  to 
the  clergy  as  national  property,  and  the  estab 
lishment  of  a  civil  constitution  for  that  order ; 
and  on  this  constitution  being  adopted,  he  con 
secrated  such  priests  as  consented  to  take  the 
oath  to  it.  This,  added  to  his  many  deficiencies 
as  a  Catholic  bishop  and  his  political  course, 
caused  him  to  be  excommunicated;  but  he 
was  secularized  by  the  pope,  on  condition  that 
he  should  wear  a  lay  habit  and  abstain  from 
all  clerical  functions.  In  April,  1791,  he  at 


tended  Mirabeau  in  his  last  moments,  and  was 
charged  by  the  great  orator  to  deliver  in  the 
assembly  a  speech  he  had  prepared  upon  testa 
mentary  powers  and  the  rights  of  succession. 
On  the  dissolution  of  the  constituent  assem 
bly,  Sept.  30,  1791,  Talleyrand  was  sent,  under 
Chauvelin,  on  a  fruitless  mission  to  England. 
After  the  king's  fall  he  retired  to  England; 
but,  while  a  warrant  was  issued  against  him 
in  Paris  by  the  committee  of  public  safety,  he 
received  peremptory  orders  from  the  ministry 
(January,  1794)  to  leave  England  in  24  hours. 
He  then  sailed  for  the  United  States,  where 
through  speculation  he  accumulated  a  fortune, 
and  carefully  studied  American  institutions 
and  commerce.  Before  the  adjournment  of 
the  convention,  on  motion  of  Chenier,  acting 
under  Mme.  de  StaeTs  influence,  his  name  was 
erased  from  the  list  of  emigrants;  he  returned 
to  Paris,  found  himself  a  member  of  the  acad 
emy  of  moral  and  political  sciences,  was  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  constitutional 
club,  and  in  July,  1797,  was  called  to  the  min 
istry  of  foreign  affairs.  On  Bonaparte's  return 
from  Italy,  Dec.  5,  he  welcomed  him,  intro 
duced  him  to  the  directors,  delivered  a  speech 
in  his  honor  at  his  great  ofticial  reception,  and 
promoted  his  subsequent  designs.  While  the 
young  general  sailed  for  Egypt,  the  diplomatist 
was  to  go  to  Constantinople  to  reconcile  the 
sultan  to  the  invasion  of  one  of  his  provinces ; 
he  neglected  this  mission,  and  continued  in 
office  till  July,  1799,  when  he  was  forced  to 
resign.  When  Bonaparte  returned  from  Egypt, 
he  again  propitiated  the  conqueror,  procured 
an  interview  between  him  and  Sieves,  and 
prevailed  upon  Barras  to  resign,  thus  greatly 
contributing  to  the  success  of  the  coup  tfetat 
of  the  18th  Brumaire.  He  was  rewarded  by 
his  reappointment,  in  November,  1799,  as  min 
ister  of  foreign  affairs,  which  office  he  held 
till  August,  1807,  and  aided  in  the  rec-stab- 
lishment  of  the  peace  in  Europe,  taking  part 
in  the  successful  conclusion  of  the  treaties  of 
Luneville,  1801,  and  of  Amiens,  1802.  On 
June  29,  1802,  Pius  VII.,  at  Bonaparte's  re 
quest,  released  Talleyrand  from  excommunica 
tion;  and  yielding  to  Bonaparte's  injunction, 
he  married  Mme.  Grant,  with  whom  he  had 
lived  for  several  years.  The  pope's  refusal 
to  allow  this,  lady  to  be  presented  to  him  filled 
Talleyrand  with"  resentment;  and  he  is  said 
to  have  counselled  the  partition  of  the  Papal 
States.  He  prompted  the  seizure  of  the  duke 
d'Enghien,  and  hastened  his  execution.  After 
the  establishment  of  the  empire  he  received 
the  office  of  grand  chamberlain,  and  in  1806 
the  principality  of  Benevento  in  Italy.  Hav 
ing  vainly  advocated  an  alliance  with  England, 
and  feeling  the  growing  coldness  of  the  em 
peror,  he  resigned  his  ministerial  office,  Aug. 
9,  1807,  and  received  the  title  of  vice  grand 
elector,  to  which  a  large  salary  was  attached. 
Thenceforward  he  was  only  occasionally  con 
sulted  by  his  sovereign,  but  gave  very  free 
expression  to  his  views  on  great  political  ques- 


558       TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD 


TALLIES 


tions,  and  was  in  consequence  deprived  of  his 
office  of  chamberlain  in  1809;  but  this  only 
stimulated  his  sarcastic  criticisms  against  the 
imperial  policy.  As  early  as  1812  he  is  said 
to  have  foretold  the  approaching  overthrow 
of  Napoleon,  and  on  its  occurrence  he  was 
looked  upon  at  home  and  abroad  as  the  most 
influential  statesman  of  the  day  and  the  leader 
of  the  new  revolution.  A  last  interview  be 
tween  him  and  the  emperor  in  the  beginning 
of  1814  completed  the  estrangement  between 
them ;  and  Talleyrand,  though  still  a  digni 
tary  of  the  empire  and  one  of  the  council  of 
regency,  thought  of  nothing  but  ruining  his 
master.  He  secretly  sent  word  to  the  allied 
sovereigns  to  hasten  toward  Paris ;  and  when 
that  city  surrendered,  March  30,  he  offered 
his  hotel  to  the  emperor  Alexander.  His 
management  secured  the  appointment  by  the 
senate,  on  April  1,  of  a  provisional  govern 
ment,  and  its  formal  declaration  on  the  day 
following  Napoleon's  dethronement.  While 
Marshal  Marmont  was  prevailed  upon  to  sign 
at  Essonne  (April  3)  a  convention  that  baffled 
Napoleon's  last  hopes  of  resisting,  Talleyrand 
welcomed  the  count  of  Artois  to  the  French 
metropolis,  April  12,  and  remained  the  head 
of  the  new  government.  On  the  arrival  of 
Louis  XVIII.  he  was  appointed  (May  12)  min 
ister  of  foreign  affairs,  holding  in  fact  the 
premiership  in  the  cabinet;  and  on  June  4  he 
was  made  a  peer  of  France.  He  negotiated 
the  first  treaty  of  Paris,  May  30,  1814;  and 
four  months  later  he  was  sent  as  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
where  he  failed  in  protecting  the  interests  of 
France  as  well  as  he  desired.  He  was  sur 
prised  there  by  the  sudden  return  of  Napo 
leon  from  Elba,  and  participated  in  the  decla 
ration  that  "  outlawed  the  enemy  of  nations." 
He  was  exempted  from  the  amnesty  granted  to 
those  who  had  previously  deserted  the  em 
peror,  went  to  Ghent,  where  he  joined  the 
exiled  king  Louis  XVIII.,  accompanied  him 
to  France  when  he  returned  there  after  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  and  resumed,  July  8,  1815, 
the  premiership  in  the  cabinet  and  the  ministry 
of  foreign  affairs ;  but  being  disgusted  by  the 
hard  terms  imposed  upon  France  by  the  allied 
powers  and  by  the  reactionary  tendencies  of 
the  new  chamber  of  deputies,  he  resigned  his 
office  at  the  end  of  a  few  weeks.  Accord 
ing  to  another  account,  having  become  obnox 
ious  to  the  emperor  Alexander,  he  was  dis 
missed;  but  through  the  duke  of  Richelieu's 
entreaties  he  received  the  title  of  grand  cham 
berlain  of  France,  with  a  salary  of  40,000 
francs.  He  still  visited  the  Tuileries,  but  was 
coldly  received;  he  retained  his  seat  in  the 
chamber  of  peers,  and  delivered  there  several 
opposition  speeches  ;  but  his  influence  was 
greatest  in  social  intercourse,  his  saloon  be 
ing  the  gathering  place  of  politicians  of  every 
shade  of  opinion.  After  the  revolution  of 
July,  1830,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
England  with  a  princely  salary,  and  negotiated 


a  treaty,  April  22,  1834,  by  which  France, 
England,  Spain,  and  Portugal  united  for  the 
pacification  and  settlement  of  the  two  penin 
sular  kingdoms.  He  resigned  his  office,  Jan. 
7,  1835,  and  retired  to  private  life.  The  most 
remarkable  of  his  essays  is  Jiis  Memoire  sur  les 
relations  commerciales  dcs  Etats-  Unis  vers  1797. 
He  left  personal  memoirs,  which  according  to 
his  will  were  not  to  be  published  till  30  years 
after  his  death.  In  1868  Napoleon  III.  ob 
tained  from  the  heirs  a  further  postponement 
of  22  years;  and  in  1872,  it  having  been  an 
nounced  that  the  memoirs  were  about  to  be 
published,  the  duke  de  Montmorency,  custo 
dian  of  the  manuscript,  refused  to  violate  the 
pledge  given  to  the  late  emperor.  On  the 
day  before  his  death  Talleyrand  wrote  a  let 
ter  to  the  pope  enclosing  a  "retraction"  writ 
ten  two  months  before.  The  "retraction" 
deplores  his  acts  which  had  afflicted  the 
church;  and  the  letter  says  that  his  memoirs 
will  explain  to  posterity  the  writer's  conduct 
during  the  revolution. 

TALLIED,  Jean  Lambert,  a  French  revolution 
ist,  born  in  Paris  in  1769,  died  there  in  No 
vember,  1820.  lie  was  the  son  of  the  house 
steward  of  the  marquis  de  Bercy,  who  gave  him 
the  means  of  a  classical  education.  In  1791  he 
started  a  transient  newspaper,  L ^  Ami  du  Ci- 
toyen,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Jacobin 
club,  and  in  1792  clerk  of  the  commune  of 
Paris  and  deputy  to  the  convention  from  Seine- 
et-Oise.  He  took  his  seat  among  the  monta- 
gnards,  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.,  and 
was  one  of  the  bitterest  opponents  of  the 
Girondists.  He  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Bor 
deaux  in  1793,  and  became  acquainted  with 
Mme.  de  Fontenay,  whom  he  married.  (See 
CIIIMAY.)  At  her  instigation  he  denounced 
Robespierre  and  procured  his  execution,,  which 
made  him  the  leader  of  the  Thermidorians. 
Through  his  influence  Fouquier-Tinville,  Car 
rier,  and  Lebon  were  doomed  to  punishment ; 
and  through  his  energy  the  revolutionary  at 
tempt  of  the  1st  Prairial  was  baffled.  As  com 
missary  of  the  convention  with  the  army  of 
the  west  in  1795,  he  ordered  all  the  royalist 
prisoners  made  by  Hoche  on  the  Quiberon  pe 
ninsula  to  be  shot.  On  the  13th  Vendemiaire 
he  was  among  the  defenders  of  the  convention 
against  the  rebellious  sections  of  Paris.  After 
the  establishment  of  the  directorial  govern 
ment  he  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  500, 
and  shared  in  the  republican  coup  cVetat  of  the 
18th  Fructidor.  In  1798  he  accompanied  Bo 
naparte  to  Egypt  as  one  of  the  committee  of 
scientific  men,  and  held  there  a  high  adminis 
trative  office.  While  returning  to  France  he 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English,  and  wel 
comed  to  London  by  the  whig  party.  In  1805 
he  was  appointed  consul  to  Alicante  ;  but  sick 
ness  obliged  him  to  return  to  Paris,  where  he 
received  a  paltry  pension  from  Napoleon,  which 
he  lost  in  1811.  Mme.  Tallien,  from  whom 
he  was  divorced  in  1802,  had  borne  him  four 
children. 


TALLOW 


TALMA 


559 


TALLOW,  the  solid  fat  of  various  terrestrial 
animals,  chiefly  quadrupeds,  which  has  been 
separated  from  the  membranous  cellular  tissue 
by  melting.  The  ruminants,  particularly  oxen 
and  sheep,  furnish  the  tallow  of  commerce. 
Russia,  South  America,  and  Australia  furnish 
the  largest  proportion.  That  is  esteemed  best 
which  is  procured  from  animals  that  have  fed 
upon  dry  fodder ;  hence  that  of  Russia,  where 
animals  feed  for  eight  months  upon  dried  grass, 
is  especially  valued.  Texas  and  particularly 
southern  California  formerly  furnished  large 
quantities  to  commerce.  Formerly  tallow  that 
had  been  simply  "tried  out"  or  "rendered" 
was  extensively  used  for  candles;  very  little 
is  now  so  used,  but  instead  of  it  the  stearine 
which  has  been  separated  from  the  other  con 
stituents  is  made  into  candles,  which  are  of 
more*  uniform  quality  and  higher  melting  point. 
(See  STEAEIO  ACID.)  Tallow  is  also  largely 
consumed  by  soap  manufacturers  (see  SOAP), 
and  in  the  dressing  of  leather.  Tallow  con 
sists  of  several  compound  acid  radicals  united 
with  the  basic  radical  of  glycerine.  Of  these, 
stearine  is  found  in  largest  quantity,  with 
more  or  less  of  palmitine  and  oleine,  depend 
ing  upon  the  kind  of  tallow.  In  the  process 
of  soap  making  the  tallow  is  decomposed,  the 
potash  or  .soda  combining  with  the  stearine, 
&c.,  and  setting  glycerine  free. — Vegetable  tal 
low  is  obtained  in  China  in  great  quantities 
from  the  solid  sebaceous  covering  of  the  seeds 
Qi.  Stillingia  sebifera,  a  tree  that  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  that  country.  (See  TALLOW  TREE.) 
The  tallow,  which  is  brittle,  white,  opaque, 
and  tasteless,  is  preferred  to  animal  tallow  for 
making  candles.  It  is  regarded  as  nearly  pure 
stearine.  In  the  United  States,  the  wax-like 
covering  of  the  berries  of  the  myrica  cerifera 
is  in  some  localities  used  for  the  same  purposes 
as  ordinary  tallow,  under  the  name  of  bayberry 
tallow.  It  is  hard,  of  olive-green  color,  and 
has  a  fragrant  spicy  odor.  It  is  also  used  to  a 
limited  extent  in  pharmaceutical  preparations. 

TALLOW  TREE  (Stillingia  se~bifcra),  a  Chi 
nese  tree,  belonging  to  the  spurge  family  (eu- 
pJiorl)iacece\  growing  from  20  to  40  ft.,  with 
long  and  flexible  branches,  and  long-petioled 
leaves,  much  resembling  those  of  the  poplars, 
save  that  they  are  entire ;  the  flowers  are  in 
dense  terminal  spikes,  the  upper  part  of  which 
consists  of  sterile  flowers,  with  a  few  fertile 
ones  at  the  base ;  the  fruit  a  small  three-lobed 
capsule  with  one  seed  in  each  cell ;  the  seeds 
are  covered  with  a  white  tallow-like  substance, 
which  gives  the  tree  its  common  name,  and 
which  the  Chinese  use  for  candles.  This  tree 
is  abundantly  naturalized  in  Georgia  and  South 
Carolina  near  the  coast,  and  in  Florida  on  the 
St.  John's.  The  time  and  manner  of  its  intro 
duction  do  not  seem  to  be  known  ;  Michaux 
in  1803  speaks  of  it  as  bein£  in  cultivation  in 
Charleston  and  Savannah,  and  as  also  growing 
spontaneously  at  that  time  ;  and  Elliott  (1824) 
speaks  of  the  abundance  of  the  fruit,  of  which 
no  use  is  made,  though  it  contains  much  oil. 
VOL.  xv.— 36 


The  seeds  produce  two  oily  substances:  the 
tallow-like  coating  which  envelops  them,  and 
an  oil  within  the  kernel  itself.  To  obtain  the 
first,  the  capsules  are  cracked  without  bruising 
the  seeds,  the  shells  separated,  and  the  seeds 
treated  with  boiling  water  and  the  tallow 


Tallow  Tree  (Stillingia  scbifcra). 

skimmed  off ;  after  this,  the  seeds  are  crushed 
and  pressed  for  their  oil.  The  tallow  when 
fresh  is  creamy  white,  but  it  becomes  brown 
on  long  exposure  ;  the  Chinese  convert  it  into 
candles,  which  receive  a  final  dip  in  a  mixture 
of  the  same  substance  with  some  insect  wax, 
which  gives  them  a  hard  surface  and  preserves 
their  form  in  hot  weather ;  the  oil  is  used  for 
lamps;  the  refuse  of  the  process  is  used  for 
fuel  and  for  manure.  The  wood  is  hard,  and 
is  used  by  the  Chinese  to  make  blocks  for 
printing. — Another  species,  S.  sylxatica,  popu 
larly  known  as  queen's  delight,  is  an  herb,  2 
or  3  ft.  high,  with  alternate,  nearly  sessile, 
oblong-lanceolate,  serrate  leaves,  and  a  dense 
terminal  yellowish  spike  of  male  flowers  with 
a  few  fertile  ones  at  the  base ;  it  is  found  in 
light  dry  soils  from  Virginia  to  Florida.  The 
root  in  large  doses  is  emetic  and  cathartic ; 
in  small  doses  it  is  regarded  by  some  southern 
physicians  as  influencing  the  secretions,  and 
it  is  useful  in  syphilis  and  skin  diseases. 

TALMA,  Francois  Joseph,  a  French  actor,  born 
in  Paris,  Jan.  15,  1763,  died  there,  Oct.  19, 
1826.  He  received  a  collegiate  education,  and 
in  1787  appeared  at  the  Theatre  Frangais  in 
the  part  of  Se"ide  in  Voltaire's  Mahomet.  He 
early  turned  his  attention  to  the  substitution 
of  contemporary  historical  dresses  for  the  fancy 
costumes  then  worn,  a  reform  which  had  been 
previously  and  unsuccessfully  attempted  by 
Lekain,  and  which  Talma  finally  effected.  His 
first  original  creation 'was  the  principal  part 
in  Joseph  Ch6nier's  Charles  IX.  Besides  the 
parts  he  performed  in  Lafosse's  Manliiis,  Ra 
cine's  Iphigenie  and  Britannicus,  and  Voltair&'s 


560 


TALMAGE 


TALMUD 


'ipe,  he  won  great  applause  in  Ch6nier's 
Henri  VIII.,  and  above  all  in  Ducis's  Hamlet, 
Othello,  and  Abufar';  and  under  the  empire  he 
frequently  played  before  royal  audiences.  Du 
ring  the  restoration  some  of  his  most  popular 
performances  were  political  manifestations  in 
disguise  ;  especially  in  Jouy's  Sylla,  in  which 
his  striking  resemblance  to  Napoleon  made  a 
great  sensation.  Since  1796  he  had  devoted 
his  undivided  attention  to  tragedy ;  but  in  1823 
he  appeared  as  Damville  in  Casimir  Delavigne's 
comedy  L'ecole  des  vieillards,  in  which  he 
proved  a  worthy  associate  of  Mile.  Mars.  He 
represented  and  may  be  said  to  have  created 
more  than  70  characters.  His  last  and  perhaps 
most  perfect  creation  was  the  part  of  Charles 
VI.  in  Delaville's  tragedy,  and  in  which  he 
made  his  last  public  appearance  in  June,  1826. 
In  1855  a  statue  by  David  d' Angers,  represent 
ing  Talma  in  his  great  part  of  Sylla,  was  placed 
in  the  Tuileries  garden.  He  left  an  interesting 
pamphlet  entitled  "Reflexions  sur  Lckain  et  sur 
Tart  theatral  (8vo,  1815;  reprinted  in  1856 
and  1865).  His  memoirs  by  Moreau,  by  Tissot, 
and  by  Duval  appeared  in  1826;  by  Laregier, 
by  Lemercier,  and  by  Regnault-Warin,  in  1827 ; 
and  his  autobiography,  edited  by  Alexandra 
Dumas,  in  1S49-'50  (4  vols.  8vo). — His  wife, 
originally  Mlle.'Vanhove  (born  at  the  Hague, 
Sept.  10,  1771,  died  in  Paris,  April  11,  1860), 
was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  actresses  of 
her  day,  but  retired  from  the  stage  in  1811, 
nine  years  after  her  marriage. 

TALMAGE,  Thomas  De  Witt,  an  American  cler 
gyman,  born  in  Boundbrook,  N.  J.,  Jan.  7, 
1832.  He  graduated  at  the  New  York  univer 
sity  in  1853,  and  at  the  New  Brunswick  (N. 
J.)  theological  seminary  in  1856,  and  was  or 
dained  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  church 
in  Belleville,  N.  J.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Re 
formed  Dutch  church  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  from 
1859  to  1862,  when  he  was  called  to  the  sec 
ond  Reformed  church  in  Philadelphia ;  and  in 
1869  he  became  pastor  of  the  Central  Pres 
byterian  church  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  which 
office  he  still  continues  (1876).  In  1870  his 
congregation  erected  a  new  church,  semicir 
cular,  of  wood  and  iron,  and  capable  of  seat 
ing  3,400  persons.  This  building,  known  as 
the  "Brooklyn  Tabernacle,"  was  enlarged  in 

1871  so  as  to  seat  500  more,  but  was  destroyed 
by  fire  Dec.  23,  1872.     On  Feb.  22,  1874,  a 
new    "  Tabernacle "   was  dedicated,   built   in 
Gothic  style,  of  brick,  but  retaining  the  semi 
circular  arrangement,  and  seating  5,000  per 
sons.     It  is  the  largest  Protestant  church  in 
America.     Since  the  erection  of   the  former 
tabernacle   the  church,   at  Mr.  Talmage's  in 
stance,  has  been  free,  being  maintained  wholly 
by  voluntary  offerings,  with  no  pew  rents.     In 

1872  he  organized  in  the   building  formerly 
occupied  by  the  church  a  lay  college  for  re- 
ligious^  training.     It  is  open  to  persons  of  all 
denominations,  and  gives  instruction  in  phi 
losophy,  logic,  and  general  literature,  and  in 
natural  and  systematic  theology,  sacred  his 


tory,  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  the  inter 
pretation  of  Scripture,  and  sacred  rhetoric. 
Mr.  Talmage  is  a  very  popular  lecturer,  but 
has  latterly  seldom  appeared  in  that  capacity. 
His  sermons  are  delivered  extempore,  but  are 
reported,  and  published  in  several  religious 
journals  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit 
ain.  He  has  edited  a  religious  newspaper, 
"The  Christian  at  Work,"  since  1874,  and  has 
published  four  volumes  of  "  Sermons  "  (New 
York,  1872-'5) ;  "The  Almond  Tree  in  Blos 
som"  (Philadelphia,  1870);  "Crumbs  Swept 
Up"  (1870);  "Abominations  of  Modern  So 
ciety"  (New  York,  1872);  "Around  the  Tea 
Table"  (Philadelphia,  1874);  "Old  Wells  Dug 
Out"  (New  York,  1874);  "Sports  that  Kill" 
(1875);  and  "Every-Day  Religion"  (1875). 

TALMUD  (late  Heb.,  study),  the  collective 
name  of  the  Mishnah  and  Gemara,  containing 
the  oral  law  and  other  traditions  of  the  Jews. 
(See  MISIINAH,  and  HEBEEWS,  vol.  viii.,  pp. 
593-'5.)  In  a  limited  sense  the  term  is  used 
of  the  Gemara  alone.  The  Mishnah  consti 
tutes  the  earlier  text  of  the  Talmud,  which 
the  Gemara  elucidates,  not  so  much  in  the 
manner  of  a  running  commentary  as  by  fur 
nishing  additional  textual  paragraphs  with  ex 
planatory  remarks,  given  in  the  name  of  re 
nowned  scholars.  Authority  is  placed  against 
authority,  and  discussions  in  the  form  of  dia 
logues  are  frequent. '  The  arguments  show 
keenness,  but  are  often  fanciful  in  the  ex 
treme.  There  are  two  Gemaras  (or  Talmuds), 
the  Palestinian  (  YcrusJialmi,  of  Jerusalem)  and 
the  Babylonian  (Babli).  The  former  contains 
comments  on  39,  and  the  latter  on  36  trea 
tises  of  the  Mishnah.  The  Babylonian,  which 
is  later,  is  the  principal  authority.  The  Mish 
nah  is  in  the  Hebrew  dialect  used  after  the 
exile ;  the  Gemara  in  an  Aramaic  idiom,  very 
Corrupt,  especially  in  that  of  Jerusalem.  The 
rabbis  cited  in  the  Mishnah  and  the  Gemara  are 
the  representatives  of  Jewish  religious  learn 
ing  during  about  six  centuries,  beginning  short 
ly  before  the  time  of  the  Maccabees.  The 
chief  commentator  is  Rabbi  Solomon  ben  Isaac, 
known  under  the  abbreviation  Rashi.  The 
best  compendium  of  Talmudical  decisions  is 
the  MisJineJi  tor  all  of  Maimpnides.  The  edi 
tions  of  the  Talmud,  mostly  in  12  folio  vol 
umes,  including  the  most  important  commen 
taries  and  notes,  are  very  numerous.  They 
are  so  arranged  that  the  Mishnah  and  Gemara, 
in  square  Hebrew  characters  without  vowel 
points,  occupy  the  centre  of  the  page,  and  the 
chief  commentaries  and  notes  (Rashi's,  Tosa- 
plwtli,  &c.),  in  a  medieeval  style  of  writing, 
the  margins  all  around.  Other  commentaries 
are  generally  added  at  the  end  of  each  trea 
tise.  One  of  the  fullest  is  the  Warsaw  edition 
of  the  Talmud  of  Babylon  (1859  et  seq.\  An 
important  essay  dn  the  Talmud  was  published 
by  Emanuel  Deutsch  in  the  "Quarterly  Re 
view"  (1869;  reprinted  in  his  "Literary  Re 
mains,"  New  York,  1873),  and  another  by  M. 
Grunbaum  some  months  later  in  the  "North 


TAMA 


TAMARISK 


561 


American  Review."  The  best  Talmudical  lex 
icon  is  J.  Levy's  Worterbucfi  ubcr  die  Talmu- 
dim  und  Midraschim  (Leipsic,  1875  et  seq.\ 
based,  like  its  predecessors,  on  Nathan  ben 
Jehiel's  'Arukh,  composed  about  1100. 

TAMA,  an  E.  central  county  of  Iowa,  inter 
sected  by  the  Iowa  river ;  area,  720  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  16,131.  The  surface  is  undu 
lating  and  the  soil  highly  fertile  and  well 
timbered.  There  are  rich  valleys  along  the 
streams,  and  good  water  power.  It  is  inter 
sected  by  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  rail 
road.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
1,054,167  bushels  of  wheat,  1,103,371  of  In 
dian  corn,  282,591  of  oats,  23,588  of  barley, 
88,616  of  potatoes,  17,080  Ibs.  of  wool,  407,- 
567  of  butter,  and  25,854  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  7,959  horses,  6,073  inilch  cows,  9,218 
other  cattle,  4,547  sheep,  and  17,646  swine ; 
11  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  3  of 
furniture,  3  of  lime,  5  of  saddlery  and  harness, 
8  flour  mills,  and  3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Toledo. 

TAMANDUA.     See  ANT-EATER. 

TAMAQUA,  a  borough  of  Schuylkill  co.";' Penn 
sylvania,  on  the  Little  Schuylkill  river  and  on 
branches  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  rail 
road  and  the  Central  railroad  of  New  Jersey, 
16  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Pottsville  and  60  m.  N.  E. 
of  Harrisburg;  pop.  in  1870,  5,960;  in  1875, 
about  7,000.  It  is  in  a  rich  coal  and  iron 
region,  and  has  good  water  power.  It  con 
tains  three  machine  shops  and  founderies  (one 
of  them  the  largest  in  the  state),  stove  works, 
a  boot  and  shoe  factory,  a  rolling  mill,  two 
saw  mills  and  sash  factories,  a  spike  factory, 
a  brick  kiln,  a  powder  mill,  a  tannery,  a  lime 
kiln,  two  breweries,  seven  or  eight  bottling 
establishments,  a  gun  factory,  two  screen  fac 
tories,  and  two  saddle  and  harness  factories, 
besides  shops  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
railroad  company.  It  has  a  tire  department,  a 
national  bank,  a  banking  and  trust  company, 
three  brick  school  houses,  a  daily  and  a  week 
ly  newspaper,  and  ten  churches. 

TAMARACK.     See  LAEOH. 

TAMARIND,  the  fruit  of  a  leguminous  tree, 
tamarindus  Indica^  the  common  and  botani 
cal  name  being  derived  from  the  Arabs,  who, 
having  learned  of  the  fruit  from  the  Hindoos, 
called  it  tamare-hindi,  the  Indian  date.  The 
tree  is  indigenous  to  various  parts  of  Africa, 
and  probably  also  to  India,  and  it  grows  wild 
in  several  of  the  East  Indian  islands ;  it  was 
early  introduced  into  the  West  Indies,  and  is 
completely  naturalized  there,  and  also  in  por 
tions  of  Brazil  and  Mexico.  There  is  only  one 
species  of  the  genus.  It  is  a  large  handsome 
tree,  60  to  80  ft.  high ;  its  compound  leaves, 
of  10  to  20  pairs  of  small  oblong  leaflets,  form 
a  dense  foliage ;  the  flowers,  white  when  they 
first  open,  but  soon  turning  yellow,  have  pur 
ple  and  brown  stamens,  are  borne  in  racemes, 
and  are  fragrant;  the  fruit  is  an  indehiscent 
legume  or  pod,  3  to  6  in.  long,  straight  or 
curved,  thick,  and  with  a  hard,  brittle  exterior 
shell;  the  seeds,  from  4  to  12,  are  each  sur 


rounded  by  a  tough  papery  membrane,  outside 
of  which,  and  between  it  and  the  shell,  is  a 
firm,  juicy,  very  acid  pulp,  traversed  by  strong 
woody  fibres,  which  start  from  the  fruit  stalk 
and  run  through,  throwing  off  branches,  to 
the  opposite  end  (apex)  of  the  pod.  The  ripe 
ness  of  the  pods  is  known  by  the  brittleness 
of  the  outer  shell ;  they  are  picked,  and  in  the 
West  Indies  deprived  of  the  shell  and  packed 
in  a  cask,  and  boiling  sirup  is  poured  over 
them  until  the  vessel  is  full ;  when  cool  the 
package  is  headed  up  and  is  ready  for  market. 
A  better  kind,  rarely  found  on  sale,  is  prepared 
by  packing  the  shelled  fruit  in  stone  jars,  with 
alternate  layers  of  sugar.  In  the  East  Indies 
the  fruit  is  usually  preserved  without  sugar; 
the  shell  is  removed  and  the  pulp  and  seed 
are  kneaded  into  a  mass,  and  in  this  form 
tamarinds  are  chiefly  used  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  The  pulp  has  a  brisk  acid  taste,  modi 
fied  more  or  less  by  the  amount  of  sugar  used ; 
it  contains  tartaric,  citric,  and  other  acids,  and 
some  principle  not  well  ascertained  which  gives 
it  a  laxative  property.  Tamarinds  are  used, 
especially  in  tropical  countries,  to  prepare  a 
refreshing  drink,  by  pouring  boiling  water 


Tamarind  (Tamarindus  Indica). 

over  the  fruit ;  this  drink  is  also  used  as  a  laxa 
tive  and  refrigerant  in  fevers.  By  boiling  the 
preserved  fruit  with  a  small  quantity  of  water, 
and  sifting,  the  pulp  is  obtained  pure;  it  is 
used  as  an  article  of  diet,  and  it  enters  into  the 
composition  of  a  popular  laxative,  the  com 
pound  confection  of  senna.  The  wood  is  use 
ful  for  timber,  and  makes  a  fine  charcoal. 
The  shell  of  the  seeds  is  astringent  and  con 
tains  tannin ;  their -kernels  are  used  as  food  in 
India  in  times  of  scarcity. 

TAMARISK,  the  name  of  ornamental  shrubs 
of  the  genus  tamarix  (the  ancient  name,  sup 
posed  to  be  from  the  river  Tamaris),  of  a  small 
family  (tamariscinecs)  closely  related  to  the 
pink  family.  The  genus  belongs  to  the  old 
world,  and  the  more  than  50  described  species 
are  reducible  to  about  20,  all  shrubs  or  small 
trees,  with  minute  scale-like  or  awl-shaped,  al 
ternate  leaves,  which  are  appressed,  and  small 
purplish  flowers  in  terminal  spikes  or  racemes ; 
the  parts  of  the  flower  are  in  fours  or  fives ; 
it  has  a  one-celled  ovary,  ripening  into  a  pod 


562 


TAMATAVE 


TAMBURINI 


with  many  seeds,  each  of  which  has  a  small 
tuft  of  hairs.  The  common  tamarisk  (T.  Gal 
lica)  is  abundant  on  the  Mediterranean  and 
Atlantic  coasts  of  Europe,  and,  though  spon 
taneous  in  England,  is  thought  to  have  been 
introduced  there;  from  its  slender  graceful 


Common  Tamarisk  (Tamarix  Gallica). 

habit,  and  the  abundant  though  not  showy 
flowers,  this  is  deserving  of  a  place  among 
shrubbery;  in  the  northern  states  it  is  often 
killed  to  the  ground  in  severe  winters.  T. 
Africana  and  others  are  offered  in  the  cata 
logues,  but  there  is  much  confusion  as  to  names. 
T.  mannifera  of  the  East  (regarded  by  some 
botanists  as  a  variety  of  T.  Gallica)  is  sup 
posed  by  some  to  be  the  plant  the  manna  from 
which  fed  the  Hebrews.  (See  MANNA.)  Tam 
arisk  manna  is  produced  in  small  drops  from 
the  T.  Gallica  in  Arabia,  the  branches  having 
been  punctured  by  an  insect.  Tamarisk  galls 
are  found  upon  T.  orientalis,  in  1ST.  "W.  India, 
and  are  used  in  India  instead  of  oak  galls. 

TAMATAVE,  a  town  and  the  principal  port  of 
Madagascar,  on  the  E.  coast,  in  lat,  18°  10'  S., 
Ion.  49°  28'  E. ;  pop.  about  7,500.  It  is  built 
on  a  point  about  350  yards  wide,  with  low 
sand  hills  behind  it.  Nearly  all  the  build 
ings,  excepting  a  few  belonging  to  foreign  resi 
dents,  are  in  the  native  style,  with  high  roofs 
thatched  with  rushes.  The  town  has  a  large 
trade  with  the  interior,  and  is  fast  increasing 
in  commercial  importance.  The  total  value  of 
imports  in  1873  was  $487,255  ;  of  exports, 
$360,930.  The  principal  imports  are  sheet 
ings,  calico,  rum,  brandy,  shoes,  and  salt ;  ex 
ports,  beef,  hides,  and  India  rubber.  The 
duties  are  10  per  cent,  in  kind  on  imports, 
and  10  per  cent,  in  money  on  exports. 

TAMAULIPAS  (formerly  Nuevo  Santandcr),  an 
E.  state  of  Mexico,  bounded  N.  by  Texas,  E.  by 
the  gulf  of  Mexico,  S.  by  Vera  Cruz,  and  W. 
by  San  Luis  Potosi  and  Nuevo  Leon  ;  area,  28,- 
059  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  108,778.  The  coast 
is  low  and  sandy,  and  several  lagoons  extend 
along  the  shore,  the  largest  being  the  laguna 


Madre,  more  than  100  m.  long,  and  in  some 
places  20  m.  wide.  The  Rio  Grande  del  Norte 
forms  the  northern  boundary  line ;  other  rivers 
are  the  Fernando  or  Tigre,  Borbon,  Santander, 
and  Tampico ;  the  mouths  of  all  are  so  much 
encumbered  with  bars  that  they  are  almost 
useless  for  navigation.  In  the  northern  part 
of  the  state  the  flat  country  extends  inland  for 
some  distance,  and  the  surface  then  rises  into 
elevated  plains;  but  in  the  south  it  is  diversi 
fied  by  numerous  mountains  and  fine  valleys. 
During  the  hot  season  the  climate  on  the  coast 
is  unhealthful,  but  in  the  elevated  parts  of  the 
interior  it  is  temperate  and  agreeable.  There 
are  rich  silver  and  copper  mines,  but  they  are 
little  worked.  The  forests  abound  in  valuable 
timber.  Much  of  the  soil  is  very  fertile,  and 
the  grains,  vegetables,  and  fruits  of  the  tem 
perate  and  torrid  zones  are  easily  grown ;  but 
little  attention  is  paid  to  agriculture.  Vast 
numbers  of  cattle,  and  to  a  less  extent  horses, 
mules,  goats,  and  sheep,  are  reared.  The  chief 
towns  are  Ciudad  Victoria,  the  capital,  Mata- 
moros,  and  Tampico. 

TAMBERLIK,  Enrico,  an  Italian  singer,  born  in 
Eome  in  1820.  He  made  his  debut  at  the 
Teatro  del  Fondo  in  Naples  in  1841,  and  sub 
sequently  sang  in  Spain,  South  America,  Eng 
land,  and  St.  Petersburg,  in  which  city  he  ap 
peared  for  18  consecutive  seasons.  He  visited 
the  United  States  in  1875,  but  without  suc 
cess,  his  voice  being  impaired. 

TAMBOURINE,  an  instrument  of  the  drum 
species,  consisting  of  a  wooden  or  metal  hoop, 
over  which  parchment  is  distended,  and  which 
is  hung  with  a  set  of  bells.  It  is  held  in  either 
hand  and  beaten  with  the  knuckles  of  the  other. 
Certain  peculiar  effects  of  sound  are  produced 
by  rubbing  the  parchment  briskly  with  the 
thumb.  The  tambourine  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  instruments  known,  and,  from  the 
graceful  use  which  can  be  made  of  it,  has 
always  been  a  favorite  with  dancers. 

TAMBOV.  I.  A  S.  E.  government  of  Euro 
pean  Russia,  bordering  on  Vladimir,  Nizhego- 
rod,  Penza,  Saratov,  Voronezh,  Orel,  Tula,  and 
Riazan ;  area,  25,083  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,150,971.  It  is  level,  and  partly  traversed 
by  steppes  in  the  south.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Tzna,  Moksha,  and  Vorona,  the  banks  of 
which  are  swampy  and  covered  with  forests. 
Grain,  hemp,  flax,  and  poppies  are  raised,  es 
pecially  in  the  southern  part.  The  other  pro 
ducts  include  timber,  peat,  iron,  saltpetre,  and 
sulphur  ;  and  there  are  many  mineral  springs. 
The  government  is  celebrated  for  its  horse 
markets  and  studs.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
government,  260  m.  S.  E.  of  Moscow;  pop.  in 
1867,  28,017.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and 
has  many  churches,  schools,  and  charitable  in 
stitutions,  and  manufactories  of  tallow,  wool 
lens,  sail  cloth,  &c.  The  annual  markets  are 
celebrated.  Gardens  and  fine  streets  make  it 
one  of  the  pleasantest  of  provincial  cities. 

TAMBURINI,  Antonio,  an  Italian  singer,  born 
in  Faenza,  March  28,  1800.  After  several 


TAMBURINI 


TANAGER 


563 


years'  practice  in  the  theatre  and  churches 
of  his  native  city,  he  made  his  public  d6but 
at  Bologna  in  1818,  and  soon  rose  into  great 
celebrity  in  Italy.  In  1832  he  first  appeared 
in  London  and  Paris,  and  thenceforth  visited 
them  annually  until  his  retirement  in  1854, 
when  he  settled  at  Sevres,  France.  "With  Grisi, 
Rubini,  and  Lablache,  he  was  one  of  the  ori 
ginal  performers  in  Bellini's  Puritani,  and  for 
several  seasons  continued  a  member  of  that 
remarkable  quartet.  His  voice,  a  baritone  of 
great  power  and  sweetness,  was  shown  to  the 
best  effect  in  the  operas  of  Rossini,  Bellini,  and 
Donizetti,  and  he  was  also  an  excellent  actor 
both  in  serious  and  buffo  opera.  His  finest 
parts  were  Figaro  and  Don  Giovanni. 

TAMBURIM,  Pietro,  an  Italian  theologian,  born 
in  Brescia  in  1737,  died  in  Pavia  in  March, 
1827.  In  1772,  while  professor  in  the  semi 
nary  of  Brescia,  he  was  appointed  by  Pope 
Clement  XIV.  prefect  of  studies  in  the  Irish 
college  of  San  Isidoro  at  Rome.  In  1778  he 
was  appointed  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa 
professor  of  theology  at  Pavia  and  director  of 
studies  in  the  Germano-IIungarian  college  in 
that  city.  In  1795  he  resigned  his  professor 
ship,  but  in  1797  the  French  authorities  in 
Lombardy  compelled  him  to  fill  the  chair  of 
ethics  and  international  law  in  the  university. 
This  chair  was  suppressed  in  1798,  but  restored 
in  1801,  and  filled  by  him  till  1818,  when  he 
was  appointed  dean  of  the  faculty  of  law. 
lie  published  Idea  della  Santa  Sede  (Pavia, 
1784),  in  which  he  opposed  the  doctrine  of 
papal  official  infallibility,  while  maintaining 
the  jurisdictional  supremacy  of  the  Roman 
see ;  Introduzione  allo  studio  della  filosofia 
(Milan,  1797) ;  Lezioni  di  filosofia  morale,  e 
di  naturale  e  sociale  diritto  (4  vols.,  Pavia, 
180 6-' 12)  ;  Elementa  Juris  Nature  (Milan, 
1815)  ;  and  Cenni  sulla  perfettibilitd  deW 
umana  famiglia  (Milan,  1823). 

TAMERLANE.     See  TIMOUE. 

TAMILS,  or  Tamnls.  See  INDIA,  RACES  AND 
LANGUAGES  OF,  vol.  ix.,  p.  215. 

TAMPICO,  or  Santa  Ana  de  Tamaulipas,  a  sea 
port  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of  Tamauli 
pas,  on  the  river  Panuco,  5  m.  from  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  235  m.  IS".  N".  TV.  of  Vcra  Cruz ; 
pop.  about  5,500.  It  is  on  rising  ground,  with 
wide  streets  crossing  at  right  angles.  The 
houses  are  mostly  of  stone,  and  there  are  two 
churches,  a  custom  house,  two  hospitals,  a 
prison,  and  some  monuments.  The  harbor  is 
not  very  safe,  and  has  a  dangerous  bar.  The 
commerce  is  principally  with  New  York,  New 
Orleans,  and  Liverpool,  and  to  the  latter  port 
there  is  a  regular  line  of  steamers.  For  the 
year  ending  Sept.  30,  1874,  the  value  of  im 
ports  was  $715,1821 ;  of  exports,  $1,836,472, 
including  $1,264,015  specie. 

TMAGER,  a  name  given  to  the  tanagrince,  a 
very  large  division  of  the  finch  family,  peculiar 
to  America,  and  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
southern  portion  of  the  continent,  which  con 
tains  nearly  200  of  the  more  than  220  species 


described  by  Sclater.  The  bill  has  the  upper 
mandible  notched,  and  is  usually  triangular  at 
the  base  and  arched ;  the  toes  have  strong 
claws,  and  the  hind  toe  is  long  and  strong. 
They  are  small  and  brilliant  birds,  the  prevailing 
colors  being  orange,  scarlet,  and  black ;  many 
have  a  pleasing  song,  and  a  few  are  remarkable 
for  their  musical  powers ;  their  flight  is  rapid, 
movements  active,  and  habits  arboreal;  most 
unite  in  flocks,  often  in  the  neighborhood  of 
human  habitations,  but  a  few  are  solitary ;  the 
food  consists  of  insects,  fruits,  and  seeds.  Of 
the  20  genera,  only  a  few  of  the  common  ones 
can  be  here  noticed. — In  the  genus  pyranga 
(Vieill.)  the  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the 
second  quill  nearly  as  long  as  the  third,  which 
is  longest ;  tail  moderate  and  nearly  even.  One 
of  the  most  richly  colored  of  North  American 
birds  is  the  scarlet  tanager  (P.  rubra,  Vieill.), 
about  7i  in.  long  and  11-f-  in.  in  alar  extent; 
the  male  in  the  breeding  season  is  of  a  general 
bright  carmine  color,  with  the  wings  and 
notched  tail  velvety  black ;  the  female  is  dull 
yellowish  green,  which  is  also  the  color  of  the' 
young  and  the  other  sex  in  autumn  and  winter. 


Scarlet  Tanager  (Pyranga  rubra). 

It  enters  the  United  States  from  Mexico  early 
in  April,  arriving  in  New  Jersey  about  the 
middle  of  May ;  it  goes  as  far  north  inland  as 
Lake  Huron,  and  has  been  found  breeding  in 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia ;  it  is  very 
sensitive  to  cold ;  its  migrations  are  performed 
at  night ;  its  notes  are  lively,  but  not  musical 
according  to  TVilson,  resembling  the  syllables 
"  chip,  churr."  The  change  from  the  winter 
to  the  summer  plumage  takes  place  very  rapid 
ly  ;  it  is  shy  and  unsociable,  preferring  the  deep 
recesses  of  forests,  and  rarely  approaching  hu 
man  habitations  in  crowded  villages ;  the  food 
consists  of  fruits  and  insects,  especially  wasps 
arid  bees.  As  in  the  subfamily  generally,  the 
nest  is  thin  and  coarsely  made ;  the  eggs  are 
three  to  five,  dull  greenish  blue  with  brown 
and  purple  specks,  and  are  seven  eighths  by 
five  eighths  of  an  inch  in  size.  This  species 
is  found  from  the  eastern  states  to  Missouri. 
The  Mississippi  tanager  or  summer  red  bird 
(P.  (Estiva,  Vieill.)  is  7£  in.  long  and  11  in.  in 
alar  extent ;  the  color  is  light  red,  brightest  on 
the  head,  the  back  dusky,  and  the  quills  and 
shafts  of  tail  feathers  brown ;  bill  light  horn 


564 


TANAIS 


TANEY 


color,  and  the  gape,  as  in  others  of  the  genus, 
well  provided  with  bristles  bending  downward; 
the  females  olive  above  and  reddish  yellow  be 
low,  as  are  the  young  males ;  the  color  is  lighter 
and  more  rosy  than  in  the  scarlet  tanager,  and 
the  bill  is  much  larger.  It  is  found  in  the  S. 
Atlantic  and  gulf  states  and  Guatemala,  is  so 
sensitive  to  cold  that  it  rarely  goes  further 
north  than  Massachusetts,  and  is  not  seen  in 
the  southern  states  after  the  middle  of  Septem 
ber  ;  it  is  of  solitary  habits,  preferring  growths 
of  stunted  hickories  and  oaks.  The  song  is 
like  the  syllables  "chicky,  chucky,  chuck,"  and 
is  chiefly  at  night ;  the  food  consists  of  insects, 
especially  large  beetles,  taken  on  the  wing ;  the 
nest  is  rudely  made  and  insecurely  fastened  to 
its  supporting  branch;  the  eggs  are  four  or 
five,  light  blue,  and  are  incubated  for  12  days 
by  both  sexes.  In  the  genus  tanagra  (Linn.) 
the  bill  is  short,  elevated  at  base,  rather  trian 
gular  ;  the  wings  moderate,  with  the  third  and 
fourth  quills  longest.  There  are  many  species, 
all  South  American,  living  in  troops ;  the  nest 
is  carelessly  made.  The  bishop  tanager  (T. 
episcopus,  Linn.)  is  purplish  violet,  with  the 
small  wing  coverts  bluish  white,  the  middle 
shaded  with  violet,  the  larger  ashy,  and  the 
wings  and  tail  blackish  bordered  with  blue. — 
The  genus  calliste  (Boie)  comprises  about  30 
species  of  the  most  beautifully  variegated  of 
tropical  birds,  all  inhabitants  of  the  dense 
South  American  forests.  The  best  known 
species  is  the  festive  tanager  ( C.  f estiva,  Boie), 
which  has  the  throat  and  crown  blue,  forehead 
and  upper  back  black,  collar  scarlet,  rest  of 
plumage  parrot  green.  The  celebrated  orga- 
nista,  remarkable  for  the  sweetness  and  great 
oompass  of  its  voice,  belongs  to  the  genus 
euphonia. 

TANAIS.     See  DON. 

TANANARIVO,  or  Antananarivo,  a  city  of  Mada 
gascar,  capital  of  the  province  of  Imerne  in 
the  territory  of  Ankova,  and  the  residence  of 
the  so-called  sovereign  (now  queen)  of  Mada 
gascar,  near  the  middle  of  the  island,  in  lat. 
18°  56'  S.,  Ion.  47°  28'  E. ;  pop.  about  75,000. 
It  is  on  a  long  irregular  hill  in  the  midst  of 
a  highly  cultivated  valley,  18  m.  long  by  10 
m.  wide,  and  7,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The 
houses  of  the  better  classes  are  substantially 
constructed  of  wood,  with  high  bamboo  roofs 
thatched  with  rushes;  those  of  the  poorer 
classes  are  of  split  bamboo  covered  with  mats. 
The  palace,  on  the  summit  of  the  hill,  is  rec 
tangular,  about  GO  ft.  high,  with  a  tall  roof 
pierced  with  three  rows  of  windows,  and  with 
double  verandas.  A  smaller  palace  near  by 
is  the  residence  of  the  prince  royal,  and  the 
houses  of  the  chief  nobles  and  military  officers 
are  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  1ST.  of 'the  pal 
ace  is  a  natural  amphitheatre,  capable  of  hold 
ing  100,000  persons,  where  large  public  assem 
blies  are  held.  Courts  are  held  in  the  open 
air  W.  of  the  palace,  and  a  little  beyond  is  a 
precipice  300  ft.  high,  down  which  those  con 
victed  of  witchcraft  and  sorcery  are  thrown. 


Through  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  a 
marked  improvement  has  taken  place  of  late 
years  in  the  habits  and  manner  of  life  of  the 
people,  who  have  adopted  many  European  cus 
toms.  Schools  and  chapels  have  been  estab 
lished,  printing  offices  opened,  and  many  thou 
sand  Bibles  and  other  books  printed. 

TANCRED,  an  Italian  crusader,  born  in  1078, 
died  in  Antioch  in  1112.  He  was  a  son  of  the 
marquis  Odo  or  Ottobonus  and  of  Emma,  a 
daughter  of  Tancred  de  Hauteville  and  sister 
of  Robert  Guiscard,  duke  of  Apulia.  He  took 
the  cross  under  his  cousin  Bohemond,  son  of 
Robert  Guiscard,  made  over  his  heritage  to  his 
younger  brother,  and  embarked  in  10D6  from 
Taranto.  In  the  plains  of  Chalcedon  his  troops 
joined  those  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  with  whom 
he  formed  an  intimate  friendship.  At  the  siege 
of  Niceea  in  1097  he  distinguished  himself,  at 
the  battle  of  Dorylasum  saved  the  army  of  the 
cross  from  destruction,  and  after  the  taking  of 
Nicaoa  led  the  advanced  guard  through  Asia 
Minor.  He  took  possession  of  Tarsus  and 
Malmistra,  to  both  of  which  Baldwin  laid 
claim,  giving  rise  to  a  bitter  quarrel ;  but  they 
were  afterward  reconciled.  He  achieved  great 
distinction  during  the  siege  of  Antioch ;  and 
at  the  storming  of  Jerusalem  he  was  one  of 
the  first  to  mount  the  walls.  In  the  carnage 
and  rapine  which  followed,  he  almost  alone  of 
the  Christian  knights  manifested  compassion, 
and  at  the  risk  of  his  own  life  caved  thou 
sands  of  the  captured.  When  the  sultan  of 
Egypt  marched  toward  Jerusalem,  Tancred  de 
feated  his  advanced  guard,  and  shared  in  the 
subsequent  victory  at  Ascalon,  Aug.  12,  1099. 
He  afterward  took  Tiberias,  beleaguered  Jaffa, 
and  was  made  prince  of  Tiberias  or  Galilee. 
Bohemond,  now  prince  of  Antioch,  being  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Saracens,  Tancred  marched 
to  his  relief,  and  administered  his  government 
during  his  detention ;  and  when  Bohemond 
after  his  release  went  to  Europe  to  arm  the 
West  against  the  Byzantine  empire,  he  left  the 
defence  of  Antioch  to  Tancred.  During  his 
absence  his  principality  was  attacked  on  all 
sides,  but  was  heroically  defended  by  Tancred, 
who  reduced  Artesia,  besieged  Tripoli  in  1109, 
and  subsequently  withstood  in  Antioch  a  se 
vere  siege  from  the  Saracens.  Bohemond  died 
at  Salerno,  and  the  host  he  had  collected  Avas 
scattered.  Tancred  now  resumed  the  offen 
sive,  defeated  the  Saracens,  and  forced  the  sul 
tan  to  evacuate  Syria.  His  exploits  have  been 
celebrated,  partly  in  prose,  partly  in  verse,  by 
Raoul  de  Caen,  in  Les  gestes  de  Tancrede;  and 
he  is  one  of  the  principal  characters  of  Tas- 
so's  "Jerusalem  Delivered." 

TANEY,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Missouri,  border 
ing  on  Arkansas,  and  drained  by  White  river 
and  its  affluents;  area,  about  700  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  4,407,  of  whom  10  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  hilly,  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  0,375  bushels  of 
wheat,  135,577  of  Indian  corn,  11,075  of  oats, 
and  48,250  Ibs.  of  butter.  There  were  1,163 


TANEY 


TANGANYIKA 


565 


horses,  1,025  milch  cows,  1,594  other  cattle, 
3,189  sheep,  and  9,500  swine.  Capital,  Forsyth. 
TAJVEY,  Roger  Brooke,  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Calvert  co.,  Md.,  March  17,  1777,  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Oct.  12,  1864.  He  be 
longed  to  a  Roman  Catholic  family,  graduated 
at  Dickinson  college,  Pa.,  in  1795,  was  admit 
ted  to  the  bar  in  1799,  commenced  practice  in 
his  native  county,  and  was  elected  a  delegate 
to  the  general  assembly  as  a  federalist.  In 
1801  he  removed  to  Frederick,  and  in  1816 
was  elected  to  the  state  senate.  In  1822  he 
removed  to  Baltimore,  where  he  continued  to 
reside  until  his  death.  In  1824  he  identified 
himself  with  the  supporters  of  Gen.  Jackson, 
but  was  nevertheless  made  attorney  general  of 
the  state  by  the  federal  governor  in  1827.  In 
1831  he  was  appointed  by  President  Jackson 
attorney  general  of  the  United  States.  He  sup 
ported  the  president  in  his  controversy  with 
the  United  States  bank,  and  in  September, 
1833,  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury 
on  the  dismissal  of  Mr.  Duane  from  that  office ; 
and  he  immediately  issued  orders  for  the  re 
moval  of  the  government  deposits  from  the 
United  States  bank  to  the  local  banks  selected 
by  him  as  agents  of  the  government.  When 
his  nomination  was  communicated  to  the  sen 
ate,  that  body  rejected  it  by  a  vote  of  28  to 
18.  In  1835  he  was  nominated  to  fill  a  va 
cancy  on  the  bench  of  the  supreme  court,  but 
was  not  confirmed  by  the  senate.  When  Chief 
Justice  Marshall  died,  and  the  president  nomi 
nated  Mr.  Taney  as  his  successor,  the  senate, 
now  having  an  administration  majority,  con 
firmed  the  nomination,  and  he  took  his  seat 
upon  the  bench  in  January,  1837.  In  the 
decision  of  the  questions  which  came  before 
him  as  a  judge  he  displayed  great  ability  ;  and 
though  his  views  of  constitutional  law  were 
less  in  the  direction  of  centralization  than 
those  of  his  predecessor,  he  did  not  fail  to  sus 
tain  to  the  fullest  extent  the  po\vers  which  he 
believed  were  justly  claimed  for  the  federal 
government.  A  striking  illustration  of  this 
is  the  case  of  Ableman  v.  Booth,  21  Howard, 
500  (1859),  in  which  he  denied  the  right  of 
the  state  courts  to  inquire  into  the  validity 
of  imprisonment  by  or  under  a  claim  of  fed 
eral  authority,  and  asserted  exclusive  jurisdic 
tion  for  that  purpose  in  the  federal  courts ;  a 
decision  opposed  to  the  general  practice  that 
had  before  prevailed,  but  which  has  recently 
been  reaffirmed  by  the  court.  The  most  noted 
of  his  decisions  was  that  in  Dred  Scott  v. 
Sandford,  19  Howard,  393.  In  that  case  Scott, 
who  was  held  as  a  slave  in  Missouri,  brpught 
suit  to  recover  his  freedom,  suing  in  the  fed 
eral  court  on  the  ground  of  being  a  citizen 
of  a  different  state  from  the  defendant,  and 
claiming  his  freedom  because  of  having  been 
taken  by  his  master  into  territory  made  free 
by  the  act  of  congress  commonly  called  the 
Missouri  compromise.  The  case,  having  been 
decided  in  the  circuit  court,  was  removed  to 
the  supreme  court.  The  decision  (1857)  de 


clared  that  Scott  was  not  entitled  to  bring  suit 
in  the  federal  court,  because  he  was  not  a  citi 
zen  ;  the  chief  justice  in  an  elaborate  opin 
ion  declaring  that  for  more  than  a  century 
previous  to  the  adoption  of  the  declaration 
of  independence  negroes,  whether  slave  or 
free,  had  been  regarded  u  as  beings  of  an  in 
ferior  order,  and  altogether  unfit  to  associate 
with  the  white  race,  either  in  social  or  politi 
cal  relations ;  and  so  far  inferior  that  they  had 
no  rights  which  the  white  man  was  bound 
to  respect."  Having  reached  this  conclusion, 
which  of  itself  put  an  end  to  the  case,  the 
court  went  further,  and  considered  the  main 
question  involved,  namely,  whether  it  was  com 
petent  for  congress  to  exclude  slavery  from 
the  territories  of  the  Union  ;  and  the  majority, 
Justices  McLean  and  Curtis  dissenting,  denied 
the  power.  The  party  dissatisfied  with  this 
conclusion  made  it  the  occasion  for  a  severe 
arraignment  of  the  court,  not  only  because  of 
the  views  held  as  to  the  right  to  legislate 
against  slavery,  but  because  those  views  were 
expressed  in  a  case  not  calling  for  them,  in 
asmuch  as  the  court  had  already  decided  that 
it  had  no  jurisdiction.  The  decision,  in  its 
denial  of  the  right  of  citizenship  to  negroes, 
was  disregarded  by  the  executive  department 
after  Mr.  Lincoln  became  president,  and  by 
the  judicial  also  when  Mr.  Chase  became  chief 
justice  and  admitted  colored  persons  as  prac 
titioners  in  the  federal  courts.  In  May,  1861, 
Chief  Justice  Taney  was  applied  to  for  a  writ 
of  habeas  corpus  on  behalf  of  John  Merryman 
of  Baltimore,  who  had  been  arrested  under 
the  orders  of  a  federal  general,  and  promptly 
issued  the  writ.  The  officer  to  whom  it  was 
addressed  declined  to  obey,  on  the  ground  that 
Merryman  had  been  arrested  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  and  that  the  officer  had  been  duly 
empowered  by  the  president  to  suspend  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus.  LTpon  this  the  chief 
justice  ordered  an  attachment  to  issue,  but  as 
it  was  impossible  to  serve  this,  he  wrote  out 
his  opinion  denying  to  the  president  the  power 
to  suspend  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  and  in 
sisting  that  it  could  only  be  done  by  legislative 
authority.  To  this  opinion  no  attention  was 
paid  at  the  time,  but  congress  soon  passed  the 
necessary  law  to  meet  the  objection.  A  me 
moir  of  his  life,  prepared  at  his  request  by  his 
friend  Prof.  Samuel  Tyler  (Baltimore,  1872), 
includes  his  autobiography,  which  only  comes 
down  to  1801.  A  bronze  statue  of  him  by 
Einehart,  ordered  by  the  state  of  Maryland, 
was  unveiled  in  Annapolis,  Dec.  10,  1872. 

TANGANYIKA  (the  meeting  place  of  waters), 
a  lake  in  central  Africa,  discovered  by  Burton 
and  Speke  on  Feb.  13,  1858.  It  occupies  a 
long  depression  in  a  region  of  considerable  ele 
vation,  S.  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert  lakes  and 
N.  W.  of  Lake  Nyassa.  It  is  included  be 
tween  lat.  3°  and  9°  S.,  and  Ion.  29°  and  32° 
30'  E.,  and  extends  about  400  m.  in  a  N.  W. 
and  S.  E.  direction,  its  width  varying  from  10 
to  60  m.  Its  height  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 


566 


TANGIER 


TANJORE 


according  to  the  latest  observations  (made  by 
Lieut.  L.  V.  Cameron,  R.  N.,  1874),  is  2,711-2 
ft.  The  water  is  deep  and  pure,  though  pe 
culiar  in  taste.  The  northern  portion  of  the 
lake,  which  was  thoroughly  explored  by  Liv 
ingstone,  lies  between  the  29th  and  30th  merid 
ians,  and  narrows  as  it  trends  northward,  be 
ing  largely  hemmed  in  by  mountains  on  or 
near  the  coast.  Nearest  the  W.  shore,  just  S. 
of  the  4th  parallel,  is  the  large  island  of  Mozi- 
ma,  40  ra.  long.  At  its  N.  extremity  the  lake 
receives  the  waters  of  the  Rusizi.  S.  of  lat.  6° 
the  lake  is  wholly  E.  of  the  30th  meridian. 
The  E.  coast  is  hilly.  The  wide  bay  which 
forms  the  S.  extremity  of  Tanganyika  is  the 
Lake  Liemba  of  Livingstone.  Between  lat.  6° 
and  7°  the  W.  coast  rises  into  mountains  2,500 
ft.  high,  wooded  to  their  summits.  On  both 
sides  innumerable  small  streams  and  many  con 
siderable  rivers  flow  into  the  lake.  The  river 
Lukuga,  discovered  by  Lieut.  Cameron  on  the 
W.  coast  in  May,  1874,  which  is  300  to  500 
yards  wide  and  from  three  to  live  fathoms 
deep,  leaves  the  lake,  near  lat.  6°,  with  a  cur 
rent  of  1*2  knot  an  hour.  This  explorer  traced 
the  river  four  or  five  miles,  until  his  boats 
were  stopped  by  the  density  of  the  aquatic 
vegetation. — The  hydrographic  relations  of 
Lake  Tanganyika  have  been  the  subject  of 
much  controversy.  As  to  its  asserted  connec 
tion  with  the  Nile  system,  see  NILE.  Accord 
ing  to  native  information,  the  Lukuga  flows 
into  Livingstone's  Lualaba,  but  Capt.  Burton 
regards  this  outlet  as  really  such  only  in  the 
season  of  floods,  when  it  acts  as  a  surplus 
drain,  becoming  in  turn  a  tributary  to  the  lake 
in  the  dry  season ;  a  view  which  is  evident 
ly  founded  on  Livingstone's  observation  that 
from  February  to  November  the  surface  wa 
ter  of  the  lake,  as  seen 
at  Ujiji,  moves  north 
ward  at  the  rate  of 
about  a  mile  an  hour, 
while  during  the  re 
mainder  of  the  year 
there  is  a  similar  gentle 
movement  in  the  op 
posite  direction.  —  The 
shores  of  the  lake  are 
rich  in  beautiful  sce 
nery,  and  in  many  por 
tions  are  thickly  in 
habited.  The  principal 
place  upon  it  is  the 
town  of  Ujiji,  on  the  E. 
coast. 

TANGIER,  or  Tangiers 
(Moorish,  Tanja),  a  city 
and  seaport  of  Morocco, 
near  the  "W.  entrance  of 
the  strait  of  Gibraltar, 
in  lat  35°  47'  N.,  Ion. 

5°  48'  W. ;  pop,  about  12,000.  It  is  on  high 
ground  overlooking  a  spacious  bay,  surround 
ed  by  a  wall,  and  defended  by  several  forts. 
Its  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty.  The  harbor 


was  once  good,  but  is  now  so  filled  up  with 
sand  that  vessels  of  300  or  400  tons  only  can 
enter  it.  The  entrances  in  1873  were  525 
vessels,  tonnage  48,956;  clearances  520,  ton 
nage  49,036.  The  total  value  of  the  imports 
was  $1,758,125,  of  which  $600,000  was  in 
specie;  of  the  exports,  $1,216,080.  Its  trade 
consists  principally  in  supplying  Gibraltar, 
Cadiz,  and  Lisbon  with  provisions. — Tangier 
is  the  ancient  Tingis,  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Carthaginians.  It  was  an  im 
portant  city  under  the  Romans,  and  under 
Claudius  became  the  capital  of  Mauritania 
Tingitana.  In  1471  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Portuguese,  who  held  it  till  1662,  when  it 
was  ceded  to  England  as  a  part  of  the  dowry 
of  Catharine  of  Braganza,  queen  of  Charles  II. 
The  British  abandoned  it  in  1684,  after  de 
stroying  the  mole  which  they  had  built.  In 
1844  it  was  bombarded  by  the  French. 

TMGIPAHOA,  a  S.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
bounded  N.  by  Mississippi  and  S.  by  Lakes 
Pontchartrain  and  Maurepas,  and  intersected 
by  the  Tangipahoa  river ;  area,  about  720  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,928,  of  whom  2,994  were 
colored;  in  1875,  7,248,  of  whom  3,196  were 
colored.  The  surface  is- low  and  level,  and  the 
soil  in  some  parts  fertile,  in  others  sandy.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  New  Orleans,  Jackson,  and 
Great  Northern  railroad.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  64,023  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  35,809  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,642  bales  of 
cotton,  20,423  Ibs.  of  butter,  9,071  of  wool,  and 
57,030  of  rice.  There  were  772  horses,  1,480 
milch  cows,  4,877  other  cattle,  3,457  sheep, 
and  6,270  swine.  Capital,  Amite  City. 

TANJORE.  I.  A  district  of  Madras,  British 
India,  bounded  N.  by  Trichinopoly  and  South 
Arcot,  E.  and  S.  E.  by  the  bay  of  Bengal,  S. 


The  Palace,  Tanjore. 

and  S.  W.  by  Madura,  and  W.  by  Trichinop 
oly  and  the  dependent  native  state  of  Poodoo- 
cottah ;  area,  3,736  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 1,975,- 
042.  There  are  no  important  harbors.  The 


TANNAHILL 


TANSY 


567 


country  is  watered  by  the  Coleroon  and  Ca- 
very  and  their  numerous  branches.  There  are 
6-4  irrigation  tanks  in  the  district,  and  exten 
sive  works  connected  with  the  rivers,  so  that 
the  entire  area  of  irrigation  in  1872-13  was 
748,673  acres.  The  surface  consists  for  the 
most  part  of  an  extensive  plain  of  great  fer 
tility.  Cotton  goods  are  manufactured,  and 
salt  is  made  in  the  neighborhood  of  Point 
Calymere.  The  inhabitants  are  nearly  all  Hin 
doos,  and  their  institutions  have  been  more 
perfectly  preserved  than  in  most  other  parts 
of  India.  The  district  forms  the  inland  boun 
dary  of  the  French  coast  settlement  of  Cari- 
cal.  IL  A  city,  capital  of  the  district,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Cavery,  180  in.  S.  "W.  of  Madras 
and  45  m.  from  the  bay  of  Bengal ;  pop.  about 
80,000.  It  contains  two  forts,  the  greater 
about  4  in.  in  circumference  and  the  lesser 
about  1  m.,  both  strong  and  well  constructed. 
The  rajah's  palace  stands  in  the  centre  of  the 
great  fort.  The  pagoda  in  the  small  fort  is 
considered  the  finest  building  of  the  kind  in 
India.  The  manufactures  consist  of  silk,  mus 
lin,  and  cotton  goods.  Tanjore  was  founded 
about  A.  D.  214,  and  became  the  capital  of  a 
Hindoo  principality  of  the  same  name,  which 
was  absorbed  by  the  Mahrattas  in  the  17th 
century.  The  British  assumed  the  government 
about  the  year  1800. 

TAMAHILL,  Robert,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in 
Paisley,  June  3,  1774,  died  May  17,  1810.  He 
worked  all  his  life  as  a  weaver.  His  volume 
of  "Poems  and  Songs"  (1807)  became  very 
popular ;  but  while  revising  it  he  fell  into  a 
state  of  despondency,  aggravated  by  the  refusal 
of  Constable  to  print  a  new  edition,  burned 
all  his  new  and  revised  poems,  and  drowned 
himself.  An  enlarged  edition  of  his  remains, 
with  a  memoir,  was  published  at  Glasgow  in 
1838,  and  reprinted  at  Paisley  in  1874. 

TANNIC  ACID,  or  Tannin.  The  astringent  prin 
ciples  existing  in  a  great  variety  of  plants, 
which  render  them  capable  of  combining  with 
the  skins  of  animals  to  form  leather,  of  precipi 
tating  gelatine,  of  forming  bluish  black  precipi 
tates  with  the  per-salts  of  iron  (or  if  a  free  acid 
be  present  a  dark  green  color),  were  formerly 
termed  tannin.  These  substances,  being  found 
to  possess  acid  properties,  are  now  known  as 
tannic  acid,  and  various  distinctive  names  are 
given  to  them  as  they  are  found  of  different 
chemical  compositions,  though  agreeing  in 
their  essential  properties.  Thus  the  tannic  acid 
derived  from  the  gall  nut  is  termed  gallotannic 
acid ;  that  of  the  oak,  quercitannic  acid ;  of  the 
fustic  (morus  tinctoria),  moritannic  acid ;  of 
the  cinchona,  quinotannic  acid,  &c.  The  prin 
cipal  sources  of  tannin  have  been  named  in  the 
article  LEATHER,  and  the  method  of  extract 
ing  it  has  been  particularly  described  in  the 
article  on  GALLS,  which  are  the  most  abun 
dant  source  of  it.  Besides  this  variety,  which 
is  the  same  as  that  existing  in  the  bark  and 
leaves  of  many  forest  trees,  fruit  trees,  and 
shrubs,  and  in  some  roots,  as  those  of  the 


tormentilla  and  bistort,  there  is  another  less 
known,  as  the  tannin  of  the  catechu  and  kino, 
which  precipitates  the  salts  of  iron  dark  green 
instead  of  blue.  Gallotannic  acid  when  pure 
is  a  whitish,  tmcrystallizable  solid  substance, 
without  odor,  intensely  astringent  to  the  taste  ; 
it  dissolves  freely  in  water,  to  a  less  extent  in 
dilute  alcohol,  and  sparingly  in  ether.  The 
best  solvent  for  medical  uses  is  glycerine.  It 
changes  blue  litmus  paper  to  red,  and  expels 
carbonic  acid  from  its  compounds  with  effer 
vescence.  Its  formula  is  C27ll22Oi7.  Its  aque 
ous  solution  exposed  to  the  air  absorbs  oxy 
gen,  and  is  converted  into  gallic  acid.  Be 
sides  its  use  in  tanning,  gallotannic  acid  is 
employed  to  produce  with  the  salts  of  iron 
the  gallotannate  of  iron,  which  is  the  basis  of 
most  of  the  writing  inks.  It  is  also  employed 
in  medicine  for  its  astringent  property,  chief 
ly  in  checking  hemorrhages,  as  a  wash  for 
ulcers,  ophthalmic  affections,  &c.  If  taken 
internally  in  large  quantities,  it  is  an  irritant; 
but  in  small  doses  it  is  absorbed  and  makes 
its  appearance  in  the  urine  as  gallic  acid,  hav 
ing  undergone  a  process  of  oxidation  in  the 
organism.  The  combinations  of  tannic  acid 
with  iron  and  with  lead  have  been  applied  in 
the  form  of  ointments  to  the  dressing  of  ring 
worms,  gangrenous  sores,  &c. 

TANNING.     See  LEATIIEE,  vol.  x.,  p.  275. 

TANSY  (Fr.  athanasie,  contracted  to  tanai- 
sie,  from  Gr.  aOavaaia,  immortality,  in  allusion 


Tansy  (Tanacetum  vulgare). 

to  some  supposed  preservative  quality  of  the 
plant,  or  to  its  durable  flowers),  tanacetum 
vulgare,  a  plant  of  the  composite  family,  a 
native  of  Europe,  which  was  formerly  cultiva 
ted,  but  has  escaped  from  gardens  and  become 
a  common  roadside  weed.  It  is  a  perennial 
herb,  with  large,  twice  or  thrice  pinnately  di 
vided,  deep  green  leaves,  and  stems  2  to  4  ft. 
high,  bearing  corymbs  of  heads  of  golden  yel 
low  flowers,  which  are  nearly  all  tubular  and 
fertile.  A  variety  called  double  tansy  has  the 


568 


TANTALUM 


TAPIR 


leaves  more  cut  and  crisped.  The  leaves  have 
a  strong  fragrance,  due  to  a  volatile  oil  and  a 
bitter,  aromatic  taste,  and  have  long  been  in 
use  infused  in  spirits  as  a  domestic  aromatic 
tonic ;  in  former  times  it  was  held  in  much 
esteem  as  a  remedy  in  dropsy,  and  as  a  worm- 
destroying  medicine.  The  volatile  oil  is  kept 
in  the  shops,  and  is  popularly  supposed  to 
produce  abortion  ;  it  is  highly  poisonous,  and 
its  use  for  criminal  purposes  has  often  killed 
the  mother.  The  green  leaves  were  formerly 
used  in  cookery,  but  have  been  superseded 
by  foreign  spices,  though  tansy  puddings  are 
still  made  in  England. — A  native  species,  T. 
Huroncnse,  found  in  Maine  and  on  the  great 
lakes,  is  only  of  botanical  interest. 

TANTALUM.     See  COLUMBITJM. 

TANTALUS,  a  character  of  Greek  mytholo 
gy,  differently  described  as  king  of  Argos,  Cor 
inth,  Lydia,  or  Paphlagonia.  Having  given 
offence  to  the  gods,  he  was  punished  in  the 
lower  world  by  confinement  in  a  lake,  Avhere 
ho  was  tormented  with  thirst,  yet  could  not 
drink,  for  the  waters  always  receded  from  his 
lips.  Branches  laden  with  fruit  hung  over  his 
head,  and  when  he  stretched  forth  his  hand 
to  take  the  fruit  the  branches  withdrew. 

TAGS,  the  N.  W.  county  of  New  Mexico, 
bordering  on  Colorado  and  Arizona ;  area, 
about  7,500  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,079.  It 
is  watered  by  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Rio  de 
Chama,  one  of  its  tributaries,  and  by  the  San 
Juan,  a  branch  of  the  Colorado,  and  is  crossed 
by  several  spurs  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 
Gold  mining  is  carried  on  to  some  extent.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  153,799  bush 
els  of  wheat,  80,224  of  Indian  corn,  21,542  of 
oats,  15,040  of  peas  and  beans,  2,823  of  po 
tatoes,  and  90,503  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were 
1,043  horses,  999  mules  and  asses,  924  milch 
cows,  2,000  working  oxen,  4,104  other  cattle, 
81,108  sheep,  and  088  swine;  2  flour  mills, 
and  1  quartz  mill.  Capital,  Fernandez  do  Taos. 

TAPE  GRASS.     See  VALISNERIA. 

TAPESTRY  (Gr.  ran^f,  a  carpet),  an  orna 
mental  figured  cloth,  used  for  lining  the  walls 
of  apartments,  or  for  covering  articles  of  fur 
niture.  The  Egyptians  and  Hebrews  attained 
great  skill  in  ornamenting  textile  fabrics  by 
colored  yarns  worked  in  by  the  hand,  and  also 
by  the  loom.  The  art  was  early  introduced 
into  France,  and  about  the  9th  century  tapestry 
was  made  with  the  loom  ;  but  the  fabrication 
with  the  needle  continued  as  an  occupation 
for  ladies  of  the  highest  rank.  Up  to  the  12th 
century  the  use  of  tapestry  was  limited  to  the 
adornment  of  churches  and  monasteries;  but 
after  this  period  it  began  to  be  adopted  in 
dwellings.  In  France  the  workmen  employed 
in  the  manufacture  were  originally  called  sara- 
zins  and  sarasinois*  indicating  the  origin  of  the 
art  as  derived  from  the  Saracens.  The  finest 
work  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  was  pro 
duced  by  the  Flemings,  and  about  this  period 
the  principal  manufactories  in  the  west  of  Eu 
rope  were  at  Bruges,  Antwerp,  Arras,  Brussels, 


Lille,  Tournay,  and  Valenciennes.  Florence 
and  Venice  at  that  time  produced  very  rich 
and  costly  tapestry ;  but  in  the  10th  century 
the  more  ornamental  work  with  threads  of 
gold  and  silver  was  introduced  in  the  manu 
facture  of  Fontainebleau.  One  of  the  most 
famous  pieces  is  the  Bayeux  tapestry,  com 
memorating  the  Norman  conquest  of  England. 
(See  BAYEUX  TAPESTKY.)  About  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  the  art  of  weaving 
tapestry  was  introduced  into  England.  In  the 
reign  of  James  I.  the  manufacture  was  estab 
lished  at  Mortlake  in  Surrey  under  royal  pa 
tronage.  For  the  earlier  designs  old  patterns' 
were  employed,  but  afterward  original  scenes 
were  furnished  by  Francis  Cleyn.  The  meth 
od  of  weaving  tapestry  in  what  is  called  the 
haute-lisse  or  high  warp  has  been  described  in 
the  article  GOBELINS. — See  Notice  Jiistorique 
ct  descriptive  sur  la  tapisserie  elite  la  reine 
Mathilde,  by  the  abbe  Laffetay  (Bayeux,  1874) ; 
and  "  The  Bayeux  Tapestry,  reproduced  in  Au 
totype  Plates,  with  Historic  Notes  by 'Frank 
Rede  Fowke  "  (Arundel  society,  London,  1875). 

TAPEWORM.     See  ENTOZOA,  vol.  vi.,  p.  003. 

TAPIOCA.     See  CASSAVA. 

TAPIR  (tapirus,  Guv.),  a  genus  of  ungulate 
mammals,  characterized  by  a  nose  prolonged 
into  a  short,  movable  proboscis ;  skin  very 
thick  and  covered  with  close  short  hair,  the 
neck  furnished  with  a  kind  of  stiif  mane  ;  tail 
very  short;  ears  small,  erect,  and  pig-like; 
four  toes  on  the  fore  and  three  on  the  hind  feet, 
separate  and  ending  in  nail-like  hoofs ;  skull 
pyramidal  as  in  the  hog,  with  the  nasal  bones 
much  arched  for  the  muscles  of  the  proboscis ; 
teeth,  0  incisors  and  2  small  canines  in  each 
jaw,  and  molars  14  above  and  12  below.  The 
tapirs  look  like  hogs,  but  the  legs  are  longer ; 
they  inhabit  the  moist  tropical  forests  of  South 
America  and  of  the  Malayan  peninsula  and 
archipelago,  usually  sleeping  by  day  in  retired 
places,  and  feeding  at  night  on  fruits,  grasses, 
and  other  vegetable  substances,  though  they 


American  Tapir  (Tapirus  Americanus). 

are  as  omnivorous  as  the  hog ;  like  their  con 
geners,  they  are  fond  of  rolling  in  the  mud  and 
water,  and  are  excellent  swimmers ;  they  are 
gentle  and  easily  tamed ;  when  pursued  they 


TAPPAN 


TAR 


569 


take  to  the  water  if  possible,  where  they  easily 
defend  themselves  with  the  teeth ;  on  land 
they  do  not  go  by  open  paths,  but  break  through 
the  thick  undergrowth  of  the  woods  by  their 
powerful  and  wedge-like  head,  in  this  way  es 
caping  the  larger  carnivora ;  they  have  an 
acute  sense  of  hearing  and  of  sight,  and  are 
strong  and  tenacious  of  life ;  their  flesh  is 
eaten  both  in  South  America  and  Asia.  The 
best  known  species  is  the  American  tapir  (T. 
Americanus,  Guv.),  about  6  ft.  long  and  3|~  ft. 
high,  of  a  uniform  brown  color,  tinged  with 
gray  on  the  head  and  chest.  It  is  found  over 
almost  the  whole  extent  of  South  America  east 
of  the  Andes,  and  its  herds  sometimes  do  great 
mischief  by  trampling  down  cultivated  fields  ; 
it  has  only  one  young  at  a  birth,  in  November. 
The  Asiatic  tapir  (T.  Malay  anus,  Horsf.)  is  7 
or  8  ft.  long,  with  the  hind  parts  of  the  body 
white,  and  the  anterior  and  the  legs  black ; 
the  trunk  is  T  or  8  in.  long,  the  eyes  very  small, 
and  the  rounded  ears  bordered  with  white ; 
though-  the  largest,  it  is  the  gentlest  of  the 
genus.  Fossil  species  are  found  in  the  tertiary 
formations  of  central  Europe. 

TAPPAN,  Henry  Philip,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  at  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  April  23,  1805. 
He  graduated  at  Union  college  in  1825,  studied 
at  the  Auburn  theological  seminary,  was  for  a 
year  assistant  pastor  of  the  Keformed  Dutch 
church  in  Schenectady,  and  in  1828  was  settled 
as  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  at  Pitts- 
field,  Mass.  In  1832  he  was  appointed  pro 
fessor  of  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy  in 
the  university  of  the  city  of  New  York.  In 
1838  the  faculty  resigned,  and  for  some  years 
he  conducted  a  private  seminary.  In  1852  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  university  of  Mich 
igan,  which  post  he  held  till  1863,  since  which 
time  he  has  resided  chiefly  in  Europe.  His 
principal  works  are:  "Review  of  Edwards's 
Inquiry  into  the  Freedom  of  the  Will"  (12mo, 
New  York,  1839) ;  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Will 
determined  by  an  Appeal  to  Consciousness  " 
(1840) ;  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Will  applied  to- 
Moral  Agency  and  Responsibility"  (1841); 
"Elements  of  Logic,  together  with  an  intro 
ductory  Review  of  Philosophy  in  general,  and 
a  preliminary  View  of  the  Reason"  (12mo, 
1844 ;  revised  and  enlarged  ed.,  1856) ;  "  Trea 
tise  on  University  Education-"  (1851);  and  "A 
Step  from  the  New  World  to  the  Old  "  (2  vols. 
12mo,  1852).  His  three  works  on  the  will 
were  republished  in  Glasgow  (1  vol.,  1857). 

TAR,  a  thick,  black,  viscid,  impure  turpen 
tine,  procured  by  burning  the  wood  of  pinus 
palustris,  P.  syltestris,  and  other  species  of 
pine  and  coniferous  trees ;  also  obtained  as  a 
product  of  the  destructive  distillation  of  peat, 
bituminous  coals,  and  shales.  It  was  known 
to  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  Dr.  Clarke,  who 
describes  the  method  of  manufacturing  it  in 
the  forests  of  Bothnia,  says  there  is  not  the 
smallest  difference  between  the  processes  there 
practised  and  those  of  ancient  Greece.  Along 
the  whole  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  the 


inhabitants  are  very  generally  engaged  in  this 
occupation.  They  make  use  of  the  roots  of 
the  fir  trees,  with  logs  and  billets  of  the  same, 
which  they  arrange  in  a  conical  stack,  fitted  to 
a  cavity  in  the  ground,  generally  in  the  side  of 
a  bank.  In  the  bottom  of  this  cavity  is  placed 
a  cast-iron. pan  from  which  a  spout  leads  out 
through  the  bank.  The  heap  is  covered  over 
with  turf,  and  is  then  fired,  as  in  making  char 
coal.  Tar  collects  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
process  of  charring,  and  runs  off  through  the 
spout  into  barrels.  Tar  is  a  product  where 
charcoal  is  the  chief  object  of  the  process,  but 
is  seldom  obtained  in  quantities  sufficient  to 
render  it  an  object  to  collect  it,  except  in  char 
ring  the  resinous  woods  of  the  pine  family. 
In  Sweden,  where  the  business  is  also  impor 
tant,  some  peculiar  methods  are  adopted  to 
increase  the  yield  of  tar.  Trees  of  no  value 
for  the  saw  mill  are  partially  peeled  of  their 
bark  a  fathom  or  two  up  from  the  ground,  not 
enough  to  kill  them,  but  only  to  check  their 
growth.  After  five  or  six  years,  when  cut 
down,  the  wood  is  found  to  be  much  richer 
in  resinous  matters  which  produce  tar.  It  is 
noticed  that  the  condition  of  the  weather  du 
ring  the  process  of  charring  may  make  a  differ 
ence  of  15  or  20  per  cent,  in  the  yield  of  tar. 
In  the  United  States  tar  is  produced  in  almost 
all  parts  of  the  country  where  pitch  pine  and 
the  pinus  australis  are  found.  Along  the  coast 
of  the  southern  states,  especially  of  North  Car 
olina,  Virginia,  and  Georgia,  the  business  is  car 
ried  on  upon  a  large  scale  in  connection  with 
the  manufacture  of  turpentine,  rosin,  and  pitch. 
Old  trees  which  have  ceased  to  produce  tur 
pentine,  and  dead  wood  which  is  rich  in  resin 
ous  matter,  are  selected  for  the  coal  pits.  The 
process  does  not  materially  differ  from  that 
already  described.  The  product  is  not  only 
sufficient  for  home  consumption,  but  large 
quantities  are  annually  exported. — In  the  prep 
aration  of  pyroligneous  acid,  tar  is  one  of  the 
products  of  the  destructive  distillation,  settling 
in  the  bottom  of  the  tanks  in  which  the  liquids 
are  collected.  The  variety  known  as  coal  tar 
is  obtained  when  bituminous  matters  are  dis 
tilled  for  the  production  of  illuminating  gas. 
(See  GAS,  and  PETEOLEFM.)  Both  wood  and 
coal  tars  are  complex  mixtures  of  a  variety  of 
liquids  holding  solid  matters  in  solution  or  sus 
pension;  thus,  wood  tar  contains  the  hydro 
carbons  included  in  the  term  eupion,  and  the 
benzole  series  of  hydrocarbons,  including  tolu- 
ole,  xylole,  cymole,  also  naphthaline,  &c.,  be 
sides  oxidized  compounds,  including  creosote, 
picamar,  kapnomor,  &c.  Rosin  and  paraffine 
are  among  its  solid  contents.  When  its  vola 
tile  products  have  been  driven  off  by  distilla 
tion  or  boiling,  the  black  carbonaceous  residue 
is  known  as  pitch.  The  composition  of  coal 
tar  is  materially  different,  as  it  contains  all  the 
great  variety  of  products  derived  from  the  de 
structive  distillation  of  bituminous  coal  as  ob 
tained  from  the  gas  works.  Coal  tar,  a  refuse 
product  of  these  works,  may  be  considered  in 


570 


TAR 


TARANTULA 


general  as  consisting  of  from  3  to  15  per  cent, 
of  light  oils,  from  60  to  67  per  cent,  of  heavy 
oils,  usually  termed  u  dead  oil,"  and  from  18 
to  35  per  cent,  of  pitch ;  the  best  coals,  as  the 
cannel  and  boghead,  produce  tar  richer  in  light 
oils,  and  yield  least  pitch.— Wood  tar  is  thick 
and  hard  in  cold  weather,  and  softens  when 
warm  so  as  to  flow  like  thick  molasses.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  about  1'04.  It  is  boiled  down 
to  produce  pitch,  is  used  to  coat  the  bottoms 
of  vessels  to  render  them  water-tight,  and  to 
cover  rigging  of  ships  to  preserve  it  from  the 
action  of  the  weather,  and  is  a  useful  lubricant 
for  the  journals  of  wheels.  In  medicine  it  is 
used  internally  in  chronic  catarrhs,  and  in  some 
cutaneous  diseases,  as  ichthyosis.  The  inhala 
tion  of  its  vapor  is  recommended  in  cases  of 
bronchial  disease,  the  air  of  a  room  being  im 
pregnated  with  it  by  moderately  heating  the 
tar  placed  in  a  cup  over  a  lamp.  It  has  been 
found  beneficial  as  an  external  application  to 
ulcers  and  various  diseases  of  the  skin.  It  is 
administered  in  pills  mixed  with  flour,  or  in  an 
electuary  of  tar  and  sugar.  It  yields  a  portion 
of  its  properties  to  water  with  which  it  is 
stirred,  and  this  preparation,  known  as  tar 
water,  is  administered  as  a  stimulant  and  diu 
retic,  and  is  applied  as  a  wash  in  chronic  cu 
taneous  affections. — Coal  tar  has  an  exceeding 
ly  repulsive  odor,  and  was  long  considered  of 
no  value ;  but  it  has  been  found  that  the  light 
oils  obtained  by  its  distillation  may  be  made 
to  furnish  a  variety  of  singular  products,  pos 
sessing  rare  properties,  and  affording  the  rich 
colors  applicable  to  dyeing,  known  as  the  ani 
line  colors  (see  ANILINE,  BENZOLE,  and  MAUVE), 
and  also  flavors  of  various  essences  and  agree 
able  perfumes.  The  dead  oil  is  frequently 
burned  for  the  production  of  lampblack.  One 
of  its  most  useful  products  is  carbolic  acid. 
(See  CARBOLIC  ACID.)  Coal  tar  is  now  in  com 
mon  use  as  a  coating  for  iron  work  exposed 
to  the  weather,  and  is  used  with  asphalt  and 
other  substances  to  form  a  tight  covering  for 
roofs  and  the  walls  of  vaults,  &c.  Its  use  in 
preparing  a  fuel  with  the  dust  of  mineral  coal 
is  noticed  in  FUEL,  vol.  vii.,  p.  518. 

TAR,  a  river  of  North  Carolina,  which  rises 
in  Person  co.  and  flows  S.  E.,  passing  Tarbor- 
ough,  Greenville,  and  Washington,  and  dis 
charges  into  Pamlico  sound  by  an  estuary 
called  Pamlico  river.  Its  length  is  140  m.,  or 
including  Pamlico  river  180  m.,  and  it  is  navi-1 
gable  for  small  steamers  to  Tarborough,  85  m. 
from  the  sound. 

TARAXTO  (anc.  Tarenturri),  a  city  of  S.  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Lecce,  in  Apulia,  44  m.  W. 
S.  W.  of  Brindisi;  pop.  in  1872,  27,546.  It 
stands  on  an  island  at  the  1ST.  end  of  the  gulf  of 
Taranto,  and  is  connected  with  the  mainland 
by  two  bridges.  The  inner  harbor  (mare  pic 
colo),  12  m.  in  circumference,  is  useless  as  a 
roadstead,  and  ships  must  anchor  in  the  outer 
harbor  (marc  grande),  which  is  much  exposed. 
The  castle  and  fortifications,  built  by  Charles 
V.,  command  both  harbors.  Taranto  is  the 


seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a  cathedral 
dedicated  to  St.  Cataldus,  an  Irishman  and  the 
first  bishop  of  Tarentum,  about  166.  .  Linen 
and  cotton  stockings  are  made  here,  and  gloves 
from  the  byssus  of  the  mollusk  pinna  ma 
rina. — Tarentum  was  colonized  by  exiles  from 
Sparta  in  708  B.  C.  Its  harbor  was  then  the 
best  on  the  coast.  It  became  a  large  and  pow 
erful  city,  and  14  other  towns  were  subject 
to  it.  It  carried  on  long  contests  with  the 
Messapians  and  Peucetians ;  and  about  474 
its  army  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat  from  the 
former,  in  which  so  many  of  its  nobles  were 
killed  that  its  government,  previously  an  aris 
tocracy,  was  thereafter  democratic.  It  was 
predominant  in  the  league  of  the  Greek  cities 
of  Italy  against  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  and  the 
Lucanians.  Rome  declared  war  against  it  in 
281.  The  Tarentines  called  in  Pyrrhus,  king 
of  Epirus,  after  whose  defeat  and  withdrawal 
from  Italy  the  city  surrendered  to  the  consul 
Papirius  in  272,  while  a  Carthaginian  fleet  was 
approaching  to  its  relief,  and  thereafter  con 
tinued  subject  to  Rome.  During  the  second 
Punic  war  the  citizens  betrayed  it  into  the 
hands  of  Hannibal,  who  held  it  for  more  than 
two  years,  but  was  unable  to  dislodge  the  Ro 
man  garrison  from  the  citadel.  In  209  Fabius 
Maximus  retook  the  city  and  gave  it  up  to 
plunder,  after  putting  the  Carthaginians  to  the 
sword.  It  continued  to  .be  the  chief  town  of 
S.  Italy  under  the  empire.  The  present  town 
occupies  only  the  site  of  the  ancient  citadel, 
which  was  originally  a  promontory,  but  was 
made  an  island  by  Ferdinand  I.  of  Naples. 

TARANTO,  Dnke  of.     See  MACDONALD. 

TARANTULA,  or  Tarentula,  a  terrestrial  hunt 
ing  or  wolf  spider  of  S.  Europe,  belonging  to 
the  genus  lycosa,  the  L.  tarentula  (Latr.).  It 
is  the  largest  of  European  spiders,  measuring 
1^  to  2  in.  in  the  length  of  the  body ;  the  color 
is  ashy  brown  above,  marked  with  gray  on  the 
thorax,  and  with  triangular  spots  and  curved 
streaks  of  black  bordered  with  white  on  the 
abdomen  ;  below  saffron-colored,  with  a  trans 
verse  black  band.  It  received  its  popular  name 
from  being  common  in  the  vicinity  of  Taranto 
in  S.  Italy.  It  makes  no  web,  wandering  for 
prey,  which  it  runs  down  with  great  swiftness, 
and  hiding  in  holes  in  the  ground  and  crevices 
lined  with  its  silk ;  it  has  one  spiracle  on  each 
side,  one  pulmonary  sac,  and  eight  eyes.  Its 
bite  was  once  considered  highly  poisonous, 
producing  the  nervous  febrile  condition  called 
tarantism,  which  was  supposed  to  be  curable 
only  by  dancing  to  lively  music  until  the  per 
son  fell  exhausted. — The  Z.  Carolinensis  (Bosc) 
is  called  tarantula  in  the  southern  states;  it 
attains  a  length  of  2  in.  with  an  extent  of  legs 
of  4  in. ;  it  is  mouse-colored  above,  with  white 
sides  and  whitish  dots  and  lines  on  the  abdo 
men  ;  below  blackish  ;  legs  whitish  tipped  with 
black.  It  makes  deep  excavations  in  the  ground, 
which  it  lines  with  .silk ;  the  females  carry 
their  young  on  the  back.  Its  poison  is  active, 
and  might  cause  troublesome  symptoms  'jn  man 


TARAEE 


TAEGUMS 


if  the  fangs  could  be  opened  at  an  angle  proper 
to  pierce  his  skin.  The  great  hairy  spiders  of 
the  genus  my  gale  are  called  tarantulas  in  the 
southwestern  states,  and  are  destroyed  by  the 
large  red-winged  wasp,  pompilus  formosus. 

TAR  ARE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart 
ment  of  the  Rhone,  on  the  Tardine,  21  m. 
K  W.  of  Lyons;  pop.  in  1872,  13,694.  It  is 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tarare,  and  is 
celebrated  for  its  muslin  manufactures. 

TARASCON  (anc.  Tarasco),  a  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Bouches-du-Rlione,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone,  10  m.  K  of  Aries 
and  50  m.  N".  "W.  of  Marseilles ;  pop.  in  1872, 
12,454.  It  is  connected  with  Beaucaire,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river,  by  one  of  the  finest 
suspension  bridges  in  France.  It  contains  a 
magnificent  castle  of  the  counts  of  Provence, 
on  a  rock  overhanging  the  river,  built  in  the 
15th  century  on  the  site  of  a  temple  of  Jupi 
ter,  and  now  used  as  a  prison.  The  church 
of  St.  Martha  is  a  Gothic  edifice  commenced 
in  the  15th  century,  with  a  richly  sculptured 
entrance  and  a  crypt  with  remarkable  tombs 
and  a  marble  statue  of  St.  Martha.  Silk,  wool 
len,  and  cotton  goods  are  manufactured. 

TARBES,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  de 
partment  of  Hautes-Pyrenees,  beautifully  situ 
ated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adour,  23  m.  E. 
S".  E.  of  Pan;  pop.  in  1872,  16,565.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric  dating  from  about  A.  D. 
400,  and  has  a  modern  cathedral  built  on  the 
site  of  the  castle  of  Bigorre.  It  was  injured 
during  the  middle  ages  by  successive  invaders, 
and  was  twice  burned  by  the  Huguenots  in  the 
16th  century. 

TARDIGRADES.     See  SLOTH. 

TARE.     See  VETCH. 

TARENTOI.     See  TAKANTO. 

TARGUMS  (Chal.  targem,  to  translate),  the 
general  name  given  to  the  Chaldee,  or  more 
accurately  Aramaic  versions  and  paraphrases 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  On  account  of 
the  many  vicissitudes  of  the  Jewish  people  in 
the  course  of  their  history,  and  more  espe 
cially  on  account  of  their  long  captivity  in 
the  Babylonian  empire,  the  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  Hebrew  language  had  gradually  de 
clined,  and  Aramaic  had  become  the  language 
of  the  people.  Hence  after  the  time  of  Ezra, 
whenever  the  Scriptures  were  read  in  pub 
lic  by  the  priest,  an  interpreter  (meturgemaii) 
translated  them  into  the  Aramaic.  This  trans 
lation  it  was  forbidden  to  reduce  to  writing ; 
but  the  rule  was  gradually  violated,  and  by 
the  end  of  the  2d  century  A.  D.  the  practice 
of  writing  translations  or  "targums"  had  be 
come  fixed.  The  work  of  collecting  and  com 
paring  the  versions  of  individual  translators, 
and  reducing  them  to  one,  was  probably  ac 
complished  about  the  end  of  the  3d  centu 
ry.  The  oldest  and  best  of  the  targums  is  on 
the  Pentateuch,  usually  called  the  "  Targum 
of  Onkelos,"  or  "  of  Onkelos  the  proselyte." 
The  existence  of  Onkelos,  and  his  name,  have 
been  fruitful  themes  of  discussion  among  Bib 


lical  scholars,  but  it  is  now  pretty  generally 
agreed  that  he  had  nothing  whatever  to  do 
with  the  targum  attributed  to  him.  Its  lan 
guage  is  Cbaldee,  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
book  of  Daniel,  and  as  faithful  to  the  original 
as  its  destination  as  a  version  for  the  people 
would  permit.  A  principal  feature  is  its  care 
ful  avoidance  of  all  anthropomorphic  expres 
sions.  Its  final  redaction  probably  took  place 
about  A.  D.  300,  and  in  Babylonia.  The  tar 
gum  second  in  time  and  importance  is  that 
called  the  "Targum  of  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel," 
or  "Targum  on  the  Prophets,"  embracing  Jo 
shua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  It 
probably  originated  in  Palestine,  and  was  com 
pleted  in  Babylon  about  the  middle  of  the  4th 
century.  There  is  no  evidence  that  Jonathan 
ben  Uzziel  ever  had  anything  to  do  with  it,  and 
it  was  undoubtedly  the  work  of  many  hands. 
The  third  and  fourth  targums  are  essentially 
one  work.  The  former,  embracing  the  whole 
Pentateuch,  is  the  later,  and  is  called  like  the 
second  the  "  Targum  of  Jonathan  ben  Uz 
ziel;"  but  as  he  could  not  possibly  have  had 
any  connection  with  it,  it  is  often  called  the 
"Targum  of  Pseudo-Jonathan."  The  fourth, 
called  "Targum  of  Jerusalem,"  a  name  origi 
nally  common  to  both  this  and  the  third,  em 
braces  portions  of  each  of  the  books  of  the 
Pentateuch.  The  "  Targum  of  Pseudo- Jona 
than  "  is  an  emended  and  completed  edition  of 
the  "  Targum  of  Jerusalem,"  the  latter  being 
itself  a  collection  of  emendations,  amplifica 
tions,  &c.,  to  the  Targum  of  Onkelos.  They 
originated  in  Syria  or  Palestine  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  7th  century.  The  fifth  class  of 
targums  are  on  the  Hagiographa,  and  are  usu 
ally  called  "Targums  of  Joseph  the  Blind," 
who  had  undoubtedly  been  dead  many  centu 
ries  when  they  w^ere  written.  They  probably 
originated  in  Syria  some  time  between  the  9th 
and  12th  centuries.  They  embrace  :  1.  Prov 
erbs,  Job,  and  Psalms.  The  targum  of  Prov 
erbs  is  both  faithful  and  complete ;  those  of 
Job  and  the  Psalms  are  mere  collections  of 
fragments.  2.  Targums  on  the  Song  of  Songs, 
Ruth,  Lamentations,  Esther,  and  Ecclesiastes. 
They  appear  to  be  all  by  one  author,  but  their 
differences  from  the  originals  arc  so  great  that 
they  can  hardly  be  called  versions.  Their  dia 
lect  is  about  equally  related  to  East  and  West 
Aramaean.  3.  Two  targums  on  Esther.  One 
of  these,  known  as  the  second  targum,  is  for 
the  most  part  a  collection  of  tales  and  legends. 
The  sixth  targum  is  on  Chronicles,  and  ap 
pears  to  have  been  made  in  Palestine  at  a  very 
late  period.  The  seventh  targum,  according 
to  the  enumeration  of  Deutsch,  is  on  Daniel, 
has  been  known  only  within  the  last  30  years, 
and  exists  so  far  as  known  only  in  a  transla 
tion  of  a  portion  of  it  into  Persian.  It  is  not 
usually  included  in  the  list  of  targums.  The 
eighth  targum  is  on  the  apocryphal  portions 
of  Esther,  and  has  no  particular  value.  Many 
fragments  of  lost  targums  are  scattered  in  va- 


572 


TARIFA 


TARQUIN 


rious  works  of  Semitic  literature.  There  is  no 
edition  of  any  of  the  targums  which  deserves 
to  be  called  critical.  Most  of  them  are  inclu 
ded  in  the  large  polyglot  editions  of  the  Bible, 
and  a  much  improved  edition  of  the  "  Targum 
of  Onkelos"  was  published  at  Wilna  in  1852. 
— For  an  extended  discussion  of  the  targums, 
condensing  almost  all  the  learning  of  the  sub 
ject  see  E.  Deutsch's  "Literary  Remains" 
(New  York,  1874). 

TARIFA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Cadiz,  Andalusia,  on  the  southernmost  point 
of  the  kingdom,  in  lat.  36°  3'  N.,  Ion.  5°  35' 
W.,  52  m.  S.  E.  of  Cadiz,  and  25  m.  S.  E.  of 
Cape  Trafalgar;  pop.  about  12,000.  It  is  sur 
rounded  by  old  walls  and  towers,  and  has  a 
strong  fortress.  A  Moorish  castle  within  the 
walls  is  now  used  as  a  prison.  Tarifa  was 
named  from  Tarif  ibn  Malek,  a  Saracen  chief 
who  landed  here  from  Africa  in  710,  a  year 
before  the  great  Moorish  invasion  of  Spain. 
During  the  Moorish  domination  all  vessels 
passing  through  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  were 
here  compelled  to  pay  duties ;  whence  the 
word  tariff.  In  1292  Sancho  the  Brave  of 
Castile  captured  it,  and  Alonso  Perez  de  Guz 
man  held  it  against  the  Moors  in  1294.  About 
1340  the  Moors  besieged  it  again,  but  were 
driven  away  by  the  kings  of  Castile  and  Por 
tugal.  In  1811  it  was  garrisoned  by  1,200 
British  troops  and  600  Spaniards,  who  held  it 
from  Dec.  19  to  Jan.  4,  1812,  against  13,000 
French  troops.  The  French  captured  the 
place  in  1823. 

TARLETON,  Bannastre,  an  English  soldier,  born 
in  Liverpool,  Aug.  21,  1754,  died  Jan.  23,  1833. 
He  was  a  lieutenant  colonel  in  Cornwallis's 
army,  and  raised  in  this  country 'a  troop  called 
the  British  legion,  which  contributed  largely 
to  British  successes  in  the  south.  lie  mas 
sacred  Col.  Buford's  regiment,  stationed  on 
Waxhaw  creek,  May  29,  1780,  and  "Tarleton's 
quarter  "  became  a  synonyme  for  cruelty.  In 
1781,  with  1,100  men,  he  attacked  an  infe 
rior  American  force  near  the  Cowpens  under 
Gen.  Morgan,  and  was  defeated.  He  was  with 
Cornwallis  during  the  rest  of  the  war,  and  was 
present  at  the  surrender  of  Yorktowu.  After 
his  return  to  England  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  colonel,  and  was  so  popular  that  in 
1790  he  was  sent  to  parliament  free  of  expense 
from  his  native  town.  In  1817  he  received 
the  commission  of  major  general.  He  was 
created  a  baronet,  Nov.  6,  1818.  He  pub 
lished  a  "  History  of  the  Campaigns  of  1780 
and  1781  in  the  Southern  Provinces  of  North 
America"  (4to,  London,  1787). 

TARiV,  a  S.  department  of  France,  in  Langue- 
<loc,  bordering  on  the  departments  of  Avey 
ron,  Ilerault,  Aude,  Haute-Garonne,  and  Tarn- 
et-Garonne;  area,  2,217  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
352,718.  The  S.  E.  part  is  mountainous,  and 
the  rest  of  the  department  is  traversed  by  hills. 
The  principal  river  is  the  Tarn,  a  tributary 
of  the  Garonne,  which  receives  the  Aveyron, 
Tescou,  and  Agout ;  and  near  Albi  there  is  a 


series  of  falls  called  Saut-du-Tarn.  Coal,  iron, 
lead,  copper,  gypsum,  and  porcelain  and  pot 
ters'  clay  are  found.  The  vine  i§  cultivated, 
and  much  brandy  is  made.  Woollen,  cotton, 
and  silk  goods,  iron,  leather,  and  paper  are 
manufactured.  It  is  divided  into  the  arron- 
dissements  of  Albi,  GaillaCj  Castres,  and  La- 
vaur.  Capital,  Albi. 

TARN-ET-GAROME,  a  S.  department  of  France, 
in  Guienne,  bordering  on  the  departments  of 
Lot,  Aveyron,  Tarn,  Haute-Garonne,  Gers,  and 
Lot-et-Garonne ;  area,  1,436  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  221,610.  The  '  whole  department  be 
longs  to  the  basin  of  the  Garonne,  and  the 
surface  has  a  gradual  slope  to  the  west.  The 
Garonne,  Tarn,  and  Aveyron  are  all  navigable 
in  this  department.  Iron,  coal,  and  marble 
are  found.  About  two  thirds  of  the  surface 
is  arable,  one  tenth  is  forest,  and  one  tenth  is 
devoted  to  the  vine,  the  wine  being  excellent. 
The  mulberry  for  rearing  silkworms  is  exten 
sively  cultivated.  Mules  and  poultry  are  reared 
in  great  numbers  and  are  a  principal  source 
of  wealth.  The  minerals  include  iron  and 
some  coal  and  marble.  Woollen,  linen,  and 
silk  goods,  cutlery,  iron,  and  beet  sugar  are 
manufactured.  The  department  is  divided  into 
the  arrondissernents  of  Montauban,  Moissac, 
and  Castelsarrasin.  Capital,  Montauban. 

TARPEIA,  a  Roman  maiden,  the  daughter  of 
Spurius  Tarpeius,  who,  according  to  the  legen 
dary  history  of  the  period,  was  governor  of 
the  citadel  on  the  Capitoline  hill  when  the 
Sabines  invested  Rome.  Tarpeia  saw  and  ad 
mired  the  bracelets  of  the  Sabines,  and  offered 
to  betray  the  citadel  to  them  for  "  what  they 
wore  on  their  left  arms."  She  opened  the 
gate  at  night,  and  as  they  passed  in  they  threw 
upon  her  their  shields,  which  were  worn  on  the 
left  arm,  and  crushed  her.  She  was  buried  on 
that  part  of  the  hill  called  the  Tarpeian  rock. 

TARQUIN.  I.  Lncins  Tarqninins  Priscus  ("the 
Elder"),  fifth  king  of  Rome,  assassinated  about 
578  B.  C.  According  to  the  common  story, 
his  father  was  a  Corinthian  nobleman  named 
Demaratus,  of  the  family  of  the  Bacchiadee, 
who  fled  on  the  overthrow  of  his  order  by 
Cypselus  and  settled  at  Tarquinii  in  Etruria. 
The  son,  whose  original  name  was  Lucumo, 
inherited  great  wealth,  married  a  noble  Etrus 
can  woman  named  Tanaquil,  who  was  skilled 
in  augury,  and  at  her  instigation  removed  to 
Rome  to  seek  a  higher  career  than  any  within 
his  reach  in  Etruria.  He  gained  the  confidence 
of  King  Ancus  Marcius,  became  guardian  to 
his  children,  and  on  the  king's  death  was  elected 
to  the  vacant  throne,  about  616.  He  destroyed 
the  Sabine  town  of  Apiolre,  and  subdued  a 
number  of  Latin  towns.  His  greatest  exploit 
was  the  defeat  of  the  Sabines,  who  advanced 
to  the  gates  of  Rome,  but  were  driven  back 
and  at  length  completely  overthrown  upon  the 
Anio.  He  built  the  vast  sewers  which  drained 
the  lower  part  of  the  city,  and  are  still  per 
fect  ;  laid  out  the  Circus  Maximus,  and  insti 
tuted  the  Roman  games ;  assigned  the  shops  in 


TARQUIN 


TARRANT 


5Y3 


the  forum  to  private  citizens ;  and  began  to 
•surround  the  city  with  a  stone  wall,  which  his 
successor  finished.  Under  Tarquin  100  new 
members  (the  patres  tninorum  gentium)  were 
added  to  the  senate,  and  the  number  of  the 
vestal  virgins  was  increased  from  four  to  six. 
The  sons  of  Ancus  Marcius,  fearing  that  he 
would  secure  the  succession  to  his  son-in-law 
Servins  Tullius,  planned  his  death.  (See  SEE- 
vius  TULLIUS.)  II.  Lucius  Tarqiuiiius  Snperbns 
("the  Proud"),  the  seventh  and  last  king  of 
Rome,  son  of  the  preceding,  died  about  495  B. 
0.  About  534  he  formed  a  conspiracy,  mur 
dered  Servius  Tullius,  and  usurped  the  throne. 
He  immediately,  as  the  semi-legendary  story 
of  his  reign  has  it,  abolished  all  the  privileges 
that  Servius  had  given  to  the  plebeians,  decreed 
the  death  of  the  senators  who  had  supported 
them,  took  the  whole  administration  of  justice 
into  his  own  hands,  and  put  to  death  or  exiled 
all  who  were  obnoxious  to  him.  The  senate 
was  seldom  consulted,  and  its  vacancies  were 
not  filled.  Under  him  the  Latin  league  was 
joined  by  the  Hernici  and  by  two  Volscian 
towns,  and  Rome  became  the  head  of  the  con 
federacy.  With  the  spoils  from  the  wealthy 
city  of  Suessa  Pometia  he  began  the  erection 
of  the  capitol.  He  subdued  Gabii,  a  Latin  city 
which  refused  to  enter  into  the  league,  and 
about  510  besieged  Ardea.  While  Tarquinius 
Gollatinus,  son  of  Aruns,  the  brother  of  Tar- 
•quinius  Prisons,  was  with  the  army  before 
this  city,  his  cousin  Sextus  Tarquinius,  the 
king's  son,  went  to  his  house  at  Collatia,  and 
there  violated  his  wife  Lucretia.  Lucretia  sent 
to  the  camp  at  Ardea,  and  summoned  thence 
her  father  and  her  husband.  With  them  came 
Lucius  Brutus.  To  these  three  she  told  what 
had  happened,  enjoined  them  to  avenge  her, 
and  stabbed  herself  with  a  dagger.  Brutus 
led  the  way  into  the  market  place,  whither  the 
corpse  was  carried,  summoned  the  people,  and 
related  the  occurrence.  So  great  was  the  hatred 
already  entertained  of  the  Tar  quins  and  the  in 
dignation  now  excited,  that  a  decree  was  imme 
diately  passed  by  which  the  king  was  deposed, 
and  his  family  banished  from  the  city.  Tarquin 
hastened  to  Rome,  but  found  the  gates  closed 
against  him.  Brutus  repaired  to  Ardea,  where 
he  was  received  with  joy,  and  the  army  re 
nounced  its  allegiance  to  the  tyrant.  Tarquin 
took  refuge  at  Tarquinii,  and  thence  sent  am 
bassadors  to  Rome  to  demand  his  private  prop 
erty.  These  ambassadors  conspired  with  some 
young  nobles  for  the  restoration  of  the  king, 
but  were  discovered,  and  with  their  confeder 
ates — among  them  two  sons  of  Brutus — were 
executed,  and  Tarquin' s  private  property  was 
given  up  to  plunder.  He  now  formed  an  alli 
ance  with  the  Etruscan  cities  of  Tarquinii  and 
Veii,  and  endeavored  to  recover  the  throne  by 
force,  but  was  defeated  near  the  forest  of  Ar- 
sia.  He  next  obtained  the  assistance  of  Lars 
Porsena  of  Clusium,  who  marched  against 
Rome  with  a  great  army.  (See  POESEXA.) 
Finally  the  whole  Latin  confederacy  espoused 


the  cause  of  Tarquin  against  Rome,  and  the 
contest  was  decided  by  the  Roman  victory  in 
the  battle  of  Lake  Regillus,  about  498.  Tar 
quin  retired  to  Cumse,  and  there  died. 

TARRAGON  (Lat.  dracunculus ;  Span,  tara- 
gona\  an  aromatic  herb  (artemisia  dracuncu 
lus)  belonging  to  the  composite,  and  in  the 
same  genus  with  the  common  wormwood,  but 
differing  from  this  and  most  other  species  in 
having  undivided  leaves.  It  is  a  native  of 
Siberia  and  the  region  of  the  Caspian  sea,  and 
is  much  cultivated  in  European,  and  sparingly 
in  American  gardens.  It  is  a  perennial,  with 
stems  2  to  3  ft.  high,  and  bears  upon  the  upper 
branches  small  heads  of  inconspicuous  flowers, 
which  in  cultivation  are  infertile ;  the  long, 
narrow,  and  smooth  leaves  have  an  aromatic 
odor  and  a  taste  somewhat  like  that  of  anise. 
The  French,  who  call  it  estragon,  consider  the 
leaves  or  young  shoots  essential  to  the  proper 
dressing  of  some  salads,  and  use  it  also  to  fla 
vor  vinegar,  pickles,  and  mustard,  and  in  other 
compounds.  Tarragon  vinegar  is  made  by 
simply  infusing  the  leaves  in  strong  vinegar. 
The  plant  is  perfectly  hardy  in  this  country. 

TARRAGONA.  I.  A  N.  E.  province  of  Spain, 
in  Catalonia,  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  provinces  of  Lerida,  Barcelona,  Cas- 
tellon,  Teruel,  and  Saragossa;  area,  2,451  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  350,395.  The  province  is 
traversed  from  N.  to  S.  by  the  Prades  moun 
tain  range,  which  has  numerous  offsets  that 
extend  to  the  coast,  and  the  intervening  val 
leys  are  very  fertile.  The  only  river  of  impor 
tance  is  the  Ebro.  There  are  mines  of  lead, 
copper,  silver,  and  manganese,  and  the  hills 
are  covered  with  pine,  cork,  and  oak.  Good 
wine  is  produced,  and. there  are  many  manu 
factories  of  silk,  woollen,  velvet,  and  cotton 
goods,  oil,  soap,  pottery,  and  brandy.  II.  A 
city  (anc.  Tarraco),  capital  of  the  province,  on 
the  Mediterranean,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fran- 
coli,  273  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Madrid;  pop.  about 
18,000.  It  is  fortified,  and  consists  of  two 
parts,  the  high  and  the  low.  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop.  There  are  schools  of  naviga 
tion  and  design,  and  an  ecclesiastical  seminary. 
The  mole,  begun  in  1790  and  finished  in  1874, 
is  4,242  ft.  long.  The  exports  to  the  United 
States  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1874, 
chiefly  wine,  nuts,  and  liquorice,  amounted  to 
$286,212. — The  town  is  supposed  to  have  been 
originally  settled  by  the  Phoenicians.  Under 
the  Romans  it  was  the  capital  of  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  and  is  said  to  have  contained 
1,000,000  inhabitants.  There  are  remains  of 
a  Roman  amphitheatre  and  aqueduct.  It  was 
captured  by  the  Goths,  was  destroyed  by  the 
Moors  under  Tarik,  and  remained  uninhabited 
for  four  centuries.  It  was  captured  by  the 
British  in  the  war  of  succession.  In  1811  the 
French  under  Suchet  took  it  by  storm.  In 
the  middle  ages  a  number  of  church  councils 
were  held  in  Tarragona. 

TARRANT,  a  N".  W.  county  of  Texas,  inter 
sected  by  the  West  fork  of  Trinity  river ;  area, 


574 


TARRYTOWN 


TARTARIC   ACID 


900  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  5,788,  of  whom  705 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  undulating,  part 
ly  timbered  and  partly  prairie,  and  the  soil 
fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
29,587  bushels  of  wheat,  203,595  -of  Indian 
corn,  72,635  of  oats,  12,995  of  sweet  potatoes, 
41,GG9  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  728  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  6,953  horses,  4,099  milch  cows, 
14,946  other  cattle,  4,205  sheep,  and  13,052 
swine.  Capital,  Fort  Worth. 

TARR1TOWN,  a  village  in  the  town  of  Green- 
burgh,  Westchester  co.,  New  York,  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Hudson  river  where  it  widens 
into  the  Tappan  Zee,  and  on  the  Hudson  River 
railroad,  26  m.  N.  of  New  York  city  ;  pop.  in 
1375,  6,500.  It  is  very  picturesque,  and  con 
tains  a  large  number  of  elegant  country  seats. 
!h  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  capture  of 
Major  Andre  in  1780,  and  contains  a  monu 
ment  commemorative  of  that  event.  South 
of  the  village  is  Sunnyside,  the  residence  of 
Washington  Irving,  whose  grave  is  in  the 
Sleepy  Hollow  cemetery,  near  the  old  Dutch 
church.  The  village  contains  a  silk  factory, 
a  boot  and  shoe  factory,  a  steam  pump  fac 
tory,  a  tool  factory,  a  sash  and  blind  factory, 
a  national  bank,  a  savings  bank,  several  public 
schools,  two  female  seminaries,  two  boarding 
schools  for  boys,  a  weekly  newspaper,  and  11 
churches. 

TARSHISH,  the  name  of  an  ancient  empo 
rium,  or,  according  to  some  critics,  more  than 
one,  as  some  of  the  passages  of  Scripture  in 
which  it  is  mentioned  appear  to  indicate  that 
it  was  W.  and  others  E.  of  Palestine.  There 
are  25  or  30  references  to  it  in  the  Scriptures. 
Tartessus  in  Spain,  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  the  island 
of  Thasos  in  the  Grecian  archipelago,  Car 
thage,  some  seaport  of  the  British  isles,  and 
Point  de  Galle  in  Ceylon  have  all  been  urged 
as  fulfilling  certain  conditions  of  the  Scrip 
tural  references.  The  following  facts  concern 
ing  it  are  gleaned  from  various  passages  of 
Scripture.  It  was  largely  engaged  in  com 
merce,  and  probably  in  ship  building ;  it  is 
several  times  spoken  of  as  an  island  or  sea- 
coast  ;  it  had  large  traffic  with  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
especially  in  gold  and  silver,  tin,  iron,  and 
lead ;  it  is  usually  represented  as  W.  of  Pales 
tine  and  of  Tyre,  and  its  ships  are  spoken  of 
as  broken  by  an  E.  wind.  Y7et  we  are  told 
distinctly  in  2  Chron.  ix.  21,  that  Solomon's 
ships  went  to  Tarshish  with  the  servants  of 
Hiram,  returning  every  three  years,  and  bring 
ing  "  gold  and  silver,  ivory,  and  apes,  and 
peacocks;11  and  that  Jehoshaphat  joined  with 
Ahaziah  in  building  ships  at  Ezion-geber,  a 
place  on  the  Elanitic  gulf  of  the  Red  sea,  to 
go  to  Tarshish  (2  Chron.  xx.  30),  while  the 
corresponding  passages  in  1  Kings  (ix.  26-28, 
x.  22,.  xxii.  48)  say  that  Tarshish  vessels  were 
built  at  Ezion-geber  and  sent  to  Ophir,  whence 
they  brought  "  gold  and  silver,"  &c.  This  ap 
parent  discrepancy  has  been  explained  in  three 
ways:  1  (which  is  most  plausible),  that  the 
name  "ships  of  Tarshish"  does  not  necessarily 


imply  that  the  ships  were  built  at  Tarshish  or 
intended  to  ply  between  that  and  some  other 
port,  but  designated  a  peculiar  style  of  ships, 
and  that  hence  ships  intended  for  a  long  coast 
voyage  were  called  "ships  of  Tarshish"  from 
their  resemblance  to  the  Phoenician  model ;  2, 
that  the  ships  built  at  Ezion-geber  were  really 
intended  for  the  trade  to  Tarshish  (Tartessus) 
in  Spain,  and  were  to  be  transported  across 
the  isthmus  of  Suez  to  the  Mediterranean  ;  and 
3,  that  there  were  two  and  possibly  more 
places  called  Tarshish. 

TARSUS,  a  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the 
vilayet  and  20  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of 
Adana,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Cydnus,  about 
10  m.  from  the  Mediterranean ;  pop.  about 
8,000.  It  stands  in  a  fertile  plain,  and  is  well 
built  of  stone.  It  has  an  ancient  church,,  sev 
eral  mosques,  handsome  caravansaries,  and 
public  baths.  Wheat,  barley,  cotton,  copper, 
and  gall  nuts  are  exported. — Tarsus  is  said  by 
the  ancients  to  have  been  founded  by  Sarda- 
napalus.  It  was  taken  by  Alexander,  and  un 
der  the  Romans  rivalled  Athens,  Antioch',  and 
Alexandria.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
apostle  Paul  and  of  several  Greek  philoso 
phers,  poets,  and  grammarians. 

TARTAR  (named  from  Tartarus,  the  infernal 
regions,  according  to  Paracelsus,  on  account 
of  its  fiery  heat;  also  called  argol),  the  crude 
bitartrate  of  potash,  precipitated  from  wines 
as  they  ferment,  being  set  free  as  alcohol  is 
produced,  in  which  it  is  insoluble.  When  pu 
rified  it  is  known  as  cream  of  tartar  or  bitar 
trate  of  potassium.  Salt  of  tartar  is  a  name 
often  given  to  pure  carbonate  of  potash.  Sol 
uble  tartar  is  a  name  given  to  the  normal  or 
neutral  tartrate  of  potassium,  used  in  medi 
cine  as  a  cooling  purgative.  (See  POTASSIUM, 
vol.  xiii.,  p.  763.) — Tartar  is  also  the  name  of 
an  incrustation  upon  the  teeth,  composed,  ac 
cording  to  Berzelius,  of  salivary  mucus  13'5, 
animal  matter  soluble  in  muriatic  aci(l  7'5,  and 
phosphate  of  lime  (earthy  phosphates)  7*9. 

TARTAR,  Cream  of.     See  CEEAM  OF  TARTAR. 

TARTAR  EMETIC,  a  double  tartrate  of  anti 
mony  and  potassium.  (See  ANTIMONY.) 

TARTARIC  ACID,  an  organic  tetratomic  acid, 
which  is  now  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  group 
derived  from  corresponding  tetratomic  alcohols 
by  the  substitution  of  oxygen  for  hydrogen 
molecules.  Only  one  of  the  acids,  the  erythric 
(CJIsOs),  has  been  actually  formed,  from  ery- 
thrite  (CJIioO.!),  but  the  composition  and  be 
havior  of  tartaric  acid  favors  the  theory  that 
it  has  a  similar  derivation.  The  formula  of 
tartaric  acid  is  C^aOe,  and  includes  four  bi- 
basic  acids  having  different  crystalline  forms, 
and  different  properties  in  regard  to  polarized 
light,  viz. :  dextrotartaric  acid,  which  turns  the 
plane  of  polarization  to  the  right ;  laavotartaric 
acid,  which  turns  it  to  the  left  with  equal 
force;  paratartaric  or  racemic  acid,  which  has 
no  rotatory  power,  but  is  separable  into  two 
equal  parts  of  right-handed  and  left-handed 
acids ;  and  an  inactive  acid  not  thus  separable. 


TARTARIC  ACID 


TARTARS 


575 


Dextrotartaric  acid  is  the  ordinary  tartaric  acid 
found  in  grapes,  tamarinds,  pineapples,  and 
several  other  fruits,  usually  in  combination 
with  potassium,  and  frequently  with  a  small 
portion  of  calcium.  The  acid  of  commerce  is 
prepared  from  tartar  or  argol,  and  was  first 
separated  from  it  by  Scheele  in  1770.  The 
present  mode  of  manufacture  is  as  follows. 
The  crude  tartar  is  dissolved  in  hot  water  in 
which  is  stirred  a  little  pipe  clay  and  bone 
black  to  remove  coloring  matter.  The  filtered 
or  decanted  liquid  deposits  on  cooling  crystals 
of  cream  of  tartar,  from  which  the  acid  may 
be  prepared  by  dissolving  them  in  boiling  wa 
ter,  or  the  original  solution  may  be  employed. 
Powdered  chalk  is  added  as  long  as  there  is 
effervescence  or  the  liquid  reddens  litmus. 
The  product  consists  of  an  insoluble  tartrate 
of  calcium  and  a  soluble  normal  tartrate  of 
potassium,  which  latter,  after  separation  of 
the  calcium  salt,  is  mixed  with  an  excess  of 
chloride  of  potassium,  which  throws  down 
the  remaining  tartaric  acid  also  as  tartrate  of 
calcium.  Both  precipitates  are  washed  and 
digested  with  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  eight 
or  ten  parts  of  water,  by  which  means  sul 
phate  of  lime  is  precipitated  while  the  tar 
taric  acid  is  left  free  in  the  solution.  The 
filtrate  is  carefully  evaporated  to  the  consis 
tency  of  a  sirup,  and  placed  in  a  warm  situa 
tion  to  crystallize.  Liebig  found  that  tartaric 
acid  is  produced  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid 
upon  milk  sugar.  It  may  also  be  obtained 
from  succinic  acid  by  submitting  the  latter  to 
the  action  of  bromine  and  treating  one  of  the 
products,  dibromosuccinic  acid,  with  oxide  of 
silver  and  water.  Tartaric  acid  crystallizes  in 
transparent,  oblique  rhombic  prisms  of  sp.  gr. 
1'75,  which  are  inodorous,  permanent  in  the 
air,  and  easily  soluble  in  hot  and  cold  water 
and  in  alcohol,  but  insoluble  in  ether.  The 
aqueous  solution  soon  spoils,  becoming  cov 
ered  with  a  fungoid  growth.  Tartaric  acid 
is  used  in  calico  printing  to  liberate  chlorine 
from  bleaching  powder,  and  in  medicine,  prin 
cipally  for  the  preparation  of  effervescing  pow 
ders.  (See  EFFERVESCENCE.)  —  Other  Varieties 
of  Tartaric  Acid,  The  grapes  cultivated  in 
certain  districts  of  the  upper  Rhine  and  in 
the  Yosges  contain,  besides  ordinary  tartaric 
acid,  an  isomeric  acid,  called  paratartaric  or 
racemic  acid,  which  resembles  it  in  many  par 
ticulars,  but  differs  much  in  others ;  for  in 
stance,  it  is  rather  less  soluble,  and  has  not 
the  power  of  rotating  the  plane  of  a  polarized 
ray  of  light.  Pasteur  has  made  some  inter 
esting  researches  upon  the  subject,  and  finds 
that  if  racemic  acid  is  united  with  single  bases, 
a  salt  is  formed  whose  crystals  are  all  identi 
cal;  but  if  it  is  united  with  two  bases,  after 
the  manner  of  Rochelle  salt,  and  the  solution 
allowed  to  crystallize  slowly,  two  varieties  of 
crystals  are  formed,  bounded  by  the  same  num 
ber  of  faces,  inclined  to  one  another  at  exactly 
the  same  angles.  They  however  have  certain 
hemihedral  faces  which  are  developed  on  op- 
VOL.  xv.— 37 


posite  sides  of  the  two  crystals,  so  that  one 
crystal  is  like  the  reflected  image  of  the  oth 
er,  and  may  be  denominated  morphologically 
right-handed  and  left-handed  crystals.  If  these 
crystals  are  selected  and  separately  recrystal- 
lized,  each  variety  will  produce  its  own  partic 
ular  form  of  crystal,  and  one  will  have  right- 
handed  and  the  other  left-handed  rotatory 
powers  on  polarized  light.  The  acids  obtained 
from  these  two  varieties  of  crystals  have  also 
corresponding  right-handed  and  left-handed 
rotatory  powers,  one  being  in  fact  ordinary  or 
dextrotartaric,  the  other  Itevotartaric  acid.  As 
these  two  acids  have  equal  rotatory  powers  in 
opposite  directions,  if  their  solutions  are  min 
gled  in  equal  proportions  the  mixture  will  have 
no  effect  upon  polarized  light.  When  concen 
trated  solutions  of  the  two  acids  are  mingled, 
crystals  of  racemic  acid  are  deposited  with 
sensible  evolution  of  heat.  Both  acids  also 
exhibit  pyro-electricity,  but  in  opposite  direc 
tions.  Pasteur  also  found  that  racemic  acid 
may  be  artificially  produced  by  the  action  of 
heat  upon  certain  compounds  of  tartaric  acid 
which  are  capable  of  resisting  a  high  tempera 
ture;  for  instance,  when  tartrate  of  cincho- 
nine  is  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  about  338° 
F.  and  after  ward  repeatedly  boiled  in  water 
and  treated  with  chloride  of  calcium,  racemate 
of  calcium  is  formed.  Left-handed  tartaric 
acid  may  in  like  manner  be  converted  into 
racemic  acid.  The  formation  of  racemic  acid 
in  these  reactions  is  accompanied  by  the  pro 
duction  of  a  fourth  modification,  which  Pas 
teur  calls  inactive  acid,  having,  like  racemic, 
no  action  on  polarized  light,  but  which,  unlike 
racemic,  cannot  be  resolved  into  right-handed 
and  left-handed  acids. 

TARTARS,  a  branch  of  the  Mongolian  or  Tu 
ranian  division  of  the  human  race,  principal 
ly  inhabiting  Asia.  The  name  is  one  of  in 
definite  and  indiscriminate  application,  used 
with  varying  comprehensiveness  by  different 
writers.  In  its  widest  sense  it  may  be  re 
garded  as  embracing  the  Altaian  group  of 
Mongolians,  according  to  Virchow ;  that  is, 
all  the  various  tribes  and  nations  inhabiting 
the  table  lands  of  central  and  northern  Asia 
who  are  not  of  Aryan  blood,  including  the 
Tartars  proper,  the  Kirghiz,  the  Calmucks,  the 
Mantchoos  (sometimes  called  the  Mantchoo 
Tartars),  the  Mongols  proper,  or  people  of 
Mongolia  (who,  however,  probably  constitute 
a  separate  branch),  and  the  Tungusians,  who 
are  thought  by  Huxley  to  share  the  physical 
characteristics  of  the  Esquimaux.  In  a  more 
restricted  application  of  the  word,  the  Tar 
tars  comprise  the  Turanian  inhabitants  of 
Turkistan  and  the  adjacent  regions.  These 
are  the  nomad  Kirghiz,  who  dwell  in  Kho- 
kan  and  Kashgar,  on  the  Pamir  steppe,  and  in 
the  adjacent  valleys ;  the  Uzbecks,  who  have 
advanced '  furthest  toward  settled  civilization 
and  constitute  the  governing  class  in  Turkis 
tan  ;  the  Kiptchaks,  a  semi-nomadic  people 
living  in  Khokan,  who  travel  with  their  flocks 


570 


TARTARUS 


TARTRATES 


during  the  grazing  season ;  the  Buddhist  Cal- 
mucks  of  eastern  Turkistan,  extending  into 
Dzungaria;  the  Kazaks,  in  the  region  of  the 
Sir  Darya;  and  many  smaller  tribes.  The 
predatory  Turkomans  inhabiting  the  country 
E.  of  the  Caspian,  from  the  Oxus  to  the  Per 
sian  frontier,  are  of  Tartaric  origin,  although 
the  pure  Tartar  features  are  preserved  in  but 
few  of  the  tribes,  owing  to  the  large  admixture 
of  Aryan  blood.  The  characteristic  Tartar 
physiognomy  appears  most  distinctively  at  the 
present  day  among  the  Kirghiz,  who  have  high 
cheek  bones,  noses  thick  but  depressed,  nar 
row  eyes,  and  little  or  no  beard.  Almost  every 
grade  of  variance  from  this  type,  however,  is 
met  with.  In  central  Asia,  the  word  Turk  is 
used  as  synonymous  with  Tartar,  merely  to 
indicate  Mongolians.  According  to  Col.  Yule, 
the  two  classes  of  people  whom  Marco  Polo 
would  identify  with  Gog  and  Magog  represent 
the  two  genera  of  the  Tartar  race,  namely,  the 
White  Tartars,  or  Turks,  and  the  Black  Tar 
tars,  or  Mongols  proper,  who  formed  the  bulk 
of  the  followers  of  Genghis  Khan.  Indeed, 
the  name  Mongol  (bold),  which  he  is  said  first 
to  have  given  to  the  tribes  who  followed  his 
standard,  has  been  regarded  as  directly  derived 
from  Magog. — The  word  Tartar  or  Tatar  (also 
Ta-ta)  appears  to  bo  of  Chinese  origin,  and 
was  applied  to  early  invaders  of  China  from 
the  upper  Amoor  region.  They  were  a  war 
like  and  savage  race ;  and  possessing  vast  num 
bers  of  horses,  they  often  descended  upon  the 
peaceable  Chinese,  and  plundered  their  vil 
lages.  Their  predatory  characteristics  came 
to  be  so  closely  associated  with  their  name  as 
to  lead  to  its  eventual  application  to  numerous 
other  robber  hordes.  The  Altai  mountains 
appear  to  have  been  the*  centre  of  the  great 
Mongolian  migratory  movement  which  began 
in  the  4th  century  and  lasted  until  the  10th, 
extending  over  the  neighboring  Asiatic  coun 
tries,  and  under  Attila  far  into  Europe,  where 
its  results  may  still  be  traced  in  the  Tartar  pop 
ulation  of  eastern  and  southern  Russia.  The 
vast  military  expeditions  of  Genghis  Khan  and 
Timour  were  subsequent  movements  of  a  like 
character.  Shamanism  was  the  original  faith 
of  the  Mongols.  This  was  succeeded  by  Bud 
dhism,  which  was  abandoned  for  Lamaism 
about  the  end  of  the  16th  century.  Sunni 
Mohammedanism  is  now  professed  by  the  west 
ern  Tartars  generally,  both  in  Asia  and  Europe. 

TARTARUS,  in  the  Grecian  mythology,  a  son 
of  ./Ether  and  Gsea,  and  the  father  of  the  giants 
Typhasus  and  Echidna.  In  the  Iliad  Tarta 
rus  is  a  place  as  far  below  Hades  as  heaven  is 
above  the  earth,  and  there  by  later  writers 
the  spirits  of  the  wicked  are  said  to  be  pun 
ished.  By  the  later  poets  also  the  name  is 
often  used  synonymously  with  Hades. 

TARTARY,  a  geographical  designation  now 
usually  limited  to  Turkistan  and  the  adjoining 
regions,  but  formerly  of  much  wider  significa 
tion,  embracing  a  broad  belt  stretching  across 
the  centre  of  the  Asiatic  continent  from  the 


Japan  and  Okhotsk  seas  on  the  east  to  the 
Caspian  on  the  west,  and  according  to  some 
geographers  extending  westward  into  Europe 
as  far  as  the  river  Don.  Tartary  in  its  most 
extended  sense  therefore  includes,  in  Asia, 
Mantchooria,  Mongolia,  Dzungaria,  East  Tur 
kistan  or  High  Tartary,  Turkistan  proper,  in 
cluding  Khokan,  Bokhara,  and  Khiva,  (for 
merly  known  as  Independent  Tartary),  and  all 
the  southern  part  of  the  Russian  possessions  in 
Asia;  and  in  Europe,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Russian  governments  of  Orenburg,  Astrakhan, 
and  Yekaterinoslav,  the  Don  Cossack  territory, 
and  the  Crimea,  the  last  of  which  was  former 
ly  called  Little  Tartary,  and  also  Crim  Tar 
tary,  from  the  name  of  the  horde  which  set 
tled  there  in  the  13th  century.  The  name 
Tartary,  however,  is  now  seldom  applied  to 
any  region  outside  of  that  bounded  N.  by  Si 
beria,  E.  by  Mantchooria,  S.  by  China  proper, 
Thibet,  India,  Afghanistan,  and  Persia,  and 
W.  by  the  Caspian  sea. 

TARTINI,  Giuseppe,  an  Italian  violinist,  born 
at  Pirano,  Istria,  in  1692,  died  in  Padua  in 
1770.  He  gave  up  law  and  theology,  acquired 
unrivalled  proficiency  as  a  violinist,  eloped 
with  one  of  his  pupils,  and  lived  for  two  years 
concealed  in  the  convent  of  Assisi.  There  he 
diligently  studied  music,  and  being  at  length 
forgiven,  came  out  of  the  convent  the  best 
player  in  Europe.  Among  his  celebrated  pupils 
were  Pagin,  La  Houssaye,  and  Pugnani.  His 
most  remarkable  composition  is  his  Sonate  du 
diable,  or  "  Tartini's  Dream." 

TARTRATES,  salts  formed  by  the  union  of 
tartaric  acid  with  bases.  Tartaric  acid  is  di 
basic,  and  forms  with  monatomic  metals  acid 
salts,  like  bitartrate  of  potassium,  KHC4H4O6; 
normal  salts,  like  normal  potassic  tartrate  (solu 
ble  tartar),  K2C4H4O6 ;  and  double  salts,  like 
sodic-potassic  tartrate  (Rochelle  salt),  ¥aKC4- 
H4O6.  With  diatomic  metals  it  forms  normal 
salts,  like  normal  basic  tartrate,  BaCJI406, 
and  double  salts  consisting  of  a  double  mole 
cule  of  the  acid  in  which  two  atoms  of  hydro 
gen  are  replaced  by  a  diatomic  and  two  atoms 
by  a  monatomic  metal,  like  baric-potassic  tar 
trate,  BaC4H4O6,K2C4H4OG  +  2H2O.  With  tri- 
atomic  metals  it  forms  a  peculiar  class  of  salts, 
well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  antimony 
salts,  as  normal  antimonious  tartrate,  (SbO)2 
C4H406;  acid  antimonious  tartrate,  SbO,CJI5 
Oe ;  and  potassio-antimonious  tartrate,  tartar 
emetic,  KSbOC4H4O6.  Many  of  the  tartrates 
are  used  in  medicine,  and  several  are  employed 
in  calico  printing  and  dyeing,  as  the  tartrate 
of  chromium  and  the  tartrate  of  potassium  and 
tin.  The  principal  medicinal  tartrates  are  the 
double  salts,  tartar  emetic  and  Rochelle  salt. 
(See  ANTIMONY,  and  ROCHELLE  SALT.)  The 
tartrates  of  the  alkalies  are  oxidized  in  the 
animal  system  to  bicarbonates,  so  that  the  ad 
ministration  of  tartrate  of  potassium  renders 
the  urine  alkaline.  The  acid  alone,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  more  efficient  than  the  mineral 
acids  in  acidifying  this  excretion. 


TAKUDANT 


TASMANIA 


577 


TARUDANT,  the  chief  city  of  the  province  of 
Sus,  Morocco,  in  the  valley  of  the  Sus,  about 
44  m.  from  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  140  m. 
S.  W.  of  Morocco ;  pop.  estimated  by  Rohlfs 
at  30,000  to  40,000.  It  lies  near  the  foot  of 
the  S.  slope  of  the  Atlas,  about  4  m.  from  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Sus.  The  country 
around  it  is  highly  cultivated,  and  it  is  sur 
rounded  by  gardens  and  palm  groves.  The 
wall,  enclosing  a  large  area,  much  of  which  is 
occupied  by  gardens,  is  flanked  by  towers  and 
entered  by  five  gates.  The  Icasba  or  citadel 
occupies  an  angle  on  the  E.  side.  The  streets 
are  crooked,  narrow,  and  impracticable  during 
rains.  There  are  three  principal  mosques  and 
many  smaller  ones,  two  prisons,  and  several 
fountains.  The  dwelling  houses  are  mostly  of 
one  story.  Tarudant  is  noted  for  its  leather 
and  dye  works,  and  for  manufactures  of  cop 
per,  mostly  pots  and  kettles,  which  are  ex 
ported  as  far  as  Timbuctoo,  Kuka,  and  Kano. 
It  was  formerly  celebrated  for  sugar  culture, 
but  the  plantations  no  longer  exist.  The  in 
habitants  are  rude  and  intolerant  to  Christians. 

TASCHEREAF,  Jules  Antoine,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Tours,  Dec.  19,  1801,  died  in  Paris, 
Nov.  11,  1874.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  National,  and  for  a  short  time  after  the 
revolution  of  July,  1830,  he  was  secretary  gen 
eral  of  the  prefect  of  Paris  and  a  member  of 
the  council  of  state.  Subsequently  he  became 
one  of  the  editors  of  Historiettes  de  Tallemant 
des  Reaux  (6  vols.,  1833-'4),  and  the  founder 
of  the  Revue  retrospective  (20  vols.,  1833-'7). 
From  1838  to  1842  he  was  a  member  of  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  and  in  1848  he  was  re 
turned  to  the  constituent  and  subsequently  to 
the  legislative  assembly.  Early  in  1852  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  catalogue  of  the  na 
tional  library,  of  which  he  published  many 
volumes  (1855  et  seq.\  and  he  was  director 
general  of  the  library  from  1858  to  1874.  He 
edited  the  works  of  Moliere  (8  vols.,  1823-'4) 
and  Boufflers  (2  vols.,  1827),  and  the  literary 
correspondence  of  Grimm  and  Diderot  (15  vols., 
1829-'30),  and  wrote  biographies  of  Moliere 
(1825)  and  Oorneille  (1829  ;  new  ed.,  1857). 

TASCHEREAC,  Elzear  Alexandra,  a  Canadian 
archbishop,  born  in  Quebec  in  1818.  He  stud 
ied  in  the  seminary  of  Quebec,  was  ordained 
priest  in  1842,  and  became  successively  pro 
fessor  of  mental  philosophy  there,  director  of 
studies,  and  superior.  In  1856  he  received  in 
Rome  the  degree  of  doctor  in  canon  law,  and 
was  appointed  to  teach  that  science  in  the 
Laval  university.  In  1870  he  governed  the 
diocese  of  Quebec  as  administrator,  after  the 
death  of  Archbishop  Baillargeou,  and  he  was 
consecrated  as  his  successor,  March  19,  1871. 

TASHKE1VD  (anc.  ShasK),  a  city  of  Turkistan, 
formerly  included  within  the  boundaries  of 
Khokan,  but  now  under  Russian  rule,  situated 
in  lat.  43°  N.,  Ion.  68°  40'  E.,  near  the  junction 
of  two  small  affluents  of  the  Sir  Darya  or 
Jaxartes,  150  m.  N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Khokan ; 
pop.  estimated  at  80,000,  mostly  Mussulmans. 


It  stands  in  a  fertile  plain  covered  with  nu 
merous  gardens,  amid  what  is  described  as  lit 
erally  a  forest  of  fruit  trees,  is  enclosed  by  a 
high  wall  of  unburned  bricks  16  m.  in  circuit, 
and  is  entered  by  12  gates.  A  great  part  of 
the  town  consists  of  houses  surrounded  by  gar 
dens  and  vineyards,  the  walls  of  which  are  so 
close  together  that  only  narrow  lanes  are  left 
between.  The  houses  are  principally  built  of 
mud,  and  are  about  11,000  in  number.  The 
former  residence  of  the  khan  consists  of  a 
castle  defended  by  walls  and  ditches ;  and  there 
are  more  than  300  mosques,  15  bazaars,  and 
numerous  colleges  and  old  temples.  The  prin 
cipal  manufactures  are  silk  and  cotton  goods, 
iron,  and  gunpowder.  Commercially,  Tash- 
kend  is  perhaps  the  most  important  city  in 
Russian  Turkistan.  The  chief  lines  of  com 
munication  from  northern  Asia  concentrate 
there,  and  by  means  of  caravans  an  extensive 
trade  is  carried  on  with  all  the  neighboring 
countries,  including  British  India.  The  at 
tempt  of  the.  Russian  government,  however, 
to  establish  a  great  fair  at  Tashkend,  similar 
to  that  held  at  Nizhni  Novgorod,  has  proved 
a  failure. — Tashkend  has  been  celebrated  in 
central  Asia  from  the  earliest  times  for  its 
wealth  and  as  a  commercial  emporium.  It 
was  assaulted  and  captured  by  a  Russian  force 
under  Gen.  Tcherniayeff,  in  the  war  with  Kho 
kan,  in  June,  1865,  and  now  with  the  surround 
ing  territory  constitutes  a  separate  administra 
tive  district  of  Russian  Turkistan. 

TASMAN,  Abel  Janssen,  a  Dutch  navigator,  born 
at  Hoorn  about  1600,  died  probably  on  his 
second  voyage  to  New  Guinea  and  New  Hol 
land.  In  1642  he  was  sent  by  Van  Diemen, 
governor  general  of  the  Dutch  East  India  com 
pany,  to  explore  the  extent  of  the  continent  of 
New  Holland.  He  set  sail  from  Batavia  on 
Aug.  14,  and  on  Nov.  24  discovered  the  island 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  the  governor 
general  (now  Tasmania).  He  subsequently  dis 
covered  New  Zealand,  the  islands  of  the  Three 
Kings,  and  the  archipelagos  of  the  Friendly 
and  Feejee  islands,  and  returned  to  Batavia 
after  a  voyage  of  10  months.  On  Jan.  29, 
1644,  he  undertook  a  second  voyage  along  the 
coasts  of  New  Guinea  and  New  Holland,  the 
details  of  which  are  unknown.  He  published 
a  narrative  of  his  first  voyage,  which  was  re 
printed  with  the  voyage  of  Coreal  at  Amster 
dam  in  1722. 

TASMANIA  (formerly  Van  Diemen's  Land),  a 
British  colony  of  Australasia,  consisting  of  the 
island  of  the  same  name  and  several  smaller 
islands,  mostly  in  Bass  strait;  area,  26,215  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870  (by  census),  99,328;  esti 
mated,  Jan.  1,  1874,  104,217.  Capital,  Hobart 
Town.  The  island  of  Tasmania  is  situated  120 
m.  S.  E.  of  Australia,  from  which  it  is  separa 
ted  by  Bass  strait,  between  lat.  40°  38'  and  43° 
38'  S.,  and  Ion.  144°  40'  and  148°  30'  E.  It  is 
240  m.  long  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E. ;  its  extreme 
breadth  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  is  200  m. ;  area, 
24,330  sq.  m.  The  coasts,  which  present  al- 


5TS 


TASMANIA 


most  every  variety  of  scenery,  are  indented 
by  numerous  bays  and  inlets,  and  good  an 
chorage  is  to  be  found  almost  everywhere. 
The  principal  harbors  are:  on  the  W.  coast, 
Port  Davey,  which  is  much  frequented  by 
whaling  vessels,  and  Macquarie  harbor ;  on  \ 
the  X.  coast,  Stanley  at  Circular  Head,  Emu  j 
bay,  Port  Frederick,  Port  Dalrymple,  and  Wa-  \ 
terhouse  roads,  between  Anderson  and  Ringa-  j 
room  a  bays;  on  the  E.  coast,  George,  Oyster,  j 
Spring,  and  Fortescue  bays;  and  on  the  S. 
E.  coast,  Port  Arthur,  Storm  bay,  Norfolk 
bay,  D?Entrecasteaux  channel,  Port  Esperance, 
Muscle  bay  or  Southport,  and  Recherche  bay. 
There  are  55  islands  off  the  coast,  all  of  which 
belong  to  Tasmania.  The  Furneaux  group,  N. 
E.  of  the  main  island,  includes  Flinders  isl 
and  (801  sq.  m.),  Cape  Barren  island  (172  sq. 
m.),  Clarke  island  (30  sq.  m.),  Chappell,  Hum 
mock,  and  several  smaller  islands.  Their  in 
habitants,  242  in  number  in  1870,  many  of 
whom  are  half-breeds,  live  mostly  by  seal 
fishing.  Off  the  N.  W.  end  of  Tasmania  are 
King's  island  (425  sq.  m.),  Bobbins'  island  (37 
sq.  m.),  Hunter,  Three  Hummock,  and  smaller 
islands.  Off  the  S.  E.  coast  are  Bruny  island 
(140  sq.  m.),  divided  into  North  and  South 
Bruny,  which  are  connected  by  a  narrow  isth 
mus,  Maria  island  (37  sq.  m.),  Schouten  island 
(10  sq.  m.),  and  many  smaller. — Tasmania  is 
traversed  by  high  mountain  chains,  full  of 
glens  and  ravines,  and  separated  by  fertile 
and  well  watered  plains.  There  are  two  prin 
cipal  chains,  one  running  parallel  with  the  E. 
coast,  the  highest  peak  of  which  is  Ben  Lo 
mond,  5,010  ft.,  and  the  other  forming  an  ele 
vated  table  land  in  the  middle  of  the  island, 
reaching  an  elevation  of  5,096  ft.  in  Cradle 
mountain;  from  the  latter  diverge  numerous 
smaller  ranges,  north,  west,  and  south.  In  the 
middle  of  the  table  land  are  several  lakes,  the 
largest  of  which  are  the  Great  lake  (28,000 
acres),  Sorell  (17,000),  St.  Clair  (10,000),  and 
Arthur,  Crescent,  and  Echo  (8,000  to  12,000). 
The  chief  rivers  on  the  S.  E.  coast  are  the 
Huon,  which  flows  into  D'Entrecasteaux  chan 
nel  ;  the  Derwcnt,  which  rises  in  Lake  St.  Clair, 
receives  numerous  tributaries,  and  flows  into 
Storm  bay;  and  the  Coal,  which  flows  into 
Pitt  water.  On  the  S.  "W.  and  W.  coast  are 
the  Spring,  the  Davey,  the  Gordon  and  King's 
falling  into  Macquarie  harbor,  the  Pieman,  and 
the  Arthur,  all  with  large  tributaries ;  and  on 
the  north  the  Montague,  Duck,  Detention,  In- 
glis,  Cam,  Emu,  Blythe,  Leven,  Gavder,  Forth, 
Mersey,  Rubicon,  Tamar,  Piper,  Forrester, 
Trent,  and  Ringarooma.  The  Tamar  is  a  tidal 
river  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  North  and 
South  Esk. — The  central  mountain  chain,  which 
is  of  volcanic  formation,  is  of  trap  upheaved 
through  sandstone,  clay,  limestone,  and  slate. 
The  rocks  of  the  E.  and  S.  W.  coasts  are  basalt, 
granite,  gneiss,  and  quartz.  It  is  conjectured 
that  the  island  was  once  connected  with  Aus 
tralia,  and  that  the  smaller  islands  in  Bass 
strait  are  the  peaks  of  a  disrupted  mountain 


chain.  Tasmania  is  rich  in  minerals.  Iron 
abounds  near  Hobart  Town  and  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tamar  river.  Large  deposits  of  tin  ore 
were  discovered  in  1872  at  Mt.  Bischoff,  and 
small  lodes  of  copper,  lead,  and  bismuth  have 
been  found.  Coal  abounds  at  Mt.  Nicholas  and 
Douglas  river  in  the  northeast,  on  the  Mersey 
river  in  the  north,  at  Jerusalem  N.  of  Hobart 
Town,  and  at  Hamilton  in  the  middle  of  the 
island.  None  of  these  deposits  are  worked, 
but  mines  of  bituminous  coal  are  worked  near 
Port  Seymour,  and  of  anthracite  coal  at  Port 
Arthur,  New  Town,  and  Port  Serrell.  The 
principal  gold  mines  are  at  Nine  Mile  Springs, 
Mathinna,  and  Hellyer  river.  Limestone  is 
abundant,  and  a  fine  quality  of  white  freestone 
is  largely  exported  to  Melbourne. — The  climate 
is  remarkable  for  mildness,  being  subject  to 
extremes  neither  of  heat  nor  cold.  The  aver 
age  temperature  of  the  summer  months,  De 
cember,  January,  and  February,  is  about  62°  ; 
of  the  autumn  months,  March,  April,  and  May, 
55° ;  of  the  winter  months,  June,  July,  and 
August,  47° ;  and  of  the  spring  months,  Sep 
tember,  October,  and  November,  54°.  The 
mean  annual  temperature,  as  ascertained  by 
30  years'  observation,  is  about  54°.  The 
mean  annual  rainfall  is  22*71  inches.  The 
atmosphere  is  remarkably  pure,  and  zymotic 
diseases  are  rare.  Thunder  storms  are  not 
common  and  are  seldom  violent.  Many  per 
sons,  enervated  by  the  hotter  climate  of  Aus 
tralia,  annually  visit  Hobart  Town  for  health. 
— Although  much  of  the  interior  is  mountain 
ous  and  rugged,  there  are  large  tracts  of  pas 
ture  land,  and  extensive  forests,  chiefly  of  the 
eucalyptus  and  acacia,  affording  excellent  tim 
ber  for  both  cabinet  work  and  ship  building. 
The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  abun 
dantly  all  the  cereals,  vegetables,  and  fruits 
of  temperate  climates.  Among  the  fruits  cul 
tivated  are  the  peach,  plum,  apricot,  cherry, 
quince,  fig,  mulberry,  gooseberry,  strawberry, 
raspberry,  currant,  and  grape ;  also  the  wal 
nut,  filbert,  and  almond.  Large  quantities  of 
green  and  preserved  fruits  are  exported.  The 
live  stock  in  1873  amounted  to  22,334  horses, 
106,308  horned  cattle,  1,490,738  sheep,  59,628 
swine,  and  2,201  goats.  The  indigenous  ani 
mals  are  mostly  marsupials,  like  those  in  Aus 
tralia,  and  they  exist  in  such  numbers  that 
kangaroo  leather  and  opossum  furs  are  articles 
of  export.  There  is  one  unique  animal,  called 
the  thylacine,  Tasmanian  wolf,  or  native  tiger, 
the  largest  carnivorous  animal  in  Australasia, 
though  no  larger  than  a  wolf.  Whales,  both 
black  and  spermaceti,  are  numerous  off  the 
coasts,  particularly  in  Bass  strait,  and  the  fish 
ery  is  prosecuted  with  much  vigor ;  and  seals 
frequent  the  shores  and  the  islands  in  their 
vicinity.  Excellent  fish  are  found  in  all  the 
bays  and  rivers,  and  oysters  are  very  abun 
dant.  Salmon  have  been  introduced  from 
England,  and  are  now  caught  in  the  Derwent. 
The  industries  of  Tasmania  are  not  extensive. 
There  are  several  breweries  in  Hobart  Town, 


TASMANIA 


TASSAERT 


579 


where  ale  is  made  for  export  to  the  other 
colonies,  the  climate  being  especially  adapted 
to  malting  and  brewing.  There  are  also  tan 
neries,  founderies,  soap  and  candle  manufac 
tories,  jam-boiling  and  fruit-preserving  estab 
lishments,  and  two  manufactories  of  cloth, 
tweed,  blankets,  &c.  The  value  of  exports  in 
1873  was  £893,556  ;  of  imports,  £1,107,167. 
The  exports  of  wool  amounted  to  4,243,433 
Ibs.,  valued  at  £314,068;  of  jams  to  the  value 
of  £98,281 ;  and  of  hops,  £41,015.  Other  ar 
ticles  of  export  are  bark,  butter  and  cheese, 
bran  and  pollard,  the  cereals,  flour,  skins  and 
leather,  horses,  sheep,  sperm  and  black  oil, 
fruits  and  vegetables,  gold  (in  1873,  £15,309), 
and  ale.  The  most  important  ports  are  Ho- 
bart  Town  and  Launceston.  Frequent  com 
munication  by  steamships  is  maintained  be 
tween  them  and  Sydney  and  Melbourne.  The 
only  completed  railway  is  the  Launceston  and 
Western,  45  m.  long,  connecting  Launceston 
and  Deloraine.  The  line  "was  opened  in  1871 ; 
in  1872  it  was  taken  by  the  government.  The 
Mersey  and  Deloraine  railway,  to  connect  Del 
oraine  with  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey  river, 
had  18  in.  completed  in  1874.  A  main  line, 
connecting  Launceston  with  Hobart  Town,  120 
m.  long,  will  probably  be  opened  in  1876. 
The  principal  towns  are  connected  by  tele 
graph,  of  which  291  m.  were  open  in  1873. 
A  submarine  cable,  laid  in  1869,  connects 
Launceston  with  Melbourne. — The  aborigines 
of  Tasmania  resembled  physically  those  of 
Australia,  excepting  that  their  hair  was  wool 
ly.  They  were  estimated  to  number  3,000  to 
4,000  when  the  island  was  colonized,  and  were 
inoffensive  ;  but  from  the  abuse  of  the  convict 
colonists  a  war  of  extermination  broke  out. 
At  its  close  the  remnant  of  the  tribe  was 
transported  first  to  Flinders  and  then  to  Maria 
island,  and  finally  in  1849,  when  only  36  re 
mained,  to  the  vicinity  of  Hobart  Town,  where 
they  were  established  in  comfortable  dwellings. 
In  1870  only  one,  a  woman,  survived.  In  1848 
nearly  a  third  of  the  inhabitants  were  or  had 
been  convicts ;  and  although  since  the  cessa 
tion  of  transportation  the  proportion  has  grad 
ually  decreased,  the  moral  effect  is  still  felt. 
"With  respect  to  religion,  the  principal  denomi 
nations  are  represented  as  follows :  church 
of  England,  53,047 ;  Roman  Catholic,  22,091  ; 
church  of  Scotland,  6,644;  Free  church  of 
Scotland,  2,420;  Wesleyans,  7,187;  Indepen 
dents,  3,931.  The  whole  number  of  churches 
and  chapels  in  the  colony  is  316.  The  Angli 
cans  and  Roman  Catholics  have  each  a  bishop. 
Education  is  under  the  management  of  a  coun 
cil,  and  a  board  supervises  the  distribution  of 
all  moneys  voted  by  parliament.  In  1873  there 
were  141  public  schools,  with  10,803  pupils 
on  the  rolls  and  an  average  attendance  of  7,047 ; 
105  male  teachers,  108  female  teachers,  and 
32  pupil  teachers.  There  are  four  superior 
schools:  Horton  college,  high  school,  Ilutch- 
ins's  school,  and  the  church  grammar  school. 
The  attendance  of  children  at  the  public  schools 


is  compulsory,  under  a  fine  of  £2,  except  in 
cases  of  private  education.  In  1870  there  were 
29,444  persons  in  the  colony  who  were  unable 
to  read.  The  public  press  includes  two  daily 
newspapers  published  at  Hobart  Town,  two  tri 
weekly  and  a  semi- weekly  at  Launceston,  and 
several  weekly  and  monthly  periodicals. — The 
colony  is  divided  into  18  counties,  which  are 
subdivided  into  parishes.  For  electoral  pur 
poses  it  is  divided  into  districts,  16  for  the 
election  of  members  of  the  legislative  council, 
and  32  for  members  of  the  house  of  assembly. 
The  government  consists  of  a  governor  and 
executive  council  appointed  by  the  crown. 
The  governor  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet  consist 
ing  of  four  official  members,  colonial  secretary, 
colonial  treasurer,  attorney  general,  and  min 
ister  of  land  and  works,  and  sometimes  a  pre 
mier  ex  officio.  The  legislative  power  is  vest 
ed  in  a  parliament  of  two  houses,  the  legisla 
tive  council  and  the  house  of  assembly.  The 
legislative  council  is  composed  of  16  members 
elected  for  six  years,  the  house  of  assembly 
of  32  members  elected  for  five  years.  The 
judiciary  consists  of  a  chief  justice,  a  puisne 
judge,  and  minor  justices.  The  revenue  is 
derived  from  customs,  railway  receipts,  land 
sales,  and  miscellaneous  taxes.  The  general 
revenue  for  1875  was  estimated  at  £295,317, 
and  the  expenditure  at  £311,206.  The  debt 
of  the  colony  at  the  end  of  1873  was  £1,477,- 
600,  incurred  mostly  for  the  following  pur 
poses  :  public  works,  £938,528 ;  immigration, 
£200,000  ;  commute  state  aid  to  religion,  £100,- 
000  ;  in  payment  of  an  old  debt  to  the  impe 
rial  government,  £30,500  ;  in  aid  of  land  fund, 
£30,000.— Tasmania  was  discovered  in  1642 
by  the  Dutch  navigator  Abel  Janssen  Tasman, 
who  believed  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  mainland 
of  Australia,  and  who  named  it  Van  Diemen's 
Land  after  Anthony  van  Diemen,  then  gov 
ernor  general  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Its 
insularity  was  not  established  till  1798,  when 
Mr.  Bass,  a  surgeon  of  the  British  navy,  cir 
cumnavigated  it.  The  first  settlement  was 
made  in  1803  by  a  detachment  of  marines  and 
a  body  of  convicts,  in  charge  of  Lieut.  Bowen, 
who  selected  Risdon  on  the  Derwent  river  as 
the  site  for  a  penal  station.  In  1804  Col. 
Collins,  who  landed  with  400  prisoners,  changed 
the  site  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and 
named  it  Hobart  Town  after  Lord  Hobart,  then 
secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies.  Van  Die- 
men's  Land  was  erected  into  an  independent 
colony  in  1825.  For  some  years  the  prosperity 
of  the  colony  was  impaired  by  the  depreda 
tions  of  u  bush  rangers,"  or  escaped  convicts, 
but  they  were  finally  suppressed.  In  1853  the 
transportation  of  convicts  ceased,  and  on  Jan. 
4,  1856,  on  the  petition  of  the  legislative  coun 
cil  to  the  home  government,  the  name  of  the 
colony  was  officially  changed  to  Tasmania. 

TASSAERT,  Nicolas  Francois  Oetave,  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris,  July  26,  1800,  died  there 
by  his  own  hand,  April  26,  1874.  He  left  the 
school  of  fine  arts  in  1825,  and  became  known 


580 


TASSO 


as  a  distinguished  portrait,  historical,  and  genre 
painter;  but  long  .struggles  with  adversity 
drove  him  to  suicide.  His  principal  produc 
tions  include  "The  Funeral  of  Dagobert  at  St. 
Denis  "  (for  the  museum  of  Versailles),  "  Death 
of  Correggio,"  "The  Slave  Merchant,"  "Diana 
at  the  Bath,"  and  "The  Old  Musician." 

TASSO,  Bernardo,  an  Italian  poet,  born  in 
Bergamo,  Nov.  11,  1493,  died  in  Ostiglia  in 
September,  1569.  He  became  in  1531  secre 
tary  to  the  prince  of  Salerno,  and  accompa 
nied  him  in  several  expeditions  of  Charles  V. 
In  1539  he  settled  at  Sorrento  with  his  bride, 
the  celebrated  Porzia  de'  Rossi.  After  her 
death  he  fled  from  the  inquisition,  became  con 
nected  with  the  courts  of  Urbino  and  Man 
tua,  and  ended  his  life  as  governor  of  Ostiglia. 
lie  wrote  a  heroic  poem  entitled  ISAmadigi, 
founded  on  the  story  of  Amadis  de  Gaul,  con 
taining  100  cantos.  One  of  the  episodes  was 
expanded  into  a  poem  called  Floridante,  pub 
lished  after  his  death  by  his  son.  He  also 
wrote  sonnets,  odes,  and  lyrics,  a  "  Discourse 
on  Poetry,"  and  "  Three  Books  of  Letters." 

TASSO,  Torqnato,  an  Italian  poet,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Sorrento,  March  11,  1544, 
died  in  Rome,  April  25,  1595.  He  received 
his  first  education  at  Naples,  and  studied  in 
Rome,  Urbino,  Venice,  Padua,  and  Bologna. 
In  1562  he  wrote  his  charming  romantic  poem 
liinaldo,  and  about  the  same  time  began  to 
prepare  his  epic  on  the  delivery  of  Jerusalem 
by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  In  1565  he  went  to 
Ferrara  as  a  gentleman  in  the  suite  of  Car 
dinal  d'Este,  whose  brother,  the  duke  Alfon 
so  II.,  received  Tasso  with  great  distinction. 
His  grave  and  melancholy  beauty,  eloquence, 
and  varied  accomplishments  enlisted  general 
admiration,  and  endeared  him  to  the  duke's 
sisters  Lucrezia,  the  future  duchess  of  Urbi 
no,  and  Eleonora,  who  became  known  as  the 
special  object  of  his  adoration.  After  about 
a  year's  residence  with  the  cardinal  in  Paris, 
where  Charles  IX.,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  and 
the  French  poets  showed  him  marked  atten 
tions,  he  became  estranged  from  his  patron, 
and,  mainly  through  the  influence  of  the  prin 
cesses,  was  in  1572  formally  attached  to  the 
court  of  Ferrara,  with  a  salary  but  without 
specific  duties.  His  celebrated  pastoral  drama 
Aminta  was  performed  in  1573  with  great 
splendor  at  the  court,  and  afterward  at  Urbi- 
no.  In  1575  he  completed  his  great  epic 
poem  under  the  title  of  II  Goffredo,  which  was 
afterward  changed  to  Gerusalemme  liber  ata. 
The  duke,  Eleonora,  and  Lucrezia  (who  had 
separated  from  her  husband)  gave  him  new 
evidences  of  their  regard,  and  would  hardly 
permit  him  to  leave  them.  Yet  in  November, 
1575,  he  went  to  Rome  to  submit  his  epic  to 
Scipione  Gonzaga,  and  received  an  invitation  to 
enter  the  service  of  the  Medici  family,  which 
he  ultimately  declined;  but  the  hostility  be 
tween  the  Medici  and  Estes  made  him  ever 
afterward  believe  that  the  duke  had  taken  um 
brage  at  his  negotiation  with  them,  although 


on  his  return  to  Ferrara  he  was  received 
with  the  wonted  cordiality.  He  was  now  liv 
ing  in  perpetual  fear  of  his  enemies,  whose 
numbers  had  increased  with  his  fame,  and  of 
emissaries  of  the  inquisition,  although  that 
tribunal  had  absolved  him  from  the  charge 
of  heresy  to  which  he  had  long  fancied  him 
self  liable  on  account  of  some  passages  in  the 
Gerusalemme.  At  length  he  found  his  cor 
respondence  intercepted,  and  had  a  violent 
altercation  with  a  deceitful  friend  who  had 
purloined  his  private  papers,  with  a  view,  he 
suspected,  of  giving  the  duke  evidence  of  his 
relations  with  Eleonora,  and  he  was  charged 
with  referring  to  his  love  for  her  in  the  episode 
of  Sofronia  and  Olindo  in  his  epic.  But  the 
duke  expressed  no  other  feeling  about  him  ex 
cepting  an  anxiety  for  the  restoration  of  his 
mind,  which  he  regarded,  or  feigned  to  regard, 
as  diseased.  Even  after  a  murderous  assault 
said  to  have  been  committed  by  Tasso  in  one 
of  his  frantic  fits  upon  Lucrezia's  servant,  the 
duke  released  him  after  a  brief  confinement 
and  permitted  him  to  retire  to  a  convent  (June, 
1577),  where  he  was  to  remain  till  the  resto 
ration  of  his  health.  Tasso,  however,  fled  in 
July  to  Sorrento,  and  reached  his  sister  Cor 
nelia's  house  in  the  disguise  of  a  shepherd  and 
in  a  wretched  condition.  Having  regained  his 
health,  he  became  anxious  to  return,  and  at  the 
instance  of  his  friends  the  cardinals  Albano  and 
Gonzaga,  the  duke  permitted  him  do  so  on 
condition  of  his  putting  himself  under  medical 
treatment.  New  indignities  awaited  him  at 
Ferrara  (February,  1578),  despite  the  friendly 
disposition  of  Eleonora.  He  failed  to  recover 
his  manuscripts,  and,  shunned  by  everybody, 
he  fled  again  from  city  to  city,  everywhere  re 
garded  as  a  maniac.  At  the  court  of  Urbino 
he  had  a  short  interval  of  rest,  but  his  appre 
hensions  of  danger  drove  him  to  Turin.  Here 
he  was  befriended  by  Eleonora's  brother  the 
marquis  d'Este,  and  might  have  lived  in  peace ; 
but  he  hastened  back  to  Ferrara  in  the  vain 
hope  that  the  celebration  of  the  duke's  third 
marriage  with  a  princess  of  Mantua  (early  in 
1579)  would  prove  auspicious  for  a  reconcilia 
tion.  He  was  not  permitted  to  see  any  mem 
ber  of  the  ducal  family,  and  the  courtiers  and 
lackeys  insulted  him  so  grossly  that  he  broke 
out  in  vehement  denunciations,  and  was  com 
mitted  to  the  hospital  of  Santa  Anna.  Here 
he  was  surrounded  by  maniacs  of  the  worst 
description,  and  treated  with  a  harshness  which 
excited  the  pity  of  Montaigne  and  other  vis 
itors.  A  garbled  publication  of  the  Gerusa 
lemme  in  1580  was  followed  in  1581  by  genuine 
editions,  which  had  a  prodigious  circulation, 
and  gave  such  a  prestige  to  his  name  that  his 
situation  was  slightly  improved,  and  many  of 
his  admirers  availed  themselves  of  the  easier 
access  to  his  cell.  The  death  of  Eleonora  in 
1581,  which  Lucrezia  thought  would  make  the 
duke  relent,  had  no  such  effect;  and  while 
fortunes  were  made  by  the  sale  of  his  epic, 
Tasso  lingered  in  prison.  He  was  not  released 


TASSO 


TASTE 


581 


until  July,  1586,  and  only  after  repeated  ap 
peals  from  the  most  influential  quarters  and 
after  his  health  had  reached  its  lowest  ebb, 
and  then  solely  on  condition  of  remaining  in 
charge  of  Duke  William  of  Mantua,  who  showed 
him  much  kindness.  After  William's  death  he 
made  in  1587  ineffectual  attempts  to  better  his 
fortunes  in  Rome,  and  in  1588  to  recover  his 
patrimony  at  Naples.  For  the  rest  of  his  life 
he  almost  continually  travelled  from  Naples  to 
Rome  and  from  Borne  to  Naples,  enjoying  in 
the  latter  city  his  residence  at  the  monastery  of 
Mount  Olivet ;  but  he  was  finally  obliged  to 
live  in  a  charitable  asylum  at  Rome  until  the 
grand  duke  of  Tuscany  came  to  his  rescue  and 
invited  him  to  visit  Florence  (1590).  Here, 
as  everywhere  else,  he  received  distinguished 
though  empty  honors.  In  a  subsequent  jour 
ney  to  Rome,  the  famous  brigand  Sciarra  re 
frained  from  molesting  him  and  his  travelling 
companions,  and  showed  great  deference  for 
his  genius.  In  1593  appeared  his  Gerusalemme 
conquistata,  a  remodelled  form  of  his  first 
epic,  to  which  he  alone  regarded  it  as  supe 
rior.  It  was  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Cinzio 
Aldobranclini,  who  thereupon  induced  Pope 
Clement  VIII.  to  crown  Tasso  in  the  capitol. 
lie  reached  the  Vatican  on  Nov.  10,  1594,  but 
after  a  relapse  of  his  fever  he  was  taken  at 
his  request  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Onofrio, 
on  the  Janiculum,  where  he  died  before  the 
time  assigned  for  his  coronation. — The  tribula 
tions  of  the  poet,  the  peculiar  condition  of  his 
mind,  his  relations  with  the  princess  Eleonora, 
and  the  duke's  proceedings  against  him,  have 
given  rise  to  many  conflicting  statements,  and 
thrown  a  pathetic  halo  over  his  life  and  ge 
nius.  Goethe  has  made  him  the  hero  of  a  cel 
ebrated  drama;  Hallam  regarded  him  as  su 
perior  to  Virgil  in  grace,  though  inferior  in 
vigor ;  Ranke  and  other  eminent  scholars  have 
'written  on  him  extensively;  Lamartine  has 
called  him  "  the  crusader  of  poetry ;"  and  Fried- 
rich  Schlegel  places  him  above  Ariosto  on  ac 
count  of  his  melodious  versification  and  pic 
turesque  and  impassioned  delineations  of  love. 
The  academy  della  Crusca,  however,  bitterly 
contested  at  the  time  Tasso's  superiority  over 
Ariosto.  The  most  complete  of  the  early  gen 
uine  editions  of  the  epic  appeared  at  Parma 
(4to,  1581),  and  the  most  correctly  printed 
among  the  latest  editions  is  that  of  Padua  (3 
vols.  24mo,  1827-'8).  It  has  been  translated 
into  most  Italian  dialects  and  into  Latin,  re 
peatedly  into  English,  French,  German,  Span 
ish,  Portuguese,  Polish,  and  Russian,  and  in 
1875  into  modern  Greek.  The  best  transla 
tion  into  English  is  by  Edward  Fairfax  (Lon 
don,  1600  ;  latest  American  ed.,  New  York, 
1855) ;  and  the  most  recent  English  version  is 
by  Sir  J.  K.  James  (2  vols.,  1805).  The  Ge- 
rusalemme  has  cast  Tasso's  other  works  into 
the  shade,  although  his  Rime  or  lyrical  poems 
are  unsurpassed  in  their  descriptions  of  disap 
pointed  love,  and  the  choruses  in  his  other 
wise  unsuccessful  tragedy  Torrismondo  are  re 


markable  for  pathetic  sweetness.  His  prose 
dialogues,  moral  treatises,  and  other  minor 
works  are  also  entitled  to  more  attention  than 
they  have  received.  The  most  complete  edi 
tion  of  his  works  is  by  Rosini  (33  vols.,  Pisa, 
1821-'32).  A  good  select  edition  appeared  at 
Milan  (5  vols.,  1823-'5).  His  principal  biog 
raphers  in  Italian  are  his  friend  Manso  (Naples, 
1619)  and  Serassi,  whose  work  is  the  most 
complete  (Rome,  1785 ;  new  ed.,  Florence, 
1858);  and  in  English,  Black  (2  vols.  4to,  Ed 
inburgh,  1810)  and  R.  Milman  (2  vols.,  Lon 
don,  1850).  See  also  "  Conjectures  and  Re 
searches  concerning  the  Love,  Madness,  and 
Imprisonment  of  Torquato  Tasso,"  by  Rich 
ard  Henry  Wilde  (2  vols.  12mo,  New  York, 
1842);  Sulla  causa  finora  ignota  delle  sventure 
di  Tasso,  by  Capponi  (2  vols.,  Florence,  1840- 
'46) ;  a  complete  chronological  edition  of  his 
correspondence,  by  C.  Guasti  (5  vols.,  1852-'5) ; 
and  Degli  amore  e  della  prigione  di  Tasso,  by 
L.  Cibrario  (Turin,  1862). 

TASTE,  the  sense  by  which  we  distinguish 
the  sapid  properties  of  bodies,  through  the 
sensory  apparatus  in  the  mouth.  Though  the 
tongue  takes  the  principal  cognizance  of  gusta 
tory  sensations,  the  soft  palate  and  its  arches 
and  the  fauces  share  in  this  office.  The  nerves 
of  taste  are  the  lingual  branch  of  the  trifacial 
or  fifth  pair  of  cerebral  nerves,  distributed 
to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  anterior  two 
thirds  of  the  tongue,  and  the  glosso-pharyn- 
geal  nerve,  which  supplies  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  the  soft  palate,  pillars  of  the  fauces, 
and  upper  part  of  the  pharynx.  The  glosso- 
pharyngeal  nerve  is  also  regarded  as  the  chan 
nel  by  which  disagreeable  impressions  produ 
cing  nausea  and  vomiting  are  propagated  to 
the  medulla  oblongata.  The  exact  seat  of  the 
sense  of  taste  has  been  determined  by  placing 
in  contact  with  various  parts  of  the  mucous 
membrane  small  sponges  moistened  with  some 
sweet  or  bitter  fluid,  like  a  solution  of  sugar 
or  quinine.  It  is  thus  found  that  the  power  of 
perceiving  savors  resides  in  the  whole  upper 
surface  (dorsum)  of  the  tongue,  its  point  and 
edges,  the  soft  palate,  the  fauces,  and  part  of 
the  pharynx.  The  most  acute  sensibility  to 
taste  is  found  in  the  base,  tip,  and  edges  ^of 
the  tongue,  while  it  is  less  marked  in  the  mid 
dle  of  its  upper  surface,  and  almost  or  entirely 
wanting  in  its  inferior  surface.  These  parts 
are  also  supplied  with  general  sensibility  by 
the  same  nerves  which  communicate  to  them 
the  sense  of  taste;  and  in  the  tip  and  edges  of 
the  tongue  the  general  sensibility  is  even  un 
usually  acute,  as  compared  with  the  external 
integument  or  other  mucous  membranes.  (See 
TONGUE.) — Owing  to  the  existence  of  these 
twakindsof  sensibility  in  the  organs  of  taste, 
we  must  distinguish  between  the  different  im 
pressions  produced  upon  them  by  foreign  sub 
stances.  The  sapid  qualities,  properly  speak 
ing,  which  we  distinguish  by  the  sense  of  taste 
alone,  are  such  as  we  designate  by  the  terms 
sweet,  sour,  alkaline,  salt,  bitter,  &c.,  besides 


582 


TASTE 


TATIA1ST 


various  compound  savors,  like  those  of  cooked 
meats,  vegetables,  and  fruit.  But  other  phys 
ical  qualities  are  often  mingled  with  these, 
which  are  of  a  different  character,  and  are  per 
ceived  by  the  general  sensibility  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  here  developed  to  an  unusual  de 
gree.  Thus,  what  is  called  a  viscid,  watery,  or 
oleaginous  taste  is  simply  a  certain  modification 
in  consistency  of  the  substance  under  examina 
tion.  An  oil  may  have  a  well  marked  taste ; 
but  this  is  in  consequence  of  its  partial  ran 
cidity,  or  of  its  containing  other  impurities  or 
sapid  ingredients.  An  oil  which  is  perfectly 
pure  and  fresh  is  almost  or  entirely  destitute 
of  taste,  and  conveys  to  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  mouth  only  the  sense  of  its  oleaginous 
consistency.  Other  substances  have  an  irri 
tating  or  pungent  quality,  like  alcohol,  red 
pepper,  and  mustard;  and  this  pungency  is 
also  perceived  by  the  general  sensibility  of  the 
mucous  membrane.  Most  of  the  condiments 
in  ordinary  use  produce  their  effect  principally 
by  means  of  their  pungency,  mingled  with  a 
small  proportion  of  true  sapid  qualities.  Many 
articles  of  food  also  have  their  taste  modified 
or  heightened  by  the  presence  of  volatile  in 
gredients  perceived  by  the  sense  of  smell ;  and 
this  mixture  of  sapid  and  odoriferous  qualities 
gives  to  the  substances  in  question  the  prop 
erties  which  we  know  as  their  flavors.  In  this 
way  are  produced  the  flavors  of  wines,  of  tea 
and  coffee,  of  cooked  meats,  &c.  How  much 
of  the  effect  produced  by  these  substances  upon 
the  senses  is  due  to  their  odoriferous  qualities, 
may  be  ascertained  by  holding  the  nose  while 
swallowing  them,  so  as  to  prevent  the  passage 
of  air  through  the  nasal  passages. — An  essen 
tial  condition  of  the  sense  of  taste  is,  that  the 
sapid  substance  should  be  in  a  state  of  solution. 
In  the  solid  form  a  substance  even  of  well 
marked  sapid  quality,  like  crystallized  sugar, 
produces  no  effect  upon  the  taste,  and  is  per 
ceived  when  applied  to  the  tongue  only  as  the 
physical  contact  of  a  foreign  body.  It  is  only 
when  it  is  presented  in  the  liquid  form,  or  is 
gradually  dissolved  in  the  fluids  of  the  mouth, 
that  it  impresses  the  nerves  of  taste,  and  its 
sapid  qualities  are  accordingly  perceived.  This 
is  probably  because  sapid  substances  excite  the 
sense  of  taste  only  by  being  actually  absorbed 
by  the  mucous  membrane,  and  thus  coming  in 
contact  with  the  extremities  of  the  gustatory 
nerves.  This  absorption  requires  time  for  its 
accomplishment,  and  especially  requires  that 
the  substance,  to  be  taken  up  by  the  mucous 
membrane,  should  be  in  a  proper  condition  of 
fluidity.  It  is  also  on  this  account  that  a  free 
secretion  of  saliva  is  so  essential  an  aid  to  the 
sense  of  taste.  When  the  internal  surface  of 
the  mouth  is  in  a  dry  condition,  the  savor  of 
the  food  is  imperfectly  perceived.  The  sali 
vary  fluids,  being  themselves  partly  composed 
of  organic  materials,  are  especially  adapted 
for  rapid  absorption,  and,  as  they  penetrate 
the  mass  of  the  food  undergoing  mastication, 
they  become  impregnated  with  its  sapid  ingre- 


!  dients,  and  cause  them  to  penetrate  readily 
the  substance  of  the  mucous  membrane.  The 
sense  of  taste  is  also  materially  aided  by  the 
movements  in  mastication,  and  particularly  by 
those  of  the  tongue;  since  a  combination  of 
movement  and  pressure  is  always  favorable  to 
the  absorption  of  fluids  by  the  animal  mem 
branes.  The  full  effect  of  sapid  substances  is 
not  obtained  until  the  moment  of  actual  deglu 
tition.  It  is  only  after  mastication  is  com 
plete,  and  the  food  is  actually  in  the  involun 
tary  grasp  of  the  fauces  and  pharynx,  to  be 
swallowed  into  the  stomach,  that  all  parts  of 
the  gustatory  mucous  membrane  are  brought 
in  contact  with  it  at  once,  and  their  sensibil 
ity  heightened  by  the  simultaneous  contrac 
tion  of  the  muscles  of  deglutition. 

TATE,  a  IST.  W.  county  of  Mississippi,  formed 
in  1873  from  De  Soto  and  Marshall  counties ; 
area,  406  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  12,000.  It  is 
drained  by  Cold  water  river,  and  traversed  by 
the  Mississippi  and  Tennessee  railroad.  The 
surface  is  undulating,  and  the  soil  fertile. 
The  chief  crops  are  wheat,  Indian  corn,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  cotton.  Capital,  Senatobia. 

TATE,  \iilmiti,  an  English  poet,  born  in  Dub 
lin  in  1652,  died  in  Southwark,  Aug.  12,  1715. 
lie  went  to  London,  succeeded  Shad  well  in 
1692  as  poet  laureate,  and  died  in  the  pre 
cincts  of  the  mint,  a  privileged  place  for  debt 
ors.  Ho  was  associated  with  Dryden  in  the 
authorship  of  "Absalom  and  Achitophel,"  the 
second  part  of  which  is  mostly  his  composi 
tion.  He  wrote  "Memorials  for  the  Learned, 
collected  out  of  eminent  Authors  in  Histo 
ry  "  (1686);  "Miscellanea  Sacra,  or  Poems 
on  Divine  and  Moral  Subjects"  (1698);  and 
"Panacea,  a  Poem  on  Tea"  (1700).  He  also 
produced  an  alteration  of  "King  Lear"  from 
Shakespeare,  which  long  held  the  stage  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  original.  But  he  is  chiefly  re 
membered  by  his  version  of  the  Psalms,  made 
in  conjunction  with  Brady,  which  is  still  re 
tained  in  the  "  Book  of  Common  Prayer."  It 
was  first  published  under  the  title  of  an  "Es 
say  of  a  New  Version  of  the  Psalms  of  David, 
consisting  of  the  first  Twenty,  by  1ST.  Brady 
and  K  Tate  "  (8vo,  1695).  This  was  succeed 
ed  by  "  The  Book  of  Psalms,  a  New  Version  in 
Metre,  fitted  to  the  Tunes  used  in  the  Church 
es,  by  N".  Tate  and  K  Brady"  (1696),  and  a 
"Supplement  of  Church  Hymns"  (1700). 

TATIAN  (TATIANTJS),  an  ecclesiastical  writer 
of  the  2d  century,  the  time  and  place  of  whose 
birth  and  death  are  uncertain,  though  he  calls 
himself  an  Assyrian.  He  had  received  the 
education  of  a  Greek,  and  been  a  teacher  in 
the  pagan  schools  before  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  practised  as  a  teacher  of  eloquence, 
became  the  associate  of  Justin  Martyr,  and  was 
converted  to  Christianity.  After  the  death  of 
Justin  (about  165),  he  seems  to  have  returned 
to  the  East,  and  adopted  views  resembling 
those  of  the  Gnostic  Marcion  on  the  dual 
principle  of  good  and  evil,  and  on  the  essential 
i  depravity  of  matter.  He  became  the  founder 


TATIUS 


TATTLER 


583 


of  a  sect  known  as  Tatianists,  forbade  mar 
riage  and  the  use  of  animal  food  and  wine, 
substituted  water  for  wine  in  the  service  of 
the  eucharist,  and  required  the  giving  up  of 
worldly  goods  as  the  evidence  of  Christian 
sanctity.  His  "Discourse  to  the  Greeks" 
(npdf  "EA^mf),  written  while  he  still  held 
orthodox  opinions,  has  passed  through  many 
editions,  the  earliest  being  that  of  Zurich  in 
1546,  and  the  best  that  of  Oxford  (8vo,  1700). 
The  account  of  Tatian  and  his  opinions  is  best 
given  by  Le  Nourry  in  Worth's  edition  of  his 
works ;  by  the  Benedictine  Ceillier,  in  vol.  ii. 
of  his  Auteurs  sacres  et  ccclesiastiques  ;  and  by 
Daniel  in  Tatian  der  Apologet  (Halle,  1837). 

TATIUS,  Acliilles.     See  ACHILLES  TATIUS. 

TATNALL,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Georgia,  bound 
ed  S.  by  the  Altamaha  and  N.  E.  by  the  Can- 
nouchee,  and  intersected  by  the  Great  Ohoopee 
river ;  area,  about  1,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
4,860,  of  whom  1,280  were  colored.  The  sur 
face  is  level,  and  the  soil  sandy  and  mostly 
poor.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
74,684  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  28,117  of  oats, 
25,386  of  sweet  potatoes,  314  bales  of  cot 
ton,  23,834  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  120,012  of  rice. 
There  were  699  horses,  700  mules  and  asses, 
4,567  milch  cows,  15,138  other  cattle,  12,030 
sheep,  and  13,420  swine.  Capital,  Reedsville. 

TATFA,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  Sinde,  on 
the  W.  bank  of  the  Indus  a  few  miles  above 
the  head  of  the  delta,  48  m.  S.  S.  W.  of 
Hydrabad;  pop.  about  10,000.  It  stands  on 
ground  slightly  elevated  by  ruins,  which  are 
exceedingly  abundant  in  the  vicinity,  and  in 
clude  an  old  cemetery  said  to  contain  1,000,000 
tombs.  The  town  is  much  decayed.  During 
the  season  when  the  river  overflows  its  banks 
it  is  almost  completely  surrounded  by  water. 
There  are  some  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
silk  goods,  but  the  trade  is  not  very  extensive. 
Tatta  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient  Pattala. 
The  Portuguese  plundered  it  in  1555,  and  the 
British  established  a  factory  there  in  1758. 

TATTLER,  the  proper  name  of  the  wading 
birds  of  the  snipe  family,  of  the  division  to- 
tanece,  as  distinguished  from  the  tringem  or 
sandpipers ;  they  are  often  called  sandpipers, 
in  England  gambets,  and  in  France  cheva 
liers  or  totanes.  The  bill  is  slender,  nearly 
straight,  about  as  long  as  the  tarsus,  pointed, 
not  grooved  for  the  terminal  fourth,  gape 
extending  beyond  the  culmen,  terminal  half 
hard  and  horny,  and  base  covered  with  a 
soft  skin  ;  wings  long ;  legs  and  neck  elonga 
ted  ;  toes  connected  anteriorly  by  membrane  ; 
tail  almost  always  strongly  barred.  They  are 
genuine  waders,  frequenting  the  water's  edge, 
picking  up  insects,  mollusks,  &c.  ;  they  are 
swift  fliers  and  runners,  and  some  species  take 
readily  to  the  water ;  they  perform  migrations 
of  considerable  extent,  going  north  to  breed 
in  spring,  and  returning  through  the  temper 
ate  regions  in  early  autumn,  at  which  time 
the  flesh  is  fat,  juicy,  and  much  esteemed. 
The  French  name  is  derived  from  the  body 


being  mounted  on  long  legs,  and  appearing  as 
if  on  horseback.  The  nest  is  on  the  ground, 
usually  near  water,  and  the  young  quit  it  as 
soon  as  hatched ;  in  the  breeding  season  they 
keep  in  pairs,  and  the  families  remain  togeth 
er  until  spring. — The  tell-tale  tattler  or  greater 
yellow-legs  (gambetta  melanoleuca,  Bonap.)  is 
about  14  in.  long,  25  in.  in  alar  extent,  with 
the  bill  2i  in. ;  wings  long,  first  quill  the  long 
est ;  tail  short;  legs  yellow  and  long;  hind 
toe  small.  Above  it  is  cinereous  of  various 
shades,  with  lines,  spots,  and  edgings  of  dull 
white  ;  lower  back  brownish  black  ;  rump  and 
upper  tail  coverts  white  with  more  or  less 
perfect  brownish  bands ;  white  below,  with 
brownish  stripes  on  neck  and  bars  of  spots  on 
breast ;  quills  brownish  black  ;  tail  white,  with 
brownish  black  bands.  This  bird,  sometimes 
called  stone  snipe,  is  found  throughout  tem 
perate  North  America  and  Mexico,  preferring 
large  soft  marshes  and  the  vicinity  of  fresh 


Tell-Tale  Tattler  (Gambetta  melanoleuca). 

water ;  it  lives  with  other  waders  and  the 
smaller  ducks;  the  common  name  is  derived 
from  the  habit  of  uttering  its  shrill  whistle  of 
four  loud  and  rapidly  repeated  notes  at  the 
least  sign  of  danger,  giving  the  alarm  to  all 
the  ducks  and  other  game  birds  in  the  neigh 
borhood  ;  its  notes  are  easily  imitated,  calling 
the  bird  within  gun-shot ;  the  flesh  in  autumn 
is  excellent  eating ;  the  eggs  are  four,  2|  by 
li  in.,  pale  greenish  yellow,  with  brown  and 
purplish  gray  blotches".  The  common  yellow- 
legs  and  the  willet  will  bo  noticed  under  those 
titles.— The  spotted  tattler  or  peet-weet  (trin- 
goides  macularius,  Gray)  is  7|-  to  8  in.  long, 
13  in.  in  alar  extent,  with  the  bill  1  in.,  and 
the  tarsus  rather  less ;  the  bill  has  both  man 
dibles  grooved  and  is  tapering;  lower  third 
of  tibife  naked  ;  tail  much  rounded ;  outer  toe 
webbed  to  first  joint.  It  is  brownish  olive- 
green  above,  with  bronzed  lustre  and  lines  and 
spots  of  brownish  black;  line  over  eyes  and 


584: 


TAUCHNITZ 


TAUNTON 


under  parts  white,  the  latter  with  circular 
brownish  black  spots ;  primaries,  secondaries, 
and  outer  tail  feathers  tipped  with  white,  the 
last  with  irregular  brownish  black  bars.  It 
is  found  over  temperate  North  America,  in 
Central  America  in  winter,  and  also  in  Eu 
rope  ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  common  marsh 
birds  of  New  England,  arriving  from  the  south 
about  the  beginning  of  May  ;  it  is  often  called 
"  teeter  "  from  the  jerking  of  its  tail  up  and 
down  ;  it  does  not  associate  with  other  species, 
nor  form  large  flocks ;  it  alights  on  branches 
overhanging  the  water,  and  on  fences  and 
walls ;  the  flesh  is  delicious  in  autumn ;  the 
eggs  are  1|-  by  1  in.,  grayish  yellow  with  deep 
brown  blotches;  both  sexes  incubate. 

TAUCHMTZ.  I.  Karl  Christopu  Traugott,  a 
German  publisher,  born  at  Grosspardau,  near 
Grimma,  Oct.  29,  1701,  died  in  Leipsic,  Jan. 
14,  1836.  He  learned  the  printer's  trade  at 
Leipsic,  and  worked  in  the  celebrated  printing 
house  of  linger  in  Berlin.  In  1792  he  entered 
the  house  of  Sommer  in  Leipsic,  and  in  1796 
established  in  that  city  the  house  long  known 
by  his  name.  lie  began  with  a  small  printing 
house,  but  in  1798  opened  a  bookstore  in  con 
nection  with  it,  and  in  1800  a  type  foundery. 
In  1809  he  published  the  first  volumes  of  a  se 
ries  of  Greek  and  Latin  classics,  which,  from 
their  accuracy,  cheapness,  and  convenient  size, 
became  very  popular.  lie  also  published  some 
very  perfect  editions  of  classical  authors  in 
folio.  In  1816  he  established  the  first  stereo 
type  foundery  in  Germany;  and  he  was  the 
first  to  stereotype  music.  His  edition  of  Mo 
zart's  Don  Giovanni  had  a  wide  popularity. 
He  also  printed  stereotype  editions  of  oriental 
works,  including  two  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
and  an  edition  of  the  Koran.  II.  Karl  Christian 
Philipp,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Leipsic, 
March  4,  1798.  He  enlarged  his  father's  busi 
ness,  and  carried  it  on  with  success  until  he 
retired  in  1865.  Besides  many  celebrated  and 
important  philological  publications,  he  com 
pleted  in  1840  Farst's  edition  of  the  Hebrew 
concordance.  III.  Christian  ISernhard,  baron,  a 
German  publisher,  cousin  of  the  preceding, 
born  Aug.  25,  1816.  He  founded  in  Leipsic 
in  1837  a  publishing  house,  which  has  become 
celebrated  by  the  issue  of  a  collection  of  Eng 
lish  works,  well  known  as  the  "Tauchnitz 
editions,"  of  which  more  than  1,000  volumes 
had  been  published  in  1868,  of  more  than  120 
English  authors ;  a  copyright  for  the  conti 
nent  being  secured  for  the  more  recent  works. 
In  1866  he  began  the  publication  of  a  series  of 
German  authors  for  the  use  of  English-speak 
ing  people.  In  1860  the  title  of  baron  was 
conferred  upon  him  by  the  duke  of  Saxe-Co- 
burg-Gotha,  and  his  title  was  recognized  by 
the  king  of  Saxony  in  1861. 

TAULER,  Juhann,  a  German  mystic,  born 
probably  in  Strasburg  in  1290,  died  there,  June 
16,  1361.  At  the  age  of  18  he  renounced  a 
fortune  to  enter  the  Dominican  cloister.  After 
studying  the  scholastic  theology  in  Paris  he 


returned  to  Strasburg,  and  came  under  the  in 
fluence  of  Master  Eckhart.  He  became  one 
of  the  so-called  "friends  of  God,"  an  unor 
ganized  brotherhood,  including  priests,  nobles, 
and  burghers  in  all  the  large  cities,  who  repre 
sented  the  height  of  mysticism,  denied  the  spe 
cial  prerogative  of  the  clergy  except  in  the 
celebration  of  the  sacraments,  and  dwelt  upon 
worship  in  the  heart  and  life.  He  preached 
in  Strasburg,  Cologne,  and  Basel,  where  Henry 
of  Nordlingen  had  resumed  his  forbidden  func 
tions.  Amid  the  ravages  of  the  black  death 
(1348-'9),  he  bestowed  the  consolations  of  re 
ligion  on  the  people,  preaching  in  German 
mingled  with  Latin.  He  wrote  in  German 
a  treatise  on  "  Following  the  Lowly  Life  of 
Christ"  (Frankfort,  1621),  addressed  a  remon 
strance  to  the  clergy  against  leaving  the  dying 
unattended  and  unabsolved,  and  denounced 
ecclesiastical  abuses.  Having  been  summoned 
by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  when  at  Stras 
burg  in  1348,  to  render  an  account  of  his 
faith,  he  disappeared  from  the  city,  but  re 
turned  there  shortly  before  his  death.  The 
best  of  the  early  editions  of  his  sermons  are 
those  of  Leipsic  (1498),  Basel  (1521-'2),  Hal- 
berstadt  (1523),  and  Cologne  (1543).  there 
is  a  modern  German  translation  by  Schlosser 
of  his  sermons  (3  vols.,  Frankfort,  1826  ;  2d 
ed.,  1864),  and  of  his  Nachfolgung  des  armen 
Leliens  Christi  (1833).  The  hymns  attribu 
ted  to  him  are  of  doubtful  authenticity. — 
See  Schmidt,  Johannes  Tauler  von  Strasburg 
(Hamburg,  1841),  arid  Miss  Winkworth,  "Life 
and  Times  of  Tauler,"  with  25  of  his  sermons 
translated  from  the  German  (1857). 

TACJVTOJV,  a  city  and  one  of  the  shire  towns 
of  Bristol  co.,  Massachusetts,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  Taunton  river,  24  m.  from  Nar- 
ragansett  bay,  17  m.  E.  of  Providence,  R.  I., 
and  32  m.  S.  of  Boston  ;  pop.  in  1850,  10,441  ; 
in  1860,  15,376;  in  1870,  18,629,  of  whom 
4,605  were  foreigners;  in  1875,  20,429.  In 
shape  it  is  an  irregular  polygon,  having  an 
extreme  length  N.  W.  and  S.  E.  of  11  m.  and 
an  average  width  of  6  m.  The  surface  is  gen 
erally  level ;  half  of  the  land  is  wooded  with 
forests  of  pine,  oak,  beech,  and  cedar,  and 
there  are  five  ponds  of  considerable  size.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Taunton  river  and  two  prin 
cipal  branches,  the  Canoe  and  Rumford,  which 
furnish  power  for  many  mills  and  factories. 
Navigation  is  impeded  by  ice  but  a  small  part 
of  the  winter.  The  city  communicates  by  rail 
with  Boston,  Providence,  Fall  River,  Newport, 
New  Bedford,  Cape  Cod,  and  various  other 
points,  and  has  a  line  of  street  cars.  There 
are  several  villages  within  the  city  limits.  The 
streets  of  the  central  village  are  well  laid  out, 
lighted  by  gas,  and  adorned  by  shade  trees  of 
various  kinds.  The  "  green"  is  a  well  shaded 
public  ground.  There  are  many  elegant  resi- 
'  dences,  some  of  great  cost,  to  which  are  at 
tached  gardens  and  conservatories.  The  prin 
cipal  public  buildings  are  the  court  house,  city 
hall,  hotels,  school  houses,  and  churches.  The 


TAUNTON 


TAURUS 


585 


state  hospital  for  the  insane  occupies  a  con 
spicuous  site,  with  grounds  of  more  than  140 
acres,  and  accommodates  over  400  patients. 
Taunton  has  from  the  beginning  been  noted 
for  its  manufacture  of  brick  and  iron,  the  lat 
ter  being  at  present  the  leading  business,  and 
employing  a  capital  of  about  $2,000,000.  There 
are  two  locomotive  works,  two  tack  and  nail 
factories,  several  founderies  and  machine  shops, 
&c.  In  copper  manufacture  a  capital  of  about 
$900,000  is  invested.  The  Taunton  copper 
company,  the  oldest  and  largest  in  the  United 
States,  has  been  incorporated  nearly  50  years. 
Its  products  are  copper,  sheet  zinc,  and  yellow 
metal  sheathing.  Among  other  establishments 
are  two  manufactories  of  silver-plated  and 
britannia  ware,  four  of  stove  linings  and  tire 
brick,  two  of  crucibles,  five  cotton  factories,  a 
flannel  factory,  a  carriage  factory,  &c.  There 
are  three  national  banks,  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $1,300,000,  and  two  savings  banks, 
with  deposits  to  the  amount  of  $4,500,000. 
The  coasting  trade  is  important.  Taunton  and 
Taunton  river  are  also  proverbial  for  their  her 
ring  fisheries,  the  privileges  of  which  are  still 
annually  sold,  though  few  of  the  inhabitants 
now  pursue  this  branch  of  industry.  Large 
quantities  of  shad  and  alewives  are  taken  from 
the  river  in  April  and  May. — The  city  is  gov 
erned  by  a  mayor,  eight  aldermen  (one  from 
each  ward),  and  24  common  councilmen.  The 
taxable  value  of  property  in  1874  was  $18,326,- 
228  ;  city  debt,  $275,600.  The  public  schools 
comprise  the  following  grades  :  high,  1 ;  gram 
mar,  12  ;  intermediate  and  primary,  31  ;  un 
graded  schools,  15.  The  number  of  pupils  en 
rolled  in  1874  was  3,654;  average  attendance, 
2,522  ;  total  expenditure  for  support  of  schools, 
$42,759  58.  There  are  two  private  schools, 
an  incorporated  academy,  a  public  library  of 
13,000  volumes,  and  a  daily  and  two  Aveekly 
newspapers.  The  principal  charitable  institu 
tions  are  the  insane  asylum,  the  city  almshouse, 
and  a  home  for  aged  and  infirm  women.  There 
are  19  churches,  viz. :  2  Baptist,  3  Congre 
gational,  2  Episcopal,  1  Free-Will  Baptist,  4 
Methodist,  2  Eoman  Catholic,  3  Unitarian,  1 
Universalist,  and  1  Union. — Taunton,  of  which 
the  Indian  name  was  Cohannet,  was  settled 
in  1638  by  a  company  from  Taunton  in  Eng 
land,  from  whom  a  large  proportion  of  the 
present  natives  of  the  town  are  descended.  It 
became  a  city  in  1864.  One  of  the  chief  pro 
moters  of  its  settlement  was  Miss  Elizabeth 
Pool,  to  whom  a  monument  has  been  erected 
in  the  cemetery.  In  King  Philip's  war  the 
town  was  protected  from  harm  by  the  king's 
friendship  for  Thomas  Leonard.  Here  was 
Philip's  favorite  hunting  ground. 

TAUNTON,  a  town  of  Somersetshire,  Eng 
land,  on  the  Tone,  133  m.  W.  S.  TV.  of  Lon 
don  ;  pop.  in  1871,  15,466.  It  has  an  old 
castle,  several  places  of  worship,  including 
the  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  with  a  fine 
renovated  tower,  and  various  charitable  and 
educational  institutions.  Amon<?  the  latter  is 


a  college  established  in  1868  by  the  Congrega- 
tionalists  at  Fairwater,  outside  of  the  town. 
The  wool  manufactories  established  in  the  14th 
•century  have  long  since  declined,  and  gloves 
are  now  the  staple  industry.  In  1645  it  was 
held  by  Blake  for  the  parliament,  and  sustained 
a  protracted  siege  by  10,000  royalists. 

TAURIDA,  a  S.  government  of  European  Rus- 
sia,  bordering  on  the  governments  of  Kherson 
and  Yekaterinoslav,  the  sea  of  Azov,  and  the 
Black  sea;  area,  24,537  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
704,997,  a  large  part  Tartars.  The  govern 
ment  includes  the  Crimea  (the  Tauris  of  the 
ancients,  whence  the  name  Taurida),  which 
comprises  nearly  one  third  of  the  area  and 
population,  and  contains  the  capital  Simfero 
pol,  and  the  principal  port  and  naval  station 
Sebastopol.  (See  CRIMEA.)  The  N.  part  is  a 
dry  elevated  country,  with  a  sandy  soil  im 
pregnated  with  salt,  and  without  trees,  but 
with  some  rich  valleys  that  produce  luxuriant 
herbage.  Agriculture  is  little  attended  to,  and 
the  country  is  chiefly  devoted  to  rearing  cat 
tle.  A  few  small  streams  flow  into  the  sea  of 
Azov,  but  the  only  river  of  importance  is  the 
Dnieper  on  the  JST.  TV.  frontier.  Numerous 
tongues  of  land  formed  by  alluvial  deposits 
project  from  the  S.  coast,  the  most  extensive 
of  which  lies  S.  of  the  estuary  of  the  Dnieper, 
and  was  anciently  called  Achilleos  Dromos,  or 
Race  Course  of  Achilles.  Salt,  saltpetre,  and 
naphtha  are  abundant,  and  marble  is  quarried. 

TAUR09IENIOI,  an  ancient  Greek  city  on  the 
E.  coast  of  Sicily,  about  half,  way  between 
Messana  and  Catana,  founded  on  the  hill  of 
Taurus,  overlooking  the  sea,  after  the  destruc 
tion  of  Naxos,  3  m.  to  the  south,  by  Dionysius 
the  Elder  of  Syracuse,  in  403  B.  0.  In  394 
Dionysius  besieged  it  unsuccessfully  for  a  long 
time,  but  it  fell  into  his  hands  in  892.  In  858 
Andromachus,  the  father  of  the  historian  Ti- 
mseus,  is  said  to  have  collected  all  the  exiled 
Naxians,  and  established  them  at  Taurome- 
nium.  In  344  Timoleon  landed  here,  but  left 
Andromachus  in  possession.  Subsequently  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Hiero,  king  of  Syra 
cuse.  During  the  servile  war  in  Sicily  (184- 
132)  it  was  desperately  defended  by  the  insur 
gent  slaves.  It  was  one  of  the  last  places 
taken  from  the  Greek  emperors  by  the  Sara 
cens  (906),  who  destroyed  it.  The  modern 
village  of  Taormina  occupies  its  site. 

TAURUS,  a.range  of  mountains  in  Asia  Minor, 
forming  in  the  main  the  watershed  between 
the  waters  flowing  into  the  Mediterranean  and 
those  flowing  into  the  Black  sea.  It  consists 
of  two  principal  chains,  the  Taurus  proper,  in 
the  south  of  the  peninsula,  and  its  northeast 
erly  continuation,  the  Anti-Taurus.  With  its 
ramifications  in  the  north,  which  by  former 
geographers  were  generally  designated  as  the 
Anti-Taurus,  the  range  forms  three  sides  of 
the  broad  plateau  of  central  and  eastern  Asia 
Minor.  The  commencement  of  the  Taurus 
proper  on  the  west  is  a  disputed  point.  Its 
principal  divisions  are  the  Lycian  and  the  Ci- 


586 


TAUSIG 


TAXES 


lician  Taurus.  It  follows  closely  the  sinuosi 
ties  of  the  coast,  leaving  hut  a  narrow  margin 
between  ;  the  northern  slopes  are  less  abrupt 
than  the  southern.  Snow-capped  peaks  are  nu 
merous,  and  fine  forests  cover  the  sides  of  the 
chain.  In  the  ancient  province  of  Lycia  the 
summits  Takhtali  Dagh  and  Ak  Dagh  are  re 
spectively  7,800  and  9,800  ft.  high.  Gok  Dagh, 
on  the  confines  of  ancient  Pisidia,  Isauria,  and 
Oilicia,  is  of  about  equal  height  with  Ak  Dagh, 
while  the  highest  summit  of  Bulghar  Dagh, 
further  east,  reaches  an  elevation  of  about  11,- 
400  ft.  The  Ala  Dagh  connects  Bulghar  Dagh 
with  the  Anti-Taurus,  which  extends  from  the 
W.  branch  of  the  Sihun  (anc.  Sarus),  through 
Cappadocia,  to  the  vicinity  of  the  upper  Eu 
phrates  and  the  Armenian  mountains.  The 
Arjish  Dagh  (anc.  Argceus,  in  Cappadocia), 
the  highest  peak  of  Asia  Minor  (13,100  ft.), 
though  isolated,  is  generally  reckoned  as  be 
longing  to  the  Anti-Taurus.  On  the  whole, 
however,  this  chain  is  less  high  than  the  Taurus 
proper.  The  Amanus  range,  E.  of  the  river 
Sihun  (anc.  Pyramus),  connects  the  Anti- 
Taurus  with  the  mountain  system  of  Syria. 
The  main  pass  between  the  latter  country  and 
Asia  Minor,  called  by  the  ancients  the  Cilician 
Gates,  is  formed  by  the  valley  of  the  upper 
Cvdnus  (now  Tersus),  in  the  Cilician  Taurus, 
N.  W.  of  Adana. 

TAUSIG,  Karl,  a  German  pianist,  born  near 
Warsaw,  Nov.  4,  1841,  died  in  Leipsic,  July  17, 
1871.  He  studied  under  his  father  and  Liszt, 
after  whom  he  ranked  as  the  first  pianist  in 
Europe.  In  1861-'2  he  brought  out  at  Vienna 
works  of  Liszt,  Wagner,  and  Berlioz  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  gain  for  himself  a  great  reputa 
tion  as  an  orchestral  director.  In  18(35  he 
went  to  Berlin  and  was  made  court  pianist, 
and  became  the  head  of  the  institution  for 
piano  virtuosos.  He  played  without  notes 
nearly  every  great  composition  from  the  time 
of  Bach  to  Liszt. 

TAITOG.     See  BLACKFISII. 

TAVASTEHUUS.  I.  A  S.  W.  Kin  or  govern 
ment  of  Finland,  Russia;  area,  8,324  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1872,  193,477,  all  Lutherans.  It  is 
mountainous,  and  has  many  lakes.  Corn, 
hemp,  flax,  and  cattle  are  produced.  II.  A 
town,  capital  of  the  Kin,  85  m.  N".  E.  of  Abo ; 
pop.  in  1807,  3,150.  The  first  Finnish  railway 
was  opened  in  1862  hence  to  Ilelsingfors. 

TAVERMER,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  travel 
ler,  born  in  Paris  in  1605,  died  in  Copenhagen 
in  1689.  lie  early  explored  many  countries, 
served  occasionally  as  a  soldier,  and  made  six 
journeys  to  western  Asia  and  to  India,  mostly 
on  foot.  His  father-in-law,  a  jeweller,  having 
taught  him  the  art  of  valuing  precious  stones, 
he  acquired  a  fortune,  Avas  ennobled  by  Louis 
XIV.  for  promoting  French  trade  in  India,  and 
bought  the  barony  of  Aubonne  near  the  lake 
of  Geneva ;  but  he  was  ruined  by  his  nephew, 
and  in  1687  fled  to  Berlin  to  escape  persecu 
tions  as  a  Protestant.  There  he  became  direc 
tor  of  an  East  Indian  company,  and  soon  un 


dertook  a  seventh  journey,  which  was  inter 
rupted  by  his  fatal  illness  in  Denmark.  Louis 
XIV.  bought  of  him  millions  of  francs  worth 
of  diamonds.  Under  his  direction  Chappuzeau 
edited  Les  six  voyages  de  J.  J3.  Tavern  ier  (2  vols., 
1676-'7),  and  La  Chapelle  a  3d  volume  in  1679. 
The  latter  also  reedited  in  1675  Nomelle  rela 
tion  de  Vinterieur  du  serail  du  grand  seigneur, 
line  Tiistoire  du  Japon,  an&Memoire  sur  la  con- 
duite  des  Hollandais.  The  first  named  work 
has  been  frequently  reprinted  and  translated 
(English,  2  vols.  folio,  1678-'84). 

TAXES,  the  contributions  levied  by  a  govern 
ment  upon  persons  and  property,  for  the  use 
of  the  government.  As  a  revenue  for  the  use 
of  the  state  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  exis 
tence  of  any  orderly  government,  it  is  reason 
able  to  infer  that  taxes  were  levied  preceding 
the  earliest  of  which  historical  records  remain. 
But  in  the  early  ages  rulers  had  other  means 
of  supplying  their  wants  without  resort  to 
regular  levies.  One  of  these  might  be  prop 
erty  of  which  the  state  or  its  ruler  had  the 
ownership,  the  rents  or  other  returns  from 
which  rendered  taxes  unnecessary.  In  early 
periods,  also,  fines  and  confiscations  or  com 
pensations  for  crime  constituted  an  important 
source  of  revenue.  The  early  taxes  were  most 
severe  where  the  religious  worship  was  sup 
ported  by  this  means.  Among  the  Hebrews, 
in  the  time  of  the  theocracy,  there  was  a  capi 
tation  tax  of  a  half  shekel  (about  30  eta.)  pay 
able  by  every  male  in  the  nation  (according 
to  some  the  regular  payment  of  this  was  of 
later  origin) ;  a  tribute  of  the  first  fruits,  and  of 
the  first  born  of  their  domestic  animals,  which 
might  be  commuted  for  money  at  a  fixed  rate ; 
a  redemption  tax  for  the  first  born  male  of  the 
family ;  and  a  first  and  second  tithe  for  the 
support  of  the  Levites  and  of  the  service  of 
the  tabernacle,  and  every  third  year  a  third 
tithe  (according  to  some  an  application  of  the 
second  tithe)  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  and 
so  in  some  sense  a  poor  rate.  After  they 
adopted  the  regal  form  of  government,  the 
taxes  were  greatly  increased.  Solomon  col 
lected  a  large  revenue;  and  the  stoning  to 
death  of  Adoram,  "  who  was  over  the  tribute," 
and  the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes  at  the  com 
mencement  of  the  reign  of  his  son  and  suc 
cessor,  indicate  how  oppressive  had  been  the 
taxation. — In  the  Athenian  republic  there  were 
no  direct  taxes,  either  on  personal  or  real 
estate ;  the  sources  of  revenue  were  the  lands 
of  the  republic,  fines  and  confiscations,  the 
royalty  of  ?1T  of  the  products  of  the  mines,  a 
capitation  tax  on  f reedmen  and  foreigners  resi 
dent  in  the  republic,  customs  duties  on  foreign 
commodities  and  merchandise,  on  which  a 
tariff  of  2  per  cent,  was  levied,  some  excise 
duties,  licenses  of  markets  and  houses  of  pros 
titution,  and  tribute  paid  hy  other  cities  and 
islands.  The  imposts,  licenses,  &c.,  were  gen 
erally  farmed  to  companies,  which  gave  secu 
rity  for  their  prompt  payment.  In  times  of 
war,  extraordinary  contributions  were  levied 


TAXES 


587 


on  wealthy  citizens,  or  an  appeal  was  made  to 
their  patriotism.  The  common  people,  so  far 
from  paying  any  tax  except  the  duty  on  the 
goods  they  purchased,  received  from  the  state 
large  appropriations  for  public  games  and  spec 
tacles.  In  Rome,  under  the  republic,  the  spoils 
of  conquered  nations  and  the  annual  tribute 
exacted  from  them  defrayed  the  greater  part 
of  the  expenses  of  the  state;  but  under  the 
empire  it  was  found  necessary  to  resort  to 
numerous  devices  of  taxation,  portions  of  the 
territorial  revenues  were  sequestrated,  capi 
tation  taxes  levied,  tolls,  taxes  on  corn,  and 
legacy  and  hereditary  duties  collected,  heavy 
sums  exacted  for  the  privilege  of  Roman  citi 
zenship,  &c.  During  a  large  part  of  the  mid 
dle  ages,  under  the  feudal  institutions,  there 
was  no  system  of  taxation.  The  kings  were 
maintained  by  the  products  of  their  land,  and 
in  case  of  war  their  vassals,  the  barons  and 
knights,  were  under  obligation  to  furnish  their 
quota  of  men-at-arms  equipped  and  provis 
ioned  without  expense  to  the  monarch ;  and 
this  military  service  was  performed  by  their 
tenants  by  w\iy  of  rental  for  the  lands  they 
cultivated.  The  first  approach  to  modern  sys 
tems  was  made  during  the  middle  ages  by 
the  republic  of  Venice,  which  levied  taxes  on 
the  lands  of  the  republic,  and  also  in  the  form 
of  duties  on  manufactures  and  imports ;  these 
duties,  which  brought  in  a  large  revenue,  were 
imposed  on  the  necessaries  as  well  as  the  luxu 
ries  of  life.  In  France,  prior  to  the  revolution, 
there  was  a  serious  obstacle  to  any  equitable 
system  of  taxation  in  the  fact  that  the  nobility 
and  clergy,  the  privileged  classes  as  they  were 
termed,  were  exempted  from  its  burdens.  In 
England  the  finances  for  centuries  were  badly 
managed;  there  was  little  encouragement  to 
industry,  and  the  taxes,  whether  direct  or  in 
direct,  were  insufficient  for  the  expenses  of 
the  government.  The  privileged  classes  were 
exempted  as  in  France.  Resort  was  often  had 
to  the  sale  of  monopolies,  and  to  forced  loans, 
contributions,  and  confiscations.  In  most  of 
the  other  countries  of  Europe  no  taxes  were 
levied  on  the  clergy  or  the  nobles.  In  the 
countries  of  western  Asia,  the  government  of 
provinces  with  the  right  of  taxation  was  be 
stowed  on  favorites,  or  sold  to  the  man  who 
wTould  pay  highest  for  it ;  and  as  the  duration 
of  the  government  of  these  rulers  was  short, 
they  practised  the  most  cruel  extortion,  com 
pletely  annihilating  industry,  and  often  trans 
forming  countries  once  prosperous  and  popu 
lous  into  desert  wastes. — Taxes  are  either  direct 
or  indirect.  The  former  are  those  which  are 
levied  upon  the  persons,  property,  business, 
income,  &c.,  of  those  who  are  to  pay  them ; 
the  latter  are  levied  on  commodities  in  the 
hands  of  manufacturers  and  dealers,  and  will 
be  paid  ultimately  by  consumers  as  a  part  of 
the  price  of  the  commodity.  Presumptively 
the  former  are  paid  by  the  persons  taxed,  while 
as  to  the  latter  the  persons  who  make  payment 
to  the  government  only  advance  to  it  the  taxes, 


expecting  to  reimburse  the  amount  in  their 
sales  and  thus  transfer  the  tax  to  the  pur 
chasers.  They  constitute  therefore  as  to  these 
taxes  the  collectors  for  the  government,  col 
lecting  with  ease  and  convenience  from  the 
whole  body  of  consumers  a  tax  which  it  would 
be  difficult  and  expensive,  perhaps  impossible, 
for  the  government  to  collect  from  the  several 
consumers  after  the  articles  taxed  have  passed 
into  their  hands.  But  though  direct  taxes 
presumptively  fall  upon  the  persons  taxed,  a 
portion  of  the  burden  is  usually  transferred  to 
others,  and  is  diffused  through  the  community 
in  a  manner  that  renders  it  impossible  to  indi 
cate  the  precise  extent.  A  direct  tax  on  lands 
is  paid  by  the  land  owner ;  but  if  the  revenues 
of  the  state  were  principally  collected  from 
this  source,  the  necessary  result  would  be  such 
an  increase  in  the  price  of  everything  which 
the  land  produces  as  would  transfer  to  con 
sumers  a  large  proportion  of  the  tax,  and  thus 
have  the  effect  of  an  indirect  tax  upon  them. 
A  like  result  must  follow  the  taxation  of  pro 
fessional  incomes,  unless  the  incomes  of  oth 
er  callings  are  taxed  proportionably,  so  as  to 
equalize  the  burden  by  the  tax  law  itself,  in 
stead  of  leaving  it  to  be  equalized  by  the  in 
crease  in  price  of  whatever  those  who  pay  the 
tax  have  to  sell,  as  compared  with  the  price 
of  what  is  sold  by  those  who  are  not  taxed. 
A  process  of  equalization  of  this  nature  must 
always  be  going  on  when  one  class  of  property 
or  occupation  is  taxed  and  another  exempted. 
— The  true  principles  of  taxation  were  little 
understood  until  the  time  of  Adam  Smith,  and 
even  now  are  in  many  particulars  the  subject  of 
earnest  controversy.  That  writer  laid  down 
maxims  of  taxation  as  follows:  u  1.  The  sub 
jects  of  every  state  ought  to  contribute  toward 
the  support  of  the  government,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  in  proportion  to  their  respective  abil 
ities  ;  that  is,  in  proportion  to  the  revenue 
which  they  respectively  enjoy  under  the  pro 
tection  of  the  state.  2.  The  tax  which  each 
individual  is  bound  to  pay  ought  to  be  cer 
tain,  and  not  arbitrary ;  the  time  of  payment, 
the  manner  of  payment,  and  the  quantity  to 
be  paid,  ought  all  to  be  clear  and  plain  to  the 
contributor  and  to  every  other  person.  3. 
Every  tax  ought  to  be  levied  at  the  time  and 
in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  most  likely  to  be 
convenient  for  the  contributor  to  pay  it.  4. 
Every  tax  ought  to  be  so  contrived  as  both 
to  take  out  and  keep  out  of  the  pockets  of 
the  people  as  little  as  possible  over  and  above 
what  it  brings  into  the  public  treasury  of  the 
state."  Prof.  Amasa  Walker,  in  his  "  Science 
of  Wealth,"  adds  to  these  the  following,  which 
he  justly  says  has  been  adopted  in  every  coun 
try  having  any  considerable  taxation :  "  5.  The 
heaviest  taxes  should  be  imposed  on  those 
commodities  the  consumption  of  which  is  es 
pecially  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  the  peo 
ple."  The  first  of  these  maxims  has  met  with 
little  or  no  recognition  except  in  recent  times. 
It  has  already  been  said  that  until  recently, 


588 


TAXES 


even  in  the  most  civilized  countries,  precisely 
those  classes  who  enjoyed  the  largest  revenue, 
and  presumptively  were  most  able  to  contrib 
ute  to  the  support  of  government,  were  ex 
empted  altogether.  The  modern  idea  not  only 
accepts  this  first  maxim,  but  it  goes  somewhat 
further  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  practice 
of  former  times,  and  holds  that  revenue  which 
is  only  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  per 
son  and  his  family  should  be  regarded  as  not 
subject  to  taxation  at  all,  but  the  whole  bur 
den  should  be  levied  upon  the  large  revenues. 
Full  effect  is  seldom  given  to  this  idea,  but  its 
recognition  is  seen  in  the  exemption  of  small 
incomes  when  an  income  tax  is  laid,  and  in 
the  exemption  of  household  furniture,  tools  of 
trade,  &c.,  when  property  is  taxed  by  value. 
"While  this  first  maxim  is  true  in  a  general 
sense,  there  are  many  exceptions  to  be  made 
to  it,  and  no  tax  system  ever  professes  to  be 
framed  in  strict  accordance  with  it.  The  land 
owner  who  voluntarily  allows  his  lands  to  lie 
idle  and  produce  no  returns,  and  thus  avoids 
contributing  to  the  common  benefit  of  society, 
has  no  claim  to  exemption  ;  and  as  his  proper 
ty  is  meanwhile  protected  by  the  government, 
it  is  only  reasonable  that  he  should  make  due 
return  for  this  protection.  A  man  possessed 
of  large  means  may  have  them  invested  in  a 
large  establishment,  fine  grounds,  elegant  col 
lections  of  art,  &c.,  which  a  moderate  income 
enables  him  to  support ;  while  another  whose 
whole  capital  is  kept  in  productive  employment 
may  realize  no  greater  income  from  his  com 
paratively  small  moans,,  supplemented  by  his 
own  labor.  Obviously  in  such  cases  income 
could  not  be  a  proper  standard  of  taxation  as 
between  the  two.  To  render  the  maxim  just 
in  all  cases,  other  than  pecuniary  returns  must 
be  had  in  view,  and  the  standard  of  taxation 
must  embrace  something  besides  income.  In 
modern  times  complicated  systems  have  gener 
ally  been  established  in  which  taxes  have  been 
laid  on  expenditure  as  well  as  on  income,  and 
to  these  have  been  added  taxes  on  the  value  of 
property,  the  purpose  being  to  levy  a  diversi 
ty  of  taxes  which,  as  they  work  together,  will 
be  likely  to  result  in  distributing  the  burdens 
of  government  more  equally  and  justly  than 
any  single  tax  could  possibly  do.  The  second 
maxim  is  one  that  should  admit  of  no  excep 
tion  when  direct  taxes  are  laid;  but  when 
taxes  are  indirect,  one  of  their  chief  advan 
tages  is  supposed  to  be  that  they  are  paid  by 
the  people  without  their  being  aware  at 'the 
time  that  they  are  paying  taxes  at  all,  or  at 
least  without  reflection  on  their  part  that  what 
they  pay  as  price  includes  a  tax.  The  third 
maxim  is  sometimes  hhd  in  view  in  the  im 
position  of  taxes  in  kind,  but  it  must  be  very 
rare  indeed  that  this  method  of  obtaining  a 
revenue  can  be  either  convenient  to  the  peo 
ple  or  economical  to  the  government.  Only 
when  extraordinary  circumstances  preclude  a 
ready  exchange  of  the  products  of  the  coun 
try  for  money,  such  as  for  a  time  existed 


while  the  southern  states  of  the  Union  were 
in  insurrection  against  the  government,  could 
taxes  in  kind  be  preferable  either  to  the  tax 
payers  or  to  the  government.  The  exchange 
of  property  for  money  is  always  better  done 
by  individuals  than  by  the  government,  and 
the  government  consults  the  interests  of  the 
people  by  making  taxes  payable  at  the  sea 
son  of  the  year  when  the  harvests  have  gen 
erally  been  gathered,  and  when  it  is  pre 
sumed  the  tax  payers  can  most  conveniently 
meet  the  demand.  The  fourth  maxim  is  often 
violated  by  large  and  needless  accumulations 
in  the  public  treasury,  which  are  impolitic  for 
the  further  reason  that  they  tend  to  extrav 
agance  and  corruption  and  invite  peculation. 
One  important  measure  which  governments 
adopt  has  express  reference  to  this  maxim, 
viz.,  the  warehousing  system,  under  which 
the  importer,  instead  of  being  compelled  to 
pay  the  customs  duties  on  the  arrival  of  the 
goods,  and  to  charge  his  customers  with  the 
consequent  loss  of  interest  until  sales  are  made, 
is  permitted  to  leave  them  in  store,  and  to  pay 
the  duties  when  the  goods  are  withdrawn  for 
sale.  Mr.  Walker's  supplementary  maxim  is 
had  in  view  in  all  well  regulated  governments. 
Spirituous  and  fermented  liquors  and  tobacco 
are  usually  made  to  pay  heavy  taxes,  while 
breadstuffs  are  exempt,  or  only  taxed  as  a  part 
of  the  general  property  of  the  country  by  value ; 
and  at  the  same  time  perhaps  license  taxes  will 
be  imposed  upon  dealers  in  spirits  and  tobacco, 
and  also  upon  the  keepers  of  billiard  tables  and 
places  of  amusement.— The  taxes  which  have 
been  laid  at  different  times  have  been  almost 
infinite  in  variety,  depending  sometimes  main 
ly  on  considerations  of  policy,  while  at  others 
the  necessities  of  government  have  compelled 
it  to  make  use  of  every  available  means  of  ex 
tracting  money  from  the  people.  One  of  the 
earliest  taxes  was  perhaps  a  capitation  tax,  but 
this  can  seldom  be  reasonably  fair  or  equal, 
because  it  can  take  no  account  of  the  differ 
ences  in  condition,  resources,  or  income  of  the 
persons  taxed.  The  land  tax  was  also  an  early 
device,  and  the  feudal  services  easily  slid  into  a 
burden  of  this  character.  A  land  tax  as  a  part 
of  a  system  of  taxes  may  be  a  just  tax,  and 
by  itself  may  not  be  so  unequal  or  unjust  as 
would  at  first  be  supposed.  Land  is  the  most 
available  resource  for  direct  taxation,  and  in 
this  country  land  is  found  in  the  hands  of  so 
large  a  portion  of  the  people  that  the  states 
are  enabled  to  raise  the  greater  part  of  their 
revenues  from  this  source  without  exciting  any 
general  feeling  of  discontent.  Land  taxes  may 
be  measured  by  area,  which,  except  in  the  case 
of  assessments  for  some  local  purposes,  must 
always  be  unequal,  or  they  may  be  ^measured 
by  rents  or  by  value.  A  house  tax  is  common 
in  other  countries,  and  was  formerly  measured 
by  windows  or  hearths ;  but  as  the  adoption 
•of  either  standard  tended  to  diminish  the  num 
ber  of  the  convenience  which  was  the  measure 
of  the  tax,  the  rent  or  rental  value  is  generally 


TAXES 


589 


substituted.  The  income  tax,  however  just  in 
theory,  has  always  proved  unequal  from  the 
impossibility  of  obtaining  accurate  returns,  and 
unpopular  from  the  necessity  it  involved  of 
prying  into  the  business  and  private  concerns 
of  the  people.  Great  use  has  however  been 
made  of  it  in  England,  where  one  has  been 
imposed  ever  since  1842,  undergoing  in  the 
mean  time  18  alterations,  the  rate  ranging  from 
IQd.  in  the  pound  to  2d.  In  some  tax  laws 
incomes  are  graded,  and  those  are  taxed  least 
which  are  derived  from  property  otherwise 
taxed,  or  which  for  any  reason  it  is  thought 
should  not  be  taxed  as  high  as  others.  In 
America  an  income  tax  has  always  been  excep 
tional.  Excise  taxes  are  laid  in  great  variety, 
and  in  some  countries  produce  the  larger  por 
tion  of  the  revenue.  The  heaviest  are  usually 
those  on  the  manufacture  of  liquors ;  these  have 
sometimes  been  made  so  heavy  as  to  furnish 
strong  inducements  to  evasion,  and  by  various 
ingenious  contrivances,  combined  usually  with 
corruption  of  the  revenue  officers,  the  heavy 
tax  is  made  less  productive  than  a  light  one. 
Excise  taxes  are  also  laid  on  employments  in 
various  forms,  on  the  profits  of  business  and  of 
corporations,  &c.  A  succession  tax,  or  a  tax 
on  the  privilege  of  succeeding  to  an  inheritance 
or  to  a  testamentary  gift,  has  been  customary. 
When  the  succession  is  collateral,  or  out  of  the 
immediate  family  of  the  deceased,  it  comes  in 
diminution  of  a  new  capital  and  will  not  be 
burdensome ;  but  when  paid  by  the  immediate 
family  of  the  deceased,  the  burden  is  more  felt, 
because  that  from  which  the  tax  is  taken  was, 
for  all  purposes  of  comfort  and  enjoyment,  the 
property  of  the  family  before.  Customs  taxes 
are  in  some  countries  next  in  productiveness 
to  excise  taxes,  while  in  others  they  are  much 
more  productive.  They  are  favorite  taxes 
with  governments  because  they  are  easy  of 
collection,  and  because  the  people  submit  to 
them  more  willingly  than  to  either  the  direct 
or  the  indirect  internal  taxes.  They  are  ob 
jectionable  because  of  the  strong  invitation 
they  hold  out  to  smuggling,  which  is  greater 
in  proportion  as  the  tax  is  heavy,  and  also  be 
cause  of  the  temptation  they  offer  for  discrimi 
nating  legislation  for  the  benefit  of  particular 
occupations  or  to  build  up  monopolies.  Pro 
tective  taxation  is  usually  laid  'in  this  form. 
Either  an  excise  or  a  customs  tax  will  be  pro 
ductive  in  proportion  as  the  article  taxed  is 
one  in  general  use,  and  as  the  government  suc 
ceeds  in  collecting  the  tax  and  preventing  eva 
sions.  An  export  tax  is  not  often  laid,  it  be 
ing  thought  impolitic  as  tending  to  diminish 
exportation  and  production,  and  also  because, 
to  the  extent  that  it  seems  to  transfer  to  par- 
chasers  in  other  countries  the  burdens  of  the 
government  imposing  it,  the  tendency  is  to  in 
vite  retaliatory  legislation.  A  property  tax 
by  value  has  very  generally  been  regarded  in 
America  as  the  most  equal  and  just  of  all  taxes. 
Practically,  it  falls  mainly  on  real  property, 
from  the  difficulty  of  discovering  and  listing 


personalty  except  in  its  most  tangible  forms. 
Stamp  taxes  are  laid  in  various  forms :  on 
manufactured  articles,  bills  of  exchange,  checks, 
deeds,  contracts,  and  other  instruments  of  busi 
ness  or  traffic,  on  the  process  of  courts,  letters 
of  administration,  &c.,  and  sometimes  on  news 
papers.  No  taxes  are  so  easily,  cheaply,  or 
conveniently  collected  as  these,  and  when  levied 
on  articles  selected  with  a  view  to  a  fair  dis 
tribution  of  the  burden,  none  could  be  more 
just.  In  the  United  States  they  are  generally 
abandoned  except  for  the  purposes  of  the  excise 
on  manufactures.  The  enjoyments  and  amuse 
ments  of  the  wealthier  classes  are  sometimes 
taxed  specially,  the  taxes  being  imposed  in  re 
spect  to  their  servants,  horses,  carriages,  dogs, 
plate,  &c.  The  interest  of  money  is  sometimes 
taxed  specially;  so  are  dividends  of  corpora 
tions  and  joint  stock  companies ;  so  sometimes 
are  indentures  of  apprenticeship,  and  even  mar 
riages.  Many  light  taxes  are  laid  for  regula 
tion  merely,  usually  in  the  form  of  license  fees. 
A  principle  generally  accepted  is,  that  arti 
cles  of  luxury  should  be  selected  for  taxation 
to  the  relief  of  articles  of  prime  necessity. 
This  tends  to  cast  the  burden  upon  those  best 
able  to  bear  it,  and  at  the  same  time  leaves 
every  man  to  tax  himself,  since  his  purchases 
are  made  of  choice  and  not  from  necessity. 
Bat  this  by  no  means  has  the  effect  at  all  times 
to  make  the  weight  of  taxes  fall  upon  the 
wealthier  classes.  Mr.  Ii.  D.  Baxter  estimates 
the  taxes  paid  by  the  manual  labor  classes 
of  Great  Britain  on  alcoholic  drinks  and  to 
bacco  at  6/g-  per  cent,  of  their  income,  and 
those  paid  by  the  upper  and  middle  classes  on 
the  same  articles  at  2-^-  per  cent. — The  offi 
cial  figures  of  European  budgets  convey  no 
adequate  idea  of  the  relative  taxation  in  the 
respective  countries,  because  in  one  country 
they  may  embrace  the  taxes  levied  for  many 
purposes  which  in  another  will  be  provided 
for  by  taxes  not  .brought  into  the  correspond 
ing  budget.  Furthermore,  no  adequate  returns 
are  anywhere  made  of  the  items  of  local  taxa 
tion,  which  constitute  a  large  proportion  of  the 
aggregate  taxes.  These  local  taxes  in  Great 
Britain  are  estimated  to  exceed  £30,000,000. 
Any  comparison  between  the  taxation  of  the 
United  States  and  that  of  the  European  coun 
tries  would  also  be  likely  to  mislead,  unless  it 
brought  into  view  the  taxation  of  the  several 
states  as  well  as  that  of  the  nation.  Taxation 
in  the  United  States  ranges"  itself  under  the 
three  heads  of  federal,  state,  and  municipal. 
The  first  is  laid  almost  wholly  in  the  form  of 
customs  and  excise  duties.  The  figures  for  the 
fiscal  year  1875  were  : 


Customs  duties 

Taxes  on  distilled  liquors . . .  $52.081,991  1 2 

"      on  fermented  liquors.  9,144.39166 

"      on  tobacco 3T,303.670  00 

Stamp  taxes '  (5,053,590  42 

Taxes  on  banks 4.096,860  87 

Penalties  and  other  items. . .  1,138,700  98 


Total  internal  taxes 


$157,167,722  00 


109,849,205  11 


Total  of  taxes $267,016,927  11 


590 


TAXES 


TAXIDERMY 


State  taxation  is  usually  laid  for  general  state 
purposes  only.  The  bulk  of  all  state  taxation 
is  laid  upon  property  by  a  periodical  valuation. 
In  some  states  these  are  supplemented  by  taxes 
on  occupations  or  "  privileges,"  on  the  fran 
chises  of  corporations,  &c.  Taxes  on  those  oc 
cupations  which  are  transient  and  those  which 
are  thought  to  require  peculiar  supervision 
and  regulation  are  usual  in  all  the  states.  Mu 
nicipal"  or  local  taxation  is  commonly  very 
much  heavier  than  state  taxation.  It  em 
braces:  1,  all  taxes  laid  for  the  general  pur 
poses  of  counties,  cities,  boroughs,  towns,  and 
villages;  and  2,  those  local  taxes  which  are 
usually  called  assessments,  and  which  are  laid 
in  special  districts  supposed  to  be  peculiarly 
benefited  by  the  construction  of  some  public 
work,  and  by  some  rule  of  apportionment 
which  proposes  to  charge  each  item  of  prop 
erty  within  the  district  in  proportion  to  the 
benefit  it  will  receive.  Taxes  on  this  principle 
are  often,  though  not  always,  laid  for  the 
opening  and  improvement  of  streets,  for  sew 
erage  and  lighting  in  cities,  for  country  drains, 
for  levees  and  embankments,  &c.  The  legisla 
ture  directs  these  to  be  provided  for  by  general 
taxation  of  the  municipality,  or  by  local  as 
sessments,  as  it  deems  most  just,  or  it  confers 
upon  the  municipality  within  which  the  work 
is  to  be  done  a  discretion  in  the  premises. — 
The  methods  of  collecting  taxes  are  various. 
Formerly  in  some  countries  the  collection  of 
the  revenue  was  farmed  out  to  contractors,  but 
this  led  to  enormous  abuses  and  oppressions, 
and  is  no  longer  thought  of.  Customs  duties 
are  usually  collected  by  requiring  everything 
imported  to  pass  through  the  hands  of  govern 
ment  officers,  and  the  tax  to  be  paid  before  the 
goods  pass  beyond  their  control.  Excise  taxes 
may  be  imposed  in  the  form  of  stamps,  and 
collected  in  a  sale  of  the  stamps,  to  be  affixed 
either  by  the  person  taxed  or  by  some  official. 
Assessed  taxes  are  mainly  collected  by  a  col 
lector  to  whom  a  tax  list  and  warrant  is  issued, 
and  who  is  authorized  to  distrain  goods,  and 
perhaps  to  take  the  body  of  the  person  taxed. 
In  the  United  States  taxes  on  lands  are  gen 
erally  permitted  to  be  enforced  by  a  sale  of 
the  lands  after  other  means  of  collection  are 
exhausted.  Much  use  is  made  of  penalties 
under  revenue  laws,  not  only  for  the  punish 
ment  of  frauds  and  evasions,  but  also  to  com 
pel  the  furnishing  of  lists,  returns,  <fcc. — Many 
things  are  usually  exempt  from  taxation.  In 
deed,  any  taxation  is  only  a  selection  of  sub 
jects  to  be  taxed,  leaving  everything  else  ex 
empt ;  but  where  special  classes  of  persons, 
occupations,  property,  &c.,  are  taxed,  many 
exemptions  are  made.  Public  property  is  usu 
ally  exempt,  and  this  includes  court  houses, 
public  school  buildings,  asylums,  &c.  Houses 
of  worship  are  also  generally  exempted,  and 
sometimes  the  property  of  clergymen  ;  the 
idea  being  that  this  indirect  encouragement  to 
religious  worship  is  for  the  good  of  the  state, 
and  also,  perhaps,  that  as  the  community  in 


general  contribute  in  some  form  to  the  mainte 
nance  of  churches,  this  exemption  produces  no 
considerable  inequality.  Special  exemptions 
of  individuals  in  any  class  taxed  are  usually 
unjust,  and  in  the  United  States,  except  when 
made  for  a  consideration,  must  be  regarded  as 
forbidden  by  constitutional  principles. — Taxa 
tion  and  protection  are  regarded  as  reciprocal 
rights  and  duties.  But  protection  is  the  con 
sideration  rather  for  the  liability  to  taxation 
than  for  actual  taxation ;  as,  if  the  government 
should  see  fit  to  collect  all  its  taxes  from 
lands,  persons  owning  no  lands  and  therefore 
not  taxed,  but  liable  to  be  taxed,  would  be 
equally  entitled  to  protection  with  the  land 
owner  himself.  In  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  it  is  a  constitutional  maxim  that 
taxation  and  representation  go  together,  and 
the  people's  representatives  vote  the  taxes 
which  the  people  are  to  pay.  A  violation  of 
this  maxim  led  to  the  American  revolution. 
The  exact  force  of  the  maxim  is  not  well  de 
termined.  It  is  not  usually  in  doubt  so  far  as 
the  general  taxes  for  the  use  of  the  state  are 
concerned :  these  must  be  granted  by  the  legis 
lature;  but  in  the  case  of  local  taxes  some 
questions  remain  to  be  determined.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  local  powers  to  tax  are 
not  inherent  in  the  municipalities,  but  must 
be  conferred  by  the  state.  Usually  they  are 
conferred  with  proper  restrictions,  and  the 
municipalities  are  then  left  to  exercise  them  at 
discretion.  And  it  must  be  conceded  that 
when  the  powers  are  to  be  employed  for  purely 
local  purposes  in  which  the  commonwealth  at 
large  has  no  concern,  this  maxim  would  be 
disregarded  if  liberty  in  the  premises  were  not 
left  to  the  people  directly  interested  ;  and  this 
in  the  United  States  is  customary. — See  Leone 
Levi,  "  On  Taxation,  how  it  is  Raised  and  how 
Expended"  (London,  18GO) ;  Parieu,  Traite 
desimpots  consideres  sous  le  rapport  historique, 
ecojiomique  et  politique  en  France  ct  a  Vetran- 
ger  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1862-'-!) ;  Sir  Morton  Peto, 
"  Taxation,  its  Levy  and  Expenditure,  past  and 
future"  (New  York,  1866);  R.  Dudley  Bax 
ter,  "  The  Taxation  of  the  United  Kingdom  " 
(London,  1869),  and  "Taxation  and  Local  Gov 
ernment"  (1874);  George  J.  Goschen,  M.  P., 
"Local  Taxation"  (London,  1872);  Sargeant, 
"  Taxation,  Past,  Present,  and  Future  "  (Lon 
don,  1874) ;  R.  S.  Blackwell,  "Tax  Titles"  (3d 
ed.,  Boston,  1874);  "Local  Government  and 
Taxation,"  edited  by  J.  W.  Probyn  ("  Cobden 
Club  Essays,"  1875);  Francis  Hilliard,  "The 
Law  of  Taxation"  (Boston,  1875);  and  Thom 
as  M.  Cooley,  "  The  Law  of  Taxation  "  (Chi 
cago,  1876). 

TAXIDERMY  (Gr.  ra^f,  arrangement,  and 
depfia,  a  skin),  the  art  of  preparing  the  skins 
of  animals  so  that  they  retain  their  natural 
appearances,  and  also  of  arranging  them  in 
the  forms  and  natural  positions  of  the  animals 
from  which  they  are  taken.  This  often  in 
cludes  the  preservation  of  the  skeleton  or  parts 
of  the  skeleton,  which  is  replaced  as  being  the 


TAY 


TAYLOR 


591 


most  convenient  model  or  frame  on  which  the 
skin  can  be  placed.  The  art  also  includes  the 
preservation  of  the  whole  of  the  bodies  of 
small  animals,  which  in  such  cases  is  synony 
mous  with  embalming.  The  principal  opera 
tions  in  taxidermy  are  the  removal  of  the 
skin,  which  requires  much  care  and  dexterity, 
and  its  treatment  with  some  preserving  prep 
aration,  as  arsenical  soap,  composed  of  arsenic 
1  oz.,  white  soap  1  oz.,  carbonate  of  potash 

1  dr.,  distilled  water  G  drs.,  camphor  2  drs. 
This  soap  prevents  the  attacks  of  insects  and 
keeps  the  skin  soft.     The  larger  skins  are 
often  treated  with  the  following  preparation, 
called   "preservation   powder:"   arsenic  and 
burnt  alum   each  1    lb.,   ground  oak   bark  2 
Ibs.,  camphor  £  lb.     Gloves  should  be  used  in 
applying  the   preparation.      Corrosive  subli 
mate,  carbolic  acid,  and  more  recently  salicy 
lic  acid,  have  been  used  in  different  ways  with 
success.     There  are  so  many  details  that  di 
rections  cannot  be  given  in  this  place. — See 
directions  by  Prof.  S.  F.  Baird  in  the  "Report 
of  the   Smithsonian   Institution "    for   1856 ; 
Swainson's  "Taxidermy,"  forming  a  volume 
of  Lardner's  "  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia;"  and  the 
"Taxidermist's    Manual,"   by   Capt.    Thomas 
Brown,  F.  Z.  S.  (New  York,  1875). 

TAY,  a  river  and  loch  of  Perthshire,  Scot 
land.  The  river  rises  in  a  small  loch  on  the 
border  of  Argyleshire,  and  is  called  the  Fillan 
until  it  passes  through  Loch  Dochart,  8  or  9 
m.,  and  thence  to  Loch  Tay,  10  m.  further,  it 
is  generally  known  as  the  Dochart.  Near  Loch 
Tay  it  receives  the  Liochie,  and  below  that 
loch  the  river  Lyon  and  numerous  other  tribu 
taries.  It  is  nearly  120  m.  long,  and  describes 
almost  a  semicircle,  flowing  mainly  N.  E.  and 
S.  E.,  until  it  reaches  Perth,  whence  it  flows 
nearly  E.  through  the  frith  of  Tay  into  the 
North  sea.  It  has  tide  water  and  is  navigable 
for  vessels  of  9  ft.  draught  to  Perth.  Above 
this  point  it  flows  through  the  finest  valley 
of  Scotland,  and  it  discharges  a  larger  volume 
of  water  than  any  other  river  of  the  British 
islands.  Its  salmon  fisheries  a,re  celebrated. 
Loch  Tay  is  about  10  m.  long  and  1  m.  wide, 
with  steep,  precipitous  banks,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  sounded  to  a  depth  of  600  ft.  Ben 
Lawers,  on  its  N.  TV.  shore,  rises  to  a  height 
of  3,984  ft. 

TAYGETCS.     See  LACOXIA. 

TAYLOR,  the  name  of  six  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  N.  county  of  TVest  Vir 
ginia,  intersected  by  the  Tygart's  Valley  river  ; 
area,  130  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,367,  of  whom 
343  were  colored.  The  surface  is  very  hilly, 
and  the  soil  in  some  parts  fertile.  Iron  ore 
and  bituminous  coal  are  abundant.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  28,684  bushels  of 
wheat,  95,439  of  Indian  corn,  45,1G6  of  oats, 
10,305  of  potatoes,  97,233  Ibs.  of  butter,  17,233 
of  wool,  and  6,710  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
1,685  horses,  1,791  milch  cows,  4,638  other  cat 
tle,  6,000  sheep,  and  2,651  swine;  4  tanneries, 

2  iron  founderies,  5  flour  mills,  7  saw  mills, 

VOL.  xv.— 38 


and  2  machine  shops.  Capital,  Pruntytown. 
IL  A  TV.  county  of  Georgia,  bounded  N.  and 
E.  by  Flint  river  and  drained  by  Whitewater 
and  other  creeks ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,143,  of  whom  2,962  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  generally 
fertile.  It  is  intersected  by  the  South \vestern 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
5,962  bushels  of  wheat,  119,269  of  Indian  corn, 
6,491  of  oats,  16,344  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
3,559  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  348  horses, 
654  mules  and  asses,  1,320  milch  cows,  3,463 
other  cattle,  1,159  sheep,  and  6,339  swine;  1 
cotton  factory,  2  flour  mills,  and  9  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Butler.  III.  A  N.  county  of  Florida, 
bounded  S.  TV.  by  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  TV.  by 
the  Ocilla  river,  and  drained  by  several  streams ; 
area,  1,100  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870, 1,453,  of  whom 
79  were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and  the 
soil  sandy.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  20,625  bushels  of  wheat,  9,535  of  sweet 
potatoes,  244  bales  of  cotton,  6  hogsheads  of 
sugar,  and  4,369  gallons  of  molasses.  There 
were  117  horses,  1,040  milch  cows,  4,340  other 
cattle,  and  4,650  swine.  Capital,  Perry.  IV. 
A  N.  TV.  county  of  Texas,  drained  by  Clear  fork 
of  Brazos  river;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  returned  in 
1870  as  having  no  population.  The  surface  is 
mostly  table  land,  with  little  timber  or  water. 
V.  A  central  county  of  Kentucky,  drained  by 
alfluents  of  Green  river;  area,  about  275  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,226,  of  whom  1,850  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil 
fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
'27,744  bushels  of  wheat,  239,581  of  Indian 
corn.  55,867  of  oats,  11,959  of  potatoes,  1,209,- 
830  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  17,040  of  wool,  95,869  of 
butter,  and  1,219  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
2,414  horses,  1,689  milch  cows,  2,306  other 
cattle,  8,046  sheep,  and  13,508  swine.  Capi 
tal,  Campbellsville."  VI.  A  S.  TV.  county  of 
Iowa,  bordering  on  Missouri  and  drained  by 
East  Nodaway,  One  Hundred  and  Two,  and 
Platte  rivers;  area,  560  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,989.  The  surface  is  generally  level  and  the 
soil  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  56,852  bushels  of  wheat,  438,089  of  In 
dian  corn,  85,886  of  oats,  38,507  of  potatoes, 
33,868  Ibs.  of  wool,  120,167  of  butter,  and 
14,174  tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,744  horses, 
2,559  milch  cows,  6,898  cattle,  9,953  sheep, 
and  10,568  swine;  2  flour  mills,  3  saw  mills, 
and  1  woollen  factory.  Capital,  Bedford. 

TAYLOR,  Bayard,  an  American  author,  born 
in  Kennett  Square,  Chester  co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  11, 
1825.  In  1842  he  became  an  apprentice  in  a 
printing  oftice  in  TVest  Chester.  In  1844-'o  he 
made  a  pedestrian  tour  in  Europe,  and  after 
his  return  published  "  Views  Afoot,  or  Europe 
seen  with  tvnapsack  and  Staff  "  (1846).  For  a 
year  he  edited  a  newspaper  in  Phcenixville,  Pa., 
then  went  to  New  York,  wrote  for  the  "  Lit 
erary  World,"  and  soon  after  became  a  mem 
ber  of  the  editorial  staff  of  the  "Tribune,"  in 
which  journal  many  of  his  subsequent  works 
of  travel  first  appeared.  In  1849  he  visited 


592 


TAYLOR 


California,  and  returned  home  by  the  way  of 
Mexico.  In  1851  he  set  out  on  a  protracted 
tour  in  the  East,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
ascended  the  Nile  to  lat.  12°  30'  N.,  and  after 
ward  traversed  large  portions  of  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Europe;  and  in  the  latter  part  of 
1852  he  made  a  new  departure  from  England, 
crossing  Asia  to  Calcutta,  and  thence  proceed 
ing  to  China,  where  he  joined  the  expedition 
of  Commodore  Perry  to  Japan ;  and  he  after 
ward  made  several  other  journeys.  In  1862-'3 
he  was  secretary  of  legation  at  St.  Petersburg. 
and  part  of  the  time  charge  d'affaires.  In 
1874  he  revisited  Egypt,  and  attended  the  mil 
lennial  celebration  in  Iceland,  at  which  a  poem 
by  him  was  read,  translated  into  Icelandic.  At 
intervals  he  has  appeared  as  a  public  lecturer, 
and  has  resided  for  several  years  in  Germany. 
Besides  his  "  Views  Afoot,"  he  has  published 
"  El  Dorado,  or  Adventures  in  the  Path  of  Em 
pire"  (2  vols.  12mo,  1850);  "A  Journey  to 
Central  Africa"  (1854);  "The  Lands  of  the 
Saracen"  (1854);  "A  Visit  to  India,  China, 
and  Japan  "  (1855) ;  "  Northern  Travel :  Sum 
mer  and  Winter  Pictures  of  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  Lapland"  (London,  1857;  New  York, 
1858) ;  "  Travels  in  Greece  and  Russia  "  (1859); 
"At  Home  and  Abroad,  a  Sketch  Book  of  Life, 
Scenery,  and  Men"  (1859;  2d  series,  1862); 
"  Colorado,  a  Summer  Trip  "  (1867);  "By-Ways 
of  Europe  "  (18(59) ;  and  "  Egypt  and  Iceland  " 
(1874).  His  volumes  of  poems  are:  "Ximena, 
or  the  Battle  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  other 
Poems"  (Philadelphia,  1844);  "Rhymes  of 
Travel,  Ballads,  and  other  Poems"  (1848); 
"The  American  Legend,"  a  poem  delivered 
before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society  of  Har 
vard  university  (1850) ;  "Book  of  Romances, 
Lyrics,  and  Songs"  (1851) ;  "Poems  and  Bal 
lads  "  (1854) ;  "  Poems  of  the  Orient "  (1855)  ; 
"  Poems  of  llome  and  Travel,"  a  selection  from 
his  early  lyrics  (Boston,  1855);  "The  Poet's 
Journal"  (1862);  "The  Picture  of  St.  John" 
(1866);  "The  Ballad  of  Abraham  Lincoln" 
(1869);  "The  Masque  of  the  Gods"  (1872); 
"Lars,  a  Pastoral  of  Norway  "  (1873)  ;  "  The 
Prophet,  a  Tragedy"  (1874);  and  "Home  Pas 
torals,  Ballads,  and  Lyrics"  (1875).  Ho  has 
also  published  the  novels  "  Hannah  Thurston, 
a  Story  of  American  Life  "  (1863),  "  John  God 
frey's  Fortunes"  (1864),  "The  Story  of  Ken- 
nett"  (1866),  and  "Joseph  and  his  Friend" 
(1870).  He  has  translated  in  the  original  metres 
both  parts  of  Goethe's  "Faust"  (1870-'71),  and 
has  edited  a  "Cyclopedia  of  Modern  Travel" 
(Cincinnati,  1856),  "  Frithiof's  Saga,"  trans 
lated  by  W.  L.  Blackley  from  the  Swedish  of 
Tegner  (1867),  Auerbach's  "Villa  on  the  Rhine  " 
(2  vols.,  1869),  and  "Illustrated  Library  of 
Travel,  Exploration,  and  Adventure  "  (vols.  i.- 
iv.,  1872-'4).  Several  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  German,  French,  and  Russian. 
Since  1872  he  has  been  engaged  upon  a  com 
bined  biography  of  Goethe  and  Schiller. 

TAILOR,  Brook,  an  English  mathematician, 
born  at  Edmonton,  Aug.  18,  1685,  died  in  or 


near  London,  Dec.  29,  1731.  In  1701  he  en 
tered  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  and  in 
1708  wrote  his  treatise  on  the  "Centre  of  Os 
cillation,"  which  was  published  in  1713  in  the 
"  Philosophical  Transactions."  In  1712  he  was 
chosen  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  and  from 
1714  to  1718  was  its  secretary;  and  he  con 
tributed  papers  on  magnetism  and  mathemat 
ical  subjects.  His  Metliodus  Incrementorum 
(1715)  is  the  first  treatise  in  which  the  calcu 
lus  of  finite  differences  is  proposed  for  con 
sideration,  and  contains  the  first  enunciation  of 
the  celebrated  theorem  which  bears  his  name. 
In  1715  he  conducted  a  controversial  corre 
spondence  with  Count  Raymond  de  Montmort 
on  the  tenets  of  Malebranche,  and  in  1719  he 
published  his  "New  Principles  of  Linear  Per 
spective."  His  Contemplatio  Philosopltica  was 
published  posthumously,  with  a  memoir  by  his 
grandson,  Sir  William  Young  (1793).  He  left 
a  number  of  works  which  are  still  unpublished. 

TAYLOR,  Edward  T.,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  Dec.  25,  1793,  died  in 
Boston,  April  6,  1871.  From  7  to  17  years  of 
age  he  was  a  sailor  boy.  Captured  on  a  priva 
teer  in  the  war  of  1812,  he  was  imprisoned  at 
Dartmoor,  England,  and  acted  as  chaplain  to 
the  prisoners.  In  connection  with  the  New 
England  Methodist  conference  he  began  stated 
labors  and  continued  nine  years,  till  about 
1828,  when  he  became  chaplain  of  the  Boston 
seamen's  bethel,  which  post  he  retained  till 
his  death,  acquiring  a  world-wide  fame  as  the 
eloquent  sailors'  preacher.  For  many  years  he 
was  known  as  Father  Taylor.  He  visited  Eu 
rope  in  1832,  and  Palestine  in  1842;  and  he 
was  chaplain  of  the  Macedonian,  sent  in  1846 
to  the  relief  of  the  starving  poor  of  Ireland. 

TAYLOR,  George,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  born  in  Ireland  in  1716,  died 
in  Easton,  Pa.,  Feb.  23,  1781.  After  receiving 
a  good  education,  he  came  to  America  as  a 
"  redemptioner,"  and  bound  himself  for  a  term 
of  years  to  an  iron  manufacturer  at  Durham, 
Pa.  His  employer  subsequently  made  him  his 
clerk,  and  after  his  death  Taylor  married  his 
widow  and  became  master  of  the  establishment. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  provincial  assembly 
from  1764  till  1770,  when  he  was  made  a  judge 
of  the  county  court  and  colonel  of  militia.  In 
October,  1775,  he  was  again  elected  to  the 
provincial  assembly.  He  was  elected  to  the 
continental  congress  on  July  20,  1776.  signed 
the  Declaration  on  Aug.  2,  and  in  March,  1777, 
retired  from  congress. 

TAYLOR,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
1800.  In  1824  he  entered  the  colonial  office, 
where  he  has  long  been  one  of  the  five  senior 
clerks.  His  earliest  publication  was  "  Isaac 
Comnenus,  a  Play"  (1827),  and  he  is  best 
known  by  two  dramas  in  blank  verse,  "  Philip 
van  Artevelde"  (1834)  and  "Edwin  the  Fair" 
(1842).  His  other  works  include  "The  Eve 
of  the  Conquest,  and  other  Poems"  (1847); 
"Notes  from  Life,  in  Six  Essays"  (1847); 
"Notes  from  Books,  in  Four  Essays"  (1849); 


TAYLOE 


593 


"The  Virgin  Widow,  a  Play  "  (1850) ;  and  " St. 
Clement's  Eve,  a  Play"  (1862).  A  collective 
edition  of  his  plays  and  poems  was  published 
in  1863  (3  vols.  8vo). 

TAILOR,  Isaac,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Lavenham,  Suffolk,  Aug.  17,  1787,  died  at 
Stanford  Pvivers,  Essex,  June  28,  1865.  His 
father,  Isaac  Taylor,  originally  a  line  engraver, 
became  a  dissenting  minister,  and  wrote  sev 
eral  popular  books  for  children.  His  mother, 
Ann  Taylor,  wrote  "Maternal  Solicitude"  and 
other  educational  works.  The  son  was  trained 
as  an  artist,  but  devoted  himself  to  literature, 
and  also  displayed  much  mechanical  ingenu 
ity  in  his  invention  of  an  engraving  machine 
which  was  employed  in  producing  the  plates 
for  Traill's  Josephus,  and  a  machine  for  engra 
ving  patterns  on  rollers  for  calico  printing,  now 
in  use  in  Manchester.  Some  of  the  designs 
from  his  pencil  were  engraved  for  Boydell's 
Bible.  Though  brought  up  as  a  dissenter,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  established  church. 
In  1862  he  received  a  civil  service  pension 
of  £100  for  his  services  to  literature  in  the 
departments  of  history  and  philosophy.  He 
published  "Elements  of  Thought"  (1822); 
"  History  of  the  Transmission  of  Ancient  Books 
to  Modern  Times"  (1827);  "The  Process  of 
Historical  Proof  Exemplified  and  Explained  " 
(1828);  "Balance  of  Criminality,  or  Mental 
Error  compared  with  Immoral  Conduct  " 
(1828) ;  and  a  translation  of  Herodotus  with 
notes  (1829).  In  1829  appeared  anonymously 
his  "Natural  History  of  Enthusiasm,"  which 
was  received  with  extraordinary  favor,  and 
was  followed  by  "  A  New  Model  of  Chris 
tian  Missions"  (1829);  "Saturday  Evening" 
(1832);  "Fanaticism "(1833);  " Spiritual  Des 
potism"  (1835);  and  "Physical  Theory  of 
Another  Life"  (1836),  the  last  leading  to  the 
surrender  of  the  author's  incognito.  His  other 
works  are :  "  Home  Education  "  (1838) ;  "An 
cient  Christianity,  and  the  Doctrines  of  the 
Oxford  Tracts  for  the  Times"  (8  parts,  1839- 
'40  ;  4th  ed.,  with  supplement  and  indexes,  2 
vols.  Svo,  1844);  "Man  Responsible  for  his 
Dispositions,  Opinions,  and  Conduct"  (1840); 
"Lectures  on  Spiritual  Christianity"  (1841); 
"  Loyola,  and  Jesuitism  in  its  Rudiments " 
(1849);  "Wesley  and  Methodism"  (1851); 
"The  Restorations  of  Belief"  (1855);  "The 
World  of  Mind"  (1857)  ;  "Logic  in  Theology, 
and  other  Essays"  (1859);  "The  Liturgy  and 
the  Dissenters,"  and  "Ultimate  Civilization, 
and  other  Essays"  (1860);  "The  Spirit  of 
Hebrew  Poetry  "  (1861)  ;  and  "  Considerations 
on  the  Pentateuch"  (1863).— His  brother  JEF 
FREYS  published  a  number  of  popular  books 
for  young  people.  His  sisters  ANN  (died  1866) 
and  JANE  (1783-1824)  published  "Original 
Poems  "  and  "  Hymns  "  for  children,  and 
"Hymns"  for  Sunday  schools.  (See  "Auto 
biography  and  other  Memorials  of  Mrs.  Gilbert, 
formerly  Ann  Taylor,"  edited  by  Josiah  Gil 
bert,  2  vols.,  London,  1874.)  Jane  also  pub 
lished  "  Display,"  a  tale  (1815),  and  "  Contri 


butions  of  Q.  Q."  (1824);  and  her  "Memoirs, 
Correspondence,  and  Poetical  Remains"  ap 
peared  in  1825  (2  vols.). — His  son  ISAAC,  a 
clergyman  of  the  established  church,  has  pub 
lished  "Words  and  Places"  (1864;  enlarged 
ed.,  1865),  which  attempts  to  give  a  complete 
explanation  of  the  local  names  of  Great  Brit 
ain;  "The  Family  Pen:  Memorials  Biograph 
ical  and  Literary  of  the  Taylor  Family  of  On- 
gar"  (2  vols.,  1867)  ;  and  "Etruscan  Research 
es  "  (1874). 

TAILOR,  Isidore  Sevcrin  Justin,  baron,  a  French 
author  of  English  origin,  born  in  Brussels,  Aug. 
15,  1789.  After  studying  art  he  served  several 
years  in  the  French  army,  reaching  the  rank 
of  major,  and  afterward  travelled  in  Italy, 
Greece,  and  the  East,  bringing  back  rich  col 
lections,  which  he  placed  in  the  galleries  and 
museums  of  Versailles  and  Paris.  He  exerted 
himself  to  procure  from  the  French  chambers 
the  restoration  of  the  principal  monuments  of 
the  middle  ages  in  France;  in  1824  was  made 
royal  commissary  of  the  Comedie  Frangaise; 
and  at  the  direction  of  the  government  twice 
visited  Egypt,  and  negotiated'  the  transfer  to 
France  of  the  obelisks  of  Luxor  and  other 
Egyptian  antiquities.  He  was  made  a  sena 
tor  in  1869.  In  connection  with  C.  Xodier 
and  De  Caillieu,  he  edited  the  illustrated 
Voyages  pittoresques  et  romantiques  dans  Van- 
cienne  France  (fol.,  1820-'54) ;  Voyage  pitto- 
resque  en  Espagne,  en  Portugal  et  sur  la  cote 
d'Afrique  de  Tanger  d  Tetouan  (4to,  1826  et 
seq.) ;  La  Syrie,  VEgypte,  la  Palestine  et  la 
Judee  (4to,  1837  et  seq.) ;  Pelerinage  d  Jerusa 
lem  (1841);  and  Voyage  en  Siiisse,  en  Italic, 
en  Sidle,  en  Angleterre,  en  Ecosse,  en  Alle- 
magne,  en  Grece,  &c.  (1843). 

TAYLOR,  Jeremy,  an  English  theologian,  born 
in  Cambridge  in  1613,  died  at  Lisburn,  Ire 
land,  Aug.  13,  1667.  His  father  was  a  barber 
and  surgeon,  and  he  was  educated  as  a  sizar 
at  Cambridge,  but  obtained  a  fellowship  at 
Oxford  in  1636,  and  in  1638  the  rectory  of 
TJppingham  in  Rutland.  In  the  civil  wars  he 
adhered  to  Charles  I.,  who  made  him  his  chap 
lain,  and  for  a  defence  of  episcopacy  written 
at  the  king's  request  commanded  his  admission 
to  the  degree  of  D.  D.  in  1642.  The  same  year 
his  rectory  was  sequestered  by  the  parliament, 
but  he  continued  to  write  for  the  royal  cause 
till  1645,  when  he  was  obliged  to  retire  into 
Wales,  where  he  maintained  himself  by  teach 
ing  school,  and  wrote  some  of  his  most  im 
portant  works.  His  "Liberty  of  Prophesy 
ing"  (1647),  in  behalf  of  toleration,  was  pub 
lished  at  the  very  crisis  of  the  civil  struggle. 
This  was  followed  by  his  "  Holy  Living  and 
Dying"  (1650-'51),  now  perhaps  the  best  known 
of  his  works,  and  "  The  Great  Exemplar,  or 
the  Life  and  Death  of  the  Holy  Jesus  "^(1653). 
He  subsequently  preached  occasionally  in  Lon 
don,  and  suffered  several  short  imprisonments 
on  account  of  his  royalist  sympathies.  He  was 
also  censured  by  his  own  party  for  some  ex 
pressions  thought  to  indicate  Romanist  views, 


594: 


TAYLOR 


and  in  1658  was  imprisoned  in  the  tower  in 
consequence  of  his  publisher  having  prefixed 
to  his  collection  of  offices  a  print  of  Christ  in  the 
attitude  of  prayer.  He  was  released  through 
the  efforts  of  Evelyn,  and  on  the  invitation  of 
the  earl  of  Conway  removed  to  the  north  of 
Ireland.  In  1660  he  went  to  London  to  pub 
lish  his  "Ductor  Dubitantium,"  the  most  ex 
tensive  work  on  casuistry  in  the  English  lan 
guage.  While  there  he  signed  the  royalist 
declaration  of  April  24,  and  Charles  II.  on  his 
restoration  nominated  him  bishop  of  Down 
and  Connor,  to  which  the  bishopric  of  Dro- 
more  was  soon  added.  He  was  shortly  after 
ward  made  a  member  of  the  Irish  privy  coun 
cil,  and  elected  vice  chancellor  of  the  universi 
ty  of  Dublin.  His  second  wife  was  a  natural 
daughter  of  Charles  I.  As  a  writer  of  sermons 
Bishop  Taylor  stands  preeminent.  His  com 
plete  works  were  published  by  Bishop  Heber 
with  a  memoir  (15  vols.,  London,  1820-'22), 
and  his  life  by  R.  A.  Wilmott  (London,  1847). 

TAYLOR,  John,  an  English  author,  called  "  the 
water  poet,"  born  in  Gloucester  in  1580,  died 
in  London  in  1654.  He  was  educated  at  the 
free  school  of  Gloucester,  and  was  apprenticed 
to  a  London  waterman,  an  occupation  which 
he  followed  during  the  greater  part  of  his  life. 
In  1596  he  served  in  the  tleet  under  the  earl  of 
Essex,  and  was  present  at  the  attack  upon  Cadiz. 
After  his  return  he  plied  on  the  Thames,  and 
collected  the  lieutenant  of  the  tower's  demand 
on  imported  wines.  Subsequently  he  kept  a 
public  house  in  Phoenix  lane,  Long  Acre.  His 
publications,  in  prose  and  in  verse,  amounting 
to  upward  of  80,  are  of  value  as  illustrations 
of  opinions  and  manners  during  the  first  half 
of  the  17th  century.  They  were  published  in 
folio  in  1630.  Two  of  the  most  curious  of  his 
prose  works  are  devoted  to  descriptions  of  a 
journey  on  foot  to  Scotland  in  1618,  and  of 
another,  made  principally  in  a  boat,  from  Lon 
don  to  Hereford  in  1641. 

TAYLOR,  John,  an  English  minister,  born  near 
Lancaster  in  1694,  died  at  Warrington,  March 
5,  1761.  He  was  educated  at  Whitehaven,  and 
settled  for  18  years  as  teacher  and  minister  at 
Kirkstead  in  Lincolnshire.  In  1733  he  was 
chosen  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation 
at  Norwich,  where  he  preached  for  24  years, 
and  avowed  anti-Trinitarian  sentiments.  In 
1757  he  became  principal  of  the  dissenting 
academy  at  Warrington.  His  principal  pub 
lished  works  are :  "  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of 
Original  Sin"  (1738);  "A  Paraphrase  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans"  (1745);  "The  Scrip 
ture  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement "  (1750) ;  "  An 
Hebrew  English  Concordance"  (2  vols.  fol., 
1754-'7);  and  "A  Scheme  of  Scripture  Di 
vinity"  (1762),  edited  by  his  son. 

TAYLOR,  Nathaniel  William,  an  American  cler 
gyman,  born  in  New  Milford,  Conn.,  June  23, 
1786,  died  in  New  Haven,  March  10,  1858. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1807,  studied 
theology,  and  in  1812  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  first  church  (Congregational)  in  New  Haven, 


and  became  eminent  as  a  preacher.  In  1822 
he  was  called  to  the  Dwight  professorship  of 
didactic  theology  in  Yale  college,  in  which 
office  he  continued  till  his  death.  In  1828  he 
preached  at  New  Haven  the  concio  ad  clerum, 
in  which  he  set  forth  views  upon  human 
depravity  and  other  related  doctrines  which 
caused  him  to  be  widely  denounced  for  heresy ; 
and  for  several  years  he  maintained  a  vigorous 
discussion  of  these  and  similar  topics,  through 
the  quarterly  "Christian  Spectator."  Since 
his  death  four  volumes  of  his  works  have  been 
published,  viz. :  "  Practical  Sermons  "  (8vo, 
New  York,  1858);  "Lectures  on  the  Moral 
Government  of  God"  (2  vols.,  1859);  and 
"Essays,  Lectures,  &c.,  upon  Select  Topics  in 
Revealed  Theology  "  (1859). 

TAYLOR,  Richard,  an  English  printer,  born  in 
|  Norwich,  May  18,  1781,  died  in  Richmond, 
Dec.  1,  1858.  He  studied  the  classical  and 
other  languages  and  literature  while  learning 
the  printer's  trade  in  London,  and  in  1803  es 
tablished  himself  in  business  with  his  father ; 
and  his  press  soon  became  the  medium  through 
which  nearly  all  the  more  important  works  in 
scientific  natural  history  were  published.  In 
1807  he  became  a  fellow  of  the  Linnsean  socie 
ty,  and  in  1810  was  elected  its  under-secretary, 
an  office  which  he  held  nearly  half  a  century. 
He  also  attached  himself  from  the  commence 
ment  to  the  "  British  Association  for  the  Ad 
vancement  of  Science."  In  1822  he  became  a 
joint  editor  of  the  "  Philosophical  Magazine," 
and  in  1838  he  established  the  "Annals  of 
Natural  History."  His  own  literary  labors, 
which  were  principally  in  the  field  of  Biblical 
and  philological  research,  comprise  an  edition 
of  Tooke's  "  Diversions  of  Purley  "  (1829  and 
1840),  enriched  with  n®tes;  Warton's  "His 
tory  of  English  Poetry  "  (1840),  in  the  reedit- 
ing  of  which  he  took  the  chief  part;  "Tay 
lor's  Scientific  Memoirs,"  &c. 

TAYLOR.  I.  Stephen  William,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  Adams,  Mass.,  Oct.  23,  1791, 
died  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  7,  1856.  He 
graduated  at  Hamilton  college,  N.  Y.,  in  1817, 
and  became  a  teacher.  From  1838  to  1845 
he  was  professor  of  mathematies  and  natural 
philosophy  in  Hamilton  college  (now  Madison 
university),  from  1846  to  1851  president  of 
the  university  of  Lewisburg,  Pa.,  and  from 
1851  till  his  death  president  of  Madison  uni 
versity,  of  which  he  published  a  historical 
sketch.  II.  Benjamin  Franklin,  an  American  au 
thor,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Lowville, 
N.  Y.,  in  1822.  He  was  educated  at  Madison 
university.  For  many  years  he  was  literary 
editor  of  the  Chicago  "Evening  Journal,"  and 
during  the  civil  war  he  was  its  principal  cor 
respondent  with  the  armies  of  the  west.  Af 
ter  the  war  he  settled  at  La  Porte,  Ind.  He 
has  published  "The  Attractions  of  Language" 
(1845);  "January  and  June,"  essays  and  po 
ems  (1853);  "Pictures  in  Camp  and  Field  " 
(1867);  "The  World  on  Wheels,"  railroad 
sketches  (1873);  "Old  Time  Pictures  and 


TAYLOR 


595 


Sheaves  of  Rhyme"  (1874);  and  "Songs  of 
Yesterday"  (1875). 

TAYLOR,  Thomas,  an  English  scholar,  sur- 
named  the  "Hatonist,"  born  in  London,  May 
15,  1758,  died  at  Wai  worth,  Nov.  1,  1835. 
He  studied  the  classics,  mathematics,  and  chem 
istry,  and  became  clerk  in  a  banking  house. 
lie  issued,  in  the  course  of  40  years,  transla 
tions  of  part  or  the  whole  of  the  hymns  of 
Orpheus,  the  works  of  Plato  (5  vols.  4to), 
Proclus,  Julian,  Pausanias,  Plotinus,  Apuleius, 
Aristotle,  Maximus  Tyrius,  Demophilus,  lam- 
blichus,  Hierocles,  Porphyry,  Celsus,  Ocellus 
Lucanus,  and  Olympiodorus,  and  the  "  Chal 
dean  Oracles."  He  also  published  works  on 
geometry  and  arithmetic,  on  the  Eleusinian 
and  Bacchic  mysteries  (new  ed.,  with  intro 
duction  and  notes  by  Alexander  Wilder,  M.  D., 
1875),  on  "The  Rights  of  Brutes"  (in  ridicule 
of  Paine's  "Rights  of  Man"),  a  new  edition 
of  Hedericus's  "Greek  Lexicon"  with  addi 
tions,  "History  of  the  Restoration  of  the  Pla 
tonic  Theology,"  "  Miscellanies  in  Prose  and 
Verse,"  &c.  His  works  amounted  to  55  vols. 

TAYLOR,  Tom,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Sunderland  in  1817.  He  graduated  at  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge,  and  became  a  fellow.  He 
was  for  two  years  professor  of  English  litera 
ture  in  University  college,  London,  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1845,  and  in  1850  became  assis 
tant  secretary  to  the  board  of  health,  and  in 
1854  secretary.  Since  1858  he  has  been  secre 
tary  to  the  local  government  act  office.  He  is 
the  author  of  more  than  100  dramatic  pieces, 
among  the  most  successful  of  which  are  "Still 
Waters  Run  Deep,"  "  The  Unequal  "Match," 
"The  Overland  Route,"  "The  Contested  Elec 
tion,"  "  Our  American  Cousin,"  "  The  Ticket- 
of-Leave  Man,"  and  "  'Twixt  Axe  and  Crown." 
In  conjunction  with  Charles  Reade  he  has 
written  "Masks  and  Eaces"  and  other  plays. 
He  has  also  published  a  "Life  of  Benjamin 
Robert  Haydon"  (3  vols.  8vo,  1853);  an  edi 
torial  preface  and  continuation  of  the  "  Auto 
biographical  Recollections  of  C.  R.  Leslie  "  (2 
vols.  8vo,  1860)  ;  a  "  Handbook  to  the  Pictures 
of  the  International  Exhibition  of  1802  "  (8vo, 
1862);  "Birket  Foster's  Pictures  of  English 
Landscape,  engraved  by  the  Brothers  Dalziel, 
with  Pictures  in  Words  by  Mr.  Tom  Taylor " 
(4to,  1862) ;  "  Ballads  and  Songs  of  Brittany," 
translated  from  the  French  of  Villemarque 
(4to,  1865) ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  C.  W. 
Franks,  a  "  Catalogue  of  the  Works  of  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds"  (8vo,  1860). 

TAYLOR,"  William  Cooke,  an  Irish  author,  born 
in  Youghal,  April  16,  1800,  died  in  Dublin, 
Sept.  12,  1849.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni 
versity  of  Dublin,  and  went  to  London,  where 
he  resided  till  two  years  before  his  death. 
His  chief  works  are  :  "  Historical  Miscellany  " 
(12mo,  1829) ;  "  History  of  France  and  Nor 
mandy"  (1830);  "History  of  the  Civil  Wars 
in  Ireland  "  (2  vols.,  1831) ;  "  History  of  Mo 
hammedanism  and  its  Sects  "  (1834)  ;  "  History 
of  Popery"  (1837);  "The  Bible  Illustrated 


from  Egyptian  Monuments"  (1838);  "Manual 
of  Modern  History"  (8vo,  1838) ;  "Manual  of 
Ancient  History"  (1839);  "Natural  History 
of  Society"  (2  vols.,  1840);  Romantic  Biog 
raphy  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth  "  (2  vols.,  1842) ; 
"History  of  British  India"  (1842)  ;  "Revolu 
tions,  Insurrections,  and  Conspiracies  of  Eu 
rope"  (2  vols.,  1843);  and  "Memoirs  of  the 
House  of  Orleans"  (3  vols.,  1849).  He  also 
edited  Bacon's  essays  and  Chapman's  transla 
tion  of  Homer.  In  1846  he  was  employed  by 
the  British  government  to  inquire  into  the 
system  of  education  on  the  continent. 

TAYLOR,  William  Mai'kergo,  an  American  cler 
gyman,  born  at  Kilmarnock,  Ayrshire,  Scot 
land,  Oct.  23,  1829.  He  graduated  at  the  uni 
versity  of  Glasgow  in  1849,  studied  theology 
in  Edinburgh,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1852, 
and  in  1853  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Uni 
ted  Presbyterian  church  at  Kilmaurs.  In  1855 
he  accepted  a  call  to  the  United  Presbyterian 
church  at  Derby  road  (Bootle),  near  Liver 
pool,  and  remained  there  for  16  years.  In 
1871  he  visited  the  United  States  as  a  dele 
gate  of  the  United  Presbyterian  church  to  the 
general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
in  the  United  States  at  Chicago.  In  1872 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Broadway  Taberna 
cle  church  in  New  York.  He  has  published 
"Life  Truths"  (London,  1862);  "The  Mira 
cles:  Helps  to  Faith,  not  Hindrances"  (Edin 
burgh,  1865),  written  as  a  reply  to  Renan's 
"Life  of  Jesus;"  "The  Lost  Found  and  Wan 
derer  Welcomed"  (1870);  "David,  King  of 
Israel "  (New  York,  1874)  ;  and  "  Elijah  the 
Prophet"  (1876). 

TAYLOR,  Zaeliary,  twelfth  president  of  the 
United  States,  born  in  Orange  co.,  Xa.,  Sept. 
24,  1784,  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  July  9, 
1850.  His  father,  Col.  Richard  Taylor,  served 
throughout  the  revolutionary  war,  and  re 
moved  in  1785  from  Virginia  to  Kentucky, 
where  he  had  an  extensive  plantation  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Louisville.  Zachary  was  en 
gaged  till  his  24th  year  on  the  plantation.  His 
brother  Hancock,  a  lieutenant  in  the  United 
States  army,  died  in  1808,  and  the  vacant  com 
mission  was  assigned  to  Zachary.  He  was 
made  a  captain  in  November,  1810,  and  after 
the  declaration  of  war  against  Great  Britain 
was  placed  in  command  of  Fort  Harrison,  a 
blockhouse  and  stockade  on  the  Wabash  river, 
about  50  in.  above  Vincennes.  This  was  the 
first  object  of  attack  by  the  Indians,  a  large 
force  of  whom  invested  "it  in  September,  1812, 
and  after  professions  of  peace  made  a  furious 
night  assault  and  set  fire  to  the  lower  buildings 
of'the  fort.  Taylor  had  but  50  men,  of  whom 
two  thirds  were'ill;  but  after  a  sharp  conflict 
of  several  hours  he  extinguished  the  flames  and 
repulsed  the  assailants  with  severe  loss.  For 
his  conduct  on  this  occasion  he  received  from 
President  Madison  the  rank  of  major  by  brevet, 
the  first  instance  in  the  service  of  this  species  of 
promotion.  A  few  months  later  he  took  part 
in  a  successful  expedition  led  by  Gen.  Hopkins 


596 


TAYLOR 


against  the  Indian  villages,  and  in  1814,  with 
the  full  rank  of  major,  commanded  an  expedi 
tion  against  the  British  and  Indians  on  Rock 
river.  On  the  restoration  of  peace  in  1815, 
congress  reduced  the  army  and  annulled  many 
of  the  promotions  made  during  the  war.  Tay 
lor  was  reduced  to  the  rank  of  captain,  and  in 
consequence  resigned  his  commission  and  re 
tired  to  his  plantation  near  Louisville.  Being 
soon  reinstated  as  major,  he  was  employed  for 
several  years  alternately  on  the  N.  W.  frontier 
and  in  the  south,  where  in  1822  he  built  Fort 
Jesup.  In  1819  he  became  lieutenant  colonel, 
and  in  1832  colonel.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
engaged  in  the  Black  Hawk  war,  and  was  then 
ordered  to  Prairie  du  Chien,  where  he  took 
command  of  Fort  Crawford,  which  had  been 
erected  under  his  superintendence.  In  1836- 
'40  he  served  in  Florida.  On  Dec.  25,  1837, 
he  defeated  the  Indians  in  the  desperate  and 
decisive  battle  of  Okeechobee,  and  was  pro 
moted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier  general  by 
brevet;  and  in  April,  1838,  he  was  made  coin- 
mander-in-chief  in  Florida.  In  1840  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  "the  first  de 
partment  of  the  army  in  the  southwest.  He 
purchased  at  this  time  an  estate  at  Baton 
Rouge,  to  which  he  removed  his  family.  Con 
gress  having  in  March,  1845,  passed  the  joint 
resolution  annexing  Texas,  Gen.  Taylor  was 
directed  to  defend  it  against  invasion  from 
Mexico.  In  July  he  embarked  at  New  Orleans 
with  1,500  troops,  and  in  the  beginning  of 
August  encamped  with  them  at  Corpus  Christi, 
Texas,  where  he  was  reenforced,  so  that  in 
November  his  forces  amounted  to  about  4,000 
men.  The  administration  desired  to  bring  the 
Mexican  question  to  a  crisis,  without,  if  pos 
sible,  incurring  the  responsibility  of  beginning 
a  war.  Indirectly,  therefore,  it  endeavored  to 
induce  Gen.  Taylor  to  advance  his  forces  into 
the  disputed  territory ;  but  he  disregarded  all 
hints  to  that  effect,  and  would  not  move  till 
explicitly  ordered  by  the  president.  Positive 
instructions  were  at  length  sent,  and  on  March 
8,  1846,  the  army  began  its  advance  toward  the 
Rio  Grande,  and  on  the  28th  reached  the  banks 
of  that  river  opposite  Matamoros.  Here  it  en 
camped  and  erected  Fort  Brown,  which  com 
manded  Matamoros,  where  the  Mexicans  were 
also  throwing  up  batteries  and  redoubts.  On 
April  12  Gen.  Ampudia,  the  Mexican  com 
mander,  addressed  a  note  to  Gen.  Taylor  re 
quiring  him  within  24  hours  to  break  up  his 
camp  and  retire  beyond  the  Nueces,  "  while 
our  governments  are  regulating  the  pending 
question  in  relation  to  Texas,"  and  informing 
him  that  his  non-compliance  would  be  regard 
ed  by  the  Mexicans  as  equivalent  to  a  declara 
tion  of  war.  Gen.  Taylor  replied  that  he  was 
acting  under  instructions  which  did  not  permit 
him  to  return  to  the  Nueces,  and  that  if  the 
Mexicans  saw  fit  to  begin  hostilities  he  should 
not  avoid  the  conflict.  Ampudia  was  soon 
after  superseded  by  Arista,  who  early  in  May 
crossed  the  Rio  Grande  with  6,000  men,  and 


on  the  8th  of  that  month  attacked  and  was 
defeated  by  Gen.  Taylor  with  2,300  men  at 
Palo  Alto,  a  few  miles  from  Matamoros.  (See 
PALO  ALTO.)  The  Mexicans  retreated  to  Resaca 
de  la  Palma,  and  on  the  following  day  again 
gave  battle  to  the  Americans,  who  after  a  se 
vere  contest  routed  them  and  drove  them  across 
the  Rio  Grande.  The  total  loss  of  the  Mexi 
cans  in  these  battles  amounted  to  about  1,000 
men.  Taylor  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
major  general,  took  possession  of  Matamoros 
on  May  18  without  opposition,  and  remained 
there  till  September,  when  he  inarched  against 
Monterey,  which  he  reached  on  Sept.  9  with 
a  force  of  6,625  men,  mostly  volunteers.  The 
place  was  defended  by  Ampudia  with  about 
10,000  regular  troops.  On  the  19th  Taylor 
ordered  an  assault,  and  after  several  days' 
desperate  fighting  Ampudia  capitulated  on  the 
24th.  (See  MONTEREY.)  Taylor  made  Monte 
rey  his  headquarters,  but  occupied  with  a  strong 
detachment  the  city  of  Saltillo,  the  capital  of 
the  state  of  Coahuila.  He  was  making  prepa 
rations  for  an  advance  upon  San  Luis  Potosi, 
when  the  best  part  of  his  force  was  transferred 
to  the  expedition  against  Vera  Cruz,  under  Gen. 
Scott.  He  was  left  with  only  5,000  men,  of 
whom  but  500  were  regulars,  the  rest  being 
volunteers  who  had  never  seen  a  battle.  He 
received  intelligence  that  Santa  Anna  had  con 
centrated  at  San  Luis  Potosi  the  flower  of  the 
Mexican  army  to  the  number  of  21,000  veteran 
troops,  and  was  moving  rapidly  to  attack  him 
in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Gen.  Taylor 
on  Feb.  21,  1847,  took  a  position  at  Buena 
Vista,  a  mountain  pass  7  m.  from  Saltillo, 
and  awaited  the  approach  of  the  Mexicans, 
who  made  their  appearance  on  the  following 
day,  and  were  signally  defeated.  (See  BUENA 
VISTA.)  Santa  Anna  retreated  to  San  Luis 
Potosi,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  war  the  val 
ley  of  the  Rio  Grande  remained  in  quiet  pos 
session  of  the  Americans.  On  his  return  home 
in  November,  1847,  "  Old  Rough  and  Ready," 
as  his  soldiers  familiarly  called  him,  was  greet 
ed  everywhere  by  the  warmest  demonstrations 
of  popular  applause ;  and  as  the  time  for  the 
presidential  election  was  approaching,  his  name 
was  at  once  brought  forward  for  the  presi 
dency.  He  avowed  himself  "  a  whig,  but  not 
an  ultra  whig,"  and  in  several  letters  intimated 
his  willingness  to  accept  the  nomination  pro 
vided  he  could  be  left  untrammelled  by  parti 
san  pledges,  at  the  same  time  expressing  his 
distrust  of  his  fitness  for  the  office.  In  June, 
1848,  he  was  nominated  by  the  whig  national 
convention  at  Philadelphia,  the  other  candi 
dates  for  the  nomination  being  Mr.  Clay,  Mr. 
Webster,  and  Gen.  Scott.  Millard  Fillmore  of 
New  York  was  nominated  for  the  vice-presi 
dency.  Henry  "Wilson  of  Massachusetts  and  a 
few  other  delegates,  on  this  result  being  an 
nounced,  withdrew  from  the  convention,  and 
subsequently  formed  the  freesoil  party  on  the 
basis  of  opposition  to  the  extension  of  slavery. 
The  democratic  national  convention  had  al- 


TAYLOR 


TCHAD 


597 


ready  nominated  Lewis  Cass  for  the  presi 
dency;  but  a  powerful  section  of  the  New 
York  democracy,  familiarly  known  as  barn 
burners,  refused  their  support  to  Mr.  Cass, 
partly  because  of  his  pro-slavery  position.  On 
Aug.  9,  1848,  these  freesoil  democrats  assem 
bled  in  convention  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  together 
with  the  freesoil  whigs  who  had  rejected  the 
nomination  of  Gen.  Taylor,  and  the  liberty 
party  men  who  had  previously  supported  James 
G.  Birney.  A  fusion  of  these  parties  was  ef 
fected  on  the  basis  of  a  platform  of  which  op 
position  to  the  extension  of  slavery  was  the 
leading  principle,  and  Martin  Van  Buren  was 
nominated  for  president  and  Charles  Francis 
Adams  of  Massachusetts  for  vice  president. 
At  the  election  in  November  163  electors  were 
chosen  for  Taylor  and  Fillmore  to  127  for  Cass 
and  Butler.  The  Van  Buren  and  Adams  party 
did  not  carry  a  single  elector,  their  popular 
vote  being  about  290,000,  while  that  for  Gen. 
Taylor  was  about  1,300,000,  and  that  for  Cass 
1,220,000.  Gen.  Taylor  was  inaugurated  pres 
ident  on  Monday,  March  5,  1849,  and  on  the 
following  day  appointed  as  his  cabinet  John 
M.  Clayton  of  Delaware,  secretary  of  state; 
William  M.  Meredith  of  Pennsylvania,  secre 
tary  of  the  treasury ;  George  W.  Crawford  of 
Georgia,  secretary  of  war ;  William  B.  Preston 
of  Virginia,  secretary  of  the  navy;  Thomas 
Ewing  of  Ohio,  secretary  of  the  interior ;  Jacob 
Collamer  of  Vermont,  postmaster  general ;  and 
Reverdy  Johnson  of  Maryland,  attorney  gen 
eral.  The  democratic  party  had  elected  a  plu 
rality  of  the  members  of  congress,  and  a  few 
freesoil  members  held  the  balance  of  power 
between  the  whigs  and  democrats.  A  vehe 
ment  struggle  began  with  regard  to  the  organ 
ization  of  the  new  territories,  the  admission  of 
California  as  a  state,  and  the  question  of  the 
boundary  between  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  all 
of  these  subjects  being  connected  with  the 
question  of  the  extension  of  slavery.  Califor 
nia  had  applied  for  admission  into  the  Union 
with  a  constitution  excluding  slavery.  There 
being  at  this  time  an  equal  number  of  free  and 
slave  states  in  the  Union,  the  proposition  to 
admit  California  and  thus  give  the  free  states  a 
preponderance  in  the  senate  excited  through 
out  the  south  the  most  violent  opposition.  At 
the  same  time  New  Mexico  and  Utah,  or  Dese- 
ret,  as  it  was  called  by  the  Mormons  who  occu 
pied  it,  were  without  governments.  President 
Taylor. in  his  messages  to  congress  recommend 
ed  that  California  should  be  admitted,  and  that 
the  other  territories  should  form  state  consti 
tutions  to  suit  themselves;  and  should  be  ad 
mitted  into  the  Union  with  or  without  slavery 
as  their  constitutions  might  prescribe.  These 
recommendations  were  not  acceptable  to  the 
slaveholding  leaders,  many  of  whom  made  open 
threats  of  secession.  Henry  Clay  in  the  senate 
introduced  the  compromise  measures  known 
by  his  name,  including  the  recommendations 
of  the  president's  message.  (See  CLAY,  HE^- 
EY.)  His  propositions  were  still,  the  subject 


in  one  form  or  another  of  exciting  debates  in 
congress  and  of  earnest  discussion  among  the 
people,  when  on  the  4th  of  July,  1850,  Presi 
dent  Taylor  was  seized  with  bilious  fever,  of 
which  he  died  on  the  9th  at  the  presidential 
mansion. — Gen.  Taylor  was  of  middle  stature 
and  stout  form,  with  dark  complexion,  high 
forehead,  and  keen  penetrating  eyes,  with  a 
face  more  remarkable  for  intelligence  than  for 
elegance,  and  an  expression  of  much  kindness 
and  good  nature.  It  was  during  this  adminis 
tration  that  the  secession  party  in  the  south 
first  manifested  itself  in  considerable  force 
outside  of  South  Carolina.  To  the  schemes  of 
this  party  Gen.  Taylor  was  sternly  opposed. 

TAZEWELL.  LAS.  W.  county  of  Virginia, 
bordering  on  West  Virginia,  and  drained  by 
the  head  streams  of  Clinch  and  Holston  rivers ; 
area,  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,791, 
of  whom  1,598  were  colored.  Clinch  moun 
tain  and  other  ranges  traverse  it.  The  soil  of 
the  valleys  is  very  fertile.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  38,020  bushels  of  wheat, 
155,133  of  Indian  corn,  69,189  of  oats,  9,675 
of  potatoes, '19,812  Ibs.  of  wool,  95,175  of 
butter,  and  5,301  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
2,025  horses,  2,562  milch  cows,  8,663  other 
cattle,  9,539  sheep,  and  6,651  swine;  3  tan 
neries,  and  3  wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing 
establishments.  Capital,  Tazewell  Court  House. 
II.  A  central  county  of  Illinois,  bounded  N. 
W.  by  the  Illinois  river,  intersected  by  the 
Mackinaw,  and  traversed  by  several  railroads  ; 
area,  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  27,903.  The 
surface  is  level,  consisting  mostly  of  prairies, 
and  the  soil  highly  fertile.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  204,827  bushels  of  wheat, 
59,027  of  rye,  2,062,053  of  Indian  corn,  505,- 
841  of  oats,  43,210  of  barley,  108,984  of  po 
tatoes,  29,292  Ibs.  of  wool,  285,323  of  butter, 
and  27,564  tons  of  hay.  There  were  10,312 
horses,  6,194  milch  cows,  10,873  other  cattle, 
7,591  sheep,  and  34,555  swine ;  4  manufacto 
ries  of  agricultural  implements,  12  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  2  of  iron  castings,  9  of  saddlery 
and  harness,  5  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  10 
flour  mills,  and  4  distilleries.  Capital,  Pekin. 

TCHAD,  or  Tsad,  a  lake  of  central  Africa,  on 
the  borders  of  Borneo,  Kanem,  and  Baghirmi, 
between  lat.  12°  30'  and  14°  30'  N.,  and  Ion. 
13°  and  15°  30'  E.  It  is  an  irregular  triangle, 
the  base  of  which  lies  W.  S.  W.  and  E.  N.  E. ; 
length  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  about  150  m., 
greatest  width  about  120  m.,  area  10,500  sq. 
m. ;  but  it  varies  greatly  in  size  in  the  dry  and 
the  rainy  season.  Its  elevation  above  the  level 
of  the  sea  is  about  1,000  ft.  It  rarely  exceeds 
15  ft.  in  depth,  and  many  parts  of  it  are  in 
the  dry  season  a  reedy  swamp.  About  two 
thirds  of  its  area  is  occupied  by  islands.  Its 
shores  are  generally  low  and  flat  and  covered 
with  rushes  and  reeds,  back  of  which  is  fertile 
ground  and  rich  pasturage ;  but  on  the  north 
they  rise  gradually  and  are  wooded.  The  S, 
and  W.  shores  are  frequently  inundated,  and 
the  streets  of  Ivuka,  the  capital  of  Borneo, 


598 


TCHERNIGOV 


TEA 


which  stands  about  10  m.  from  the  S.  W.  shore, 
are  sometimes  overflowed.  Lake  Tchad  has 
two  largo  tributaries,  the  Komadugu  on  the 
west  and  the  Shary  on  the  south,  but  no  known 
outlet.  Dr.  Nachtigal  says  that  at  some  for 
mer  period  the  surplus  waters  were  discharged 
through  the  Bahr  el-Ghazal  into  an  extensive 
lake  300  m.  N.  E.  The  course  of  this  ancient 
river  can  still  be  traced  by  a  fringe  of  trees, 
and  according  to  the  Arabs  water  flowed 
through  it  for  100  in.  during  the  inundation 
of  1870.  The  water  of  the  lake  is  fresh  and 
sweet;  the  shallower  parts  are  covered  with 
aquatic  plants,  and  hippopotami,  crocodiles, 
turtles,  fish,  and  water  fowl  abound.  Large 
herds  of  antelope  feed  on  its  shores,  and  there 
are  many  elephants  in  the  forests  on  the  north. 
Villages  abound  on  its  banks,  and  the  islands 
in  it  are  densely  populated,  the  central  ones 
by  the  Buddumas,  the  eastern  by  the  Kuti, 
and  the  northeastern  by  the  Kanombi.  The 
Buddumas  are  a  pagan  tribe,  distinct  from  the 
surrounding  Mohammedans.  They  are  well 
made,  active,  regular  in  features,  and  dark 
brown  or  black  in  complexion.  Both  sexes 
are  clothed  in  cotton,  and  they  wear  sandals 
and  many  ornaments.  Cattle  and  goats  are 
raised  by  them,  and  they  cultivate  maize  and 
cotton. — Lake  Tchad  was  known  to  Leo  Afri- 
canus  in  the  IGth  century,  but  the  first  Euro 
peans  who  visited  it  in  later  times  were  Den- 
ham  and  Clapperton  in  1823.  Barth,  Over- 
weg,  and  Vogel  explored  its  vicinity  in  1  SSI 
'S,  Rohlfs  in  1866,  and  Nachtigal  in  1870. 

TCHEMIGOV.  I.  A  S.  W.  government  of 
Russia,  bordering  on  Mohilev,  Smolensk,  Orel, 
Kursk,  Poltava,  Kiev,  and  Minsk;  area,  20,231 
sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  1,659,600.  The  surface, 
with  the  exception  of  the  western  portion,  is 
flat,  and  the  soil  is  particularly  fertile.  It  is 
well  watered,  the  most  important  rivers  being, 
the  Dnieper,  which  flows  on  the  W.  boundary, 
and  its  affluent  the  Desna,  which  intersects  the 
government.  Horses,  horned  cattle,  and  sheep 
are  abundant,  and  the  breeds  of  the  first  two 
are  particularly  good.  The  manufactures  are 
chiefly  articles  for  domestic  use.  Much  honey, 
wax,  and  brandy  are  produced.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  government,  on  the  Desna,  385 
m.  S.  W.  of  Moscow ;  pop.  in  1867,  17,096.  It 
is  an  old  town,  and  has  a  castle,  a  beautiful 
cathedral,  several  schools,  and  a  large  trade. 

TCHIIIATCHEFF,  Petr,  a  Russian  traveller, 
born  at  Gatchina  in  1812.  After  he  had  served 
in  the  department  of  foreign  affairs  and  as 
attache  to  the  embassy  in  Constantinople,  the 
government  commissioned  him  to  explore  the 
Altai  mountains.  Ho  has  published,  besides 
other  works,  Voyage  scicntifique  dans  V Altai 
et  dans  Us  contrees  adjacentes  (Paris,  1846); 
L^Asie  Mineure:  description  physique,  statis- 
tique  et  archeologique  de  cette  contree  (8  vols., 
Paris,  1853-'69);  and  Le  Bosphoreet  Constan 
tinople,  of  geological  interest  (1864). 

TCHIIRTCHIS.  I.  A  native  tribe  of  Siberia, 
inhabiting  the  E.  extremity  of  the  continent  of 


Asia  from  the  160th  meridian  to  Behring  strait. 
They  are  apparently  akin  to  the  Koriaks,  who 
occupy  nearly  the  same  territory,  and  whose 
habits  and  customs  are  similar.  A  part  of 
them  are  settled  along  the  shore,  where  they 
support  themselves  chiefly  by  killing  whales, 
seals,  and  walruses;  but  most  of  them  are 
nomads,  who  wander  almost  constantly  with 
great  herds  of  reindeer,  seldom  camping  more 
than  a  week  in  one  place.  They  are  bold,  self- 
reliant,  and^  wholly  independent  of  civilization 
and  government.  Their  bands  are  held  together 
only  by  mutual  consent,  and  have  no  govern 
ing  head.  In  general  appearance  they  are  tall, 
athletic,  and  vigorous,  closely  resembling  the 
North  American  Indians.  According  to  some 
authorities  the  Tchuktchis  and  Koriaks  do  not 
number  more  than  6,000  or  8,000,  but  the  Rus 
sian  estimates  are  larger.  II.  A  tribe  of  the 
Koniaga  family  in  Alaska,  otherwise  called 
Aglegmutes,  who  occupy  the  coast  of  Bristol 
bay  from  the  river  Nushagak  to  lat.  56°  N. 
They  live  in  houses  made  of  slabs,  built  over 
an  excavation,  with  a  low  doorway.  They  are 
peaceable,  given  to  labor  and  trade,  and  are 
ingenious  in  carving  and  other  work,  but  are 
sunk  in  vices  and  extremely  filthy. 

TEA  (Chinese,  tcha,  cha,  or  thd),  a  substance 
used  in  making  a  beverage  by  infusion,  con 
sisting  of  the  dried  leaves  of  one  or  more  spe 
cies  of  plants  of  the  old  genus  tJiea.  Bentham 
and  Hooker,  who  have  thoroughly  revised  the 
genera,  say  (Genera  Plantarum,  vol.  i.,  p.  187) 
that  they  can  find  no  good  characters  by  which 
to  separate  tJiea  as  a  genus  distinct  from  ca- 


Tea  riant  (Camellia  thea). 

mellia  ;  as  botanists  were  mostly  agreed  that 
there  was  but  one  species  of  thea,  the  botanical 
name  of  the  tea  plant  under  this  arrangement 
will  be  camellia  thea.  The  genus  is  well  known 
from  the  very  general  cultivation  of  C.  Japoni- 
ca  and  other  species,  especially  their  double 
forms,  in  greenhouses  in  the  northern  states, 
and  in  the  open  air  in  the  southern.  The  tea 
species  differs  from  any  of  these  in  having 
longer,  narrower,  thinner,  more  serrate,  and 
less  shiny  leaves ;  its  flowers  are  axillary  and 
nodding,  and,  though  only  about  an  inch  across, 
closely  resemble  those  of  a  single  camellia. 


TEA 


599 


The  sepals  and  petals  are  usually  five,  the  sta 
mens  numerous,  a  portion  forming  by  their 
united  bases  a  cup  within  which  are  numerous 
separate  stamens;  the  fruit  or  pod  is  usually 
three-celled,  with  a  single  large  seed  in  each 
cell.  The  plant  in  the  wild  state  is  a  bushy 
shrub,  and  sometimes  a  small  tree,  but  in  cul 
tivation  is  kept  dwarf  by  pruning.  Like  oth 
er  plants  long  in  cultivation,  tea  has  produced 
several  marked  varieties,  which  .have  been  de 
scribed  as  distinct  species.  The  original  coun 
try  of  tea  is  not  kno\vn ;  it  has  been  found  in 
a  truly  wild  state  in  Assam.  In  the  East  it 
may  be  cultivated  through  a  wide  range,  from 
India  to  Japan.  In  this  country  the  plant  bare 
ly  survives  the  winter  at  Washington,  but  a  lit 
tle  south  of  that  city  it  succeeds,  and  in  North 
Carolina  and  Georgia  bears  fruit  abundantly. 
On  the  Pacific  coast,  where  the  climate  is  es 
pecially  favorable  for  broad-leaved  evergreens, 
both  native  and  exotic,  the  tea  plant  flourishes 
much  further  north  than  at  the  east,  The  time 
of  its  first  cultivation  in  China  is  not  known. 
That  its  use  in  the  Indies  is  comparatively  re 
cent  is  inferred  from  the  fact  that  there  is  no 
name  for  the  plant  or  its  product  in  the  Sans 
krit.  The  Portuguese  are  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  import  tea  into  Europe,  and  were 
acquainted  with  it  early  in  the  16th  century; 
early  in  the  17th  it  was  introduced  by  the 
Dutch.  Previous  "to  that  time  it  was  the  cus 
tom  among  European  nations  to  make  use  of 
hot  infusions  of  various  leaves,  notably  those 
of  the  sage  (salvici),  which  at  one  time  had  a 
high  reputation,  and  was  regarded  as  a  sort  of 
panacea ;  its  dried  leaves  were  taken  to  China 
by  the  Dutch  East  India  company,  to  be  ex 
changed  for  the  tea  leaf.  About  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century  a  Russian  embassy  to  Chi 
na  brought  back  to  Moscow  packages  of  tea, 
which  were  received  with  much  favor ;  and 
in  1664  it  is  recorded  that  the  English  East 
India  company  made  the  queen  of  England 
what  was  considered  the  brilliant  present  of 
two  pounds  of  tea.  When  first  introduced 
into  England,  tea  sold  by  the  pound  at  £6  to 
£10;  it  was  known  there  previous  to  its  di 
rect  introduction,  having  been  brought  from 
Holland,  but  was  only  used  on  rare  occasions. 
The  first  considerable  importation  was  in  1667, 
when  the  East  India  company  brought  in  4,713 
Ibs.,  which  was  a  supply  for  several  years. — 
Teas  are  classed  as  black  and  green,  distinc 
tions  not  due  to  their  production  by  different 
species,  but  to  the  age  of  the  leaf  when  gath 
ered  and  the  methods  of  preparation  ;  each  of 
these  has  several  subvarieties  named  from  the 
provinces  producing  them  or  the  points  of 
exportation,  or  some  peculiarity  in  the  arti 
cle  itself.  The  Chinese  districts  which  sup 
ply  the  export  demand  lie  between  lat.  25°  and 
31°  X.  Tea  has  long  been  in  cultivation  in 
Japan,  and  since  the  opening  of  that  country 
to  commerce  a  large  trade  in  it  has  grown  up. 
Various  parts  of  India  are  eminently  favor 
able  to  the  culture ;  the  government  of  British 


India  has  encouraged  the  introduction  of  the 
Chinese  plant,  and  also  the  cultivation  of  that 
found  wild  in  Assam,  and  large  supplies  are 
sent  from  India  to  England.  In  Java  and 
Penang  the  culture  has  been  established  with 
favorable  results.  About  1850  the  plant  was 
introduced  into  Brazil,  and  by  the  aid  of  Chi 
nese  laborers  some  tea  was  produced ;  but  lit 
tle  mention  has  been  made  of  the  results  in 
later  years.  The  experiments  in  cultivating 
tea  in  the  United  States  have  been  numer 
ous  ;  the  most  noted  was  that  of  Dr.  Junius 
Smith  of  Greenville,  S.  C.,  who  gave  in  the 
reports  of  the  United  States  patent  office  from 
1848  to  1859  full  accounts  of  his  results ;  his 
labors  and  those  of  others  show  that  there  are 
localities  in  the  southern  states  well  adapted 
to  the  production  of  excellent  tea,  and  that  its 
success  in  this  country  is  only  a  question  of 
the  price  of  labor.  In  California,  where  the 
plant  flourishes  admirably,  an  experiment  in 
tea  culture  has  recently  been  undertaken  by  a 
colony  of  Japanese. — While  the  many  varieties 
of  tea  are  no  doubt  produced  by  the  same 
species,  the  quality  of  the  product  being  large 
ly  determined  by  the  preparation  given  to  the 
leaves,  it  is  also  much  influenced  by  the  soils 
and  situations  in  which  the  plants  grow.  The 
tea  of  the  hills  is  different  from  that  of  the 
low  lands,  and  that  which  receives  but  little 
care  gives  a  product  inferior  to  the  highly 
cultivated.  The  slopes  of  the  hills  are  pre 
ferred,  at  an  elevation  depending  upon  the 
climate ;  almost  any  good  arable  soil,  free  from 
stagnant  moisture,  will  serve  for  the  culture. 
In  China  the  plant  blooms  in  November,  and 
the  seeds  are  ripe  by  the  next  autumn  ;  these,  < 
kept  in  sand  till  the  following  spring,  are  sown 
in  a  seed  bed,  or  in  rowrs  where  the  plants  are 
to  grow ;  the  plants  stand  4  or  5  ft.  apart  each 
wray?  and  when  about  18  in.  high  have  the 
leading  shoots  pinched  to  induce  them  to  be 
come  bushy.  The  plants  yield  a  small  picking 
in  their  third  year,  and  attain  their  maximum 
yield  in  the  eighth  or  tenth,  after  which  they 
deteriorate  and  give  way  to  young  plants ;  in 
some  localities  the  land  is  enriched  with  litter, 
sewrage,  or  other  fertilizers ;  the  plant,  which 
would  naturally  form  a  tree,  is,  for  the  con 
venience  of  picking,  kept  pruned  down  to  5  ft. 
The  quality  of  the  tea  depends  largely  upon 
the  age  of  the  leaves  at  the  time  of  picking ; 
the  younger  the  leaves  the  more  delicate  their 
flavor,  and  of  course  the  smaller  the  yield. 
The  earliest  picking,  the  first  jof  April,  consists 
of  the  buds  and  the  very  youngest  leaves ;  a 
second  gathering,  at  the  end  of  April  or  early 
in  May,  consists  of  more  developed  leaves,  and 
is  the  most  important  crop ;  an  inferior  quality 
of  leaf  is  gathered  in  July,  and  in  some  localities 
another  picking  of  old  and  poor  leaves  is  made 
still  later.  The  picker  has  a  basket  slung  by  a 
cord  around  his  neck,  to  leave  both  hands  at 
liberty;  he  holds  the  shoot  with  one  hand,  and 
breaks  off  the  blade  of  the  leaf  with  the  other, 
for,  except  in  the  earliest  picking  of  the  very 


600 


TEA 


young  leaves,  no  portion  of  the  petiole  or  leaf 
stalk  must  be  gathered  with  the  liner  kinds  of 
tea.  If  left  in  large  masses,  so  that  heating  or 
natural  fermentation  takes  place,  the  leaves 
are  greatly  injured.  The  manipulations  to 
which  they  are  subjected  vary  greatly,  and  are 
often  prolonged  and  repeated  in  various  ways. 
As  each  locality  has  its  traditional  treatment, 
supposed  to  be  necessary,  the  accounts  of  the 
process  vary  greatly ;  in  all,  however,  the  first 
step  is  to  prevent  the  fermentation  of  the  leaves, 
by  exposing  them  in  shallow  baskets  to  the  sun 
and  air,  which  withers  and  slightly  dries  them. 
They  are  then  placed  in  small  quantities  in  a 
shallow  copper  or  iron  pan  heated  by  charcoal 
or  other  fuel,  and  rapidly  stirred ;  at  the  prop 
er  moment  they  are  swept  out  into  other  ves 
sels  or  upon  a  table,  where  other  workmen 
rub  the  leaves  between  their  hands  in  order 
to  roll  them  into  the  form  which  they  finally 
retain  ;  exposure  to  the  air  and  a  final  heating 
complete  the  process  with  some  teas,  while 
with  others  there  are  several  heatings,  alter 
nated  with  airings ;  the  choicer  teas  are  spread 
out  upon  a  table  to  be  assorted  before  packing, 
all  imperfectly  rolled  leaves  being  removed  and 
the  dust  and  fine  fragments  sifted  out.  The 
chest  with  its  leaden  lining  being  ready,  one 
bare-footed  laborer  gets  into  it,  and  another 
gradually  pours  in  the  leaves,  which  the  first 
treads  down  firmly,  and  as  soon  as  the  case  is 
full  the  leaden  cover  is  soldered  down.  If  the 
process  of  drying  is  completed  as  rapidly  as 
possible  after  picking,  the  tea  remains  green ; 
but  for  black  tea  the  process  is  prolonged,  and 
repeated  with  long  intervals  of  exposure,  some- 
•  times  for  a  whole  night,  in  order  that  a  kind 
of  fermentation  may  take  place.  Sometimes 
two  qualities  are  made  from  the  same  picking 
by  sifting  the  finer  leaves  from  the  coarser 
after  they  are  dried.  Apart  from  the  tedious 
labor  of  picking  the  crop  leaf  by  leaf,  the  ne 
cessity  for  these  many  small  operations  before 
the  tea  is  ready  for  use  will  prevent  its  suc 
cessful  culture  in  this  country,  where  the  cost 
of  labor  is  already  a  serious  problem  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  ordinary  farm  crops.  It  re 
quires  about  4  Ibs.  of  fresh  leaves  to  make  1 
Ib.  of  dried  tea,  and  the  yield  per  acre  is  from 
300  to  400  Ibs.  Certain  districts  in  China 
produce  either  green  or  black  tea  exclusively. 
A  third  sort,  the  scented  teas,  is  recognized  in 
commerce.  The  scenting  is  generally  due  to 
the  admixture  of  certain  flowers,  and  while  it 
is  sometimes  practised  upon  choice  kinds,  it  is 
more  frequently  employed  to  give  inferior  kinds 
a  better  flavor  ;  the  principal  flowers  used  are 
those  of  tea-olive,  olea  (or  osmantJius)  fragram 
(see  OLIVE),  and  the  chulan  (cJiloranfhus  incon- 
spicuus);  but  those  of  the  cape  jasmine  (Gar 
denia)  are  sometimes  employed.  The  flow 
ers  are  laid  with  the  leaves  under  pressure,  or 
are  dried  with  them  and  afterward  sifted  out. 
The  classes  of  tea  are  subdivided,  and  names, 
not  always  permanent,  are  given  to  sub  varie 
ties  founded  upon  the  size  and  age  at  which 


the  leaf  is  picked.  Of  the  Chinese  teas,  the 
principal  black  sorts  are  bohea,  congou,  sou 
chong,  caper,  oolong,  pekoe,  and  others.  Bo 
hea  is  the  coarsest  of  these,  and  its  importation 
has  greatly  fallen  off  of  late  years.  The  high 
est  quality  of  black  tea  is  pekoe,  which  con 
sists  of  the  very  youngest  leaves  of  the  first 
picking ;  these,  when  so  young  that  they  are 
still  clothed  with  down,  constitute  the  flowery 
pekoe.  Among  the  green  teas  are  twankay, 
hyson  skin,  young  hyson,  hyson,  imperial,  and 
gunpowder.  The  gunpowder  in  green  tea 
corresponds  with  the  pekoe  in  black,  and  like 
that  is  from  the  first  gatherings;  imperial,  hy 
son,  and  young  hyson  are  grades  made  from 
the  second  and  third  pickings,  while  the  infe 
rior  light  leaves,  winnowed  from  the  hysons, 
make  the  hyson  skin,  the  chief  market  for 
which  is  found  in  this  country.  The  brick  tea 
of  Thibet  is  probably  the  poorest  of  all;  it 
gets  its  name  from  the  shape  of  the  blocks  into 
which  refuse  tea  and  tea  sweepings  are  made  by 
mixing  them  with  bullock's  blood  and  drying 
by  fire  heat ;  the  bricks  are  wrapped  in  paper 
or  sewed  up  in  sheep  skins,  and  are  rarely  ex 
ported  except  as  a  curiosity.  The  teas  from, 
India  have  a  separate  nomenclature.  The  finer 
teas,  both  black  and  green,  are  rarely  seen  in 
this  country ;  if  packed  in  large  parcels,  or 
conveyed  in  the  hold  of  a.  ship,  a  fermenta 
tion  or  change  takes  place  which  destroys  their 
quality ;  a  large  share  of  the  crop  is  consumed 
by  the  wealthy  Chinese,  and  a  portion  of  it 
finds  its  way  by  overland  conveyance  to  Russia. 
— Teas  are  subject  to  various  adulterations  in 
China,  and  in  the  countries  where  they  are 
sold,  including  the  mixing  of  different  qualities, 
and  the  coloring  and  other  treatment  to  im 
prove  the  looks  of  inferior  kinds.  The  ma 
nipulation  of  poor  teas  to  give  them  a  finer 
appearance  is  carried  on  in  China,  and  there 
are  establishments  in  both  England  and  Amer 
ica  engaged  in  the  business.  The  glazing  or 
facing  of  teas  is  done  with  plumbago  or  black 
lead,  added  in  fine  powder  to  the  tea  in  a  re 
volving  cylinder  where  the  mutual  attrition 
imparts  to  the  leaves  a  peculiarly  smooth  and 
glossy  appearance.  Green  teas,  being  in  this 
country  especially  popular  (their  higher  price 
conveying  the  idea  that  they  are  of  better 
quality),  are  produced  to  meet  the  demand  by 
coloring  cheaper  black  kinds.  The  principal 
materials  used  in  coloring  are  "  China  clay," 
or  terra  alba  (largely  found  in  this  country  and 
exported),  Prussian  blue,  and  turmeric  ;  some 
times  gypsum  and  indigo  are  used  ;  the  color 
ing  matters,  mixed  in  proportions  to  produce 
the  desired  shade,  are  added  to  the  slightly 
moistened  tea,  and  the  whole  agitated  until 
the  color  becomes  evenly  distributed  and  the 
leaves  by  rubbing  together  become  glazed.  This 
treatment,  with  variations  in  the  manipulation, 
is  so  general  that  but  very  little  uncolored 
green  tea  is  offered  for  sale.  The  coloring  and 
facing  are  readily  detected  by  examining  the 
leaves  under  the  microscope  as  an  opaque 


TEA 


601 


object,  when  the  particles  of  coloring  matter 
are  easily  seen ;  if  it  is  desired  to  make  a 
further  examination  as  to  the  materials  used, 
the  leaves  must  be  treated  with  water,  and 
the  washings  subjected  to  chemical  tests,  or 
be  burned,  and  an  analysis  made  of  the  ash. 
The  adulteration  by  mixing  a  finer  tea  with  a 
portion  of  an  inferior  grade  is  common ;  be 
sides  this  the  Chinese  prepare  what  is  called 
"  lie  tea  "  for  this  express  use,  consisting  of 
the  dust  which  accumulates  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  tea,  and  the  dust  of  other  leaves,  rice 
husks,  etc.,  made  up  by  the  aid  of  gum  into 
little  pellets  and  colored  to  resemble  tea.  Some 
years  ago  the  annual  importation  of  this  stuff 
into  England  was  half  a  million  pounds  annu 
ally,  all  of  which  was  used  to  mix  with  teas. 
The  adulteration  is  readily  detected  by  soaking 
a  portion  of  tea  and  examining  it  with  a  lens ; 
the  true  leaf  may  be  unrolled  and  spread  out, 
while  the  factitious  article  will  separate  into 
its  component  fragments.  Another  adultera 
tion  is  with  exhausted  tea  leaves ;  at  the  Chi 
nese  tea  houses,  which  are  open  day  and  night, 
the  tea  is  usually  made  in  a  cup,  covered  with  a 
saucer,  and  then  poured  into  another  cup  ;  large, 
jars  stand  about  the  saloons  into  which  the 
dregs  are  emptied ;  these  are  carefully  made 
over  and  find  their  way  into  commerce.  The 
detection  of  these  when  colored  is  not  difficult, 
but  when  they  are  rerolled  without  coloring, 
a  chemical  analysis  must  be  made ;  it  is  gen 
erally  only  necessary 
to  test  for  the  amount 
of  tannic  acid,  which 
in  genuine  teas  ranges 
from  20  to  40  per 
cent.,  while  in  ex 
hausted  teas  it  is  from 
7  to  less  than  1  per 
cent.,  and  sometimes 
completely  extracted. 
The  adulteration  with 
other  leaves  is  prac 
tised  in  China,  and 
was  formerly  to  a 
large  extent  in  Eng 
land  ;  willow  leaves 
and  those  of  camellia 
sasanqua  are  much 
used  in  China,  while 
in  England  those  of 
the  sloe  or  wild  plum, 
the  hawthorn,  elder, 
plane  tree,  poplar, 
and  others  have  been 
employed.  These  adul 
terations  and  others 
with  false  leaves  may 
be  readily  detected  by 
soaking  out  and  un 
rolling  them ;  those  of  the  true  tea  being  well 
known  as  to  their  shape,  the  character  of 
the  margin,  and  especially  the  serration  (the 
looping  together  of  the  principal  veins  just 
within  the  margin  being  very  characteristic), 


Tea  Leaf. 


they  may  be  readily  picked  out  from  any  for 
eign  admixture  by  the  aid  of  a  hand  glass. — 
Tea  has  been  analyzed  by  different  chemists, 
whose  results  show  much  discrepancy,  doubt 
less  due  to  the  variable  character  of  the  prod 
uct.  The  average  composition  is,  in  100  parts : 
carbohydrates  (gum  and  sugar),  21 ;  fatty  mat 
ters,  4;  albuminoids,  15  ;  tannin,  26*23  ;  vegej- 
table  fibre,  20 ;  theine,  2  or  3  ;  mineral  sub 
stances,  5 ;  water,  5  ;  and  an  aromatic  oil.  less 
than  1.  The  most  important  constituent  is 
theine,  or,  as  it  is  identical  with  the  active 
principle  in  coffee,  caffeine,  a  crystallizable 
substance,  soluble  in  water  and  having  a  bitter 
taste  (see  CAFFEINE)  ;  acting  as  a  feeble  base, 
it  is  classed  among  the  alkaloids,  with  the 
formula  CieHioKtOa  +  ILO.  Some  give  the 
proportion  as  high  as  6  per  cent,  in  the  finer 
green  teas,  but  the  average  is  2  to  3  per  cent. 
The  constituent  next  in  importance  is  the 
aromatic  oil,  as  upon  this  depends  the  aroma 
and  a  large  share  of  the  flavor  of  the  tea.  The 
tannin  gives  the  tea  its  astringency ;  in  the 
proper  making  or  infusing  of  tea  the  object  is 
to  extract  as  much  of  the  theine  and  aromatic 
oil  and  as  little  of  the  tannin  as  possible ;  when 
tea  is  infused  too  long,  or  is  boiled,  the  amount 
of  tannin  in  the  infusion  is  perceived  by  its 
marked  astringency ;  more  or  less  of  the  other 
constituents  are  taken  up  by  the  water,  and 
give  what  is  called  "body"  to  the  tea. — The 
wealthy  Chinese  make  their  tea  in  the  cup. 
The  proper  quantity  of  leaves  is  placed  in  the 
cup,  boiling  water  poured  over  them,  and  the 
cup  covered  for  a  time  with  the  saucer;  to 
prevent  the  leaves  from  rising  to  the  surface, 
a  perforated  bit  of  silver,  or  silver  filigree 
work,  is  placed  over  them.  The  poorer  Chinese 
make  their  tea  in  a  tea  pot.  In  Japan  some 
teas  are  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  which  is  in 
fused  in  the  cup  and  stirred  before  taking,  that 
both  the  infusion  and  powder  may  be  swal 
lowed  ;  it  is  also  the  custom  in  Tartary  to  take 
the  leaves  with  the  liquid.  In  other  countries 
it  is  customary  to  make  some  addition  to  the 
tea :  in  England  and  America,  sugar  and  milk 
or  cream  ;  in  Russia,  lemon  juice ;  and  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  it  is  very  common  to  add 
a  little  brandy  or  other  spirit.  The  quality  of 
the  tea  (the  infusion)  is  greatly  affected  by  the 
manner  of  making  it.  Those  who  think  that 
color  indicates  strength  boil  the  tea,  either 
putting  the  leaves  directly  into  boiling  water, 
or  placing  them  in  cold  water  and  setting  the 
pot  upon  the  fire  until  the  water  boils;  some 
practise  -prolonged  infusion,  with  the  same  re 
sult,  a  dark-colored  liquid,  in  which  the  proper 
flavor  is  concealed  by  the  amount  of  tannin 
extracted;  and  some  add  a  fragment  of  soda  to 
increase  the  color.  Connoisseurs  in  tea  usu 
ally  make  it  on  the  table,  a  caddy  containing 
several  kinds  of  tea  and  an  urn  of  boiling  water 
being  at  hand ;  a  portion  of  boiling  water  is 
poured  into  the  tea  pot,  and  when  that  is  thor 
oughly  warmed  the  water  is  distributed  among 
the  tea  cups ;  then  the  leaves  of  one  sort  (or  a 


602 


TEA 


TEAK 


mixture  of  two  or  three  sorts)  are  placed  in 
the  pot,  hoiling  water  poured  on,  and  in  a  few 
minutes,  the  cups  being  emptied  of  the  water 
put  in  to  warm  them,  it  is  served.  The  char 
acter  of  the  water  greatly  influences  the  qual 
ity  of  the  tea,  it  being  impossible  to  make 
really  good  tea  with  hard  water.  Excess  of 
lime  in  the  water  may  be  corrected  by  the 
judicious  use  of  carbonate  of  soda. — The  effects 
of  the  habitual  use  of  tea  have  been  much  dis 
cussed,  some  regarding  them  as  highly  dele 
terious,  while  others,  on  account  of  the  large 
proportion  of  nitrogen  in  theine,  have  main 
tained  that  tea  is  nutritious,  and  serves  as  a 
substitute  for  food.  The  elaborate  experi 
ments  of  Dr.  Edward  Smith  ("  Fo6ds,"  in  the 
/"  International  Scientific  Series,"  Xew  York, 
1873)  are  worthy  of  study;  his  results  in  brief 
are  :  that  while  the  amount  of  nutriment  con 
tained  in  the  quantity  of  tea  one  consumes  is 
not  sufficient  to  be  of  use  in  building  up  the 
system  or  in  supplying  heat,  it  has  a  marked 
effect  upon  the  vital  functions,  and  particular 
ly  stimulates  respiration,  as  shown  by  the  in 
creased  amount  of  carbonic  acid  thrown  off  by 
the  lungs  after  taking  it ;  and  that  it  power 
fully  promotes  the  assimilation  and  transforma 
tion  of  other  foods.  Excessive  use  of/tea  pro 
duces  wakefulness  and  increased  mental  and 
bodily  activity,  which  is  followed  by  a  reaction 
that  brings  exhaustion  and  a  corresponding 
depression.  Most  of  the  unpleasant  effects  cif 
tea  are  ascribed  to  the  volatile  oil ;  the  long 
continued  breathing  of  air  impregnated  with 
this  produces  illness  in  the  packers  of  tea,  and 
the  tea  tasters  at  the  tea  marts  in  China,  who 
are  even  careful  not  to  swallow  the  infusion, 
are  obliged  in  a  few  years  to  give  up  their 
Jucrative  positions  with  shattered  constitutions. 
The  Chinese,  who  drink  tea  at  all  times,  are 
careful  to  use  none  less  than  a  year  old,  as  in 
time  the  oil  either  evaporates  or  is  so  modified 
that  it  ceases  to  be  injurious. -4-There  are  nu 
merous  substitutes  for  tea  in  different  coun 
tries,  and  widely  separated  peoples  have  in 
use  some  plant  the  active  principle  of  which 
is  closely  analogous  to,  if  not  identical  with, 
that  in  tea.  Besides  coffee  and  chocolate,  one 
of  the  most  important  of  these  beverages  is 
the  Paraguay  tea.  (See  MATE.)  The^  Mat 
of  Arabia  and  Abyssinia,  introduced  into  the 
Mohammedan  parts  of  Africa,  is  catlia  eduUs, 
the  leaves  and  small  twigs  of  which  possess  the 
properties  of  tea  in  an  eminent  degree.  The 
coca  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  though  generally 
chewed,  has  similar  properties,  and  is  some 
times  used  like  tea.  (See  COCA.)  Other  plants 
might  be^  cited.  (See  also  NEW  JERSEY  TEA.) 
— The  official  records  of  importation  into  Eng 
land  begin  in  1725,  in  which  year  there  was 
imported  370,323  Ibs. ;  in  the  first  year  of  the 
present  century  the  quantity  entered  for  home 
consumption  was  23,730,150  Ibs.  Until  1834 
the  East  India  company  had  a  monopoly  of 
tea,  which  paid  a  heavy  duty;  but  in  that  year 
the  duty  was  reduced,  and  the  trade  thrown 


open  to  all.  The  imports  of  tea  into  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  for  five  years,  ending  Dec. 
31,  entered  for  home  consumption  only,  were: 
1869,  998,995  cwt.  ;  1870,  1,050,202  ;  1871, 
1,102,943;  1872,  1,141,003;  1873,  1,178,760. 
The  value  of  the  total  import  for  the  same 
years,  of  which  one  fourth  was  reexported, 
was  £10,311,405,  £10,097,619,  £11,635,644, 
£12,933,143,  and  £11,372,595.  The  imports 
into  the  United  States  for  five  years,  ending 
June  30,  for  home  consumption,  were:  1869- 
'70,  423,293  cwt.  ;  1870-'7l,  458,615  ;  1871-'2, 
569,741;  1872-'3,  578,707;  1873-'4,  498,318. 
The  total  values  (in  gold)  for  the  respective 
years  were  $13,871,546,  $17,254,617,  $22,943,- 
575,  $24.466,170,  and  $21,212,334. 

TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE,  in  the  United  States, 
an  assemblage  of  the  teachers  of  the  public 
schools  of  a  county  or  part  of  a  county  for 
the  purpose  of  receiving  instruction  in  the 
art  and  methods  of  teaching,  by  lectures,  con 
ferences,  class  drills,  &c.,  from  experienced 
teachers.  An  institute  is  usually  held  in  each 
county  under  the  supervision  of  the  county 
superintendent  of  schools  once  a  year,  some 
times  oftener,  the  sessions  lasting  from  one  to 
two  weeks.  The  instruction  is  free.  This 
plan  was  first  adopted  by  Henry  Barnard, 
state  superintendent  of  schools  in  Connecti 
cut,  in  1839.  Institutes  have  been  held  in 
Xew  York  since  1843,  and  have  been  main 
tained  by  state  appropriations  since  1847.  They 
were  begun  in  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Isl 
and  in  1845,  and  soon  afterward  in  many  other 
states.  In  most  of  the  states  they  are  required 
by  law  to  be  held,  and  in  several  the  atten 
dance  of  teachers  is  obligatory.  In  some  states 
provision  is  made  for  their  maintenance  by 
public  funds.  The  instruction  in  these  tem 
porary  training  schools  is  necessarily  almost 
wholly  oral,  and  is  confined  to  an  explanation 
and  illustration  of  the  best  methods  of  teach 
ing  and  governing  schools.  •  Conferences  are 
held,  in  which  the  teachers  relate  their  own 
experience  of  particular  methods  of  instruc 
tion  and  discipline. 

TEAK,  an  East  Indian  tree,  tectona  grandis 
(called  in  Malabar  tccca],  valuable  for  its  timber. 
It  belongs  to  the  yerbenacece,,  a  family  which, 
while  its  most  familiar  representatives  with  us 
are  ornamental  herbs  and  shrubs,  includes  some 
important  tropical  trees.  The  teak  is  remark 
able  for  its  size  and  beauty;  it  grows  over  200 
ft.  high;  the  elliptical  leaves  are  12  to  24  in. 
long,  and  so  rough  as  to  be  useful  for  polishing 
wood ;  the  small  white  flowers  are  fragrant, 
in  terminal  panicles,  and  have  the  structure 
common  to  the  family.  The  tree  is  found  in 
various  parts  of  India  and  the  adjacent  isl 
ands,  and  has  been  introduced  into  other  Brit 
ish  possessions.  It  is  probable  that  other  and 
closely  related  species  contribute  to  the  supply 
of  commerce.  The  wood  of  the  teak  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  known  on  account  of 
its  great  weight,  hardness,  and  durability,  qual 
ities  which  have  caused  it  to  be  long  used  in 


TEAL 


603 


the  East,  not  only  for  temples,  but  for  dwell 
ings.  It  is  most  employed  in  ship  building, 
being  practically  indestructible  by  wear  or  de 
cay,  and  vessels  built  of  it  have  lasted  100 


, 


Teak  (Tectoiia  grandis). 

years,  to  be  then  only  broken  up  on  account 
of  their  poor  sailing  qualities  from  faulty  mod 
els.  The  wood  works  easily,  but  on  account 
of  the  large  amount  of  silex  contained  in  it,  the 
tools  employed  are  quickly  worn  away ;  it  is 
brownish,  and  contains  an  oil  which  prevents 
spikes  and  other  iron  work  with  which  it  is 
in  contact  from  rusting,  even  when  the  wood 
is  used  green.  Its  weight  varies  in  different 
localities,  from  42  to  52  Ibs.  to  the  cubic  foot; 
the  teak  from  Malabar  is  the  heaviest,  while 
that  from  Burmah  and  Siam  is  much  lighter ; 
in  ship  building  its  great  weight  largely  offsets 
its  durability,  and  it  is  therefore  now  custom 
ary  to  use  it  only  for  planking. — Various  simi 
lar  woods  are  called  teak;  the  African  teak 
was  long  used  in  ship  building  before  its  origin 
was  known ;  it  is  the  genus  Oldfieldia,  of  the 
euphorbia  family. 

TEAL,  the  common  name  of  the  small  riv 
er  ducks  of  the  genera  nettion  (Kaup)  and 
querquedula  (Stephens),  called  sarcelles  by  the 
French.  In  the  genus  nettion  the  bill  is  as 
long  as  the  head,  straight,  unusually  narrow, 
with  sides  parallel,  as  high  as  broad  at  the  base, 
the  depressed  tip  with  a  very  narrow  nail; 
wings  moderate  and  pointed,  second  quill  the 
longest,  and  the  secondaries  lengthened  and 
pointed  ;  tail  moderate  and  wedge-shaped  ; 
toes  united  by  a  full  web,  the  hind  one  short 
and  slighty  lobed.  There  are  about  20  species, 
distributed  all  over  the  globe,  though  most  nu 
merous  in  the  northern  hemisphere  ;  they  are 
migratory,  commencing  their  rapid  flights  in 
small  flocks  soon  after  sunset,  resting  by  day 
on  the  surface  of  fresh  water  or  the  reedy 
shores  of  rivers  and  lakes,  and  feeding  princi 
pally  at.  night  on  aquatic  insects  and  worms, 
seeds,  and  grains ;  the  nest  is  made  of  a  large 
mass  of  decayed  vegetable  matter  lined  with 


down,  and  the  eggs  are  eight  to  ten ;  they  are 
highly  esteemed  as  game.  The  European  teal 
was  domesticated  by  the  Romans.  The  green- 
winged  teal  (N.  Carolinensis,  Baird)  is  14  in. 
long,  22  to  24  in.  in  alar  extent,  and  the  bill  If 
in. ;  the  head  and  neck  are  chestnut,  the  chin 
black,  and  the  forehead  dusky ;  around  the  eyes 
and  on  the  sides  of  the  head  is  a  broad  rich 
green  stripe,  passing  into  a  bluish  black  patch 
on  the  nape  ;  below  white,  with  rounded  black 
spots  on  throat;  lower  neck,  sides,  and  scapu 
lars  finely  banded  with  black  and  grayish  white ; 
speculum  on  wings  broad  and  rich  green ;  a 
white  crescent  in  front  of  bend  of  wings; 
under  tail  coverts  black,  with  a  patch  of  buff 
white  on  each  side;  wing  coverts  plain  olive- 
gray  ;  in  the  female  the  under  parts  are  white, 
and  the  upper  dark  brown  with  gray  edgings. 
It  occurs  over  the  whole  of  North  America, 
and  accidentally  in  Europe ;  it  migrates  prin 
cipally  over  the  land,  breeding  from  the  great 
lakes  to  the  fur  countries ;  it  runs  well,  is  a 
good  swimmer  and  diver,  and  a  very  rapid  and 
graceful  flier ;  having  a  comparatively  long 
neck,  it  feeds  while  swimming,  and,  being 
choice  in  its  selection  of  food,  affords  a  deli 
cious  flesh  ;  it  is  not  very  shy ;  the  eggs  are  If 
by  If  in.,  much  rounded,  dull  yellowish  with 
indistinct  deeper  tints. — In  the  genus  querque 
dula  the  bill  widens  a  little  to  the  end,  which 
is  obtusely  rounded,  is  higher  than  broad  at 
base,  has  a  wider  nail  and  the  lamella?  visible 
on  the  sides.  There  are  about  half  a  dozen 
species  in  North  America,  Europe,  and  Asia, 


Green-winged  Teal  (Nettion  Carolinensis). 

with  habits  similar  to  those  of  the  other  genus. 
The  blue- winged  teal  (Q.  discors,  Steph.)  is  16 
in.  long,  24  or  25  in.  in  alar  extent,  with  a  bill 
of  1|-  in. ;  the  head  and  neck  above  are  plum 
beous  gray  ;  top  of  head  black;  .white  crescent 
in  front  of  eyes;  under  parts  purplish  gray, 
each  feather  spotted  with  black ;  fore  part 
of  back  brownish  with  two  narrow  bands  of 
purplish  gray ;  back  behind  and  tail  greenish 
brown;  under  tail  coverts  black;  outer  webs 
of  some  of  the  scapulars  and  the  wing  coverts 
bright  blue ;  greater  coverts  tipped  with  white, 
with  grass-green  speculum  below  them ;  bill 
black ;  in  the  female  the  top  of  the  head  is 
brown,  chin  and  throat  yellowish  white,  back 
brown  with  paler  edgings,  under  parts  whitish 


604 


TEARS 


TEASEL 


with  obscure  brown  spots,  and  the  same  blue 
and  white  in  the  wings  as  in  the  male.  It 
is  found  throughout  eastern  North  America  to 
the  Rocky  mountains,  is  abundant  about  the 
mouths  of  the  Mississippi  in  winter,  and  is  less 
hardy  than  the  green- winged  species. 

TEARS,  the  limpid,  colorless,  slightly  saline 
secretion  of  the  lachrymal  glands,  continually 
poured  out  in  quantity  sufficient  to  bathe  the 
surface  of  the  eyes,  to  secure  the  easy  and  free 
motion  of  the  lids,  and  to  wash  off  any  irrita 
ting  particles  from  their  sensitive  membrane. 
The  lachrymal  belong  to  the  aggregated  glands, 
or  those  in  which  the  vesicles  or  acini  are 
arranged  in  lobules ;  there  is  one  at  the  upper, 
external,  and  anterior  part  of  each  orbit,  in  a 
depression  of  the  frontal  bone,  in  relation  with 
the  external  rectus  muscle,  resting  behind  on  a 
fatty  areolar  tissue ;  each  gland  is  of  the  size 
of  a  small  almond,  reddish  white,  flattened, 
and  enveloped  in  a  fibro-celliilar  capsule ;  the 
secretion  is  poured  out  by  six  or  seven  trunks 
opening  within  the  upper  lid.  At  the  inner 
angle  of  the  eyes,  in  both  lids,  are  two  very 
narrow,  always  open  apertures,  the  lachrymal 
puncta,  in  the  middle  of  a  slightly  prominent 
tubercle,  about  1^-  line  from  the  inner  junction 
of  the  lids ;  they  are  opposite  each  other,  the 
lower  turned  up  and  the  upper  down,  and  both 
outward  and  backward.  Through  these  open 
ings  the  tears  are  conveyed  by  the  lachrymal 
ducts  in  each  lid  to  the  lachrymal  sac,  at  the 
inner  angle  of  each  eye,  in  the  bony  groove 
between  the  lachrymal  bone  and  the  ascending 
process  of  the  superior  maxillary  ;  it  is  a  small 
membranous  sac,  opening  below  into  the  nasal 
duct,  which  conveys  the  tsars  into  the  nose 
beneath  the  inferior  turbinated  bone.  At  the 
inner  angle  of  the  lids,  in  front  of  the  globe 
and  behind  the  lachrymal  puncta,  is  a  small 
reddish  tubercle,  pyramidal,  with  the  summit 
turned  forward  and  outward  ;  this  is  the  lachry 
mal  caruncle,  and  consists  of  a  mass  of  small 
mucous  follicles,  covered  by  the  conjunctiva, 
which  forms  in  front  and  to  the  outside  a  semi- 
lunar  fold,  called  the  nictitating  membrane ; 
this  is  rudimentary  in  man,  but  remarkably  de 
veloped  in  birds.  The  act  of  crying,  generally 
accompanying  an  increased  secretion  of  tears, 
as  far  as  the  movements  of  respiration  are 
concerned,  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
laughing,  though  occasioned  by  a  contrary  emo 
tion  ;  the  expiratory  muscles  are  in  more  or  less 
violent  convulsive  movement,  sending  out  the 
breath  in  a  series  of  jerks,  accompanied  by 
well  known  sounds ;  in  children  the  act  is  some 
times  continued  almost  to  the  complete  emp 
tying  of  the  chest  of  air,  to  the  great  dismay 
of  parents,  but  the  necessity  of  "breathing  is 
always  stronger  than  the  convulsive  muscular 
movements.  Moderate  excitement,  whether  of 
joy,  tenderness,  or  grief,  increases  greatly  the 
quantity  of  the  tears,  though  the  secretion  is 
checked  by  violent  emotions  ;  in  intense  grief 
the  tears  do  not  flow,  the  restoration  of  the 
secretion  being  a  sign  of  moderated  sorrow, 


and  itself  affording  relief  by  the  resumption 
of  nervous  action.  The  sensory,  emotional,  or 
instinctive  ganglia,  situated  at  the  base  of  the 
brain,  to  a  certain  extent  independent  of  the 
will,  in  intense  grief  become  congested,  and 
the  flow  of  tears  is  the  natural  method  for 
their  relief;  hence  the  danger  of  cerebral  dis 
turbance  from  long  continued  tearless  grief. 
Considering  their  size,  there  are  no  other  glands 
which  ordinarily  can  so  increase  the  amount  of 
their  secretion  as  the  lachrymal ;  the  quantity 
is  sometimes  very  great,  and  very  easily  stim 
ulated  ;  the  shedding  of  tears  is  also  conta 
gious. — The  lachrymal  puncta  may  be  closed, 
causing  the  tears  to  flow  over  the  cheeks,  for 
which  the  remedy  is  dilatation  by  fine  probes. 
When  the  nasal  duct  is  obstructed,  the  eye  is 
watery  and  the  corresponding  nostril  dry,  the 
sac  forming  a  small  tumor  at  the  side  of  the 
nose;  the  sac  also  maybe  inflamed,  with  pain, 
tenderness,  swelling,  and  feverish  symptoms ; 
this  may  end  in  suppuration,  and  an  external 
opening,  constituting  lachrymal  fistula,  requi 
ring  the  restoration  of  the  obliterated  duct  by 
styles  of  different  materials. 

TEASEL  (A.  S.  teasel,  from  twain,  to  tease), 
the  ripened  flower  heads  of  dipsacus  fullonum, 
used  for  raising  a  nap  upon  woollen  cloths. 
The  genus  dipsacus  (Gr.  6ityeiv,  to  thirst,  sup 
posed  to  refer  to  the  cups  formed  by  the  united 
leaves  in  some  species,  which  hold  water)  is  the 
representative  of  a  small  family,  the  dipsacea, 
which  is  so  closely  related  to  the  composites 
that  in  a  systematic  arrangement  it  is  placed 
next  to  that  family.  Like  the  composites,  the 
teasel  family  have  their  flowers  in  dense  heads, 
but  their  anthers  are  not  united  and  the  seeds 
have  albumen.  In  the  teasel  itself,  of  which 
there  are  about  a  dozen  old-world  species,  the 
plants  are  biennial  or  perennial,  with  coarse, 
deeply  toothed,  opposite,  rough  leaves ;  the 
branches  are  terminated  by  an  oblong  head, 
consisting  of  small  flowers,  each  in  the  axil  of 
a  bract,  which  appears  as  a  strong  scale  when 
the  seeds  are  ripe.  The  wild  teasel  (D.  syfacs- 
tris)  is  sparingly  introduced,  and  is  found  in 
the  older  states  as  a  roadside  weed;  it  is  from 
2  to  6  ft.  high,  and  its  numerous  heads  of  pale 
purple  flowers,  with  a  large  involucre  at  their 
base,  make  it  a  conspicuous  and  not  inelegant 
plant ;  the  bracts  to  the  heads  terminate  in  a 
long  straight  point ;  it  should  be  treated  as  an 
intruder.  The  teasel  of  commerce,  or  fullers' 
teasel,  though  bearing  the  specific  name  given 
above,  is  generally  supposed  to  have  originated 
from  the  wild  teasel,  from  which  it  differs  in 
having  a  longer  head  with  a  shorter  involucre  ; 
the  bracts  are  much  stiff er,  and  have  hooked 
points.  These  heads,  when  ripe,  are  about  2£ 
in.  long  and  1^  in.  in  diameter,  and  clothed 
with  regular,  strong,  sharp,  recurved  hooks; 
they  are  an  important  article  of  commerce,  and 
in  some  countries  of  cultivation  ;  considerable 
quantities  are  produced  in  England,  but  the 
chief  supply  is  from  Holland  and  France.  The 
teasel  has  now  and  then  been  cultivated  in 


TECHNOLOGY 


TECUMSEH 


605 


this  country  ;  any  good  soil  suits  it ;  the  seed 
is  sown  in  spring,  the  plants  thinned  to  18  in. 
and  kept  cultivated  through  the  season ;  the 
next  year  the  flower  heads  appear,  and  earth 


Wild  Teasel   (Dipsacus   sylvestris),  and  Head  of  Fulleri' 
Teasel. 

is  thrown  against  the  plants  to  keep  them  up 
right;  when  the  flowers  wither,  the  heads  are 
cut,  leaving  8  or  9  in.  of  stalk  attached,  and 
dried  in  the  sun.  Their  use  is  to  tease  or  raise 
a  nap  upon  cloth,  and  this  is  done  by  the  hooks, 
which  catch  and  pull  out  one  end  of  the  wool 
fibres,  near  the  surface,  leaving  the  other  end 
of  the  fibre  still  twisted  in  the  thread.  For 
merly  teasing,  or  teasling,  was  done  by  hand, 
the  heads  being  fastened  in  a  frame,  and  drawn 
over  the  surface  of  the  cloth  by  the  operator 
with  a  frame  in  each  hand ;  now  the  work  is 
done  by  machinery ;  the  teasels,  cut  length 
wise  into  halves  or  quarters,  are  attached  to 
a  wooden  cylindrical  frame,  which  revolves, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  cloth  passes  be 
neath  it.  Much  inventive  talent  has  been  ex 
pended  in  providing  substitutes  for  teasels,  but 
all  have  been  discarded ;  for  the  natural  tea 
sel,  unlike  any  artificial  substitute,  while  suffi 
ciently  strong  to  perform  the  required  work, 
will  yield  or  break  in  contact  with  a  knot  or 
other  obstacle,  without  injury  to  the  cloth. 

TECHNOLOGY  (Gr.  rexvf],  an  art,  and  Uyos, 
discourse),  the  systematic  knowledge  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  the  industrial  arts.  It 
is  divisible  into  several  branches,  but  chiefly 
into  chemical  technology  and  mechanical  tech 
nology.  Chemical  technology  embraces  those 
industries  which  chiefly  demand  a  knowledge 
of  chemistry,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  chem 
icals,  including  the  various  acids  and  the  com 
pounds  of  soda  and  potash ;  the  manufacture 
of  soap  and  candles,  glass,  and  the  various 
kinds  of  pottery  and  porcelain  ;  the  manufac 
ture  of  illuminating  gas,  and  the  distillation  and 
refining  of  the  waste  products  of  gas  works 
and  of  crude  petroleum  ;  and  the  distillation 


and  rectification  of  spirits  and  the  fermenta 
tion  of  wine  and  beer.  Mechanical  technolo 
gy  embraces  textile  manufactures  and  the  me 
chanic  arts  in  general.  In  many  of  the  arts  a 
combination  of  both  mechanical  and  chemical 
knowledge  is  required,  as  in  glass  making  and 
calico  printing.  Schools  of  technology  are 
established  independently  and  also  in  connec 
tion  with  colleges  and  universities,  not  only 
for  the  advantage  of  the  general  student,  but 
for  those  who  intend  to  become  experts  in  one 
or  at  most  a  few  branches,  in  which  the  fun 
damental  principles  of  the  arts  are  taught,  in 
cluding  mathematics,  mechanical  engineering, 
natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  and  usually 
mineralogy  and  geology.  In  independent  in 
stitutions  other  branches  are  added. 

TEC13ISEH,  or  Tecumtha,  a  chief  of  the  Shaw- 
nee  Indians,  born  near  the  present  town  of 
Springfield,  Ohio,  about  1768,  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Thames,  Oct.  5,  1813.  His  first 
prominent  appearance  was  in  the  attack  on 
Fort  Recovery  in  1794.  About  1805  his  broth 
er  Elskwatawa  set  up  as  a  prophet,  denoun 
cing  the  use  of  liquors,  and  of  all  food  and 
manners  introduced  by  the  whites.  Tecum- 
seh  and  the  prophet  then  attempted  to  unite 
all  the  western  tribes  into  one  nation  to  re 
sist  the  whites.  They  visited  the  Indians 
from  the  lakes  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
soon  had  a  village  of  400  Indians  gathered  at 
Greenville.  Gen.  Harrison  required  them  to 
remove,  as  it  was  beyond  the  Indian  limit 
fixed  by  treaty.  Tecumseh  went  to  Vincennes 
with  400  warriors  to  overawe  Harrison,  and 
the  conference  was  broken  up  by  his  vio 
lence.  Finding  that  he  had  gone  too  far,  he 
attempted  to  explain.  In  1811,  while  he  was 
in  the  south  exciting  the  Creeks  and  Semi- 
noles  to  rise  by  promise  of  English  aid,  Harri 
son  marched  on  the  prophet's  town  to  demand 
that  the  Indians  should  return  to  their  various 
tribes,  murderers  of  whites  be  surrendered, 
and  plunder  given  up.  The  prophet  attacked 
him,  and  was  defeated  at  Tippecanoe,  on  the 
W abash  (Nov.  7).  This  disconcerted  Tecum- 
seh's  plans  and  broke  the  spell  of  the  proph 
et's  power.  When  war  was  declared  with 
England,  Tecumseh  appeared  in  Canada  with 
a  number  of  warriors,  and  refused  to  meet 
the  American  commanders  in  council.  He  was 
in  the  action  against  Van  Home  on  the  Rai 
sin,  and  after  being  wounded  at  Maguaga  was 
made  a  brigadier  general  in  the  British  forces, 
lie  was  in  command  with  Proctor  at  the  siege 
of  Fort  Meigs,  and  saved  American  prisoners 
from  massacre.  After  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie 
he  urged  Proctor  to  engage  Harrison  when  he 
landed,  but  accompanied  him  in  his  retreat. 
In  the  first  engagement  he  was  wounded  while 
holding  the  passage  of  a  stream.  With  Proc 
tor  he  selected  the  battle  ground  at  the  Thames, 
in  the  S.  W.  corner  of  Canada,  and  he  com 
manded  the  right  wing.  Laying  aside  his 
sword  and  uniform  in  the  conviction  that  he 
must  fall,  he  put  on  his  hunting  dress  and 


606 


TEETH 


fought  desperately  till  he  was  killed.  Col.  R. 
M.  Johnson  was  said  to  have  shot  him ;  but  in 
reality  his  death  was  not  for  some  days  known 
to  the  Americans. — The  life  of  Tecumseh  and 
of  his  brother  the  prophet  has  been  written  by 
Benjamin  Drake  (12mo,  Cincinnati,  1841). 

TEETH,  the  organs  in  vertebrates  for  the 
seizure  and  mastication  of  food,  placed  at  or 
near  the  entrance  to  the  alimentary  canal.  In 
adult  man  there  are  32,  10  in  each  jaw,  im 
planted  in  sockets,  and  of  an  irregular  conoid 
form;  in  the  child,  previous  to  the  second 
dentition,  there  are  only  20.  For  their  de 
velopment  see  DEXTITIOX.  The  number  of  the 
teeth  increases  in  the  lower  animals,  being 
greatest  in  the  cetaceans  and  marsupials  among 
mammals,  and  also  considerable  in  many  rep 
tiles  and  fishes.  The  portion  of  a  tooth  above 
the  socket  is  called  the  crown,  the  concealed 
part  the  root  or  fang ;  between  these  there  is 
a,  more  or  less  marked  constriction  or  neck. 
In  vertebrate  animals  the  teeth,  like  the  bones, 
have  for  their  earthy  basis  phosphate  of  lime, 
mingled  with  some  carbonate  of  lime  and 
a  certain  proportion  of  fluoride  of  calcium. 
The  latter  substance  is  more  abundant  in  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth  than  elsewhere,  but  every 
where  phosphate  of  lime  is  the  main  ingredi 
ent  upon  which  the  teeth  depend  for  their  so 
lidity  and  firmness. — A  tooth  is  composed  of 
three  different  tissues,  dentine,  crusta  pctrosa, 
and  enamel.  The  dentine,  forming  the  great 
er  part  of  the  body  of  the  tooth,  consists  of 
a  firm,  transparent,  nearly  homogeneous  sub 
stratum,  composed  of  about  72  per  cent,  of 
calcareous  matter  and  28  per  cent,  of  organic 
substance.  It  is  permeated  throughout  by 
minute  cylindrical  channels,  called  canaliculi, 
about  TTr,^o-o-  °f  an  inch  in  diameter,  which 
radiate  from  a  central  cavity  contained  in  the 
tooth,  called  the  pulp  cavity,  toward  the  ex 
ternal  surface  of  the  dentine.  During  their 
course  the  canaliculi  branch  and  divide,  often 
several  times  in  succession,  becoming  thus 
very  much  reduced  in  size  and  at  the  same 
time  increased  in  number.  In  the  central 
cavity  of  the  dentine  is  contained  the  pulp  of 
the  tooth,  a  soft,  vascular,  and  sensitive  pa 
pilla,  the  only  portion  of  the  tooth  which  is 
supplied  with  blood  vessels  and  nerves.  Un 
doubtedly  the  canaliculi  of  the  dentine  are 
either  channels  for  the  absorption  of  nutritious 
fluids  from  the  pulp,  or  are  filled  with  soft 
filaments  composed  of  organic  material,  by 
which  this  absorption  is  accomplished.  The 
crusta  petrosa  is  a  thin  layer  of  bony  tissue 
attached  to  the  outside  of  the  dentine  in  the 
fang  of  the  tooth,  and  serving  to  connect  it, 
by  means  of  its  periosteum,  more  firmly  to 
the  socket.  It  differs  but  little  from  compact 
bony  tissue  elsewhere,  except  that  it  contains 
no  blood  vessels,  and  is  distinguished  only  by 
the  presence  of  the  irregularly  shaped  bone 
corpuscles,  which  are  connected  by  their  radi 
ating  filaments  with  the  extremities  of  the 
canaliculi  of  the  dentine.  The  enamel,  which 


covers  the  surface  of  the  crown  of  the  tooth, 
is  much  the  hardest  of  its  tissues,  containing 
often  over  95  per  cent,  of  calcareous  matter. 
It  appears  to  consist  of  superimposed  layers 
of  calcified  epithelium,  and  is  well  adapted,  by 
its  extreme  solidity  and  almost  crystalline  tex 
ture,  to  endure  the  attrition  of  foreign  sub 
stances  without  disintegration. — Three  kinds 
of  teeth  are  distinguishable  in  mammals,  viz., 
incisors,  canines,  and  molars.  The  incisors 
are  in  the  front  and  median  portion  of  the 
jaws,  and  have  a  simple  flattened  root  and  a 
thin  cutting  edge,  suitable  for  dividing  and 
collecting  food,  as  in  the  jaws  of  the  beaver 
and  squirrel  and  in  the  lower  jaw  of  the  ox. 
The  canines,  four  in  number,  are  next  to  the 
incisors,  separated  from  them  by  an  interval, 
except  in  man ;  the  crown  is  conical,  and  the 
root  long  and  simple.  They  are  the  so-called 
eye  and  stomach  teeth  in  man,  and  form  a 
striking  characteristic  and  formidable  weapons 
in  the  carnivora ;  they  are  best  adapted  for 
securing  and  tearing  living  prey.  The  molar 
teeth  are  the  most  posterior,  and  have  flattened 
and  tuberculous  crowns  suited  for  grinding 
down  vegetable  food;  they  are  most  developed 
in  herbivorous  animals ;  the  roots  in  man  are 
often  much  bifurcated,  rendering  extraction 
difficult. — Teeth  are  so  intimately  related  to 
the  food  and  habits  of  animals,  so  easily  exam 
ined,  and  of  such  indestructible  materials,  that 
they  are  of  the  first  importance  in  the  classifi 
cation  of  animals,  both  living  and  fossil.  When 
fully  formed  they  are  subject  to  decay,  but  have 
no  inherent  power  of  reparation ;  they  may  in 
crease  by  abnormal  growth  of  the  crusta  pe 
trosa,  their  most  highly  organized  constituent. 
For  the  diseases  and  the  mode  of  treatment  of 
the  teeth,  see  DENTISTRY. — In  fishes  the  teeth 
vary  from  none  in  the  sturgeon  and  lopho- 
branchs  to  countless  numbers  in  the  pike  and 
the  siluroids.  They  are  usually  conical,  but 
sometimes  flattened  or  pavement-like,  villi- 
f  orm,  serrated,  and  cutting ;  they  may  be  situ 
ated  on  any  of  the  bones  of  the  oral  cavity,  on 
the  tongue,  and  in  the  pharynx ;  in  most  cases 
they  are  firmly  united  to  the  jaws  by  continu 
ous  ossification,  but  in  some  are  movable ;  they 
are  composed  of  dentine  and  its  modifications, 
enamel  occurring  in  only  a  few  cases,  like  the 
parrot  fish  (scar us) ;  and  they  are  frequently 
shed  and  renewed,  the  germs  being  developed 
from  the  free  surface  of  the  buccal  membrane. 
Among  reptiles,  the  whole  order  of  chelonians 
(tortoises  and  turtles),  and  also  the  toad  family 
among  batrachians,  are  without  teeth.  In  the 
others  these  organs  are  usually  simple,  and 
adapted  for  seizing  and  holding  but  not  chew 
ing  their  food ;  the  number  is  never  so  small 
nor  so  large  as  in  fishes,  and  is  rarely  charac 
teristic  of  species.  They  are  generally  conical, 
sharp,  and  smooth,  and  may  be  placed  on  any 
of  the  bones  entering  into  the  structure  of  the 
mouth ;  the  base,  never* branches  into  diverging 
fangs,  and  in  most  is  anchylosed  in  various 
ways  to  the  bone  which  bears  them,  as  noticed 


TEGEA 


TEHERAN 


GOT 


under  the  different  families;  dentine  and  ce 
ment  arc  always  present,  and  sometimes  en 
amel,  as  in  the  saurian  crown.  Among  mam 
mals,  some  of  the  edentates,  as  ant-eaters  and 
pangolins,  have  no  teeth ;  in  the  others  they 
are  implanted  in  sockets,  and  the  molars  have 
two  or  more  roots  when  they  have  a  limited 
growth  ;  they  are  confined  to  the  superior,  in 
ferior,  and  intermaxillary  bones,  a  single  row 
in  each.  Mammals  have  been  divided  by  Owen 
into  monophyodonts,  or  those  which  generate 
a  single  set  of  teeth,  and  diphyodonts,  or  those 
which  generate  two  sets  of  teeth ;  the  former 
include  the  nionotremes,  edentates,  and  carniv 
orous  cetaceans,  and  the  latter  all  the  other 
orders. — For  full  details  on  this  subject  the 
•reader  is  referred  to  the  following  writings  of 
Prof.  Richard  Owen:  "  Odontography  "  (Lon 
don,  1840-'45)  ;  article  "  Teeth  "  in  vol.  iv.  of 
the  "Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiol 
ogy"  (1852);  and  "The  Principal  Forms  of 
the  Skeleton  and  Teeth,"  in  vol.  i.  of  Orr's 
"Circle  of  Sciences"  (London;  reprinted  in 
Philadelphia,  1854). 

TEGEA,  an  ancient  city  of  Greece,  in  the  S.  E. 
part  of  Arcadia,  Its  territory  was  called  Te- 
geatis.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Iliad.  Its  early 
history  was  marked  by  a  constant  war  with  the 
Spartans,  and  about  500  13.  C.  it  fell  into  their 
hands.  About  500  Tegeans  fought  at  Ther 
mopylae,  and  3,000  at  Platsea.  Tegea  became  a 
member  of  the  Arcadian  confederacy  after  the 
battle  of  Leuctra  (371),  and  subsequently  of 
the  ^Etolian  league.  After  the  Roman  con 
quest  of  Greece  it  continued  to  be  a  place  of 
considerable  importance,  but  about  A.  D.  400 
was  totally  destroyed  by  Alaric.  Its  remains, 
found  near  the  village  of  Peali,  about  4  m. 
from  Tripolitza,  consist  of  broken  columns, 
friezes,  jind  architraves,  and  a  church  in  ruins. 

TEGAER,  Esaias,  a  Swedish  poet,  born  at 
Kirkerud,  Wermland,  Nov.  13,  1782,  died  in 
Wexio,  Nov.  2,  1840.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
clergyman  who  had  assumed  the  name  of  Teg 
ner  after  his  native  village  of  Tegnaby.  He 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Lund  in  1802, 
and  became  teacher  of  aesthetics  and  librarian 
there,  and  in  1812  professor  of  Greek.  In 
1818  he  was  elected  to  the  academy  of  sciences 
and  took  his  degree  in  divinity,  and  in  1824  he 
became  bishop  of  Wexio.  His  works  include 
Svea  (1811) ;  Nattvards  Barnen  ("  The  Children 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,"  1820),  Longfellow's  ver 
sion  of  which  (1841)  was  regarded  by  Tegner 
as  the  best  of  all  the  translations;  Axel(lS21)  ; 
and  FrWiio/8  Saga  (1825),  based  upon  Icelan 
dic  sagas.  The  last  has  been  repeatedly  set  to 
music,  and  translated  into  many  languages. 
Among  the  latest  versions  are  Count  Lein- 
burg's  in  German  (Frankfort,  1873),  Leopold 
Ham  el's  in  English  (London,  1875),  and  Victor 
Wilder's  in  French,  set  to  music  by  Max  Brucli 
(Paris,  1875).  A  complete  collection  of  Teg- 
ner's  published  works^as  edited  and  his  biog 
raphy  written  by  his  son-in-law  Bottiffer  (7 
vols.,  Stockholm,  1847-'51 ;  new  ed.,  1871  ct 
VOL.  xv.— 39 


seq.}  ;  and  a  collection  of  his  posthumous  -wri 
tings  has  been  made  by  Elof  Tegner  (3  vols., 
1874).  His  correspondence  has  also  been  re 
cently  published.  A  colossal  statue  of  Tegner 
was  erected  at  Lund  in  1853. 

TEHAMA,  a  N.  county  of  California,  lying  be 
tween  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast  range, 
and  intersected  by  the  Sacramento  river ;  area, 
2,800  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  3,587,  of  whom 
294  were  Chinese.  Lassen's  peak,  in  the  N.  E. 
corner,  is  10,577  ft.  high.  The  E.  portion  is 
partly  rocky  and  barren  and  partly  covered 
with  forests  of  pine.  In  the  west  are  several 
well  watered  and  fertile  valleys.  Some  gold 
is  found  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  salt  and 
medicinal  springs  of  great  value  in  the  Coast 
range.  The  Oregon  division  of  the  Central 
Pacific  railroad  traverses  it.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  404,722  bushels  of  wheat, 
108,323  of  barley,  445,450  Ibs.  of  wool,  *68,185 
of  butter,  33,000  gallons  of  wine,  and  0,549 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,009  horses,  2,157 
milch  cows,  9,408  other  cattle,  130,808  sheep, 
and  19,459  swine;  3  flour  mills,  0  saw  mills, 
and  2  manufactories  of  gloves  and  mittens. 
Capital,  Red  Bluff. 

TEHERAN,  or  Tehran,  the  capital  of  the  king 
dom  of  Persia,  and  of  the  province  of  Irak- 
Ajemi,  70  m.  S.  of  the  Caspian  sea  and  about  210 
in.  N.  of  Ispahan,  in  lat.  35°  41'  N.,  Ion.  51°  23' 


Old  South  Gate. 

E. ;  pop.  in  winter  about  100,000.  The  town 
stands  in  a  sandy,  plain,  with  mountains  to  the 
north  and  east,  and  a  fertile,  well  cultivated 
country  to  the  west.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of 
an  irregular  square,  each  side  of  which  mea 
sures  about  a  mile,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  deep 


60S 


TEHUANTEPEC 


TELEGRAPH 


dry  ditch  and  a  thick  mud  wall,  flanked  at 
intervals  with  semicircular  projections,  and 
pierced  by  gates  which  are  always  guarded, 
and  are  closed  after  sunset.  Inside  there  are 
many  vacant  spaces,  gardens,  and  extensive 
ruins;  but  the  streets  are  narrow,  irregular, 
unpaved,  and  filthy.  The  houses  are  badly 
built  and  mean  in  appearance.  Outside  the 
walls  are  suburbs  of  considerable  extent,  sev 
eral  large  caravansaries,  and  many  enclosed 
gardens.  The  principal  building  of  the  town 
is  the  Ark  or  royal  palace,  which  occupies  a 
large  space  adjoining  the  northern  wall,  and  is 
fortified.  The  bazaars  are  wretchedly  kept 
and  dirty.  One  of  the  mosques  is  roofed  with 
plates  of  gold.  In  summer  the  climate  is  un 
healthy,  and  the  monarch  and  about  two  thirds 
of  the  inhabitants  encamp  on  the  plains  of  Sul- 
tanieh.  On  a  hill  in  the  neighborhood  the 
shah  has  a  palace  and  beautiful  gardens.  Tele 
graph  wires  connect  Teheran  with  the  Cau 
casian  and  Turkish  frontiers.  Not  far  from  it 
are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Khages,  the  capital 
of  Parthia. — Teheran  was  unimportant  until 
made  the  capital  of  Persia  by  Aga  Mohammed 
Khan  about  1796.  A  treaty  of  commerce  with 
England  was  signed  here,  Oct.  28,  1841. 

TEHUANTEPEC.  I.  An  isthmus  of  Mexico, 
lying  between  the  bay  of  Campeachy  on  the 
gulf  and  the  bay  of  Tehuantepec  on  the  Pacific, 
and  comprising  the  states  of  Tabasco  and  Chia 
pas  and  parts  of  Yera  Cruz  and  Oajaca.  Its 
breadth  from  bay  to  bay,  at  the  narrowest 
place,  is  130  m.  It  is  drained  by  the  Coatza- 
coalcos  river,  which  flows  northward,  dis 
charging  into  the  bay  of  Campeachy,  and  ex 
tending  three  fourths  of  the  width  of  the  isth 
mus;  and  by  the  Tehuantepec  river,  flowing 
into  the  bay  of  the  same  name.  There  arc 
several  lakes  and  lagoons.  At  one  time  it  was 
proposed  to  construct  a  ship  canal  across  the 
isthmus,  improving  the  navigation  of  the  Coat- 
zacoalcos  for  a  part  of  the  distance,  and  sur 
veys  were  made.  (See  CAXAL,  vol.  iii.,  p.  690.) 
II.  A  town  of  the  state  of  Oajaca,  on  Tehuan 
tepec  river,  about  15  m.  above  its  mouth,  and 
110  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Oajaca;  pop.  about  14,000. 
The  houses  are  generally  of  stone.  Part  of 
the  town  is  occupied  by  Indians,  who  are  civil 
ized  and  industrious.  *It  has  salt  works  and 
cotton  factories,  and  a  considerable  pearl  fish 
ery  in  which  many  of  the  inhabitants  are  en 
gaged.  Indigo  is  raised  in  the  vicinity,  a  pur 
ple  dye  is  procured  from  a  shell  fish  abundant 
there,  and  some  cochineal  is  exported.  The 
harbor  is  shallow,  with  a  dangerous  bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and  is  little  frequented. 

TEJADA,  or  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  Sebastian,  president 
of  Mexico,  born  in  Jalapa,  April  25,  1825.  lie 
was  educated  in  the  seminary  of  Puebla  and 
in  the  college  of  San  Ildefonso,  in  the  city  of 
Mexico,  became  rector  of  the  college  in  1852, 
and  received  the  diploma  of  advocate  in  1853. 
He  was  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  from 
December,  1855,  to  June  1,  1857,  when  he  be 
came  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  premier, 


but  resigned  in  September  on  account  of  his 
support  of  the  new  liberal  constitution,  in  op 
position  to  President  Comonfort.  He  was  a 
member  and  thrice  the  president  of  the  Ijpuse  of 
representatives  during  the  sessions  of  1861-'2. 
He  opposed  the  treaty  for  arranging  the  English 
debt,  and  its  failure  led  to  the  downfall  of  the 
Zamacona  cabinet.  His  influence  led  to  the 
ratification  in  December,  1861,  of  treaties  of 
commerce  and  of  extradition  with  the  United 
States.  He  was  member  of  congress  in  1862-'3, 
and  followed  the  government  on  its  removal 
from  Mexico,  during  the  French  invasion.  On 
Sept.  2,  1863,  he  became  minister  of  justice, 
and  on  Sept.  11  of  foreign  affairs.  He  shared 
with  Juarez  the  honor  of  the  eventual  recovery 
of  the  national  independence.  The  presiden 
tial  term  of  Juarez  expiring  on  Nov.  30,  1865, 
Lerdo  de  Tejada,  to  avert  the  excitement  of  a 
new  election,  caused  the  presidential  term  to 
be  extended  until  the  termination  of  the  war. 
After  the  capture  of  Maximilian,  he  was  vainly 
solicited  to  spare  his  life.  After  the  return  of 
Juarez  to  the  capital,  in  July,  1867,  Lerdo  de 
Tejada  suspended  all  treaties  with  those  foreign 
powers  which  had  failed  in  neutrality  toward 
Mexico,  or  had  joined  in  the  intervention ;  but 
he  accorded  to  aliens  the  same  security  as  to 
Mexicans.  In  1868  he  became  chief  justice  of 
the  supreme  court.  In  that  capacity,  under 
the  constitution,  he  became  president  on  the 
death  of  Juarez  in  July,  1872;  and  on  Nov. 
1  he  was  almost  unanimously  elected  to  that 
office  for  the  term  ending  Nov.  30,  1876. 

TELEGRAPH  (Gr.  rfce,  afar,  and  ypfyetv,  to 
write),  an  apparatus  by  which  intelligence  is 
communicated  to  a  distance.  It  properly  in 
cludes  the  various  methods  of  signalling.  The 
Roman  generals,  as  described  by  Julius  Afri- 
canus,  spelled  Avords  by  means  of  fires  of  dif 
ferent  substances.  The  North  American  abo 
rigines  made  use  of  regular  stations  over  the 
western  country  for  such  signals ;  and  the  In 
dians  of  the  northwest  territory  in  this  way 
made. known  the  approach  of  Fremont,  as  he 
passed  through  their  regions.  Polybius  de 
scribes  two  modes  of  telegraphing  by  means 
of  torches ;  and  Bishop  "Wilkins,  after  giving 
an  account  of  this  in  his  book  entitled  "  Mer 
cury,  or  the  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger,"  de 
scribes  a  method  of  conversing  at  a  distance 
with  three  lights  or  torches  at  night,  which 
may  be  so  used  as  to  indicate  the  24  necessary 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  these  being  divided  into 
three  classes  of  eight  letters  each,  which  are 
severally  designated  by  one,  two,  or  three 
torches,  and  the  number  of  the  letter  by  the 
number  of  times  the  torches  are  elevated  or 
displayed.  Another  method  was  also  pro 
posed  by  Bishop  Wilkins,  in  which  intelligible 
signals  were  conveyed  by  means  of  two  lights 
attached  to  long  poles ;  and  for  long  distances 
he  suggested  the  use  of  the  then  newly  invented 
telescope.  A  variety  of  systems  of  telegraphic 
signals  were  brought  into  notice  by  different 
inventors  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  one 


TELEGRAPH 


609 


of  the  earliest  of  which  is  that  of  Dr.  Robert 
Hooke  described  in  the  "  Philosophical  Trans 
actions"  for  1684.  It  consisted  of  24  symbols 
formed  of  blocks  of  wood,  representing  alpha 
betic  characters,  and  six  more  formed  of  curved 
lines  to  be  used  as  arbitrary  signals.  These 
were  to  be  exposed  in  succession  in  an  elevated 
frame  at  some  conspicuous  point,  and,  being 
observed  at  another  station,  were  to  be  there 
repeated  and  sent  forward  to  the  next,  and  so 
on.  At  night  torches  or  other  lights  were  to 
be  substituted  for  the  wooden  figures.  The 
first  working  telegraph  of  much  importance 
was  that  known  as  Chappe's,  invented  in  1792, 
which  was  brought  into  use  during  the  wars 
of  the  French  revolution.  At  the  top  of  a  tall 
post  was  attached  a  cross  bar  upon  a  pivot,  so 
that  it  could  be  easily  turned  from  a  horizontal 
to  an  inclined  position.  Each  end  of  this  cross 
bar  carried  a  short  arm,  which  could  also  be 
turned  upon  its  pivot  so  as  to  stand  in  any 
position  in  relation  to  the  bar.  The  movements 
were  made  by  means  of  ropes  which  passed 
through  the  bar  and  down  the  post.  This  ap 
paratus  admitted  of  256  distinct  signals;  but 
M.  Chappe  limited  its  use  in  great  part  to  16 
signals,  each  one  of  which  represented  a  let 
ter  of  the  abbreviated  alphabet  he  had  con 
structed.  Chappe's  method  has  been  gener 
ally  adopted,  all  the  alleged  improvements  in 
it  being  of  minor  importance.  Mr.  R.  Lovell 
Edge  worth  about  the  same  time  brought  be 
fore  the  public  his  plan  of  a  telegraph,  or  as  he 
called  it  telelograph  or  tellograph,  by  which 
the  signals  represented  numbers,  the  meaning 
of  which  would  be  found  in  the  dictionary  pre 
pared  for  this  system.  The  signals  were  made 
by  means  of  four  pieces  of  wood,  each  one  in 
the  form  of  a  long  isosceles  triangle,  placed 
near  together,  each  supported  upon  a  pivot 
round  which  it  could  be  turned  in  any  direc 
tion.  The  movements  of  each  were  limited  to 
eight,  and  indicated  the  first  seven  numerals 
and  zero.  The  first  triangle  or  pointer  repre 
sented  units,  the  second  tens,  the  third  hun 
dreds,  and  the  fourth  thousands,  'So  that  any 
number  might  be  expressed  that  did  not  con 
tain  the  figure  8  or  9.  The  admiralty  tele 
graph  proposed  by  Lord  G.  Murray  was  used 
in  England  from  1795  to  1816,  when  it  gave 
place  to  that  known  as  the  semaphore  (Gr. 
<777//a,  a  sign,  and  Qepeiv,  to  carry),  which  the 
French  had  adopted  in  1803.  This  consisted 
of  six  conspicuous  boards  or  shutters  set  in  a 
frame,  each  of  which  could  be  turned  upon  its 
axis  so  as  to  present  either  its  edge  or  its  broad 
surface  to  the  next  station.  The  movements 
represented  figures,  and  a  series  of  numbers 
was  indicated  by  their  combinations.  Some 
of  these  stood  for  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
and  the  others  for  arbitrary  signals.  The 
French  semaphore  (also  known  as  signal  posts) 
consisted  of  three  or  more  arms  attached  by 
pivots  to  an  upright  post,  admitting  of  motion 
in  any  direction,  and  indicating  by  their  va 
rious  positions  either  figures  or  letters.  Many 


modifications  of  this  apparatus  were  used. 
For  telegraphic  communication  at  sea,  flags 
of  various  colors  have  long  been  used.  (See 
SIGNALS,  NAVAL.)  In  1835  Gauss  proposed 
to  employ  a  small  heliotrope  or  mirror  for  re 
flecting  rays  of  light  from  the  sun  or  an  artifi 
cial  source  as  a  means  of  communicating  sig 
nals.  With  a  mirror  so  small  that  it  may  be 
carried  in  the  waistcoat  pocket,  flashes  of  light 
may  be  clearly  perceived  for  12  m.  or  more, 
and,  the  mirror  being  gently  moved  on  some 
established  system,  the  appearance  and  disap 
pearance  of  the  flashes  may  indicate  letters  or 
words.  By  this  device  time  can  be  saved,  tel 
escopes  dispensed  with,  and  the  signals  seen 
only  by  those  for  whom  they  are  intended. 
Francis  Galton,  the  African  traveller,  proposed 
a  plan  similar  to  this  at  a  meeting  of  the  roy 
al  geographical  society,  and  described  an  opti 
cal  arrangement  he  had  devised  by  which  the 
operator  may  know  if  the  mirror  is  directed 
aright.  Among  the  later  publications  upon 
the  telegraphs  adopted  previous  to  the  electric 
telegraph,  are  papers  in  the  "  Journal  of  the 
Society  of  Arts,"  vols.  xxvi.,  xxxiv.,  xxxv.,  and 
xxxvi. ;  "  A  Treatise  explanatory  of  a  new  Sys 
tem  of  Naval,  Military,  and  Political  Telegraph 
ic  Communications,"  &c.,  by  John  Macdonald 
(London,  1817)  ;  "  Description  of  the  Universal 
Telegraph  for  Day  and  Xight  Signals,"  by  C. 
W.  Pasley  (London,  1823) ;  and  Edgeworth's 
"Essay  on  the  Art  of  conveying  Secret  and 
Swift  Intelligence,"  in  the  "  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy,"  vol.  vi.  The  ad 
vantage  of  all  these  methods  of  telegraph 
ing,  which  may  be  described  in  general  as  the 
optical  method,  is,  that  they  employ  nature's 
great  highways,  which  cost  nothing ;  the  dis 
advantages  are,  that  the  signals  cannot  record 
themselves,  but  require  the  constant  atten 
tion  of  an  observer,  and  can  be  used  only  for 
moderate  distances  and  in  favorable  weather. 
Moreover,  the  expense  is  great  compared  with 
the  meagre  intelligence  which  is  communi 
cated.  The  semaphore  between  London  and 
Portsmouth,  72  m.,  which  could  be  used  less 
than  one  fifth  of  the  time,  required  an  annual 
expenditure  of  £3,403. — ELECTEIC  TELEGEAPH. 
The  various  kinds  of  electric  telegraphs  may 
be  classified  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place, 
they  differ  in  regard  to  the  source  from  which 
the  electricity  is  derived.  In  the  present  state 
of  science,  five  independent  sources  of  elec 
tricity  are  recognized:  1,  friction;  2,  chemi 
cal  action ;  3,  magnetic  induction  ;  4,  heat ;  5, 
physiological  actions.  The  difficulty  of  insu 
lation  unfits  frictional  electricity  for  this  work, 
except  at  short  distances  and  in  dry  air.  The 
fourth  and  fifth  sources  must  be  rejected  as 
insufficient  for  practical  use.  Successful  tel 
egraphs  must  rely  on  electricity  produced  by 
chemical  action  or  magnetic  induction.  In 
the  second  place,  electric  telegraphs  may  be 
classified  according  to  that  one  of  the  five 
special  effects  of  electricity  which  is  selected 
as  the  means  of  delivering  the  message  when 


610 


TELEGRAPH 


it  arrives:  1.  The  statical  attractions  and  re 
pulsions  would  be  impracticable  except  with 
frictional  electricity.  2.  The  chemical  effect 
of  electricity  is  capable  of  making  a  visible 
sign  and  also  a  permanent  record.  3.  The 
magnetic  effect  is  able  to  make  a  visible  sign, 
as  in  the  needle  telegraph ;  it  can  also  prick 
out  its  message  in  an  artificial  alphabet,  or 
even  print  it  in  ordinary  type.  4.  The  physio 
logical  effect  can  furnish  a  signal  which  may 
be  felt.  5.  The  luminous  and  the  calorific 
effects  can  be  used  for  visible  signals,  but  they 
cannot  write  or  print.  Of  the  manifold  at 
tempts  at  electric  telegraphs,  the  best  are  now 
known  to  be  those  which  employ  the  chemical 
or  the  magnetic  effects.  As  the  chemical  tel 
egraph  works  silently,  an  electro-magnet  is 
required  even  in  this  case  to  attract  the  at 
tention  of  the  person  who  is  to  receive  the 
message.  The  electro-magnetic  telegraph  can 
address  the  eye  or  the  ear,  and  can  also  write 
or  print. — Attempts  have  been  made  to  prove 
that  the  electric  telegraph  was  foreshadowed 
more  than  two  centuries  ago.  Prof.  Mannoir 
puts  in  a  claim  for  Dr.  Odier  on  account  of  a 
letter  which  he  wrote  in  1773.  But  Addison, 
in  No.  241  of  the  "Spectator,"  written  in 
1711,  quotes  from  the  Prolusiones  Academicce 
of  Strada  a  description  of  essentially  the  same 
arrangement  as  that  proposed  by  Dr.  Odier. 
Moreover,  Schwenter  in  1636  had  the  same 
idea,  but  borrowed  from  a  still  earlier  writer. 
How  chimerical  the  scheme  was  in  all  these 
cases,  and  how  unworthy  of  being  regarded 
as  an  anticipation  of  the  real  discovery,  will 
appear  from  the  following  brief  description 
of  the  project :  A  magnetized  needle  is  free 
to  move  over  a  graduated  dial,  the  marks  be 
ing  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  One  of  these 
instruments  stands  in  one  place,  and  another 
in  a  remote  city.  If  the  need]e  of  one  is 
placed  upon  a  particular  letter,  the  needle  of 
the  other  will  move  to  the  same  letter  by  vir 
tue  of  the  magnetic  forces.  Du  Fay,  Winckler, 
Lemonnier,  Gray,  and  Desaguliers  made  ex 
periments,  which  showed  that  the  effect  of 
electricity  could  be  transmitted  to  a  distance. 
The  discovery  made  by  Dr.  Watson  in  -1747, 
that  electricity  would  force  its  way  through 
considerable  lengths  of  wire,  and  that  earth 
and  water  could  take  the  place  of  wire  in 
completing  the  circuit,  furnishes  the  first  facts 
of  any  significance  in  the  history  of  the  elec 
tric  telegraph.  He  transmitted  shocks  across 
the  Thames  and  the  New  river,  in  one  instance 
at  Shooter's  Hill  the  circuit  being  composed  of 
about  2m.  of  wire  and  2  m.  of  the  earth ;  and 
'  he  supported  his  wires  upon  posts.  Franklin 
made  similar  experiments  across  the  Schuyl- 
kill  river  in  1748,  and  De  Luc  afterward  on 
the  lake  of  Geneva.  Signals  were  commu 
nicated  by  means  of  the  electric  shock  from 
one  apartment  to  another  by  Lesage  at  Ge 
neva  in  1774,  and  by  Lomond  in  France  in 
1787  by  the  divergence  .of  pith  balls  on  some 
concerted  plan;  and  in  1794  Reizcn  of  Ger 


many  employed  the  electric  spark  for  tele 
graphing,  making  use  of  interrupted  strips  of 
tin  foil,  so  arranged  that  the  form  of  the  letter 
or  figure  was  exhibited  by  the  sparks.  He  em 
ployed  36  wires  from  one  station  to  another, 
each  one  of  them  communicating  with  one  of 
the  letters  or  figures,  and  each  one  connect 
ing  with  a  return  wire,  thus  making  72  in  all. 
This  plan  is  described  in  vol.  ix.  of  Voigt's 
Magazin.  Oavallo  in  his  "Treatise  on  Elec 
tricity"  (1795)  suggests  the  explosion  of  gun 
powder  to  call  attention,  and  then  the  trans 
mission  of  signals  by  a  succession  of  sparks  at 
intervals  and  in  numbers  according  to  the  sys 
tem  agreed  upon.  Don  Francisco  Salva  of 
Madrid  and  Sr.  Betancourt  constructed  similar 
telegraphs  at  Madrid  in  1797  and  1798,  one 
of  them  extending  between  Madrid  and  Aran- 
juez,  about  26  m.  (Voigt's  Nagazin,  vol.  xi.) 
Salva  communicated  his  plans  to  the  royal 
academy  of  sciences  at  Barcelona,  and  accord 
ing  to  the  journals  of  1797  they  were  highly 
commended  by  the  minister  of  state.  Salva 
appears  to  have  had  a  clear  idea  of  the  prac 
ticability  of  electric  communication  even  be 
neath  the  sea,  and  in  the  last  of  his  memoirs 
he  proposed  to  substitute  the  voltaic  pile  for 
the  electrical  machine.  Other  attempts  to 
employ  frictional  electricity  were  made  by 
Francis  Ronalds  at  Hammersmith,  England, 
in  1816,  on  a  line  of  8  m. ;  and  in  1827  by 
Harrison  G.  Dyar  at  the  race  course  on  Long 
Island,  N".  Y.,  on  a  line  of  2  m.  The  latter 
made  use  of  iron  wire,  glass  insulators,  and 
wooden  posts,  and  employed  for  signalling 
the  chemical  power  of  the  electric  current  to 
change  the  color  of  litmus  paper.  Ronalds 
introduced  the  plan  of  employing  a  clock  at 
each  of  the  two  stations,  both  of  .them  running 
together  exactly,  and  each  bringing  into  view 
one  after  the  other  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
arranged  upon  a  disk  which  revolved  behind 
a  screen  with  an  opening  for  one  letter.  Each 
clock  was  provided  with  two  pith  balls  con 
nected  with  an  electrical  machine  at  the  other 
station;  and  their  divergence  called  the  at 
tention  of  the  other  operator  to  the  letter  then 
in  view.  The  voltaic  pile,  discovered  in  1800, 
furnished  in  its  continuous  current  a  more  prom 
ising  agent  for  transmitting  'intelligence  than 
the  sudden  and  transient  discharge  of  the  fric 
tion  machine.  Sommering  began  his  experi 
ments  in  1809,  and  devised  a  plan  of  telegraph 
ing  which  was  as  perfect  as  was  practicable  at 
that  time.  He  used  35  wires,  terminating  in 
gold  points,  set  up  vertically  on  a  horizontal  line 
at  the  bottom  of  a  glass  reservoir  of  water. 
In  the  other  direction  these  wires,  brought  to 
gether  in  a  tube,  extended  to  the  other  station, 
where  they  again  diverged,  terminating  in  brass 
plates  attached  to  a  horizontal  wooden  bar. 
The  plates  at  one  end  and  the  points  at  the 
other  were  marked  with  corresponding  letters, 
and  whenever  a  momentary  current  was  sent 
through  any  two  of  the  plates,  hydrogen  was 
evolved  at  one  of  the  gold  points  and  oxygen  at 


TELEGRAPH 


611 


another,  and  thus  two  letters  were  indicated. 
Sommering  found  that  the  addition  of  2,000 
ft.  of  wire  produced  little  or  no  sensible  addi 
tional  resistance,  and  that  voltaic  action  was 
instantaneously  developed  at  least  for  the  dis 
tance  of  3,000  ft.  In  1810  Prof.  Coxe  of  Penn 
sylvania  suggested  a  method  of  telegraphing 
by  means  of  "the  chemical  effect  of  electricity. 
Schweigger  described  an  improvement  upon 
Sommering's  arrangement,  by  which  all  the 
wires  could  be  dispensed  with  except  two.  The 
batteries  then  known  were  insufficient  for  the 
transmission  of  currents  through  great  dis 
tances,  and  besides  were  deficient  in  sustain 
ing  power;  therefore  no  further  progress  was 
made  in  perfecting  the  electric  telegraph  until 
the  principles  of  electro-magnetism  had  been 
developed.  (See  ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.)  In  1819 
Oersted  discovered  the  power  which  the  cur 
rent  possesses  of  deflecting  a  magnetized  nee 
dle  out  of  the  magnetic  meridian.  In  1820 
Schweigger  added  the  multiplier.  This  was 
followed  by  Arago's  discovery  in  the  same 
year  that  a  steel  rod  was  magnetized  when 
placed  across  a  wire  which  was  carrying  a 
current.  Ampere  immediately  substituted  a 
helix  for  a  straight  wire.  In  1825  Sturgeon 
used  soft  iron  in  place  of  steel,  and  the  electro 
magnet  was  born.  Between  1828  and  1830 
Prof.  Henry  of  Princeton,  JST.  J.,  made  great 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  electro 
magnets  by  covering  the  wire  and  winding  the 
coil  compac.tly.  In  1831  he  devised  an  instru 
ment  which  is  essentially  the  same  as  the 
Morse  register.  Moreover,  Ohm  in  1827,  and 
Fechner  in  1831,  published  the  results  of  their 
theoretical  investigations  into  the  laws  of  the 
voltaic  current,  which  shed  a  flood  of  light  on 
the  subject  of  telegraphing  at  long  distances. 
If  these  investigations  had  but  little  practical 
effect,  it  was  because  they  were  not  generally 
known  until  the  same  results  had  been  at  a 
later  day  worked  out  empirically.  Equally 
important  was  the  invention  of  the  constant 
battery  by  Daniell  in  1836,  and  of  various 
other  constant  batteries  which  have  been  con 
trived  since  that  time.  The  discovery  of  mag 
neto-electricity  by  Faraday  in  1831,  and  the 
introduction  at  a  much  later  date  of  the  induc 
tion  coil,  supplied  constant  sources  of  intense 
electricity  adapted  to  the  telegraph.  Within  a 
year  after  Oersted's  discovery  Ampere  pointed 
out  its  applicability  to  telegraphic  signals. 
His  plan  contemplated  at  least  30  needles  and 
GO  independent  wires.  In  1828  Ritchie  gave 
an  experimental  illustration  of  such  a  device 
before  the  royal  institution  of  London.  In 
1829  Fechner  had  a  similar  project  for  uniting 
Leipsic  and  Dresden  by  means  of  24  sets  of 
underground  wires.  In  1832  Schilling  ex 
hibited  to  the  emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  a 
needle  telegraph  in  operation  on  a  small  scale. 
He  used  a  needle  provided  with  a  multiplier  of 
insulated  wire  for  each  letter  or  number  to  be 
indicated.  The  several  wires  were  brought  to 
gether  beyond  the  multipliers  into  one  cord, 


and  thence  passed  to  the  first  station.  Eventu 
ally  he  succeeded  in  reducing  the  number  of 
needles  to  one.  He  also  introduced  an  alarum 
at  the  commencement  of  the  passage  of  the 
current  by  causing  a  solid  body  to  fall,  on  the 
same  principle  as  had  been  already  recom 
mended  by  Prof.  Henry  in  his  lectures.  These 
experiments  were  interrupted  by  his  death, 
and  the  steps  made  were  lost,  without  even  a 
very  accurate  account  of  the  results  being  pre 
served.  The  next  experiments  of  importance 
were  those  of  Gauss  and  Weber  of  Gottingen 
in  1833  and  1834.  They  employed  first  voltaic 
electricity  excited  by  numerous  small  elements, 
and  afterward  a  magneto-electric  machine  to 
transmit  signals  from  9,000  to  15,000  ft.  They 
caused  a  magnetic  bar  to  be  deflected  to  one 
side  or  the  other,  and  interpreted  its  repeated 
movements  into  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 
The  vibrations  of  the  magnet  were  checked  by 
a  damper,  or  by  the  use  of  currents  alternating 
in  direction.  This  telegraph  was  of  practical 
value  in  comparing  clocks  and  for  other  pur 
poses.  Gauss  stimulated  his  pupil  Steinheil  to 
a  bolder  undertaking,  in  which  he  was  as 
sisted  by  the  Bavarian  government.  Stcin- 
heil's  telegraph,  completed  in  1837,  extend 
ed  12  in.,  employed  but  a  single  wire,  and 
made  use  of  the  earth  to  complete  the  circuit. 
The  signals  were  sounds  produced  upon  a  series 
of  bells  of  different  tones,  which  soon  became 
intelligible  to  a  cultivated  ear;  and  the  same 
deflections  of  the  needle  that  caused  the  sounds 
were  also  made  to  trace  with  ink  lines  and  dots 
upon  a  ribbon  of  paper  moved  at  a  uniform 
rate,  the  alphabet  having  a  remote  resemblance 
to  that  invented  by  Swaim  in  1829.  Steinheil 
used  a  magneto-electric  machine,  but  with  the 
magnets  stationary  and  the  multiplying  coils 
revolving  close  to  them. — Morse's  telegraph, 
which  is  generally  recognized  in  all  parts  of 
the  world  as  the  most  efficient  and  simple,  was 
first  publicly  exhibited  in  the  university  of 
New  York  in  1837.  It  had  been  gradually 
brought  to  a  working  condition  by  experi 
ments  and  contrivances  devised  by  the  inventor 
since  1832,  with  the  assistance  of  L.  D.  Gale 
and  George  and  Alfred  Vail.  In  October, 
1837,  Prof. 'Morse  filed  a  caveat  in  the  patent 
office  to  secure  his  invention ;  and  he  obtained 
the  patent  in  1840,  covering  the  improvements 
he  had  in  the  mean  time  made  in  the  apparatus. 
The  telegraph  was  first  brought  into  practical 
use,  May  27,  1844,  between  Washington  and 
Baltimore.  An  insulated  wire  buried  in  a  lead 
pipe  underground  was  first  tried,  and  failing 
was  replaced  with  one  on  posts.  The  power  was 
derived  from  a  voltaic  battery,  and  an  electro 
magnet  was  employed  at  the  receiving  station 
for  developing  its  effects.  When  the  current 
flowed,  this  magnet  attracted  an  armature,  by 
which,  according  to  the  duration  of  the  cur 
rent,  dots  or  lines  were  marked  upon  a  moving 
slip  of  paper  with  a  pen  or  pencil.  The  appa 
ratus  furnished  a  simple  and  effective  means 
of  recording  signals,-  which  by  the  needle  tele- 


G12 


TELEGRAPH 


graph  were  only  evanescent.  The  apparatus 
was  improved  by  the  substitution  of  a  sharp 
point  for  the  pen  or  pencil,  which  is  attached 
to  one  end  of  a  lever,  at  the  other  end  of 
which  is  the  movable  armature.  The  follow 
ing  illustrations  exhibit  the  several  parts  of 
the  Morse  instrument  as  now  in  use.  The  key, 
fig.  1,  consists  of  a  brass  lever  L,  swung 
on  pivots,  and  having  on  one  end  a  button. 
When  this  button  is  pressed  down,  two  pla- 
tifium  wires,  a  and  Z>,  are  brought  into  contact, 
thus  closing  the  circuit;  when  the  pressure 
is  removed,  a  spring  lifts  the  lever,  separates 
the  wires,  and  breaks  the  circuit.  When  the 
message  is  sent  the  operator  permanently  closes 


FIG.  1.— Key. 

the  circuit  by  springing  to  the  left  the  lever 
S,  which  brings  into  contact  the  duplicate  pla 
tinum  wires  a'  V.  The  relay  magnet,  fig.  2, 
is  an  electro-magnet  wound  with  a  long  fine 
wire,  which  is 'introduced  into  the  main  line 
and  becomes  a  part  of  the  great  conductor 
from  city  to  city.  When  the  key  breaks  and 
closes  the  circuit,  the  relay  receives  the  voltaic 


«..& 


FIG.  2.— Relay. 

current  and  becomes  magnetized  and  demag 
netized.  The  delicately  poised  lever  L,  having 
the  armature  of  the  magnet  attached  to  it, 
vibrates  forward  and  backward,  bringing  to 
gether  the  two  platinum  wires  a  5,  and  thus 
breaking  and  closing  a  secondary  or  local  cir 
cuit,  embracing  a  local  battery  and  a  strong 
electro-magnet.  This  magnet  performs  various 
work,  such  as  embossing  or  printing  paper,  or 
the  liberation  of  machinery  for  the  production 
of  sounds.  A  screw  B  is  used  to  move  the 
magnet  coils  backward  and  forward  so  as  to 
adjust  the  general  magnetic  power,  and  a  spring 
S  retracts  the  armature  after  magnetic  attrac 
tion  has  drawn  it  forward.  The  sounder,  fig. 
3,  is  an  electro-magnet  used  in  the  local  circuit. 


The  armature,  A,  is  attracted  by  the  electro 
magnet  M,  causing  the  lever  L  to  vibrate  be 
tween  the  screws  S  S,  which  are  so  adjusted 
as  to  liinit  the  vibrations.  The  backward  and 


FIG.  3.— Sounder. 

forward  blows  thus  given,  some  of  which  are 
short  and  some  long,  correspond  to  the  dots 
and  dashes  of  the  Morse  alphabet.  This  is 
now  more  generally  used  than  the  Morse  regis 
ter  or  recording  instrument,  as  experience  has 
proved  that  fewer  errors  are  made  by  the  ear 
than  by  the  eye.  The  Morse  register,  fig.  4, 
has  also  the  electro-magnet  M,  the  armature  A, 
the  lever  L,  and  the  adjusting  screws  S  S ;  but 
instead  of  producing  sounds  merely,  the  lever 
L  embosses  on  a  fillet  of  paper  P  dots  and 
dashes  in  precise  accordance  with  the  move 
ments  of  the  key  and  relay.  The  paper  is  car 
ried  between  two  rollers,  moved  by  clockwork, 
in  one  of  which  is  a  groove,  into  which  the 
steel  point  presses  the  paper.  When  successive 
blows  are  struck  on  the  key,  closing  and  open 
ing  the  circuit  quickly,  corresponding  dots  ap- 
Sear  on  the  paper ;  but  if  the  key  be  pressed 
own  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  keeping  the 
circuit  closed,  a  continuous  line  of  any  desired 
length  may  be  produced  on  the  paper.  The 
signs  for  the  letters  of  the  English  alphabet 


F1G>  4._ Register. 

(which  are  variously  modified  to  adapt  them 
to  other  alphabets),  and  for  the  numerals  and 
punctuation  marks,  are  as  follows,  those  most 
used  being  the  simplest : 


TELEGRAPH 


613 


LETTERS. 

A-  — 

G  

M  

8  --- 

Y 

B  

H  

N  —  - 

rp  

7, 

C  --   - 

I   -- 

O  -    - 

u  — 

& 

D  

J  

P  

v  

E- 

K  

Q  

w  

F  

L  

It-    -- 

X  

NUMERALS. 

1  

9,  .  - 

g  . 

5  
r.  

8 

9 

0 

Period 
Comma 
Interrogation  — 


PUNCTUATION. 

Exclamation 

Quotation       

Parenthesis 


The  slightness  of  the  difference,  which  cannot 
be  avoided,  between  some  of  the  signs,  as  in 
the  0  and  S,  I  and  O,  L  and  T,  &c.,  exposes  to 
mistakes,  which  in  case  of  writing  in  cipher 
cannot  be  corrected,  and  not  always  when  the 
message  is  perfectly  understood  by  the  opera 
tor  who  sends  it.  Thus  a  merchant  telegraphed 
from  New  Orleans  to  his  correspondent  in  New 
York  to  protect  a  certain  bill  of  exchange ; 
the  word  "protect"  was  read  as  "protest," 
and  involved  serious  consequences. — What  is 
known  as  the  English  telegraph  is  the  result 
of  the  investigations  and  inventions  of  Wil 
liam  F.  Cooke,  whose  attention  was  directed 
to  this  subject  in  March,  1836,  when  a  stu 
dent  at  Heidelberg,  by  witnessing  an  experi 
ment  performed  by  Prof.  Moncke  of  causing 
the  deflection  of  a  magnetic  needle  by  the 
electric  current.  In  July  of  that  year  Cooke 
produced  an  experimental  instrument,  which 
he  not  long  afterward  took  to  England  and 
sought  to  introduce  on  the  Liverpool  and  Man 
chester  railway.  He  there  became  associated 
with  Prof.  Wheatstone,  and  the  two  united 
their  labors  to  perfect  the  instrument.  The 
first  patent  for  an  electric  telegraph  was  issued 
to  them  on  June  12,  1837.  They  employed 
five  magnetic  needles  and  coils,  and  either 
five  or  six  wTires,  with  a  peculiar  keyboard 
invented  by  Wheatstone,  upon  which  were 
arranged  the  letters,  and  these  were  designa 
ted  in  turn  as  any  two  of  the  needles  ar 
ranged  across  the  centre  of  the  board  pointed 
to  one  and  another  of  them.  The  apparatus 
underwent  various  modifications  in  the  hands 
of  its  inventors,  and  was  much  simplified  by 
the  use  of  only  two  needles,  and  finally  of  only 
one,  different  letters  being  designated  by  the 
deflection  of  the  needle  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left  one  or  more  times  in  either  or  both  direc 
tions.  The  swinging  of  the  needle  is  checked 
by  small  pins  fixed  on  the  dial,  so  that  the 
motions  are  rendered  precise  and  clear.  In 
this  single-needle  telegraph,  each  instrument 
has  its  own  battery  and  wire.  In  case  of  acci 
dent  to  the  wire  of  one  instrument,  that  of  the 
other  serves  to  keep  up  the  communication. 
With  each  apparatus  was  formerly  connected 
an  alarum  bell,  the  clapper  of  which  was  moved 
by  a  weight  or  spring  connected  with  clock 
work,  which  was  released  by  means  of  an  elec 
tro-magnet.  This  is  now  generally  abandoned, 
the  sound  made  by  the  click  of  the  needle 


against  the  pins  being  found  sufficient.  Wheat- 
stone  introduced  one  very  important  feature  in 
his  electric  telegraph,  which  is  a  local  battery 
for  working  the  alarum.  It  is  brought  into 
action  by  the  deflection  of  a  magnetic  needle, 
the  ends  of  which  are  thus  placed  in  contact 
with  the  two  wires  of  the  second  battery,  and 
so  close  its  circuit.  The  double-needle  tele 
graph  is  often  used  upon  the  railways  of  Great 
Britain,  each  needle  having  its  own  wire.  The 
different  signs  are  made  by  the  movements  of 
one  or  both  of  the  needles.  The  needles  upon 
the  dial  are  moved  by  the  messages  sent  as 
well  as  by  those  received,  so  that  each  opera 
tor  may  see  the  signals  he  makes.  In  these 
needle  telegraphs  no  record  is  made  of  the 
message  by  the  instrument  itself ;  the  operator 
observes  the  signs,  and  notes  them  upon  paper 
as  they  succeed  each  other.  With  the  English 
double-needle  telegraph,  employing  two  wires 
and  two  batteries  and  other  apparatus  at  each 
station,  an  expert  operator  can  send  as  many 
as  150  letters  a  minute;  but  this  is  more  than 
can  be  correctly  read,  the  limit  of  which  is 
about  100  letters  a  minute,  and  in  actual  prac 
tice  the  number  is  somewhat  less  than  this,  or 
from  17  to  24  words  a  minute.  Operators  ac 
customed  to  the  work  do  not  require  the  let 
tered  dial  for  reading  the  movements  of  the 
needle. — Of  the  numerous  telegraphic  inven 
tions  that  soon  succeeded  those  already  named, 
Alexander  Bain's  are  particularly  worthy  of 
notice.  He  was  engaged  in  England  as  early 
as  1840  in  producing  a  printing  telegraph,  and 
in  1846  patented  what  is  known  as  an  electro 
chemical  and  registering  telegraph,  the  princi 
ple  of  which  had  been  first  applied  to  the  pur 
pose  'by  Dyar  in  this  country  in  1827,  and 
by  Edward  Davy  in  England  in  1838.  Mr. 
Bain  brought  his  new  telegraph  to  the  LTnited 
States  in  1849,  and  it  was  brought  into  use  on 
several  important  lines ;  but  after  a  lawsuit 
involving  chiefly  the  use  of  the  local  circuit, 
the  Morse  interests  forced  a  consolidation,  and 
the  Bain  system  had  afterward  but  a  limited 
use.  The  local  circuit  gave  to  the  Morse  sys 
tem  its  great  importance  and  value.  On  long 
lines  of  telegraph  the  wire  offers  such  resis 
tance  to  the  passage  of  the  current  that  its 
presence  is  detected  only  by  delicate  instru 
ments,  which  however  are  capable  of  vibrating 
levers  whose  office  is  to  open  and  close  secon 
dary  or  local  circuits ;  and  these  circuits  being 
short,  unlimited  magnetic  power  may  be  ob 
tained  for  recording  or  producing  sounds.  The 
Bain  telegraph  was  essentially  the  same  as  that 
now  called  the  "  automatic."  The  revival  of 
the  system  is  due  to  recent  discoveries  in  the 
arrangement  of  circuits,  by  which  the  rapidity 
of  recorded  electrical  impulses  through  very 
long  conductors  has  been  made  almost  infinite. 
For  recording,  dots  and  lines  are  produced  on 
chemically  prepared  paper,  which  is  moved 
while  damp  at  a  uniform  rate  over  a  metallic 
roller ;  a  fine  wire,  through  which  the  line 
current  passes,  rests  on  the  surface  of  the 


614 


TELEGRAPH 


paper  and  blackens  it  by  decomposing  the 
chemical.  The  current  was  formerly  sent  over 
the  line  by  the  key,  as  in  the  Morse  system ; 
but  to  call  attention  a  bell  was  used,  and  this 
usually  required  the  local  circuit.  Mr.  Bain 
had  at  this  time  fully  developed  a  plan  for 
transmitting  signals  with  a  rapidity  far  greater 
than  could  be  effected  with  the  key,  and  this 
plan  is  the  same  as  that  now  used  in  the  revived 
system.  In  place  of  the  key  a  fillet  of  paper 
was  punched  with  lines  and  dots  representing 
a  message.  This  was  passed  over  a  metallic 
roller  with  great  speed,  and  a  fine  wire  which 
rested  on  the  paper  entered  each  hole  as  it 
moved  and  completed  the  circuit  through  the 
roller.  The  receiving  machine  was  made  to 
run  at  a  speed  corresponding  with  that  of  the 
transmitting  machine,  and  the  perforated  dots 
and  dashes  were  reproduced  in  blackened  dots 
and  dashes.  The  advantage  of  this  system  lies 
in  the  transmission  of  long  messages,  which 
are  received  and  prepared  by  several  opera 
tors,  at  great  speed.  Until  recently  this  speed 
could  be  obtained  only  on  short  circuits,  the 
marks  on  long  circuits  running  into  each  other 
and  becoming  illegible.  Later  improvements 
have  enabled  messages  to  be  sent  from  Brussels 
to  Ostend  and  back  at  the  rate  of  450  words  a 
minute ;  and  the  American  instruments  have 
sent  between  Washington  and  New  York  5,250 
letters  a  minute,  requiring  10  perforators  to 
feed  it,  10  copyists,  and  two  operators. — Fac 
simile  Telegraphs.  Electric  copying  or  facsimile 
telegraphs  are  modifications  of  the  automatic 
cheinical.  They  originated  with  F.  C.  Bakewell 
of  England  in  1850,  and  have  been  improved  by 
Oaselli,  Bonelli,  and  others.  In  them  the  mes 
sage  is  written  with  a  pen  dipped  in  varnish 
upon  a  sheet  of  tin  foil,  which  is  then  laid 
around  a  metallic  cylinder,  corresponding  pre 
cisely  in  its  size,  rate  of  revolution,  and  longi 
tudinal  movement,  with  another  cylinder  at 
the  receiving  station,  which  is  covered  with 
chemically  prepared  paper  and  provided  with 
a  pointer  like  that  of  the  Bain  chemical  tele 
graph.  These  cylinders  being  set  in  motion  at 
the  same  instant,  the  point  of  the  registering 
apparatus  makes  a  continuous  colored  line, 
running  round  the  cylinder  in  a  close  spiral  so 
long  as  the  metal  style  at  the  other  station 
presses  upon  the  tin  foil ;  but  as  this  passes  over 
the  lines  of  varnish  a  break  in  the  circuit  occurs, 
causing  an  interruption  of  the  colored  line  at 
the  other  station.  The  blank  spaces  thus  pro 
duced  will  be  found  when  the  lines  have  been 
drawn  over  the  whole  paper  to  be  a  facsimile 
of  those  written  in  varnish  upon  the  tin  foil. 
The  lines,  though  drawn  as  spirals  upon  the 
cylinder,  appear  as  parallels  when  the  paper  is 
taken  off.  About  10  revolutions  of  the  cylin 
der,  making  as  many  parallel  lines,  are  sufficient 
to  complete  one  line  of  writing ;  a  cylinder  6 
in.  in  diameter  affords  sufficient  length  for 
about  100  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  one  line ; 
and  as  the  rate  of  revolution  is  not  less  than 
30  in  a  minute,  300  letters  or  more  may  be 


transmitted  in  this  period.  A  message  in  ci 
pher  can  be  sent  by  this  method  without  risk 
of  error,  and  even  invisible  messages  written 
in  colorless  varnish  may  be  received  and  im 
pressed  in  invisible  characters  upon  prepared 
paper,  to  be  afterward  brought  out  by  chemi 
cal  means;  thus,  if  the  paper  be  moistened 
with  diluted  acid  alone,  no  visible  mark  is  left 
upon  it  until  it  is  brushed  over  with  a  solution 
of  prussiate  of  potash,  when  tli6  lines  appear  in 
their  blue  color.  Great  improvements  in  the 
autographic  telegraph  have  been  made  by  Ca- 
selli,  who  has  succeeded  in  making  dark  letters 
upon  a  white  ground.  His  instruments  have 
been  used  on  some  of  the  French  lines  since 
1862.— Printing  Telegraphs.  Royal  E.  House, 
of  Vermont,  received  a  patent  in  1848  for  an 
admirable  long-line  printing  apparatus,  which 
was  first  used  in  1847,  sending  messages  in 
Roman  capitals  between  Cincinnati  and  Jef- 
fersonville,  Ind.,  150  m.  The  necessity  of 
avoiding  the  peculiar  features  upon  which 
other  telegraphic  systems  were  established, 
in  order  to  give  to  it  a  distinctive  and  pat- 
entable  character,  added  greatly  to  the  diffi 
culties  of  the  undertaking,  which  after  nearly 
six  years  of  labor  were  overcome  by  the  in 
genuity  and  perseverance  of  Mr.  House.  The 
apparatus  is  very  complicated,  and  little  more 
can  be  attempted  than  to  state  its  great  pow 
ers  of  execution  and  its  perfect  accuracy.  The 
mechanical  movements  of  this  machine  are  set 
in  action  by  hand  labor  applied  to  a  crank, 
which  works  an  air  pump  for  supplying  a  cur 
rent  of  condensed  air,  which  under  the  control 
of  the  electric  current  carries  forward  the  move 
ments  of  the  composing  and  printing  apparatus, 
so  that  each  letter  may  be  printed  at  the  exact 
instant  that  it  is  struck  upon  the  keyboard  of 
the  instrument.  This  keyboard,  which  resem 
bles  that  of  a  piano,  is  connected  with  the  elec 
tric  current,  and  as  the  keys  are  struck  the 
circuit  is  opened  and  closed  with  the  move 
ments  of  a  circuit  wheel  which  controls  the 
movements  of  the  type  wheel.  A  complete 
revolution  of  the  circuit  wheel,  coming  round 
again  to  the  same  letter,  breaks  and  closes  the 
circuit  28  times,  and  other  letters  a  less  number 
according  to  their  arrangement  on  the  type 
wheel.  The  printing  apparatus  is  quite  distinct 
from  the  circuit,  but  the  composing  apparatus 
forms  a  part  of  it.  The  impression  of  the  let 
ter  is  produced  by  a  blackened  ribbon  being 
pressed  against  the  paper  by  the  type.  From 
the  voltaic  battery  of  one  station,  the  current 
passes  along  the  wire  to  the  next  station,  then 
through  the  coil  of  an  axial  magnet  to  the  in 
sulated  iron  frame  of  the  composing  machine, 
and  thence  to  a  circuit  wheel  revolving  in  this 
frame.  Through  a  spring  that  rubs  on  the 
edge  of  this  wheel  it  passes  into  the  return 
wire,  and  through  another  battery  back  to  the 
first  station  to  pursue  the  same  course  through 
the  composing  machine  and  magnet  there,  and 
all  others  upon  the  line.  In  sending  a  message, 
the  operator  sets  his  machine  in  motion  and 


TELEGRAPH 


615 


gives  a  signal  by  breaks  of  the  circuit,  repeated 
a  different  number  of  times  for  different  offices 
on  the  same  wire.  As  this  is  heard  by  the 
operator  at  the  receiving  station,  he  sets  his 
machine  in  motion,  and  the  type  wheel  at  its 
starting  point,  and  signals  back  that  he  is 
ready.  No  further  attention  is  required  on  his 
part,  while  the  machine  goes  on,  printing  the 
communication  in  Roman  capitals  upon  the 
long  strip  of  paper  regularly  supplied  to  the 
type  wheel.  From  250  to  260  letters  as  a  maxi 
mum  can  be  accurately  printed  every  minute, 
and  over  3,000  words  an  hour  of  press  news, 
partly  abbreviated,  have  been  sent  over  the 
wrires  with  a  single  instrument.  The  House 
printer  was  the  parent  of  many  others  work 
ing  on  the  same  principle,  the  "step  by  step" 
movement,  in  which  each  break  or  close  of 
circuit  allows  a  tooth  of  an  escape  wheel  to 
pass;  a  type  wheel  being  on  the  same  shaft, 
a  new  letter  appears  for  each  tooth  that  es 
capes.— On  May  20,  1856,  Mr.  Hughes  patent 
ed  a  telegraph,  in  which  the  feat  of  printing 
a  letter  with  every  impulse  or  wave  of  the 
electric  current  was  accomplished.  In  the 
other  telegraphs,  as  already  described,  sev 
eral  impulses  produced  by  successive  makes 
or  breaks  of  the  circuit  are  required  to  form 
a  single  letter;  this  in  House's  telegraph  va 
ries  up  to  14  breaks,  the  maximum  required 
for  repeating  the  same  letter,  and  averages 
about  7  impulses;  and  in  the  Morse  system 
the  average  is  about  3-J  impulses,  those  which 
make  lines  being  of  longer  duration  than  those 
which  make  dots.  The  saving  of  time  thus 
effected  by  the  Hughes  instrument  is  of  great 
importance,  especially  on  long  lines  in  which 
an  appreciable  amount  of  time  is  expended  in 
the  passage  of  the  current.  In  long  lines  of 
submarine  telegraphs,  as  will  be  noticed  be 
low,  a  greatly  increased  resistance  is  experi 
enced  in  charging  the  wires  with  the  electric 
current,  and  the  impulses  necessarily  succeed 
each  other  with  extreme  slowness  and  diminu 
tion  of  force.  The  type  wheel  in  the  Hughes 
system  is  provided  with  28  types ;  it  is  kept  in 
rapid  revolution  during  the  whole  time  of  op 
erating,  and  is  so  perfect  in  its  movement  that, 
though  the  revolutions  may  be  from  100  to  140 
a  minute,  the  variations  of  two  machines  at 
different  stations  do  not  exceed  ^  of  a  second 
in  several  hours.  At  the  instant  one  of  the  28 
keys  is  depressed,  the  current  entering  the 
magnet  at  the  distant  station  causes  the  strip 
of  paper  to  be  brought  against  the  type  oppo 
site  to  it  at  the  time,  and  receive  the  impres 
sion  in  ink  while  this  is  rapidly  carried  round 
with  the  wheel.  The  operator  can  send  an 
average  of  two  impulses  with  each  revolution 
of  the  type  wheel,  thus  making  the  capacity  of 
the  instrument  200  letters  or  40  words  a  min 
ute,  and  the  maximum  is  much  above  this. 
The  regulators  or  governors  of  the  clockwork 
which  carries  the  type  wheels  at  the  different 
stations  are  springs  of  the  same  musical  tone, 
which  consequently  vibrate  the  same  number 


of  times  a  second,  and  which  control  by  their 
vibrations  the  escapement  of  the  apparatus. 
The  power  of  the  electric  current  'required  is 
reduced  in  a  wonderful  degree  by  the  combi 
nation  of  the  natural  magnet  and  the  electro 
magnet,  making  only  so  much  electricity  neces 
sary  as  will  neutralize  the  magnetism  in  the 
natural  magnet  by  causing  magnetism  of  an 
opposite  polarity  to  be  created  in  the  poles  of 
the  electro-magnet.  This  extreme  delicacy, 
however,  renders  the  telegraph  liable  to  be 
interrupted  by  atmospheric  electricity,  such 
as  is  developed  previous  to  and  during  the  con 
tinuance  of  the  aurora  borcalis.  It  is  asserted 
that  this  instrument  can  work  upon  a  longer 
line  without  the  aid  of  repeaters  than  any  oth 
er,  and  this  with  an  extraordinarily  low  battery 
power. — In  the  winter  of  1858  a  new  instru 
ment  was  perfected  by  G.  M.  Phelps  of  Troy, 
combining  the  most  valuable  portions  of  both 
the  House  •  and  Hughes  patents,  which  has 
been  introduced  with  great  success  on  nearly 
all  the  lines  formerly  using  those  inventions. 
This  has  been  termed  the  "  combination"  in 
strument,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  able 
to  work  through  a  much  longer  circuit  than 
the  House  machine,  with  a  smaller  battery,  as 
well  as  of  being  much  simpler.  The  keyboard 
and  transmitting  machinery  of  this  instru 
ment  are  precisely  like  those  of  Hughes,  as  is 
also  the  printing  apparatus,  with  the  excep 
tion  of  the  electro-magnet,  which  is  of  the  or 
dinary  form,  and  operates  upon  the  type  wheel 
through  the  medium  of  compressed  air  as  in 
the  House  machine.  The  vibrating  spring  used 
by  Hughes  as  a  governor  is  superseded  in  the 
combination  instrument  by  a  most  ingenious 
electro-magnetic  governor,  the  invention  of 
Mr.  Phelps.  It  consists  of  a  hollow  iron  drum, 
geared  to  the  transmitting  cylinder  and  type 
wheel  of  the  instrument  and  moving  with  them, 
but  much  faster.  If  the  machinery  has  a  ten 
dency  to  revolve  too  rapidly,  the  increased  cen 
trifugal  force,  acting  upon  a  detached  section 
of  the  drum,  actuates  a  series  of  levers  inside, 
by  which  a. spring  is  raised,  closing  the  circuit 
of  a  local  battery  through  an  electro-magnet. 
A  friction  brake,  which  is  applied  to  the  re 
volving  drum  by  the  attraction  of  this  magnet, 
instantly  reduces  the  speed  to  the  required 
limits,  when  the  local  circuit  is  again  broken. 
The  combination  instrument  is  considered  the 
most  perfect  printing  telegraph  for  long  lines 
yet  produced.  The  Anders  printing  telegraph, 
patented  in  1871,  and  worked  by  magneto-elec 
tricity,  is  designed  for  private  lines,  though 
capable  of  operating  over  distances  of  45  m. 
— Dial  Telegraphs.  In  these  instruments  the 
step,  by  step  movement  is  generally  employed, 
but  the  escape  wheel  does  not  carry  a  type 
wheel,  nor  do  the  printing  accessories  enter 
into  their  construction.  A  light  needle  is  car 
ried  around  with  the  escape  wheel  and  points 
at  the  successive  letters.  They  are  thus  vis 
ual  and  not  recording  telegraphs.  In  England, 
the  "  Magnetic  Telegraph  Company  "employed 


616 


TELEGRAPH 


magneto-electricity,  thus  dispensing  with  vol 
taic  batteries,  the  use  of  which  involves  much 
care  and  expense.  The  apparatus  is  remarka 
bly  compact,  without  clockwork  or  complicated 
movements  such  as  are  common  in  other  tele 
graphs.  Though  used  double,  with  two  sets 
of  magnets,  with  a  wire  from  each  connecting 
with  two  needles  upon  the  dial  at  the  oppo 
site  station,  the  whole  apparatus,  including  the 
tablet  or  dial,  occupies  but  a  few  inches  of 
space,  and  is  always  ready  for  instant  use, 
however  long  it  may  have  remained  inactive. 
The  magnets,  of  horse-shoe  form,  about  12  in 
number  for  each  set,  are  15  in.  long  and  1|-  in. 
broad.  They  are  laid  one  upon  another  in  two 
piles  near  together,  and  fastened  down  to  the 
table  by  screws.  Opposite  the  ends  of  each 
pile,  placed  upon  a  rotating  axis,  is  the  soft 
iron  armature,  consisting  of  two  cylinders 
wound  around  with  long  coils  of  fine  copper 
wire  covered  with  cotton.  The  wire  of  the 
two  coils  is  connected  together,  and  one  end 
of  each  passes  in  a  spiral  through  the  axle  to 
the  platform  upon  which  the  apparatus  rests. 
One  end  is  thence  carried  into  the  earth,  and 
the  other  goes  to  the  electro-magnet  of  its 
own  dial,  thence  to  the  distant  station,  and 
through  the  instrument  there  into  the  earth. 
The  same  arrangement  is  repeated  with  the 
other  set.  The  axis  of  each  armature  extends 
toward  the  operator,  and  is  provided  with  a 
crank  handle  by  which  each  is  turned  to  gen 
erate  the  electric  current.  The  effect  is  seen 
in  the  movement  of  the  two  needles  placed 
upon  the  dial  over  the  magnets.  It  is  asserted 
that  this  telegraph  is  worked  with  the  greatest 
economy,  that  it  cannot  be  disturbed  by  electric 
storms  in  the  atmosphere,  and  that  its  average 
celerity  has  been  found  to  be  27^  words  a  min 
ute,  with  a  maximum  of  3V|-.  In  the  United 
States  the  dial  telegraph  is  largely  used  where 
operators  are  supposed  to  have  but  moderate 
skill,  as  in  police  and  private  telegraphy.  The 
instruments  are  worked  with  a  small  battery. 
Primary  signals  are  given  by  bells,  and  the  let 
ters  are  pointed  out  by  the  revolving  needle. 
The  transmitting  part  is  the  usual  circuit  wheel, 
which  breaks  and  closes  the  circuit  and  pro 
duces  the  rotating  movement  of  the  needle  of 
the  distant  instrument.  This  circuit  wheel  is 
arrested,  in  the  process  of  telegraphing,  by  a 
series  of  pins,  one  of  which  is  placed  opposite 
each  letter.  When  the  A  pin  of  the  trans 
mitter  is  pressed  down,  the  circuit  wheel  is 
arrested  just  as  it  has  caused  the  needle  of 
the  other  instrument  to  rotate  to  A. —  Con 
struction  of  Telegraph  Lines.  Telegraph  wires 
are  usually  carried  over  the  surface  of  the 
country  upon  poles  standing  from  25  to  30  ft. 
above  the  ground,  and  placed  from  80  to  100 
yards  apart.  As  poles  are  objectionable  in  cit 
ies,  many  plans  have  been  devised  for  carrying 
the  wires  under  ground.  In  London  they  are 
covered  with  gutta  percha  and  tape  and  put 
into  lead  or  iron  pipes,  which  are  laid  under 
the  sidewalk,  or  into  creosoted  wooden  troughs 


filled  with  bitumen,  which  are  buried  in  trench 
es  beside  the  roadway.  In  Paris  the  wires  are 
carried  in  lead  pipes  through  the  sewers  and 
catacombs.  The  "American  Compound  "Wire 
Company  "  have  introduced  a  wire,  consisting 
of  a  core  of  steel  and  envelope  of  copper,  with 
a  tinned  surface,  which,  with  equal  conduc 
tivity  and  greater  strength,  weighs  less  and 
requires  fewer  supports.  Another  insulated 
wire,  called  "kerite  wire,"  the  invention  of 
Mr.  A.  G.  Day  of  New  York,  has  a  covering 
compounded  of  rubber  and  hydrocarbons.  It 
is  said  to  offer  great  resistance  to  oxidation, 
and  that  it  may  be  exposed  in  the  air  or  buried 
in  the  earth  for  years  without  serious  injury. 
As,  with  batteries  of  the  same  intensity,  the 
conductivity  increases  with  the  cross  section 
of  the  wire,  large  wires  are  to  be  preferred 
to  small  ones  upon  long  circuits.  In  work 
ing  direct,  a  distance  of  over  400  or  500  m., 
the  line  is  usually  divided  at  some  intermedi 
ate  point  into  two  distinct  circuits,  which  are 
connected  by  means  of  a  "repeater."  If  the 
circuit  be  broken  on  either  side  of  the  re 
peater,  it  will  break  the  circuit  on  the  other 
side  also.  The  combined  circuits  can  thus  be 
operated  from  either  end  as  if  they  were  one 
continuous  wire,  while  the  current  of  each 
battery  has  to  pass  only  half  the  distance  be 
tween  the  terminal  stations.  A  line  can  thus 
be  extended  indefinitely.  Copper  wire  is  a 
much  better  conductor  than  one  of  iron  of 
the  same  size,  and  will  carry  the  current  from 
five  to  six  times  as  far;  but  want  of  strength, 
and  frequent  breakage  from  its  greater  ex 
pansion  and  contraction  by  the  changes  of 
temperature,  prevent  its  use  except  on  impor 
tant  submarine  lines.  The  insulation  of  the 
wires  upon  the  posts  is  a  matter  of  much  im 
portance,  and  is  not  easily  effected,  for  any 
non-conductor  interposed  between  the  wire 
and  the  post  becomes  a  conductor  when  its 
surface  is  wet  with  rain.  Glass  knobs  with 
grooves  around  them  for  securing  the  wire 
have  been  made  in  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
and  secured  to  the  posts,  or  to  the  cross  bars 
where  there  are  several  wires,  by  pins  of  wood 
or  iron.  A  great  improvement  upon  this  is  a 
glass  cap  exactly  fitting  over  a  wooden  pin  1 J 
in.  in  diameter,  and  having  an  outer  covering 
of  wood,  saturated  like  the  pin  with  coal  tar 
and  pitch,  to  which  the  wire  is  fastened,  and 
which,  projecting  below  and  entirely  covering 
the  glass,  keeps  it  dry  and  makes  the  insula 
tion  complete.  Batchelder's  vulcanite  insu 
lators  have  been  very  extensively  applied  in 
the  United  States.  In  Europe,  insulators  of 
earthenware  and  porcelain  are  used.  In  for 
ests  the  wires  should  be  allowed  to  pass  loosely 
through  the  supports,  so  that  in  case  of  a  tree 
falling  upon  them  they  need  not  be  broken ; 
but  in  an  open  country  they  are  usually  fast 
ened  to  each  post.  On  some  telegraph  lines 
in  Europe  and  in  Asia,  the  wires,  instead  of 
being  supported  upon  poles,  are  buried  beneath 
the  ground.  Their  first  cost  is  always  heavy, 


TELEGRAPH 


617 


and  many  of  them  have  soon  proved  failures 
through  imperfection  in  the  insulation.  The 
wires  are  best  insulated  by  coating  them  with 
gutta  percha,  and  they  are  protected  from  in 
jury  by  laying  them  in  pipes  of  lead  or  of  earth 
enware,  or  in  wooden  boxes  preserved  by  sat 
urating  the  Avood  with  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper  or  chloride  of  zinc.  Some  of  these 
lines  have  worked  perfectly  for  many  years, 
but  when  they  fail  it  is  a  matter  of  great  ex 
pense  and  difficulty  to  discover  their  defective 
points. — In  the  extent  of  its  telegraphic  lines 
the  United  States  has  exceeded  every  other 
country.  In  1860  it  was  estimated  that  there 
were  over  50,000  m.  in  operation,  and  at  pres 
ent  there  is  not  less  than  150,000  m.  of  wire. 
In  the  aggregate,  700,000  m.  of  wire  spread 
their  network  over  the  earth  for  telegraphic 
purposes,  including  lines  in  Australia,  India, 
China,  and  Siberia.  Russia  is  engaged  in  ex 
tending  an  important  line  from  Moscow  to  the 
Pacific  so  as  to  connect  eastern  Asia  with 
Europe,  and  possibly  hereafter  with  America 
by  the  way  of  Behring  strait.  This  line  was 
completed  to  Perm,  on  the  borders  of  Siberia, 
and  from  that  place  across  the  Ural  mountains 
to  Omsk  on  the  Irtish,  in  1861.  Thence  it  is 
continued  to  Tomsk,  and  S.  E.  to  Irkutsk; 
next  it  passes  the  Altai  mountains  to  Kiakhta 
on  the  Chinese  frontier,  thence  to  Cheta  on 
the  Amoor,  and  thence  to  Nertchinsk.  From 
Orum,  or  some  other  point  on  the  Amoor,  one 
branch  will  go  down  the  river  and  another 
southward  to  a  Russian  port  on  the  Japan  sea. 
The  project  of  extending  these  lines  to  Beh- 
ring's  strait,  and  across  to  Alaska,  Oregon, 
and  California,  which  had  been  partially  car 
ried  into  effect  on  the  American  side,  was 
abandoned  after  the  Atlantic  cables  had  been 
brought  into  working  condition. — Submarine 
Telegraphs.  The  idea  of  a  submarine  tele 
graph  appears  to  have  been  conceived  by  sev 
eral  of  the  earlier  electricians.  Salva  is  said 
to  have  proposed  one  as  early  as  1797  be 
tween  Barcelona  and  Palma  in  the  island  of 
Majorca.  Experiments  were  made  in  India 
by  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy  in  1839  with  this  ob 
ject,  and  he  insulated  his  wires  by  covering 
them  with  tarred  yarn,  enclosing  them  in  split 
rattan,  and  covering  this  again  with  tarred 
yarn.  Wheatstone  in  1840  gave  it  as  his  opin 
ion  before  a  committee  of  the  house  of  com 
mons  that  a  submarine  communication  between 
England  and  France  was  practicable.  Morse, 
on  Oct.  18,  1842,  laid  a  copper  wire,  insulated 
by  means  of  a  hempen  strand  coated  with  tar, 
pitch,  and  India  rubber,  from  Governor's  island 
to  the  Battery  in  New  York,  and  the  next 
morning  was  beginning  to  receive  communica 
tions  through  it,  when  the  wire  was  caught  in 
the  anchor  of  a  vessel  getting  under  way, 
and  being  hauled  on  board  was  stolen  by  the 
sailors.  Samuel  Colt  laid  a  submarine  cable  in 
1843  from  Coney  island  and  Fire  island,  at  the 
mouth  of  !STew  York  harbor,  up  to  the  city, 
and  operated  it  successfully.  The  first  subma 


rine  telegraph  wire  laid  in  Europe  was  across 
the  Rhine  from  Deutz  to  Cologne,  about  half  a 
mile ;  it  was  insulated  with  gutta  percha,  and 
laid  by  Lieut.  Siemens  of  the  royal  Prussian 
artillery.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
application  of  gutta  percha  to  this  purpose,  the 
substance  about  that  time  first  beginning  to 
attract  attention.  In  1850  a  copper  wire  cov 
ered  with  gutta  percha  was  laid  between  Dover 
and  Calais  by  Brett,  but  its  success  was  short 
lived.  The  next  year  it  was  replaced  by  a 
cable  of  four  wires,  which  has  given  complete 
satisfaction.  In  1853  six  cables  (the  longest 
of  which,  between  England  and  Scotland,  Avas 
about  100  m.)  were  successfully  laid.  In  1854 
five  other  cables  went  into  operation,  the 
longest  being  only  about  64  m.  In  1855-'6 
two  more  were  added,  that  from  Varna  to 
Constantinople  being  about  160  m.  Besides 
these,  two  cables  had  been  laid  in  deeper  wa 
ters  :  one  from  Newfoundland  to  Cape  Bre 
ton,  and  another  from  Spezia  to  Corsica.  The 
grand  attempts  to  connect  the  European  and 
American  continents  by  a  cable  across  the  At 
lantic,  commenced  in  1857  and  perfected  Aug. 
5,  1858,  have  been  noticed  in  the  article  FIELD, 
CYRUS  WEST.  Before  these  were  undertaken 
great  encouragement  was  given  to  the  enter 
prise  by  the  successful  experiments  made  on 
Oct.  9,  1856,  in  transmitting  distinct  signals 
at  the  rate  of  210,  241,  and  even  270  a  minute 
through  a  number  of  connected  coils  of  wires, 
insulated  with  gutta  percha,  and  making  a 
total  length  of  about  2,000  m.,  increased  to  a 
virtual  circuit  of  2,300  m.  by  the  interposition 
of  fine  wires  at  the  joinings  of  the  coils.  The 
wires  were  excited  by  the  magneto-electric 
coils  of  Whitehouse,  and  the  signals  were  re 
ceived  upon  the  ordinary  recording  apparatus 
of  Morse.  But  a  great  difference  was  after 
ward  experienced  in  the  working  of  the  wires 
when  submerged.  Before  the  cable  was  laid 
it  was  ascertained  that  insulated  wires  acquire 
a  new  character  when  submerged,  and  that 
instead  of  transmitting  the  current  as  simple 
conductors,  they  are  of  the  nature  of  the  Ley- 
den  jar,  the  gutta  percha  corresponding  to  the 
glass,  the  inner  wire  to  the  interior  coating, 
and  the  iron  covering  or  the  water  itself  to 
the  exterior  coating;  and  that  consequently 
the  cable  must  be  charged  throughout  the  en 
tire  length  before  any  current  is  produced. 
Among  other  interesting  phenomena,  it  was 
observed  that  the  voltaic  current  is  not  trans 
mitted  so  rapidly  through  such  a  conductor 
as  the  magneto-electric  current ;  and  that  al 
ternating  positive  and  negative  signals  are 
transmitted  more  rapidly  than  successive  sig 
nals  of  the  same  character.  After  being  laid, 
the  wires  were  first  worked  by  the  Ruhm- 
korff  induction  coils  and  a  Smee  battery,  and 
afterward  by  a  Daniell  battery ;  but  the  cur 
rent  was  for  the  most  part  so  weak  as  scarcely 
to  operate  the  most  delicate  relay,  though  sus 
ceptible  to  a  current  that  can  hardly  be  per 
ceived  on  the  tongue.  The  effect  was  indicated 


G18 


TELEGRAPH 


at  the  Newfoundland  station  by  the  deflection 
of  a  delicate  galvanometer,  and  at  Valentia  in 
Ireland  by  that  of  the  reflecting  galvanometer 
of  Thomson,  in  which  a  delicate  magnet  carries 
a  small  mirror  from  which  a  beam  of  light  is 
reflected.  This  ray  being  thrown  upon  a  sur 
face  at  some  distance,  a  movement  of  the  mag 
net  that  is  not  directly  perceptible  may  be 
even  measured  upon  a  graduated  scale.  The 
transmitted  current  was,  much  of  the  time  that 
the  cable  continued  in  action,  so  weak  that 
every  expedient  of  this  kind  was  necessary  to 
render  the  signals  perceptible.  From  the  first 
there  was  a  defect  in  the  part  of  the  cable  laid 
toward  the  Irish  shore,  which  caused  a  tem 
porary  interruption  of  communications  between 
the  ships.  Between  Aug.  13  and  Sept.  1  there 
were  129  messages  of  1,474  words  sent  from 
Valentia  to  Newfoundland,  and  271  of  2,885 
words  in  the  other  direction.  The  message 
from  Queen  Victoria  to  the  president  of  the 
United  States,  99  words,  occupied  in  its  trans 
mission  07  minutes.  The  rate  of  reception 
was  very  variable,  the  signals  being  often  un 
intelligible  and  requiring  several  repetitions. 
Electricians  were  sent  to  Valentia,  and  the 
most  powerful  batteries,  as  well  as  the  great 
magneto-electric  machine  of  W.  T.  Henley, 
were  applied  to  test  the  condition  of  the  cable. 
The  power  thus  employed  was  more  than  1,000 
times  what  would  be  required  in  an  ordinarily 
well  insulated  conductor  to  give  perfect  signals 
to  the  mirror  galvanometer.  To  the  end  of 
the  cable  a  voltaic  battery  was  connected  by 
one  of  its  poles,  a  galvanometer  was  placed  in 
the  circuit,  the  other  pole  was  connected  with 
the  earth,  and  by  these  means  the  location  of 
the  defect  in  the  cable  was  ascertained  ;  but  all 
attempts  to  recover  it  were  unsuccessful.  The 
cost  of  the  cable  was  as  follows  :  for  2,500  in. 
at  $485  per  mile,  $1,212,500;  for  10  m.  at 
$1,250  per  mile,  $12,500  ;  and  for  25  m.  shore 
ends  at  the  same  price,  $31,250  ;  making  alto 
gether  $1,256,250.  The  expenditures  of  the 
company  up  to  Dec.  1,  1858,  had  amounted  to 
$1,834,500.— After  the  failure  of  this  great 
enterprise  attention  was  directed  to  the  prac 
ticability  of  extending  a  cable  across  the  At 
lantic  from  Labrador  to  Scotland,  by  way  of 
Greenland,  Iceland,  and  the  Faroe  islands. 
The  route  is  about  1,800  m.  long,  and  presents 
no  continuous  length  of  submarine  cable  for  a 
greater  distance  than  that  between  Labrador 
and  Greenland,  which  is  about  600  m.  Mr.  T. 
P.  Shaffner,  of  the  United  States,  had  obtained 
in  1854  from  the  king  of  Denmark  a  conces 
sion  of  exclusive  rights  in  Greenland,  Iceland, 
and  the  Faroe  islands  for  this  purpose.  He 
sailed  from  Boston,  Aug.  29,  1859,  and  made 
the  preliminary  surveys  at  his  own  expense, 
and  he  induced  the  British  government  to  send 
a  steam  vessel  to  take  the  deep-sea  soundings ; 
but  the  project  was  not  consummated.  The 
failure  of  other  deep-sea  cables,  as  that  between 
Sardinia,  Malta,  and  Corfu,  and  the  long  cable 
from  the  Red  sea  to  India,  increased  the  dis 


trust  occasioned  by  the  failure  of  the  Atlantic 
cable  of  1858.  The  result  was  that  a  commit 
tee,  consisting  of  the  most  eminent  electrical 
engineers,  was  appointed  by  the  English  cham 
ber  of  commerce  and  the  "Transatlantic  Tele 
graph  Company,"  to  whom  the  duty  was  as 
signed  of  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  these  dis 
astrous  failures,  and  providing  instructions  for 
the  future  in  regard  to  the  manufacture,  tests, 
and  placing  of  cables.  It  appeared  that  the 
mechanical  department  of  the  subject  was  in  a 
more  advanced  state  than  the  electrical.  The 
committee,  after  18  months  of  hard  work, 
published  an  elaborate  report  in  1863.  More 
over,  the  theoretical  researches  of  Thomson, 
Jenkins,  and  others,  had  thrown  much  light  on 
the  electrical  requirements  of  submarine  lines. 
Meanwhile,  a  cable  was  laid  successfully  be 
tween  Malta  and  Alexandria  in  1861,  and  the 
Persian  gulf  cable  (about  1,330  m.  long)  in 
1864.  When  Mr.  Field  visited  England  in  1862, 
to  urge  on  a  second  attempt  to  establish  tele 
graphic  communications  across  the  Atlantic,  he 
found  that  the  manufacturers,  Messrs.  Glass, 
Elliott,  and  co.,  were  confident  of  their  ability 
to  make  and  place  a  good  and  durable  cable 
between  Great  Britain  and  America,  and  were 
willing  to  incur  a  part  of  the  risk.  The  second 
Atlantic  cable,  made  by  the  "  Telegraph  Con 
struction  and  Maintenance  Company,"  was 
tested  with  every  precaution,  and  found  to  be 
unexceptionable  in  its  electrical  conditions,  and 
/was  .shipped  on  board  the  Great  Eastern* in 
1865J  This  cable  (2,186  m.  long)  consists  of 
seven  copper  wires  (No.  18)  twisted  into  a 
spiral,  covered  with  four  coats  of  gutta  percha, 
between  which  are  thin  layers  of  Chatterton's 
compound.  The  external  protection  is  made 
of  ten  iron  wires,  each  surrounded  by  inanila 
yarn.  After  about  half  of  the  cable  had  been 
paid  out  it  broke,  and  the  expedition  was 
abandoned  for  the  season.  The  total  expendi 
ture  of  money  had  been  about  $3,000,000.  In 
1866  a  third  cable,  of  similar  construction  to 
the  second,  but  stronger,  lighter,  and  more 
flexible,  was  placed  on  board  the  Great  East 
ern  and  successfully  laid.  The  length  between 
Trinity  bay  and  Valentia  is  2,134  m.  Its  first 
duty  was  to  transmit  a  message  of  peace,  viz., 
that  a  treaty  had  been  signed  by  Prussia  and 
Austria.  Capt.  Anderson  returned  with  the 
Great  Eastern  to  the  place  where  the  cable  of 
1865  had  parted,  and  succeeded  in  splicing  it 
and  completing  the  line.  In  1869  the  French 
Atlantic  line  went  into  operation  between  Brest 
and  St.  Pierre,  and  between  St.  Pierre  and 
Duxbury,  Mass.,  the  total  length  being  3,857 
m.  In  1870  more  than  15,000  m.  of  cable 
were  laid,  including  the  Indian  cables  (from 
Suez  to  Aden,  from  Aden  to  Bombay,  and  from 
Penang  to  Singapore),  the  China  cable,  and  the 
North  China  from  Hong  Kong  to  Shanghai  and 
from  Shanghai  to  Posiet  in  the  Littoral  prov 
ince  of  Siberia.  In  1874  the  work  was  begun 
by  the  "  Direct  Cable  Company  "  of  laying  the 
new  Atlantic  line  between  Ballinskilligs  bay, 


TELEGRAPH 


619 


in  Ireland,  and  Rye,  New  Hampshire,  by  the 
way  of  Nova  Scotia.  In  spite  of  many  obsta 
cles  and  delays,  the  cable  was  put  in  position 
between  Rye  Beach  and  Torbay,  N.  S.,  and  be 
tween  Torbay  and  Newfoundland,  also  between 
Cahirciveen  island  and  a  point  200  m.  E.  of 
Newfoundland,  before  rough  weather  put  an 
end  to  the  work.  The  final  splice  of  200  m. 
was  made  early  in  the  summer  of  1875.  In 
1873  a  cable  was  laid  between  Lisbon  and 
Madeira;  in  1874  Madeira  was  connected  by 
cable  with  St.  Vincent,  one  of  the  Cape  Verd 
islands  (1,200  m.),  and  St.  Vincent  with  Per- 
nambuco  (1,845  in).  In  1875  cables  were  laid 
between  Jamaica  and  Porto  Rico,  Constanti 
nople  and  Odessa,  Zante  and  Otranto,  and  Bar 
celona  and  Marseilles.  In  all,  more  than  200 
cables  have  been  laid,  with  a  length  of  about 
50,000  m. — The  interval  of  time  which  must 
elapse  between  the  sending  of  successive  sig 
nals  through  similar  cables  increases  as  the 
square  of  their  lengths;  and  in  different  ca 
bles  of  equal  length,  this  time  is  the  least 
when  the  thickness  of  the  insulating  coating 
is  one  third  of  the  diameter  of  the  compound 
conductor.  With  the  improved  transmitting 
apparatus  of  Thomson  and  Varley,  eight  words 
can  be  sent  in  the  time  otherwise  required 
for  one.  Seventeen  words  a  minute  have 
been  sent  through  the  French  Atlantic  cable. 
Thomson's  syphon  recorder  quadrupled  the 
speed  of  cable  telegraphy.  The  current  from 
the  cable  passes  into  a  coil  of  wire  suspend 
ed  between  the  poles  of  magnets.  The  coil 
turns  round  in  a  direction  depending  upon  the 
direction  of  the  current.  The  motion  of  the 
coil  is  communicated  by  means  of  a  thread 
and  lever  to  a  glass  syphon  which  feeds  it 
self  with  ink  from  a  basin.  The  ink  is  elec 
trified  and.  spurts  out  against  a  moving  strip 
of  paper,  and  draAvs  an  undulating  curve  which 
indicates  the  letters  of  the  message.  The  speed 
of  working  .with  this  recorder  is  about  the 
same  as  with  the  reflecting  galvanometer;  and 
in  either  case  it  is  much  greater  than  could 
be  attained  by  the  moving  armature,  which  re 
quires  that  the  current  should  rise  and  fall  by 
large  differences ;  and  this  would  take  more 
time. — Telegraphic  Disturbance.  The  offices 
and  operators  of  air  lines  of  telegraph  are  ex 
posed  .to  accidents  from  lightning,  cither  from 
the  direct  stroke  or  the  induced  electricity 
when  a  discharge  occurs  between  two  clouds. 
A  great  many  lightning  guards  have  been  de 
vised.  Sabine  mentions  eleven.  In  lines  which 
follow  the  undulations  of  mountainous  regions 
(as  between  Vienna  and  Milan),  there  is  so 
great  disturbance  from  atmospheric  currents, 
even  under  a  blue  sky,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
send  messages  at  certain  hours.  The  aurora 
sometimes  acts  powerfully  upon  the  wires,  in 
terfering  with  the  battery  currents.  On  such 
occasions,  if  the  battery  be  taken  off,  the  mes 
sages  may  be  sent  by  means  of  the  current 
induced  by  the  aurora.  The  action  of  cable 
lines  is  disturbed  bv  earth  currents.  Gen 


erally,  the  difference  of  electric  potential  be 
tween  different  parts  of  the  earth  is  small ;  but 
it  is  subject  to  sudden  and  capricious  changes, 
and  amounts  sometimes  to  that  of  a  battery  of 
140  of  the  Daniell  elements.  The  direction 
of  these  earth  currents  is  such  as  to  derange 
particularly  the  Atlantic  lines.  The  instru 
ments  are  protected  by  the  lisa  of  the  con 
densers  of  Varley  and  others.  These  earth 
currents  must  not  be  confounded  with  those 
excited  when  plates  of  zinc  and  copper  are 
buried  in  the  earth,  which  Kemp,  Fox,  and 
Reich  made  the  subject  of  numerous  experi 
ments,  and  which  Bain,  Palagi,  and  others  put 
into  the  harness  to  work  the  telegraph. —  Vari 
ous  Uses  of  tlie  Telegraph.  The  electric  tele 
graph  has  been  applied  to  uses  never  contem 
plated  by  its  originators.  In  1852  Channing 
and  Farmer  of  Boston  devised  a  system  of 
telegraphic  fire  alarms,  which  was  adopted  in 
the  city  of  Boston.  Five  so-called  signal  cir 
cuits  were  extended  from  the  city  hall  to  dif 
ferent  parts  of  the  city,  and  in  connection  with 
these  were  stationed  50  signal  boxes  attached 
to  buildings  at  convenient  points.  The  door 
of  a  box  being  opened,  a  crank  is  seen  with 
directions  for  the  number  of  times  it  is  to  be 
turned  to  convey  to  the  central  office  the  num 
ber  of  the  station  and  district.  From  the 
central  station  five  wires  called  alarm  circuits 
connect  with  the  different  fire  bells  throughout 
the  city,  the  hammers  of  which,  run  by  weights, 
are  set  in  action  by  the  telegraph  itself  and 
strike  the  number  of  the  district  and  station  of 
the  alarm.  The  electric  current  is  excited  by 
a  magneto-electric  machine  which  is  set  in  mo 
tion  by  the  pressure  of  the  water  with  which 
the  city  is  supplied,  and  the  same  power  is 
employed  to  wind  up  the  weights  that  move 
the  bell  hammers.  The  bells  have  been  rung, 
as  an  experiment,  from  Portland  through  the 
telegraph  wires  extending  to  that  place.  The 
fire  alarm  also  affords  an  incidental  protection 
to  the  city  from  lightning.  Large  metallic 
surfaces  being  placed  near  the  wires  at  all  the 
stations  and  connected  with  the  ground,  a 
stroke  of  lightning  upon  the  wires  will  leap 
across  to  these  conductors,  and  pass  harmlessly 
to  the  ground,  while  the  artificial  current  pos 
sesses  too  little  intensity  ever  to  overcome  the 
intervening  space,  and  continues  in  the  circuit. 
Similar  arrangements  are  provided  upon  many 
telegraph  lines.  The  telegraphic  fire  alarm  has 
now  been  introduced  into  all  the  larger  cities. 
The  fire  alarm  telegraph  of  Boston  is  employed 
to  designate  the  exact,  noon  by  a  single  stroke 
upon  the  bell  of  the  Old  South  church,  an  ex 
act  chronometer  being  placed  in  the  circuit 
and  arranged  so  as  to  pass  the  current  at  12 
o'clock  precisely.  By  a  similar  arrangement 
in  London  a  large  ball  is  made  to  drop  exactly 
at  12  o'clock  from  a  pole  erected  in  the  Strand 
by  the  action  of  a  current  from  the  royal  ob 
servatory.  The  same  thing  is  also  done  at 
Nelson's  monument,  Edinburgh.  In  Paris  a 
cannon  is  fired  upon  a  similar  plan.  Chro- 


620 


TELEGRAPH 


nometers  in  observatories  are  also  made  to  run 
synchronously  with  a  standard  instrument  by 
means  of  the  electric  current.  Recently,  the 
Harvard  college  observatory  has  established  a 
telegraphic  connection  with  Boston,  and  thence 
with  the  lines  which  diverge  from  that  city, 
so  that  a  uniform  time  can  be  distributed  to 
all  the  railroad  stations  in  New  England.  In 
a  similar  way  Greenwich  time  is  given  to  the 
whole  of  Great  Britain.  The  application  of 
the  telegraph  to  the  determination  of  longitudes 
has  been  described  in  the  article  COAST  SUR 
VEY,  vol.  iv.,  p.  759.  Upon  some  railroads  the 
telegraph  is  used  with  great  advantage  for 
regulating  the  running  of  trains.  In  numer 
ous  places  telegraphs  have  been  constructed 
for  private  purposes,  and  in  London  from  the 
house  of  commons  to  the  committee  rooms. 
The  transactions  of  the  stock  exchange  in  New 
York  are  telegraphed  to  the  brokers'  offices 
and  the  hotels,  and  are  instantly  and  simul 
taneously  made  known  in  a  thousand  different 
places,  where  they  are  sometimes  recorded  by 
automatic  printing  instruments.  For  this  pur 
pose  a  very  rapid  printer  has  been  devised. 
The  usual  type  and  escape  wheels  are  made 
very  light,  and  are  rotated,  not  by  electricity, 
but  by  a  spring.  The  current  is  reversed  at 
every  vibration,  and  the  printing  is  effected 
by  the  power  of  a  magnet,  which  is  included 
in  the  same  circuit  with  those  that  liberate 
the  escape  wheel;  but  it  is  made  more  slug 
gish  in  action  so  that  it  does  not  perform 
its  work  until  the  arrest  of  the  circuit  wheel 
at  a  letter  gives  time  for  it  to  be  charged. 
This  instrument,  which  occupies  only  one  sixth 
of  a  cubic  foot  of  space,  will  print  800  let 
ters  a  minute. — A  system  of  telegraphs  for 
the  use  of  large  cities  was  devised  by  Wheat- 
stone,  by  which  a  company  leases  the  use  of 
a  small  wire  by  the  year  to  individuals.  For 
distances  not  exceeding  20  m.  a  copper  wire 
no  larger  than  a  cotton  thread  is  sufficient. 
Numbers  of  these,  insulated  by  being  wound 
with  thread,  may  be  brought  together  into  one 
cord,  and  suspended  from  strong  iron  wires 
passed  in  different  directions  upon  the  houses. 
The  latter,  communicating  with  the  ground  at 
numerous  points,  will  convey  away  all  atmos 
pheric  discharges  that  might  otherwise  be 
troublesome.  The  "Law  Telegraph  Compa 
ny"  in  the  city  of  New  York  has  established 
a  complete  system  of  communication  by  means 
of  dial  instruments  between  the  leading  law 
firms  and  the  courts.  A  rapid  system  of  sig 
nalling  is  used,  by  which  any  member  of  the 
company  can  be  put,  through  the  agency  of  a 
central  office,  into  direct  private  communica 
tion  with  any  other  member,  or  with  the  courts 
of  New  York  or  Brooklyn.  The  Chester  'dial 
is  employed  by  this  company.  In  the  automatic 
fire  alarm,  a  circuit  is  closed  by  the  expansion 
of  metal  under  a  rising  temperature.  The  cir 
cuit  closer,  which  is  called  a  thermostat,  is 
attached  to  the  ceilings  of  stores  or  dwellings, 
and  is  adjusted  to  work  at  a  fixed  tempera 


ture.  In  the  city  of  New  York  houses  and 
stores  furnished  with  these  instruments  are 
connected  telegraphically  with  the  fire  patrol, 
the  usual  apparatus  for  indicating  the  locality 
of  the  fire  being  included  in  the  system.  The 
district  telegraph  system,  which  has  been  in 
troduced  in  New  York,  Boston,  and  elsewhere, 
by  which  a  messenger,  policeman,  or  fireman 
can  be  summoned  to  any  house  that  adopts 
it,  is  a  still  wider  extension  of  Wheatstone's 
scheme.  On  a  smaller  scale,  telegraphic  com 
munications  may  be  kept  up  between  the  re 
mote  quarters  of  a  ship  or  yacht;  the  elec 
tro-magnetic  bell-ringer  maybe  used. for  do 
mestic  purposes,  and  the  burglar  alarm  for  the 
protection  of  private  dwellings.  By  means  of 
Batchelder's  electro-magnetic  tell-tale  clock, 
the  times  are  recorded  when  a  watchman  visits 
the  different  points  of  his  beat.  The  most 
difficult  piece  of  music  may  be  pimched  out 
upon  a  moving  strip  of  paper,  and  then  played 
automatically  by  means  of  electro-magnetism. 
On  the  field  of  battle,  telegraphic  lines  may  be 
quickly  extemporized,  and  an  interchange  of 
reports  and  orders  may  be  maintained  between 
the  outposts  of  an  army  and  headquarters. 
During  the  American  civil  war,  telegraphic 
field  trains  were  in  use.  A  machine  has  been 
invented,  operated  by  keys,  which  enables  a 
reporter  to  secure  a  printed  copy  of  the  very 
words  which  come  from  the  mouth  of  the  ora 
tor.  In  some  countries,  as  in  England,  where 
the  lines  have  been  purchased  by  the  govern 
ment,  the  telegraphs  are  associated  with  the 
postal  service.  For  short  distances  the  pneu 
matic  telegraph  is  used,  the  written  messages 
being  driven  through  underground  pipes  by 
condensed  air.  For  this  purpose  three  engines 
of  50  horse  power  each  are  in  constant  ser 
vice  at  the  central  post  office  in  London. — 
Multiple  Telegraphy.  During  the  last  quar 
ter  of  a  century  various  attempts  have  been 
made  to  contrive  ways  by  which  two  mes 
sages  should  be  sent  at  the  same  time,  in  the 
same  or  in  opposite  directions,  over  a  single 
wire.  Gintl,  Edlung,  Wartmann,  Frischen,  Sie 
mens,  Ilalske,  Duncker,  Starke,  Rouvier,  Zante- 
deschi,  Farmer,  and  Stearns  have  all  experi 
mented  with  this  object,  and  some  of  them  have 
invented  ingenious  instruments.  In  1849  Sie 
mens  and  Halske  took  out  a  patent  in  England 
for  a  method  of  transmitting  simultaneously  a 
plurality  of  messages.  In  ]  855  Starke  devised 
a  method  of  sending  two  messages  at  the  same 
time  upon  the  same  wire.  By  means  of  two 
keys,  and  two  batteries  of  different  intensi 
ties,  two  independent  receiving  magnets  were 
worked  at  the  other  end  of  the  line,  either 
separately  or  together.  In  1854  Siemens  and 
Halske  independently  invented  the  differential 
method  of  sending  two  messages  at  the  same 
time  in  opposite  directions.  About  the  same 
time  Farmer  devised  a  way  of  doing  the  same 
thing,  using  two  auxiliary  batteries  in  combi 
nation  with  two  principal  batteries.  The  es 
sential  conditions  for  successful  duplex  tele- 


TELEKY 


TELEOSAURUS 


621 


graphy  are:  1,  that  neither  key  should  put  in 
action  the  receiving  magnet  at  its  own  end  of 
the  line;  2,  that  in  all  positions  of  the  key 
signals  should  he  sent  through  a  line  of  con 
stant  length  and  capacity.  This  is  done  by 
dividing  the  current  from  the  battery  at  each 
end  of  the ,  line  equally  between  the  line  itself 
and  an  equivalent  resistance  coil  and  condenser, 
and  winding  the  wire  round  the  receiving  mag 
nets  in  such  a  way  that  the  two  parts  of  the 
current  produce  equal  and  opposite  magnet 
ism  in  the  core  of  soft  iron.  The  modifica 
tions  made  by  Stearns  in  the  arrangement  of 
Siemens  and  Gintl  have  obviated  all  the  prac 
tical  difficulties,  and  made  duplex  and  even 
quadruplex  telegraphy  a  success  in  the  United 
States.  By  means  of  Stearns's  invention,  known 
as  the  Franklin,  the  duplex  system  has  gone 
into  effect,  not  only  between  Boston  and  Wash 
ington,  but  also  between  Cape  Breton  and  San 
Francisco,  and  has  been  introduced  into  Eng 
land.  The  quadruplex  system  works  well  be 
tween  Boston  and  New  York.  The  phonetic 
system  of  Gray  and  Bell  (which  is  still  in 
its  infancy)  aims  to  increase  indefinitely  the 
number  of  messages  which  can  be  sent  si 
multaneously  over  a  single  wire,  by  using 
tuning  forks,  moved  by  electro-magnets,  for 
sending  and  receiving  the  signals.  Only  one 
fork  at  the  receiving  station  is  in  unison  with 
a  particular  fork  at  the  sending  station,  and 
responds  to  it.  Experiments  upon  a  similar 
system  were  made  by  Paul  la  Cour  in  Copen 
hagen  on  a  line  of  242  m.  in  1874,  an  account 
of  which  was  presented  to  the  royal  Danish 
academy  of  sciences.  -It  was  thought  that  by 
this  arrangement  not  only  many  messages 
could  be  sent  at  the  same  time  on  a  single 
wire,  but  also  a  message  could  be  received 
only  by  the  station  for  which  it  was  intended. 
— See  Schellen,  Der  electromagnet ische  Tele- 
grapli  (Brunswick,  1850) ;  Moigno,  Traite  de  la 
telegraphie  electrique  (Paris,  18-49);  Ilighton, 
"  The  Electric  Telegraph,  its  History  and  Pro 
gress,"  a  number  of  Weale's  series  (London, 
1852) ;  Jones,  "  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Elec 
tric  Telegraph  "  (New  York,  1852) ;  Turnbull, 
"The  Electro-Magnetic  Telegraph"  (Philadel 
phia,  1853) ;  Schaffner,  "Telegraph  Compan 
ion"  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1854-'5),  and  "The 
Telegraph  Manual"  (1859);  Prescott,  "His 
tory,  Theory,  and  Practice  of  the  Electric 
Telegraph"  (Boston,  1859);  Dumoncel,  Tele 
graphie  electrique  (Paris,  1864);  Field,  "His 
tory  of  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  "  (New  York, 
1866) ;  Griscom,  "The  Telegraph  Cable  "  (Phil 
adelphia,  1867) ;  Sabine",  "  The  Electric  Tele 
graph"  (London,  1867);  Cully,  "Handbook 
of  Practical  Telegraphy '.'  (New  York,  1870) ; 
Goldsrnid,  "Telegraph  and  Travel,  a  Narrative 
of  the  Formation  and  Development  of  Tele 
graphic  Communication  between  England  and 
India"  (London,  1874);  and  Douglas,  "A 
Manual  of  Telegraph  Construction"  (1875). 

TELEKY,  Laszlo,  count,  a  Hungarian  states 
man,  born  in  Pesth,  Feb.  11,  1811,  died  there, 


May  8,  1861.  He  studied  at  Pesth  and  Patak, 
wrote  a  drama,  Kegyencz  ("  Favorite "),  and 
became  a  leading  opposition  member  of  the 
diets  of  Transylvania  and  Hungary.  In  Sep 
tember,  1848,  he  went  as  envoy  of  the  Hunga 
rian  government  to  Paris,  where  he  published 
Le  Ion  droit  de  la  Hongrie  (1849).  After  the 
close  of  the  Hungarian  war  he  resided  mainly 
in  Paris.  During  the  war  of  1859  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Hungarian  national  committee 
in  Italy,  and  in  1860  went  to  Dresden,  where 
he  was  arrested  and  surrendered  to  the  Aus 
trian  government.  Francis  Joseph  restored 
him  to  liberty  on  the  promise  of  severing  his 
connection  with  the  Hungarian  refugees  and 
abstaining  from  political  agitation.  After  a 
few  months,  however,  Teleky  accepted  an  elec 
tion  by  his  former  constituents  to  the  house  of 
representatives.  The  diet  was  opened  April  6, 
1861.  The  debate  on  the  address  to  the  mon 
arch,  prepared  by  Francis  Deak,  was  to  open 
on  May  8,  and  Teleky,  the  leader  of  the  radi 
cals,  who  opposed  any  measure  looking  like  a 
recognition  of  Francis  Joseph  as  king  of  Hun 
gary,  prepared  an  elaborate  discourse  on  the 
situation.  This  was  found  on  his  desk  on  the 
morning  of  the  8th,  and  near  it  on  the  floor  the 
dead  body  of  the  writer,  whom,  as  various  in 
dications  showed,  dissatisfaction  with  his  own 
course  had  led  to  end  his  life  by  a  pistol  shot. 

TELEMACHUS,  a  legendary  Greek  prince,  son 
of  Ulysses  and  Penelope.  When  Ulysses  went 
to  Troy,  Telemachus  was  an  infant.  About 
the  time  for  the  father's  return  the  son  made 
an  unsuccessful  endeavor  to  eject  the  suitors 
for  his  mother's  hand,  and  then  set  out  to 
seek  information  of  his  father.  Accompanied 
by  Minerva,  in  the  guise  of  Mentor,  a  faithful 
friend  of  Ulysses,  he  visited  Pylos  and  Sparta, 
and  was  kindly  received  by  Nestor  and  Mene- 
laus.  Pteturning  home,  he  found  his  father 
with  the  swineherd  Eumseus,  disguised  as  a 
beggar,  and  aided  him  in  slaying  the  suitors. 

TELEOSAIRI'S,  a  genus  of  fossil  crocodilians 
of  the  secondary  epoch  established  by  Geof- 
froy,  differing  from  the  living  crocodiles  in 
having  biconcave  vertebra.  The  general  form 
of  the  cranium  was  that  of  the  gavials ;  the 
nostrils  opened  anteriorly  at  the  end  of  the 
muzzle  and  posteriorly  on  a  level  with  the 
jugal  arch ;  the  lower  jaw  was  spoon-shaped 
at  the  end,  with  teeth  on  the  sides  like  ca 
nines,  the  other  teeth  being  small,  equal,  con 
ical,  and  adapted  for  seizing  a  fish  prey ;  the 
body  was  protected  by  larger  and  more  solid 
plates,  the  anterior  limbs  were  smaller,  and 
the  posterior  more  fin-like  than  in  the  present 
crocodilians.  The  strata  which  enclose  their 
remains  indicate  a  marine  habitat.  The  genus 
has  been  divided  by  modern  paleontologists 
into  several  subgenera,  as  given  by  Pictet.  In 
the  lias  is  found  mystriosaurus  (Kaup),  hav 
ing  a  very  long  muzzle,  flattened  head,  and 
eyes  directed  upward.  The  T.  (M.)  Chapman- 
ni  (Konig),  from  the  upper  lias  of  Yorkshire, 
England,  is  described  in  the  "  Philosophical 


622 


TELESCOPE 


Transactions"  of  1758;  the  vertebrae  were 
64,  10  being  dorsal,  and  the  teeth  about  70  in 
each  jaw  ;  some  of  the  dermal  plates  were  3J 


Teleosaurus  Cadomensis. 

in.  in  their  transverse  diameter;   it  attained 
a  length  of  about  13  ft.     The  name  has  been 
generally  restricted  to  the  species  found  in 
the  oolite,  especially  the   T.  Ca- 
domensis  (fit.  Geoff r.),  or  croco 
dile  of  Caen,  from  the  limestone     A 
of  Normandy.     This  is  character 
ized  by  large  orbits  near  together, 
a  flattened  muzzle  five  times  as 
long  as  wide,  very  long  transverse 
processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae, 
and  thick  rectangular  scales  form 
ing  10  regular  series,  each  containing  15  or  10; 
it  must  have  attained  a  length  of  20  ft. 

TELESCOPE  (G-r.  T?/fa,  far,  and  GKOTTKIV,  to 
view),  an  instrument  for  aiding  the  eye  in 
viewing  distant  .  objects.  The  general  con 
struction  of  the  telescope  is  based  upon  the 
property  possessed  by  a  convex  lens  or  con 
cave  mirror  of  converging  to  a  focus  the  rays 
of  light  falling  upon  it  from  any  object,  and 
of  forming  at  that  focus  an  image  of  the  ob 
ject  itself.  This  image  may  be  rendered  vis 
ible,  as  in  the  camera  obscura,  by  interposing 
at  the  focus  a  white  screen,  a  plate  of  ground 
glass,  or  a  cloud  of  light  smoke  within  which 
the  image  will  appear  suspended'.  But  if  the 
rays  be  allowed  to  proceed  without  interrup 
tion,  and  the  eye  be  placed  in  the  axis  of  the 
lens  or  mirror  and  at  the  proper  distance  from 
the  focus,  the  image  will  be  seen  more  dis 
tinctly  than  before  ;  and  if  the  focus  be  near 
er  to  the  eye  than  to  the  lens,  the  apparent 
dimensions  of  the  image  will  be  greater  than 
the  apparent  dimensions  of  the  object  itself. 
This  is  the  simplest,  though  not  the  common 
form  of  the  telescope.  Usually  a  second  lens, 


of  the  object ;  and  thus  is  constituted  the  or 
dinary  telescope,  which  in  its  elementary  con 
struction  consists  of  an  "object glass"  or  "ob 
ject  mirror,"  of  as  large  dimensions  as  prac 
ticable,  and  an  "eye  lens,"  which  enables  the 
eye  to  receive  the  image  under  the  greatest 
practicable  angle.  In  fig.  1,  M  is  the  object 
glass  and  N"  the  eye  lens.  The  inverted  image 
5  a  of  a  distant  object  A  B  is  formed  between 
the  eye  lens  and  its  principal  focus,  and  the 
eye  lens  then  gives  a  magnified  image  of  it, 
V  a'.  The  object  glass  is  always  necessarily 
convex,  and  the  mirror  concave,  but  the  eye 
glass  may  be  either ;  if  convex,  it  is  placed  at 
the  proper  distance  beyond  the  focus,  and,  the 
rays  having  crossed,  the  image  then  appears 
inverted ;  if  concave,  as  in  the  common  opera 
glass,  it  is  placed  within  the  focus,  and  objects 
appear  in  their  natural  position.  The  magni 
fying  power  of  the  instrument  is  measured  by 
dividing  the  focal  distance  of  the  object  glass 
by  that  of  the  eye  piece  ;  the  illuminating 


FIG.  1. — Astronomical  Telescope. 

of  shorter  focus  than  the  first,  is  introduced 
near  the  image,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  in 
crease  still  further  the  apparent  magnitude 


FIG.  2. — Terrestrial  Telescope. 

power  depends  mainly  on  the  size  of  the  ob 
ject  glass.  In  the  terrestrial  telescope,  com 
monly  called  spy  glass,  the  image  is  produced 
in  its  natural  position.  To  effect  this  two  ad 
ditional  lenses,  O  and  P,  fig.  2,  called  condens 
ing  glasses,  are  introduced  between  the  real 
image  and  the  eye  lens.  The  object  A  B  pro 
duces  an  inverted  and  smaller  image  at  &  a. 
The  lens  O  being  at  the  distance  of  its  princi 
pal  focal  length  from  1)  a,  the  rays  which  fall 
on  P  will  be  parallel,  and  the  image  a'  V  in  the 
principal  focus  of  P  will  be  erect,  as  will  also 
be  the  magnified  image  ar/  1>" . — It  is  believed 
by  many  authorities  that  the  theory  of  both 
the  telescope  and  the  microscope  was  known 
to  Roger  Bacon,  and  the  telescope  is  said  to 
have  been  used  by  Digges  before  the  17th 
century ;  but  the  first  really  definite  accounts 
of  the  invention  date  from  the  latter  part  of 
the  year  1008.  Magnifying  lenses  had  long 
been  known,  and  even  the  compound  micro 
scope  had  been  invented  by  the  Jansens  nearly 
20  years  before  this  date ;  a  discovery  which 
has  somewhat  embarrassed  the  study  of  the 
question  before  us  from  confusion  of  the  by 
no  means  explicit  terms  in  which  both  instru 
ments  are  described.  But  it  is  now  generally 
conceded  that  the  Jionor  of  making  the  first 
telescope  belongs  to  one  of  two  individuals, 
Hans  Lippersheim,  a  spectacle  maker  in  Mid- 
delburg,  and  Jacob  Adriansz,  called  also  Me- 
tius,  a  native  of  Alkmaar.  Lippersheim,  on 
Oct.  22,  1008,  presented  to  his  government 
three  instruments  with  which  "one  could  see 
things  at  a  distance,"  applying  at  the  same 


TENDON 

something  in  their  very  nature  or  use,  or  some 
other  circumstance  of  equivalent  force,  dis 
tinctly  implies  that  they  are  to  be  left  at  some 
other  place.  And  it  may  happen  from  the 
cumbrousness  of  the  articles,  or  other  circum 
stances,  that  it  is  obviously  reasonable  and  just 
for  the  deliverer  to  ascertain  from  the  receiver, 
long  enough  beforehand,  where  they  shall  be 
delivered ;  and  then  he  will  be  held  to  this  as 
a  legal  obligation.  If  the  receiver  refuses  or 
neglects  to  appoint  a  place,  or  purposely  avoids 
receiving  notice  of  a  place,  the  deliverer  may 
appoint  any  place  with  a  reasonable  regard  to 
the  convenience  of  the  other  party,  and  there 
deliver  the  articles.  If  no  expressions  used  by 
the  parties  and  nothing  in  the  nature  of  the 
goods  or  the  circumstances  of  the  case  control 
the  presumption,  then  the  place  where  the 
promise  is  made  is  the  place  wKere  it  should 
be  performed ;  and  no  action  can  be  maintained 
upon  such  a  promise  unless  the  plaintiff  can 
show  a  demand  at  the  proper  place  and  time, 
or  a  readiness  to  receive,  and  notice  equivalent 
to  a  demand,  or  else  that  the  demand  would 
have  been  nugatory  because  the  defendant 
could  not  have  complied  with  it.  If  by  the 
terms  of  the  contract  specific  articles  are  to  be 
delivered  at  a  certain  time  and  place  in  pay 
ment  of  an  existing  debt,  this  contract  is  fully 
discharged  and  the  debt  is  paid  by  a  complete 
and  legal  tender  of  the  articles  at  the  time  and 
place,  although  the  promisee  was  not  there  to 
receive  them  ;  and  no  action  can  be  thereafter 
maintained  on  the  contract.  But  the  property 
in  the  goods  has  passed  to  the  creditor,  and  he 
may  retain  them  as  his  own,  or  take  them  else 
where  ;  or  he  may  demand  them,  and  if  they 
are  refused  bring  an  action  for  them  as  his  own. 
TENDON,  the  fibrous  cord  or  expansion  by 
which  a  muscle  is  connected  with  the  surface 
of  bone.  Tendons  are  composed  of  parallel 
bundles  of  white,  inelastic,  inextensible,  fibrous 
tissue,  the  spaces  between  which  are  occupied 
by  thin  layers  of  loose  areolar  tissue,  with  a 
small  proportion  of  elastic  fibres,  sufficient  to 
allow  a  slight  gliding  motion  of  the  different 
tendinous  bundles  upon  each  other.  As  a 
whole,  however,  the  tendon  is  both  inextensi 
ble  and  inelastic,  and  thus  conveys  at  once  the 
movement  imparted  by  the  muscular  contrac 
tion  to  the  bone  into  which  it  is  inserted.  The 
typical  form  of  a  tendon  is  that  of  a  long,  flex 
ible,  cylindrical  cord,  like  those  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  forearm,  for  the  flexion  of  the 
wrist  and  fingers.  Others  are  more  or  less 
spread  out  into  a  ribbon-like  form,  like  that  of 
the  sterno-mastoid  muscle  at  the  upper  extrem 
ity  of  the  sternum ;  while  others  are  expanded 
into  a  broad  and  thin  sheet  or  aponeurosis, 
like  the  tendinous  expansions  of  the  latissimiis 
dorsi,  or  of  the  muscles  on  the  anterior  part  of 
the  abdomen.  The  long  and  cord-like  tendons 
often  run  in  narrow  grooves  of  bone,  in  which 
they  are  confined  by  fibrous  sheets  passing 
over  them  from  edge  to  edge.  Their  move 
ment  is  sometimes  facilitated  by  the  existence 
781  VOL.  xv.— 41 


TENERANI 


639 


of  closed  sacs  or  fiursce,  situated  between  them 
and  the  bony  surfaces  over  which  they  pass, 
and  filled  with  a  glairy  lubricating  fluid.  Some 
times,  as  in  the  case  of  the  tendon  of  the 
superior  oblique  muscle  of  the  eyeball,  they 
pass  through  a  pulley-like  loop  or  fibrous  ring, 
and  then  return  in  an  oblique  direction  to  be 
inserted  somewhere  between  the  loop  and  their 
point  of  origin.  Sometimes  they  have  devel 
oped  within  them  at  certain  points,  where 
crossing  articulations,  small  bones  termed  "sea- 
am  old  bones,"  the  inner  surface  of  which  takes 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  joint.  The  patel 
la,  or  knee  pan,  is  regarded  as  an  unusually 
large  sesamoid  bone,  developed  in  the  tendon 
of  the  great  extensor  muscle  on  the  front  part 
of  the  thigh. — Owing  to  their  strong  fibrous 
texture  and  inextensible  quality,  the  tendons, 
when  contracted  or  bound  down  by  unnatural 
adhesions,  are  liable  to  produce  or  perpetuate 
deformities,  particularly  in  the  neck  and  the 
extremities.  They  require,  under  these  cir 
cumstances,  to  be  divided  by  a  subcutaneous 
incision,  releasing  the  contracted  parts  without 
bringing  the  air  into  contact  with  the  wound 
ed  surface.  This  practice,  known  as  "tenot- 
omy,"  is  largely  resorted  to  in  cases  of  wry 
neck,  club  foot,  and  many  similar  deformities. 

TENEDOS  (in  earliest  antiquity  Calydna,  Leu- 
cophrys,  P7icenice,  and  Lyrnessus),  a  small  isl 
and,  about  10  m.  in  circumference,  in  the 
Grecian  archipelago,  now  belonging  to  Tur 
key,  13  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Hellespont, 
and  4  m.  W.  of  the  coast  of  the  Troad ;  pop. 
about  7,000,  two  thirds  Greeks.  The  interior 
is  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  producing  corn, 
cotton,  fruits,  and  excellent  wine.  The  small 
town  of  Tenedos,  on  the  E.  coast,  has  a  good 
port  and  is  defended  by  two  forts ;  the  Greek 
quarter  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  fire 
in  July,  1874.— In  the  legend  of  the  Trojan 
war  the  island  is  mentioned  as  the  place  to 
which  the  Greeks  withdrew  their  fleet,  in  or 
der  to  make  the  Trojans  think  that  they  had 
departed,  after  leaving  the  wooden  horse  be 
fore  Troy;  and  it  was  employed  in  the  Per 
sian  war  by  Xerxes  as  a  naval  station.  Subse 
quently,  on  several  occasions,  as  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian,  Macedonian,  and  Mithridatic  wars, 
it  figured  conspicuously  as  a  stronghold ;  and 
in  the  middle  ages  the  Turks  and  Venetians 
long  contested  its  possession. 

TENERANI,  Pietro,  an  Italian  sculptor,  born  at 
Torano,  near  Carrara,  Nov.  11,  1789,  died  in 
Rome,  Dec.  14,  1869.  He  studied  after  1814 
in  Rome  under  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen,  and 
became  professor  and  finally  president  of  the 
academy  of  St.  Luke,  and  in  1860  chief  direc 
tor  of  museums.  He  excelled  in  religious  and 
classical  works,  some  of  which  are  regarded  as 
superior  to  the  later  productions  of  Canova, 
and  became  the  head  of  a  school  distinguished 
for  a  careful  elaboration  of  details  and  for 
graceful  execution.  His  best  known  works 
include  "  Christ  on  the  Cross,"  in  silver,  in  St. 
Stephen's  at  Pisa;  "The  Descent  from  the 


640 


TE1STERIFFE 


Queen  Victoria;  portrait  busts  of  Thorwald- 
sen  and  Pius  IX. ;  and  many  statues,  including 
one  of  Bolivar.  His  last  important  work  is 
the  sarcophagus  of  Pius  VIII.  for  St.  Peter's. 

TEXERIFFE  (Sp.  Tenerifa),  one  of  the  largest 
islands  of  the  Canary  group,  about  150  m.  N. 
W.  of  Cape  Bojador,  Africa.  It  is  of  triangu 
lar  form,  the  N.  and  S.  E.  sides  about  60  m. 
long,  and  the  "W.  side  24  m. ;  area,  about  800 
sq.  in.;  pop.  about  95,000.  The  coasts  are 
steep,  high,  and  broken  by  deep  fissures ;  there 
are  very  few  sand  beaches,  and  no  port  acces 
sible  to  large  vessels  which  is  secure  in  all 
weathers;  but  Santa  Cruz,  the  capital  of  the 
island  and  of  the  Canaries  (pop.  about  11,000), 
has  a  good  harbor.  The  island  is  volcanic. 
A  lofty  ridge  traverses  it  centrally,  and  cul 
minates  near  the  W.  side  in  the  celebrated 
peak  of  Teneriffe  or  Teyde,  12,182  ft.  above 
the  sea.  This  consists  of  an  enormous  dome 
of  trachyte  covered  with  layers  of  basalt, 
rising  from  a  plateau  7,500  ft.  high.  The 
peak  itself  rises  about  2,350  ft.  above  the  last 
narrow  plain ;  its  sides  are  very  steep  and 
difficult  of  ascent,  and  the  summit  is  a  narrow 
wall  enclosing  a  crater  about  a  mile  in  diame 
ter  with  an  average  depth  of  106  ft.  The 
eruptions  from  this  crater  ceased  long  before 
the  island  was  discovered  by  Europeans ;  but 
there  have  been  recent  eruptions  from  other 
craters,  notably  in  1704,  '5,  and  '6,  and  1798, 
the  most  recent.  Hot  vapors  arise  from  the 
craters,  and  their  surfaces  are  always  warm. 
The  next  highest  elevations  are  Chahora,  9,885 
ft.,  2J-  m.  S.  W.,  and  Azulejos,  9,400  ft.,  3£  m. 
S.  of  Teyde.  About  one  seventh  of  the  island 
is  fit  f (^cultivation  ;  the  most  fertile  districts 
are  at  the  E.  end,  the  best  being  the  plain  of 
Laguna,  about  12  sq.  m.  in  extent,  from  which 
large  crops  of  grain  are  obtained.  The  princi 
pal  productions  are  cochineal,  nuts,  wine,  and 
fruit ;  the  first  named  is  the  only  one  of  im 
portance  in  commerce.  In  1873  there  was 
exported  2,476,433  Ibs.  of  cochineal,  valued  at 
$1,225,289  in  gold.  The  total  value  of  all 
other  exports  during  the  same  year  was  $295,- 
060 ;  of  all  imports,  $1,988,045,  including  3,390 
tons  of  coal.  The  value  of  exports  to  the  Uni 
ted  States  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1874, 
was  $30,000.  The  commerce  of  the  island 
is  nearly  all  conducted  through  Santa  Cruz. 
The  only  other  important  town  is  Laguna,  in 
the  plain  of  that  name,  with  a  fixed  population 
of  about  10,000,  largely  increased  in  the  hot 
season.  Orotava,  on  the  N.  coast,  gives  its 
name  to  a  beautiful  valley,  formerly  famous 
for  its  gigantic  dragon  tree,  which  was  blown 
down  by  a  hurricane  at  the  beginning  of  1868. 

TENIERS.  I.  David,  called  the  elder,  a  Flem 
ish  painter,  born  in  Antwerp  in  1582,  died 
there  in  1649.  He  was  educated  in  the  school 
of  Rubens,  subsequently  studied  in  Italy,  and 
after  his  return  to  Antwerp  devoted  himself 


TENNEMANN 

exclusively  to  cabinet  pictures.  His  favorite 
subjects  were  rural  sports  and  merrymakings, 
alehouse  interiors,  chemists'  laboratories,  and 
grotesque  subjects,  such  as  the  temptation  of 
St.  Anthony.  He  was  greatly  distinguished 
as  a  colorist,  and  his  pictures  commanded  du 
ring  his  lifetime  large  prices.  II.  David,  the 
younger,  born  in  Antwerp  in  1610,  died  in 
Brussels,  Feb.  11,  1685.  He  early  displayed 
a  genius  far  superior  to  that  of  his  father  in 
the  same  specialty  of  painting,  and  found  a 
patron  in  the  Austrian  archduke  Leopold  at 
Brussels,  governor  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands, 
who  appointed  him  gentleman  of  his  bed 
chamber  and  his  principal  painter.  The  king 
of  Spain  appropriated  a  special  gallery  to  his 
works,  and  he  had  hardly  time  to  meet  the 
fast  increasing  demand  for  them.  He  became 
director  of  the  academy  of  Antwerp  in  1644, 
but  spent  most  of  his  life  in  the  country  near 
Mechlin,  in  order  to  familiarize  himself  with 
the  life  of  the  peasantry.  His  extraordinary 
facility  in  imitating  the  paintings  in  the  arch 
duke's  gallery  caused  him  to  be  called  the  Pro 
teus  of  his  art,  and  he  was  not  less  remark 
able  for  his  rapid,  faithful,  and  elaborate  execu 
tion.  His  charming  delineations  of  the  haunts 
and  amusements  of  the  toiling  classes  made 
him  the  most  popular  of  all  Flemish  painters. 
He  produced  more  than  1,000  pictures,  inclu 
ding  some  of  stupendous  size.  Among  those 
best  known  are  "  The  Village  Wedding,"  "  The 
Prodigal  Son,"  "Heron  Shooting,"  "The  Bag 
pipe  Player,"  and  others  in  the  Louvre,  and 
"A  Music  Party,"  "Boors  Regaling,"  "The 
Misers,"  and  "  Players  at  Trictrac,"  in  the 
national  gallery  of  London. 

TEMMT,  William,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  at 
Easter  Anstruther,  Fifeshire,  in  1785,  died 
near  Dollar,  Feb.  15,  1848.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  St.  Andrews.  At  an  early 
age  he  lost  the  use  of  his  feet,  and  in  1801 
became  clerk  to  his  brother,  a  corn  factor  of 
Glasgow.  Returning  to  Anstruther,  he  pub 
lished  in  1812  "Anster  Fair,"  in  the  ottava 
rima,  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
In  1813  he  became  parish  schoolmaster  of  Du- 
nino,  and  there  mastered  the  Arabic,  Syriac, 
and  Persian  languages.  He  afterward  taught 
at  Lasswade  and  at  Dollar  academy,  and  in 
1835  was  made  professor  of  oriental  languages 
in  St.  Mary's  college,  St.  Andrews,  and  com 
piled  Syriac  and  Chaldaic  grammars.  He  pub 
lished  "  The  Thane  of  Fife  "  (1822) ;  "  Cardi 
nal  Beaton,"  a  tragedy  (1823) ;  "John  Balliol," 
a  drama  (1825);  "The  Dinging  Down  of  the 
Cathedral "  (of  St.  Andrews) ;  "Hebrew Dramas 
founded  on  Bible  History  "  (1845) ;  and  a  "  Life 
of  Allan  Ramsay"  (New  York,  1852). 

TEMEMAM,  Wilhelm  Gottlieb,  a  German  his 
torian  of  philosophy,  born  at  Brembach,  near 
Erfurt,  Dec.  7,  1761,  died  in  Marburg,  Sept. 
30,  1819.  Abandoning  theology  for  philoso 
phy,  he  completed  his  studies  at  Jena,  and 
was  professor  there  from  1798  to  1804,  and 
subsequently  at  Marburg.  After  opposing  the 


TENNENT 


TENNESSEE 


641 


Kantian  system  he  became  one  of  its  first  ad 
herents.  His  most  important  work  is  the 
Geschichte  der  Philosophic  (11  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1798-1819),  in  which  all  systems  are  regarded 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  critical  school.  An 
abridgment,  Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  Phi 
losophic  (Leipsic,  1812;  5th  ed.,  1828),  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Arthur  John 
son  (Oxford,  1832;  revised  by  J.  D.  Morell, 
London,  1852).  His  other  works  include  Sys 
tem  der  Platonischen  Philosophic  (4  vols.,  Leip 
sic,  1792-'4),  and  translations  into  German 
from  Locke,  Hume,  and  De  Gerando. 

TENNENT,  Sir  James  Emerson,  a  British  au 
thor,  born  in  Belfast,  April  7,  1804,  died  in 
London,  March  6,  1869.  His  name  was  ori 
ginally  Emerson,  Tennent  being  added  on  the 
succession  of  his  wife  to  the  estate  of  her 
father,  William  Tennent.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1831,  but  never  prac 
tised.  Under  the  name  of  Emerson  he  pub 
lished  "Travels  in  Greece"  (1825) ;  "Letters 
from  the  ^Egean  "  (2  vols.,  1829);  and  "His 
tory  of  Modern  Greece  "  (2  vols.,  1830-'45). 
In  1832  he  was  elected  to  parliament  for  Bel 
fast,  and, represented  that  city  most  of  the 
time  till  1845.  From  1841  to  1845  he  was 
secretary  to  the  India  board ;  in  1845  he  was 
appointed  civil  secretary  to  the  colonial  gov 
ernment  of  Ceylon,  and  knighted.  He  re 
turned  in  1850,  and  in  1852  was  member  of 
parliament  for  Lisburn,  and  for  a  few  months 
of  that  year  secretary  of  the  poor-law  board. 
In  November,  1852,  he  became  one  of  the  joint 
secretaries  of  the  board  of  trade,  and  on  his 
retirement  in  February,  1867,  he  was  created 
a  baronet.  His  works  include  "Belgium"  (2 
vols.,  1841);  "A  Treatise  on  the  Copyright 
of  Designs  for  Printed  Fabrics,  &c."  (1841) ; 
"Christianity  in  Ceylon,  with  an  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Brahminical  and  Buddhist  Su 
perstitions"  (1850);  "Wine,  its  Use  and  Tax 
ation"  (1855);  "Account  of  Ceylon"  (2  vols., 
(1859  ;  5th  ed.,  enlarged,  1860);  "Sketches  of 
the  Natural  History  of  Ceylon"  (1861)  ;  "The 
Story  of  the  Guns"  (1864);  and  "The  Wild 
Elephant,  and  the  Mode  of  capturing  and  ta 
ming  him  in  Ceylon"  (1867). 

TENNESSEE,  one  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  American  Union,  the  third  admitted  under 
the  federal  constitution,  situated  between  lat. 
35°  and  36°  35'  N.,  and  Ion.  81°  37'  and  90° 
15'  W. ;  greatest  length  from  E.  to  W.  432  m., 
breadth  109  m. ;  area,  45,600  sq.  m.  according 
to  the  federal  census,  or  42,000  as  reported  by 
the  state  authorities.  Its  shape  is  rhomboi- 
dal,  its  E.  and  W.  sides  sloping  at  consider 
able,  though  not  equal  angles.  It  is  bounded 
N.  by  Kentucky  and  Virginia,  S.  E.  by  North 
Carolina,  S.  by  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Missis 
sippi,  and  W.  by  Arkansas  and  Missouri,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mississippi  river. 
The  state  is  divided'  into  94  counties,  viz. : 
Anderson,  Bedford,  Benton,  Bledsoe,  Blount, 
Bradley,  Campbell,  Cannon,  Carroll,  Carter, 


Cheatham,  Claiborne,  Clay,  Cocke,  Coffee, 
Crockett,  Cumberland,  Davidson,  Decatur,  De 
Kalb,  Dickson,  Dyer,  Fayette,  Fentress,  Frank 
lin,  Gibson,  Giles,  Grainger,  Greene,  Grundy, 
Hamblen,  Hamilton,  Hancock,  Hardin,  Haw 
kins,  Hardeman,  Hay  wood,  Henderson,  Hen 
ry,  Hickman,  Houston,  Humphreys,  Jackson, 
James,  Jefferson,  Johnson,  Knox,  Lake,  Lau- 
derdale,  Lawrence,  Lewis,  Lincoln,  London, 
McMinn,  McNairy,  Macon,  Madison,  Marion, 
Marshall,  Maury,  Meigs,  Monroe,  Montgomery, 
Moore,  Morgan,  Obion,  Overton,  Perry,  Polk, 
Putnam,  Rhea,  Roane,  Robertson,  Rutherford, 
Scott,  Sequatchie,  Sevier,  Shelby,  Smith,  Stew 
art,  Sullivan,  Sumner,  Tipton,  Trousdale,  Uni- 
coi,  Union,  Van  Buren,  Warren,  Washington, 
Wayne,  Weakley,  Wliite,  Williamson,  and  Wil 
son.  The  chief  cities  and  towns  are :  Nash 
ville,  the  capital,  which  in  1870  had  25,865  in 
habitants  ;  Brownsville,  2,457 ;  Chattanooga, 
6,093;  Clarksville,  3,200;  Columbia,  2,550; 
Gallatin,  2,123;  Jackson,  4,119;  Knoxville, 
8,682  ;  Lebanon,  2,073  ;  Memphis,  40,226  ; 


State  Seal  of  Tennessee. 


Murfreesboro,  3,502 ;  and  Pulaski,  2,070.  The 
population  of  the  state  and  its  rank  in  the 
Union  at  decennial  periods,  according  to  the 
federal  census,  have  been  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

White>.           Slaves.       Free  colored.    Aggregate.     Rank. 

1790... 

31,013 

3,417 

861 

35,691 

17 

1800.... 

91,709 

13,584 

809 

105,602 

15 

1810.... 

215.875 

44,535 

1,317 

261.727 

10 

1820.... 

339,927 

80.107 

2.737 

422,771 

9 

1830.... 

535,746 

141,608 

4.555 

681,904 

7 

1840.... 

G40.627 

183,059 

5.524 

829.210 

5 

1850.... 

750.836 

239,459 

6.422 

1,002.717 

5 

I860.... 

826.722 

275,719 

7,300 

1.109,801 

10 

1870.  .  .  . 

936,119 



322,831 

1,258,520 

9 

Included  in  the  aggregate  of  1860  are  60  In 
dians,  and  70  in  that  of  1870.  Of  the  total 
population  in  1870,  623,347  were  males  and 
635,173  females;  1,239,204  were  of  native 
and  19,316  of  foreign  birth.  Of  the  natives, 
1,027,653  were  bom  in  the  state,  20,217  in 
Alabama,  18,021  in  Georgia,  19,867  in  Ken 
tucky,  15,451  in  Mississippi,  51,110  in  North 
Carolina,  4,420  in  Ohio,  4,074  in  Pennsylvania, 


642 


TENNESSEE 


13,854  in  South  Carolina,  and  43,387  in  Vir 
ginia  and  West  Virginia.  Of  the  foreigners, 
4,539  were  born  in  Germany,  2,085  in  Eng 
land,  and  8,048  in  Ireland.  The  density  of 
population  according  to  the  federal  census 
was  27'6  persons  to  a  square  mile.  There 
were  231,365  families,  with  an  average  of  5'44 
persons  to  each,  and  224,816  dwellings,  with 
an  average  of  5*6  to  each.  The  increase  of 
population  from  1860  to  1870  was  13*4  per 
cent.  There  were  429,592  persons  from  5  to 
18  years  of  age,  222,903  males  from  18  to  45, 
and  259,016  male  citizens  21  years  old  and 
upward.  There  were  290,549  persons  10  years 
of  age  and  upward  who  could  not  read,  and 
364,697  unable  to  write;  of  the  latter,  178,725 
were  white  and  185,952  colored,  163,206  males 
and  201,473  females;  225,724  were  21  years 
old  and  over.  The  number  of  paupers  sup 
ported  during  the  year  ending  June  1,  1870, 
was  1,349,  at  a  cost  of  $99,811.  Of  the  1,332 
receiving  support  at  that  date,  314  were  col 
ored.  The  number  of  persons  convicted  of 
crime  during  the  year  was  722.  Of  the  981 
in  prison  June  1,  1870,  560  were  colored.  The 
state  contained  876  blind,  570  deaf  and  dumb, 
925  insane,  and  1,091  idiotic.  Of  the  total 
population  10  years  old  and  over  (890,872), 
there  were  engaged  in  all  occupations,  367,- 
987;  in  agriculture,  267,020,  of  whom  136,925 
were  laborers  and  129,550  farmers  and  plant 
ers  ;  in  professional  and  personal  services,  54,- 
396,  including  1,256  clergymen,  24,563  do 
mestic  servants,  16,780  laborers  not  specified, 
1,126  lawyers,  2,220  physicians  and  surgeons, 
and  2,250  teachers  not  specified ;  in  trade  and 
transportation,  17,510 ;  in  manufactures  and 
mechanical  and  mining  industries,  29,061.  The 
total  number  of  deaths  from  all  causes  was 
14,239,  being  1-13  per  cent,  of  the  entire  pop 
ulation  ;  from  consumption,  2,377,  there  be 
ing  6  deaths  from  all  causes  to  1  from  this 
disease;  from  pneumonia,  1,298,  or  11  deaths 
from  all  causes  to  1  from  this  disease.  There 
were  652  deaths  from  croup,  571  from  inter 
mittent  and  remittent  fevers,  729  from  cere- 
bro-spinal,  enteric,  and  typhus  fevers,  and  750 
from  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  enteritis. — The 
state  presents  eight  great  topographical  divi 
sions.  On  its  E.  border  the  Unaka,  Smoky, 
Bald,  and  other  mountains,  belonging  to  the 
Appalachian  chain,  have  an  average  elevation 
of  5,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  an  area  (ac 
cording  to  state  measurements)  of  2,000  sq. 
m.  Between  these  mountains  and  the  Cum 
berland  table  land  on  the  west  the  valley 
of  East  Tennessee  comprises  a  succession  of 
ridges  and  minor  valleys  running  in  almost 
unbroken  lines  from  K  E.  to  S.  W.  The  av 
erage  elevation  of  this  valley  is  1,000  ft.,  and 
its  area  9,200  sq.  m.  The  Cumberland  table 
land  rises  about  1,000  ft.  above  the  valley  of 
East  Tennessee,  and  has  an  area  of  5,100  sq.  m. 
Its  E.  side  forms  an  almost  continuous  N.  E. 
line,  and  presents  an  abrupt,  rocky  rampart. 
The  W.  edge  is  irregular  and  jagged,  with  deep 


coves  and  valleys.  Next  on  the  west,  with  an 
average  elevation  of  1,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and 
an  area  of  9,300  sq.  m.,  are  the  highlands,  rim 
lands,  or  terrace  lands,  which  extend  to  the 
Tennessee  river.  This  division  is  for  the  most 
part  a  plain,  traversed  by  numerous  ravines 
and  streams.  In  the  centre  of  these  highlands 
is  the  great  central  basin,  elliptical  and  resem 
bling  the  bed  of  a  drained  lake ;  its  average  de 
pression  is  about  300  ft.  below  the  highlands, 
and  it  has  an  area  of  5,450  sq.  m.  This  whole 
basin,  with  the  surrounding  highlands,  is  slight 
ly  inclined  toward  the  northwest.  The  next 
natural  division  on  the  west  is  the  western 
valley,  or  valley  of  the  Tennessee,  10  or  12  m. 
wide,  with  an  elevation  of  350  ft.  above  the 
sea  and  an  area  of  1,200  sq.  m.  The  surface  is 
broken  and  irregular,  various  subordinate  val 
leys  extending  from  20  to  25  m.  into  the  high 
lands.  The  plateau  or  slope  of  West  Tennessee, 
which  constitutes  the  seventh  grand  division, 
is  a  great,  gently  undulating  plain,  which  slopes 
toward  the  Mississippi.  It  has  few  rocks,  is  fur 
rowed  with  river  valleys,  and  extends  westward 
for  an  average  distance  of  about  84  m.,  when 
it  abruptly  terminates  in  a  long  and  steep  bluff 
or  escarpment  that  overlooks  the  great  alluvial 
bottoms  of  the  Mississippi.  It  has  an  area  of 
about  8,850  sq.  m.,  with  an  average  elevation 
of  500  ft.  The  extreme  western  natural  divi 
sion  comprises  the  bottoms  of  the  Mississippi, 
a  low,  flat,  alluvial  plain,  having  an  area  of  900 
sq.  m.  and  an  average  elevation  of  about  300 
ft.  It  is  covered  with  forests,  and  has  numerous 
lakes  and  morasses.  The  state  is  also  popularly 
divided  into  East,  Middle,  and  West  Tennessee  ; 
the  first  extending  from  the  North  Carolina 
border  to  about  the  middle  of  the  Cumberland 
table  land,  the  second  from  this  line  to  the 
Tennessee  river,  and  the  third  from  the  Ten 
nessee  to  the  Mississippi. — The  rivers  of  Ten 
nessee  afford  extensive  commercial  facilities 
and  abundant  water  power.  The  most  impor 
tant  are  the  Mississippi,  which  forms  the  W. 
border,  and  the  Tennessee  and  the  Cumber 
land,  which  with  their  tributaries  drain  more 
than  three  fourths  of  the  state.  The  chief 
tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  are  the  Forked 
Deer  and  its  branches  (Obion  river  and  South 
Forked  Deer),  the  Big  Hatchie,  and  Wolf  river. 
The  Forked  Deer  is  navigable  for  steamboats 
to  Dyersburg,  and  the  Big  Hatchie  for  several 
miles.  (See  CUMBERLAND  RIVER,  and  TENNES 
SEE  RIVER.) — Geologically  the  state  is  divided 
into  five  districts  or  cross  belts  running  from 
N.  E.  to  S.  W.  The  first,  comprising  the  in 
terval  between  the  Mississippi  and  Tennessee 
rivers,  is  occupied  (in  an  order  from  W.  to  E.) 
by  the  alluvial,  tertiary,  and  cretaceous  forma 
tions  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  The  second,  from  the  Tennessee 
river  to  the  W.  foot  of  the  Cumberland  moun 
tains,  is  a  rolling  country  of  nearly  horizontal 
palaeozoic  rocks,  with  a  great  basin-like  dis 
trict  of  lower  Silurian  ground  in  the  centre, 
watered  by  the  Cumberland,  Stone's,  Duck,  and 


TENNESSEE 


643 


Elk  rivers,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  sub- 
carboniferous  hills.  The  third  is  the  moun 
tain  division  of  the  coal;  a  plateau  2,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  40  m.  wide  by  140  m.  long, 
bounded  E.  by  the  valleys  of  the  upper  Ten 
nessee  and  Holston  rivers,  and  covered  with  a 
plate  of  carboniferous  rocks,  which  is  thinned 
and  broken  up  into  patches  and  mounds  as 
it  approaches  the  Alabama  state  line.  The 
fourth  district  is  the  great  valley  of  Knoxville 
or  East  Tennessee.  It  is  a  prolongation  of  the 
great  valley  of  Virginia,  the  valley  of  the  She- 
nandoah,  and  that  of  Harrisburg  and  Reading, 
Pa.  Its  rocks  are  mainly  of  Silurian  age,  up 
turned  and  broken  by  enormous  faults,  which 
bring  them  against  the  coal.  On  its  E.  side 
rise  the  Unaka  mountains  and  their  continua 
tions,  forming  a  fifth  district,  the  true  prolon 
gation  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  South  mountain 
range,  extending  laterally  into  North  Carolina, 
and  composed  of  rocks  of  the  lower  periods 
of  the  Silurian  age,  the  equivalents  of  the 
slate  rock,  gneiss,  and  marble  of  western  Mas 
sachusetts  and  Vermont,  and  partly  of  "cal- 
ciferous  sand  rock  "  ^ge.  The  most  abundant 
and  valuable  minerals  of  Tennessee  are  coal, 
iron,  and  copper.  The  state  is  crossed  by  the 
great  Alleghany  coal  field,  which  extends  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Alabama.  In  Tennessee  it  is 
nearly  coextensive  with  the  Cumberland  table 
laud,  and  forms  an  irregular  quadrilateral  11 
m.  wide  at  the  N.  end  and  50  m.  at  the  S.  It 
covers  about  5,100  sq.  m.  The  amount  of  coal 
has  been  estimated  at  42,127,360,000  tons. 
The  production  of  the  state  in  1870,  according 
to  the  federal  census,  was  3,335,450  bushels, 
valued  at  $330,498.  In  1874  there  were  12 
mines  in  operation,  producing  about  10,000,- 
000  bushels  annually.  Iron  exists  in  four  dis 
tinct  belts  or  areas.  The  eastern  belt  stretch 
es  across  the  E.  part  of  the  state,  at  the  base 
of  the  border  range  of  mountains,  extending 
into  Virginia  on  the  northeast  and  Georgia  on 
the  southeast.  The  most  abundant  ore  in  this 
belt  is  the  limonite,  which  occurs  in  Johnson, 
Sevier,  Carter,  and  Blunt  cos.  There  are  also 
veins  of  magnetite  and  hematite  ore,  which 
will  yield  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  metallic 
ores.  There  are  five  furnaces  in  this  region, 
capable  of  producing  about  15,000  tons  annu 
ally  ;  but  owing  to  the  lack  of  railroad  facili 
ties  the  amount  produced  does  not  exceed  10,- 
000  tons.  Iron  ore  containing  oxide  of  man 
ganese  is  abundant  in  Greene  co.,  from  which 
spiegeleisen  is  made.  The  dyestone  belt  skirts 
the  E.  base  of  .the  Cumberland  table  land, 
extending  beyond  the  limits  of  the  state  on 
the  northeast  and  southeast.  In  Tennessee  it 
reaches  from  Chattanooga  to  Cumberland  gap, 
about  150  m. ;  it  spreads  out  laterally  from  10 
to  20  m.  into  the  valley  of  East  Tennessee,  and 
includes  the  Sequatchie  and  Elk  valleys.  The 
chief  ore  of  this  belt  is  a  stratified  red  iron 
rock,  highly  fossiliferous,  occurring  in  layers, 
and  called  at  many  points  dyestone,  being 
sometimes  used  for  dyeing.  The  ore  is  a  va 


riety  of  hematite,  and  yields  from  50  to  60  per 
cent,  of  iron.  There  are  four  furnaces  in  this 
region.  The  Cumberland  table-land  belt  of 
iron  ore  is  coextensive  with  the  coal  field. 
The  ore  lies  interstratified  with  shale,  sand 
stone,  and  coal.  It  is  called  clay  ironstone, 
and  is  an  argillaceous  carbonate  of  iron.  It  is 
inferior  in  quality,  producing  rarely  more  than 
30  per  cent.,  and  usually  not  more  than  20 
per  cent,  of  iron,  and  has  not  been  worked. 
The  western  iron  belt  crosses  the  state  N.  and 
S.,  and  lies  mainly  between  the  central  basin 
and  the  Tennessee  river,  though  extending  in 
some  counties  a  few  miles  W.  of  the  river.  It 
is  about  50  m.  wide,  and  embraces  an  area 
of  about  5,400  sq.  m.  But  the  ore  is  found 
in  available  quantities  only  at  certain  points 
called  "banks,"  some  of  which  are  miles  in 
extent,  while  others  occupy  only  a  few  acres. 
Some  of  these  banks  have  been  worked  for 
80  years  with  no  signs  of  exhaustion.  The  ore 
is  a  limonite  or  brown  hematite,  some  of  it 
being  inferior  in  quality ;  in  other  places  the 
yield  of  iron  is  from  40  to  55  per  cent.  There 
are  11  furnaces  in  this  region,  with  a  monthly 
capacity  of  about  4,230  tons.  Tennessee  has 
decided  advantages  for  making  iron,  in  the 
abundance,  cheapness,  and  contiguity  of  ore 
and  of  fuel ;  the  disadvantages  are  distance 
from  market  and  want  of  transportation  fa 
cilities.  Valuable  deposits  of  copper  are  found 
in  Polk  co.  in  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  state, 
covering  an  area  of  40  sq.  m.  The  ore  is 
smelted  by  two  extensive  companies  at  Duck- 
town,  having  25  furnaces  and  employing  about 
900  hands.  From  1865  to  1874  the  larger  of 
these  companies  produced  8,476,872  Ibs.  of  in 
got  copper.  Tennessee  is  rich  in  marble,  which 
is  found  in  every  part  of  the  state,  the  va 
rieties  including  black,  gray,  magnesian,  fawn- 
colored,  white,  red,  variegated,  conglomerate, 
and  breccia.  Many  quarries  are  worked.  Lime 
stone  and  other  building  stone  abound  in  vari 
ous  parts  of  the  state.  Slate  is  common,  but 
little  of  it  is  valuable.  Several  beds  of  mill 
stone  have  been  found,  the  most  notewor 
thy  being  in  Claiborne  co.  Hydraulic  rocks 
abound  in  many  counties,  especially  in  Hardin, 
Wayne,  Perry,  Decatur,  Warren,  and  Mont 
gomery,  and  in  Knox  and  McMinn  cos.  in  East 
Tennessee.  Lithographic  stone  of  an  excellent 
quality  occurs  in  McMinn  co.  Granite  of  vari 
ous  shades  of  color,  some  of  it  rivalling  the 
Scotch  granite,  is  found  in  Carter  co. ;  and 
unakite,  a  greenish  compact  granite,  in  the 
Unaka  mountains,  being  peculiar  to  that  lo 
cality.  Deposits  of  potter's  clay  are  found  in 
East  Tennessee,  on  the  Knoxville  and  Ohio  rail 
road,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lower  Tennessee 
river,  in  the  counties  of  Hickman,  Henry,  Perry, 
and  Wayne ;  also  in  Montgomery  and  Houston 
cos.  Some  of  this  clay  has  been  worked  up 
into  stone  ware.  There  are  numerous  potter 
ies,  the  largest  being  in  Memphis,  Nashville,  and 
Knoxville.  Kaolin  is  found  in  Carter  co.  Fire 
clay  is  found  in  Stewart  and  Houston  cos. 


TENNESSEE 


and  on  the  Cumberland  river.  It  also  exists 
in  the  coal  measures  immediately  underlying  a 
seam  of  coal.  Lead  occurs  in  various  places  in 
East  and  Middle  Tennessee.  Mines  have  been 
worked  in  Washington,  Monroe,  and  Bradley 
cos. ;  one  of  the  most  promising  is  the  Caldwell 
mine  on  Powell's  river  in  Union  co.  This  vein, 
which  fills  a  nearly  vertical  fissure,  about  20  in. 
wide,  in  nearly  horizontal  rocks,  can  be  traced 
about  a  mile.  The  two  ores  of  zinc,  smith- 
son  ite  and  calamine,  occur  in  considerable  de 
posits  in  various  localities,  especially  in  Clai- 
borne,  Union,  and  Jefferson  cos. ;  they  are  in 
greatest  abundance  in  Union  co.  The  Stiner 
belt,  near  Powell's  river,  is  50  or  60  ft.  wide, 
and  is  marked  by  the  absence  of  trees.  The 
lead  and  zinc  ores  are  often  associated.  Black 
oxide  of  manganese  is  found  in  small  masses, 
associated  with  iron,  all  over  the  state.  Iron 
pyrites  also  exists  everywhere  in  the  state ;  a 
large  quantity  is  found  associated  with  the  cop 
per  at  Ducktown.  Largo  beds  also  occur  near 
Greeneville  in  Greene  co.,  and  in  Moore,  Car 
ter,  and  Perry  cos.  Heavy  spar  or  baryta,  used 
for  cheap  paints,  is  found  in  Middle  and  East 
Tennessee ;  it  is  mined  in  Greene,  Washing 
ton,  Jefferson,  and  some  other  counties.  It  is 
usually  associated  with  lead,  constituting  the 
gangue  of  that  mineral.  Asbestus  exists  in 
large  quantities  in  Cocke  co.  Copperas  is 
abundant,  and  specimens  of  gypsum  have  been 
found.  Salt  was  formerly  made  in  the  state, 
but  its  manufacture  has  been  discontinued. 
Saltpetre  abounds  in  numerous  caves  through 
out  Middle  and  East  Tennessee.  Petroleum 
has  been  found  at  various  points,  and  10,000 
barrels  of  it  has  been  obtained  from  the  wells 
near  Spring  creek  in  Overton  co. ;  but  the 
production  has  not  been  found  profitable.  Ex 
tensive  beds  of  lignite  are  found  in  many  of 
the  counties  of  West  Tennessee.  Alum  oc 
curs  in  the  same  situations  as  copperas  in  Mid 
dle  Tennessee,  Epsom  salts  in  many  of  the 
saltpetre  caves,  and  large  quantities  of  blue- 
stone  (sulphate  of  copper)  at  Ducktown.  The 
state  collection  of  minerals  in  the  capitol  com 
prises,  besides  a  great  variety  of  specimens, 
200  kinds  of  marble,  of  all  colors  from  Parian 
white  to  jet  black,  all  found  in  the  state.  Ten 
nessee  has  marked  advantages  in  the  number, 
variety,  excellence,  and  medicinal  value  of  its 
mineral  waters.  Mineral  springs  occur  upon 
the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Unakas  and  along  the 
bases  of  the  long  ridges  of  the  eastern  val 
ley.  The  Cumberland  table  land  abounds 
with  sparkling  chalybeate  springs.  There  are 
also  valuable  sulphur  and  chalybeate  springs 
in  West  Tennessee. — Tennessee  has  numerous 
caves,  many  of  which  were  explored  in  1811- 
'12  for  the  saltpetre  earth  in  them,  and  a  large 
amount  of  nitre  was  then  manufactured  from 
the  earthy  material  thus  obtained.  In  the  Cum 
berland  mountains  are  several  caves  which  are 
100  ft  or  more  below  the  surface  and  several 
miles  in  extent.  One  has  been  descended  to 
a  depth  of  400  ft.,  where  a  stream  of  water 


was  found  having  sufficient  force  and  fall  to 
drive  a  mill.  Another,  on  the  summit  of  Cum 
berland  mountain,  is  perpendicular  in  its  de 
scent,  and  its  depth  has  never  yet  been  fath 
omed.  Some  of  these  caves  contain  fossils 
and  bones  of  extinct  species  of  animals ;  oth 
ers,  large  deposits  of  the  excrement  of  bats, 
valuable  as  a  fertilizer.  Big  Bone  cave  when 
first  explored  contained  bones  of  the  mastodon. 
There  are  throughout  the  cavernous  limestone 
region  occasional  "  sink  holes,"  as  they  are 
termed.  These  are  hopper-shaped  cavities  on 
the  surface  which  communicate  with  the  caves 
and  underground  streams.  Near  Manchester, 
Coffee  co.,  is  an  ancient  work  called  the  Stone 
Fort,  enclosed  by  a  rude  stone  embankment  by 
tourists  called  a  wall,  upon  which  trees  are 
growing,  whose  age  is  estimated  at  over  500 
years.  This  mysterious  enclosure  lies  in  a 
peninsula  formed  by  the  near  approach  of  two 
forks  of  Duck  river,  and  occupies  an  area  of  37 
acres. — The  climate  is  generally  mild  and  re 
markably  salubrious,  excepting  in  the  swampy 
districts  of  West  Tennessee.  The  eastern  divi 
sion  is  noted  for  its  pure  mountain  air.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  along  a  line  running 
E.  and  W.  through  the  middle  of  the  state  is 
about  57°  in  the  valley  of  East  Tennessee,  58° 
in  Middle,  and  59°  in  WTest  Tennessee.  The 
temperature  is  about  one  degree  higher  along 
the  southern,  and  about  one  degree  lower  along 
the  northern  boundary.  Going  from  W.  to  E. 
there  is  a  difference  of  elevation  of  more  than 
6,000  ft.,  which  gives  a  wide  range  of  climate 
and  great  variety  in  vegetable  productions. — 
East  Tennessee,  excluding  its  great  valley,  has 
a  limited  surface  adapted  to  cultivation.  The 
soil  of  Middle  Tennessee  is  generally  good, 
producing  large  crops  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  In 
dian  corn,  buckwheat,  barley,  potatoes,  hemp, 
hay,  sweet  potatoes,  flax,  cotton,  and  tobacco. 
The  western  division  is  almost  level,  and  cot 
ton,  tobacco,  and  all  kinds  of  grain  are  grown 
in  extraordinary  abundance.  The  soil  of  this 
part  is  a  rich  black  mould.  Along  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi  and  Tennessee  are  extensive 
cane  brakes,  covered  with  reeds.  The  country 
is  well  watered.  The  N.  W.  part  contains  an 
extensive  tract  of  swampy  land.  Nearly 
half  of  the  state  is  wooded  land,  and  presents 
almost  every  variety  of  timber  found  in  the 
United  States.  West  Tennessee  is  specially 
noted  for  the  magnificence  of  its  forests.  The 
high  mountains  in  the  east  are  covered  with 
forests  of  pine,  which  yield  tar,  pitch,  tur 
pentine,  and  lumber  for  export;  white  pine, 
chestnut,  hemlock,  and  black  walnut  grow  to 
immense  size  in  the  coves  of  the  mountains. 
On  the  mountain  slopes  the  sugar  maple,  ash, 
cedar,  juniper,  and  savin  are  also  abundant; 
and  in  the  lower  lands  as  well  as  in  Middle 
Tennessee  the  poplar,  hickory,  black  walnut, 
oak,  beech,  locust,  and  cherry  are  found.  The 
most  extensive  red  cedar  forests  in  the  United 
States  are  found  in  the  central  basin  of  Middle 
Tennessee.  In  the  swamps  and  low  lands  of 


TENNESSEE 


645 


West  Tennessee  the  cypress,  hackmatack,  cot- 
tonwood,  and  swamp  cedar  occur  in  large  quan 
tities.  Several  wild  or  indigenous  grasses  grow 
spontaneously.  The  pawpaw,  a  low  bushy  tree 
or  shrub,  bearing  a  fruit  somewhat  resembling 
the  banana,  though  inferior  to  it,  is  found  in 
the  river  bottoms.  The  persimmon,  which  is 
common,  yields  a  fruit  which  in  sweetness  and 
pleasantness  of  flavor  equals  the  date.  The 
black  haw,  red  haw,  wild  plum,  blackberry, 
wood  grape,  muscadine,  strawberry,  whortle 
berry,  gooseberry,  and  service  berry  all  grow 
wild  and  yield  luxuriantly.  Nuts  of  various 
kinds  abound,  as  the  walnut,  hickory  nut,  hazel 
nut,  chestnut,  pecan,  and  chinquapin,  all  form 
ing  articles  of  export.  Ginseng  is  found  on  all 
the  elevated  lands.  The  wild  animals  are  the 
bear,  found  only  in  the  mountainous  districts, 
deer,  raccoons,  foxes,  opossums,  and  squirrels. 
Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  are  raised  on 
a  large  scale,  and  many  thousands  are  annually 
exported.  The  hills  and  mountain  slopes  afford 
an  abundance  of  fine  pasturage.  Much  atten 
tion  is  given  to  wool  growing. — According  to 
the  federal  census  of  1870,  the  state  contained 
in  farms  6,843,278  acres  of  improved  land, 
10,771,396  of  woodland,  and  1,966,540  of  other 
unimproved  land.  The  total  number  of  farms 
was  118,141,  containing  an  average  of  166 
acres  each;  18,806  contained  from  100  to  500 
acres,  412  from  500  to  1,000,  and  50  over 
1,000.  The  cash  value  of  farms  was  $218,- 
743,747,  of  farming  implements  and  machinery 
$8,199,487.  The  staple  crops  of  1873  were 
reported  as  follows  by  the  United  States  de 
partment  of  agriculture : 


CROPS. 

Bushels. 

Yield 
per  acre. 

Acres. 

Total  value. 

Indian  corn  
Wheat. 

42.604,000 
7,414,000 

22-5 

7-2 

1,893.511 
1,029,722 

$24,710,320 
9,860,620 

Eve 

204,000 

9 

22,667 

183.600 

Oats  
Barley. 

5,613,000 
83,000 

20-6 
19-2 

272,476 
4,323 

2,301.330 
70.550 

Buckwheat  
Potatoes  
Tobacco  (Ibs.).. 
Hay  (tons)  

74,000 
1,009,000 
23,750,000 
134,500 

10-5 
75 
675 
1-25 

7,047 
13,453 
35,185 
107,600 

70.300 
665,940 
1,425,000 
2,084,750 

The  total  value  of  these  crops  was  $41,372,- 
410 ;  whole  number  of  acres,  3,385,984.  The 
number  and  value  of  domestic  animals  in  1874 
were  reported  as  follows  : 


ANIMALS. 

Number. 

Average 
price. 

Total  value. 

302,900 

$77  51 

$23.477,779 

Mules 

103,200 

90  84 

9,374,688 

Oxen  and  other  cattle  
Milch  cows 

355,100 
247.700 

14  22 
21  86 

5,049,522 
5,414,722 

Sheep  
Swine  

350.000 
1,420,900 

2  09 
3  09 

731,500 
4,390,581 

Peanuts,  constituting  an  important  crop,  are 
raised  in  the  counties  of  Perry,  Ilickman,  and 
Humphreys,  and  parts  of  Dickson  and  Lewis, 
all  of  which  are  on  the  W.  side  of  the  High 
land  rim.  The  production  amounted  to  680,- 
000  bushels  in  1872,  110,000  in  1873,  200,000 


in  1874,  and  250,000  in  1875.  The  average 
yield  is  about  40  bushels  an  acre.  The  ship 
ment  of  cotton  from  Tennessee  amounted  to 
378,813  bales  in  1872-'3,  489,534  in  1873-'4, 
and  446,674  in  1874-'5,  most  of  which  was 
the  product  of  the  state.  In  1873  there  were 
613,267  acres  planted  with  cotton.  The  best 
grows  in  the  S.  half  of  West  Tennessee ;  it  is 
grown  in  the  whole  of  the  central  basin  S.  of 
Nashville.  As  a  tobacco-growing  state  Ten 
nessee  ranks  third,  Kentucky  being  first  and 
Virginia  second.  The  annual  product  of  the 
state  varies  from  20,000,000  to  25,000,000 
Ibs.,  or  from  13,000  to  22,000  hogsheads.  The 
average  yield  per  acre  is" between  700  and  800 
Ibs.,  though  as  much  as  1,800  Ibs.  can  be  pro 
duced  upon  the  best  soils  in  good  seasons. 
The  soil  and  climate  are  well  adapted  to  the 
cultivation  of  grapes ;  much  attention  has  re 
cently  been  given  to  this  industry,  and  also  to 
the  production  of  honey. — The  total  number 
of  manufacturing  establishments,  according  to 
the  census  of  1870,  was  5,317,  using  732  steam 
engines  of  18,467  horse  power  and  1,340  water 
wheels  of  19,514  horse  power,  and  employing 
19,412  hands,  of  whom  17,663  were  males 
above  16  years  of  age,  1,089  females  above  15, 
and  660  youth.  The  amount  of  capital  in 
vested  was  $15,595,295;  wages,  $5,390,630; 
materials,  $19,657,027;  products,  $34,362,636. 
The  statistics  of  the  most  important  industries 
were  reported  as  follows: 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of 
estab 
lish 
ments. 

No.  of 
hands 
em 
ployed. 

Capital  . 

Value  of 
products. 

Agricultural  implements.  .  . 

25 
719 
309 
383 
220 
28 

1,058 
89 
2 

18 

1 

1 
14 
83 
209 
186 
1 
44 
6 
22 
702 
21 
12 
3 

7 
•4 

10 
28 
161 
11 

76 
4 

133 
15 

110 

1,445 
707 
847 
818 
890 

2,218 

485 
26 
837 

8 
6 
1,122 
316 
453 
309 
7 
213 
34 
191 
2,910 
211 
66 
142 

103 
161 

34 
885 
421 
162 

289 

72 

265 
163 

$62,900 
230,897 
181,601 
250,595 
495.280 
970,650 

2,891,484 
231,810 
91,750 
253,750 

8,000 
1,5CO 
1,103.750 
69,721 
451.097 
249.568 
5,000 
215,650 
57,700 
168,875 
1,622,741 
224.900 
67,950 
165,162 

133,500 
190,000 

44.150 
474,800 
248.405 
127,100 

250,350 
40,510 

185,793 

188,075 

$182.772 
678,888 
665,522 
1.149,598 
938,647 
941,542 

10,767,388 
404,588 
15,600 
869,222 

5,000 
6,292 
1,147,707 
555,111 
921,497 
922,641 
7.500 
454.858 
194,240 
528,550 
8,390,687 
387,450 
101,200 
201,455 

214,700 
490,000 

249,150 
911,400 
650,071 
856,280 

437,551 
139,100 

491,847 
204,997 

Boots  and  shoes  
Carpentering  and  building. 
Carriages  and  wagons  
Cotton  goods          

Flouring     and     grist-mill 

Furniture  

Iron  blooms 

"    forged  and  rolled  
"     nails  and  spikes,  cut 
and  wrought  
"    railing,  wrought  
"    Pigs  
"    castings  .        

"        curried  
"       morocco 

"       malt  
Lumber  planed 

"       Bawed  
Machinery,  not  specified.  .  . 
"      cotton  and  woollen 
"      railroad  repairing. 
"      steam  engines  and 
boilers  

Oil,  cotton-seed  
Patent  medicines  and  com 
pounds  
Printing,  newspaper.  .  ,  
Saddlery  and  harness  
Sash,  doors,  and  blinds  
Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 

"Wool-carding    and     cloth- 
dressing 

Woollen  goods 

646 


TENNESSEE 


There  has  been  a  marked  progress  in  many 
industries  since  1870,  especially  in  the  manu 
facture  of  cotton,  iron,  liquors,  and  carriages 
and  wagons.  In  1875  there  were  40  cotton 
mills  with  55,384  spindles;  cotton  consumed 
during  the  year,  6,701,718  Ibs.,  or  14,443  bales. 
There  are  no  United  States  customs  districts 
in  Tennessee,  but  Memphis  and  Nashville  are 


ports  of  delivery  in  the  district  of  Louisiana. 
At  the  close  of  1875  there  were  27  national 
banks  in  operation,  with  a  capital  stock  of 
$3,455,300  and  a  circulation  of  $2,474,323.— 
Tennessee  had  466  m.  of  railroad  in  1855,  1,253 
in  1860,  1,296  in  1865,  1,492  in  1870,  and  1,641 
in  1875.  The  lines  lying  wholly  or  partly  in 
the  state  in  1875  were  as  follows: 


NAMES  OF  CORPORATIONS. 

TERMINI. 

Miles 
completed 
in  the  state 
in  1875. 

Total  length 
between  termini 
when  different 
from  preceding. 

FROM 

TO 

East  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  Georgia  -j 

(Cincinnati,  Cumberland  Gap, 
and  Charleston 

Bristol 

Dalton  Ga 

225 
30 

39 
38 
15 
16 
4G 
214 
94 
87 
13 
84 
37 
12 
122 
287 
9 
11 
100 
115 
48 
31 
18 

240 

'iss 

260 
123 
271 

'ioo 

472 
321 

"ii 

548 
165 
316 
180 

138 

Cleveland 

Chattanooga   

Morristown 

Wolf  Creek  

Knoxville  and  Ohio  
Rogersville  and  Jefferson  .  .  . 

Knoxville 

Carey  ville       

Junction  E.  S.  V.  and  G.. 

Nashville 

Memphis  Junction,  Ky.  .  . 
Nashville  ...    

Leased,  Nashville  and  Decatur  

Decatur,  Ala  

Stevenson  Ala 

Branch. 

Moscow  

Tullahoma 

Somerville  

.    -,  (  McMinnville  and  Manchester 
Operated  -j  Winchester  and  Alabama  .  .  . 
Mississippi  and  Tennessee  
Mobile  and  Ohio 

McMinnville       

Dccherd 

Fayette  ville 

Memphis  

Columbus  Ky 

Grenada,  Miss  

Mobile   Ala 

Nashville,  Chattanooga,  and  St.  Louis  

Hickman,  Ky  
Wartrace  

Shelby  ville  

New  Orleans,  St.  Louis,  and  Chicago  
Paducah  and  Memphis                 

Bridgeport,  Ala  
New  Orleans,  La  
Paducah.  Ky  
East  St  Louis  111 

Jasper  
Cairo,  111  
Memphis  

Nashville. 

St  Louis  and  Southeastern 

Tennessee  and  Pacific  

Nashville  

Knoxville.         .         ... 

"Western  and  Atlantic 

Atlanta.  Ga 

Chattanooga  

— The  governor  is  elected  for  two  years,  and 
receives  an  annual  salary  of  $4,000.  He  must 
be  30  years  of  age  and  a  citizen  of  the  state  for 
seven  years  next  preceding  his  election.  He 
is  not  eligible  for  more  than  six  years  in  any 
period  of  eight.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the 
governor  from  office,  or  of  his  death  or  resig 
nation,  the  executive  functions  devolve  upon 
the  speaker  elected  by  the  senate.  The  secre 
tary  of  state  is  elected  for  four  years  by  joint 
vote  of  the  general  assembly,  and  receives  a 
salary  of  $1,800  a  year  and  perquisites.  A  bill 
may  be  passed  over  the  executive  veto  by  a  ma 
jority  vote  of  each  house.  The  state  treasurer 
and  comptroller  are  appointed  by  the  general 
assembly  for  two  years.  The  constitution  pro 
vides  that  the  number  of  representatives  in  the 
legislature  shall  not  exceed  75  until  the  popu 
lation  of  the  state  shall  be  1,500,000,  and  shall 
never  exceed  99.  The  number  of  senators  is 
limited  to  one  third  of  the  number  of  repre 
sentatives.  There  are  now  (1876)  25  senators 
and  75  representatives.  The  sessions  of  the 
legislature  are  biennial,  beginning  on  the  first 
Monday  of  January  in  odd  years.  Senators 
and  representatives  receive  $4  a  day  and  $4 
for  every  25  miles  travel  to  and  from  the  cap 
ital.  No  member  will  be  paid  for  more  than 
75  days  of  a  regular  session,  or  for  more  than 
20  days  of  an  extra  session,  or  for  any  days 
when  absent  from  his  seat.  The  judicial  power 
is  vested  in  a  supreme  court  and  chancery,  cir 
cuit,  county,  and  justices'  courts.  The  supreme 
court  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and  five  asso 


ciates,  who  are  elected  by  the  people  for  eight 
years,  and  receive  a  salary  of  $4,000  each. 
Its  jurisdiction  is  appellate  only.  Terms  are 
held  annually  in  Knoxville,  Nashville,  and  Jack 
son.  The  attorney  general  and  reporter  for 
the  state  is  appointed  by  the  judges  of  the 
supreme  court.  Judges  of  the  circuit  and 
chancery  courts  are  elected  by  the  people  for 
eight  years.  Two  terms  of  the  chancery  court 
are  held  in  each  county  annually.  They  have 
all  the  powers  and  jurisdiction  incident  to  a 
court  of  equity,  and  exclusive  jurisdiction  of 
all  equity  cases  where  the  amount  in  contro 
versy  exceeds  $50.  They  have  jurisdiction 
with  the  county  courts  over  the  person  and 
property  of  persons  of  unsound  mind,  and 
of  infants.  Three  terms  of  the  circuit  court 
are  annually  held  in  each  county.  Concur 
rently  with  justices  of  the  peace  they  have 
jurisdiction  of  all  debts  and  demands  on  con 
tract  over  $50,  and  exclusive  jurisdiction  of 
matters  relating  to  the  validity  of  wills ;  also 
appellate  jurisdiction  of  all  suits  brought  be 
fore  inferior  tribunals.  Each  county  has  a 
court  consisting  of  the  justices  of  the  county, 
which  has  jurisdiction  of  probate  matters.  Jus 
tices  of  the  peace  are  elected  by  the  people  for 
six  years,  and  constables  for  two  years.  Judges 
may  be  removed  from  office  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  the  legislature.  They  are  prohibited 
from  charging  juries  with  respect  to  matters 
of  fact,  but  may  state  the  testimony  and  de 
clare  the  law.  Fines  exceeding  $50  on  any 
citizen  must  be  assessed  by  a  jury.  The  right 


TENNESSEE 


64T 


of  suffrage  is  given  to  every  male  person  of 
the  age  of  21  years  who  is  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  and  a  resident  of  Tennessee  for 
one  year,  and  of  the  county  where  he  offers  to 
vote  for  six  months.  There  is  no  other  quali 
fication  except  the  payment  of  a  poll  tax  of 
not  less  than  50  cents  HOP  more  than  $1  a  year. 
In  1867  the  state  gave  to  negroes  the  right  to 
vote.  Elections  for  governor  and  members  of 
the  general  assembly  are  held  biennially  in 
even  years,  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first 
Monday  in  November;  for  judicial  and  other 
civil  officers,  on  the  first  Thursday  in  August. 
Ministers  of  the  gospel  and  priests  are  ineligi 
ble  as  members  of  the  legislature.  No  person 
who  denies  the  being  of  God  or  a  future  state 
of  rewards  and  punishments  can  hold  any  civil 
office.  Any  person  who  has  engaged  in  a  duel 
or  preparations  for  a  duel,  either  as  principal 
or  second,  is  disqualified  from  holding  any 
office  of  honor  or  profit,  besides  being  subject 
to  punishment  by  law.  Amendments  to  the 
constitution  may  be  proposed  in  either  branch 
of  the  general  assembly ;  before  taking  effect 
they  must  be  approved  by  a  majority  of  the 
members  elected  to  each  house  of  the  general 
assembly  when  first  proposed,  by  two  thirds 
of  the  next  legislature,  and  subsequently  by  a 
popular  vote.  The  grounds  of  divorce  are : 
impotence,  adultery,  desertion  for  two  years, 
conviction  of  an  infamous  crime  or  of  felony, 
malicious  attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  wife, 
pregnancy  by  another  man  at  the  time  of  mar 
riage  without  the  husband's  knowledge,  cruelty, 
indignities  by  the  husband  forcing  the  wife  to 
separation,  abandonment  of  the  wife  or  turn 
ing  her  out  of  doors,  and  refusal  to  provide  for 
her.  The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  6  per  cent., 
but  any  rate  not  exceeding  10  per  cent,  may 
be  contracted  for  in  writing;  if  more  than  10 
per  cent,  is  agreed  upon,  only  6  per  cent,  can 
be  collected.  Usury  is  punishable  by  a  fine  of 
not  less  than  $100.  Tennessee  is  represented 
in  congress  by  10  representatives  and  2  sena 
tors,  and  has  therefore  12  votes  in  the  electoral 
college.— On  Dec.  19,  1874,  the  bonded  debt 
of  the  state  was  $22,908,400,  which  was  large 
ly  contracted  by  the  indorsement  of  railroad 
bonds.  The  assets  of  the  state  on  bond  account 
amounted  to  $3,817,896.  The  state  revenue  du 
ring  1873  and  1874,  not  including  bonds  or  cou 
pons  paid  by  railroad  companies,  amounted  to 
$3,618,703,  and  the  disbursements  to  $3,290,- 
158.  According  to  the  federal  census,  the  true 
value  of  property  was  $201,246,686  in  1850, 
$493,903,892  in  1860,  and  $498,237,724  in 
1870.  The  assessed  value  of  all  taxable  prop 
erty,  as  reported  by  the  state  authorities,  was 
$308,089,738  in  1873  and  $289,533,656  in  1874. 
The  amount  of  state  tax  levied  in  1873  was : 
East  Tennessee,  $254,200 ;  Middle,  $542,686  ; 
West,  $435,472;  total,  $1,232,358.  In  1874 
it  was :  East  Tennessee,  $192,913 ;  Middle, 
$401,563;  West,  $410,190;  total,  $1,005,066. 
The  total  valuation  of  taxable  property  in  1872 
was  $265,874,258  ;  taxation,  $1,090,694.  The 


constitution  provides  that  all  property  shall 
be  taxed  according  to  its  value,  so  that  the 
taxes  shall  be  equal  and  uniform  throughout 
the  state,  and  that  no  species  of  property  shall 
be  taxed  higher  than  any  other  of  the  same 
value.  But  the  legislature  is  empowered  to 
except  from  taxation  property  held  by  the 
state,  counties,  cities,  or  towns,  and  used  ex 
clusively  for  public  or  corporation  purposes, 
and  such  as  may  be  held  and  used  for  purposes 
purely  religious,  charitable,  scientific,  literary, 
or  educational.  In  1875  the  comptroller  re 
ported  that  no  railroad  company  had  ever  paid 
any  taxes  to  the  state ;  and  that  no  corpora 
tions,  excepting  insurance  companies  and  a  few 
banks,  had  paid  the  taxes  levied  by  law. — The 
state  prison  is  in  Nashville,  and  there  are  also 
several  temporary  prisons  in  various  parts  of 
the  state,  where  convicts  are  employed  upon 
railroads,  mines,  &c.  The  total  number  in 
confinement  during  the  two  years  ending  Dec. 
1,  1874,  was  1,625,  of  whom  744  were  held  on 
Dec.  1,  1872 ;  881  were  received  during  that 
period,  and  963  were  in  confinement  at  the 
end.  Of  the  last  number,  380  were  white  and 
583  colored  ;  925  were  males  and  38  females ; 
13  had  a  good  and  97  a  fair  education,  199 
could  read  and  write,  and  654  had  no  educa 
tion ;  34  were  under  16  years  of  age,  and  275 
under  21 ;  21  were  sentenced  for  life,  and  69 
for  20  years  or  longer.  The  prisoners  are  em 
ployed  under  lease  on  public  works,  buildings, 
railroads,  &c.  The  revenue  thus  received  is 
reported  to  be  greater  than  the  cost  of  sup 
porting  the  prison.  There  is  preaching  and 
Sunday  school  instruction.  The  state  hospital 
for  the  insane,  near  Nashville,  was  opened  in 
1852.  The  average  daily  number  of  patients 
during  the  two  years  ending  with  1874  was 
379 ;  the  whole  number  under  treatment  du 
ring  that  period  was  561,  of  whom  374  re 
mained  on  Jan.  1,  1875.  Of  the  latter,  all  but 
37  were  maintained  free  of  charge.  The  cost  of 
maintaining  the  institution  during  the  two  years 
named  was  $157,987.  The  accommodations 
of  the  hospital  are  inadequate,  the  number  of 
insane  in  the  state  being  estimated  at  not  less 
than  1,200.  The  Tennessee  school  for  the 
blind,  in  Nashville,  opened  in  1844,  had  55 
pupils  in  1874.  Its  cost  during  that  year  was 
$33,890.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  not 
fewer  than  1,200  blind  in  the  state.  This 
school  has  recently  been  very  much  enlarged. 
The  Tennessee  deaf  and  dumb  school  is  in 
Knoxville,  and  was  opened  in  1845.  The  num 
ber  of  pupils  in  attendance  during  the  two 
years  ending  with  1874  was  155,  of  whom  121 
remained  on  Jan.  1,  1875.  There  were  seven 
instructors.  The  ordinary  expenditures  during 
this  period  amounted  to  $53,356. — There  was 
no  satisfactory  system  of  common  schools  in 
Tennessee  prior  to  1873,  when  the  present  law 
providing  for  a  general  state  system  was  en 
acted.  The  school  fund,  which  had  been  lost 
or  diverted  to  other  purposes,  was  restored, 
together  with  the  suspended  interest.  A  per- 


6±S 


TENNESSEE 


manent  fund,  amounting  in  1875  to  $2,512,- 
500,  was  thus  secured ;  the  interest  on  this, 
at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum,  is  dis 
tributed  semi- annually  among  the  counties  ac 
cording  to  school  population.  The  law  also 
authorizes  for  school  purposes  a  poll  tax  of 
$1,  and  a  tax  of  one  mill  on  the  dollar  up 
on  all  the  taxable  property  of  the  state,  and 
provides  that  when  the  money  derived  from 
the  school  fund  and  the  taxes  imposed  by  the 
state  shall  be  insufficient  to  support  a  public 
school  for  five  months  in  the  year  in  each  of 
the  districts  in  any  county,  the  county  court 
shall  levy  an  additional  tax  for  the  purpose,  or 
submit  the. proposition  to  a  vote  of  the  people. 
About  one  half  of  the  counties  of  the  state 
have  levied  an  additional  tax  to  prolong  the 
schools.  The  total  annual  income  from  the 
permanent  fund  and  state  taxation  is  about 
$600,000.  The  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is  appointed  for  two  years,  and 
receives  an  annual  salary  of  $3,000.  County 
superintendents  are  elected  biennially  by  the 
county  courts.  Three  directors  are  elected 
in  each  district  for  three  years.  The  public 
schools  are  free  to  all  persons  between  the 


ages  of  6  and  18  years;  but  there  must  be  sep 
arate  schools  for  colored  persons.  The  school 
population  (one  county  not  reporting)  on  June 
30,  1875,  was  425,901;  white,  319,671;  col 
ored,  106,230.  The  number  of  pupils  enroll 
ed  (one  county  not  reporting)  was  198,085; 
average  attendance  (16  counties  not  reporting), 
136,118;  number  of  schools  (13  counties  not 
reporting),  3,942;  school  revenue,  $740,316; 
total  expenditures,  $703,358.  In  1873-'4  pub 
lic  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  state  received 
aid  from  the  Peabody  education  fund  to  the 
extent  of  $34,300.  The  state  normal  univer 
sity,  under  the  control  of  the  state  board  of 
education,  was  opened  as  a  department  of  the 
university  of  Nashville  in  December,  1875.  It 
has  an  annual  revenue  of  $6,000  from  the  Pea- 
body  education  fund  and  $6,000  from  the  uni- 
.  versity  of  Nashville.  Normal  instruction  is 
also  afforded  in  several  of  the  colleges.  In 
several  of  the  cities  there  are  efficient  systems 
of  free  schools,  supported  in  part  by  the  cities 
and  in  part  from  the  state  and  county  school 
revenues.  The  universities  and  colleges  of 
Tennessee,  with  the  number  of  instructors 
and  pupils  in  1874-'5,  were  as  follows  : 


NAME  OF  INSTITUTION. 

When 
opened. 

Where  situated. 

Denomination. 

No.  of 
instruc 
tors. 

No.  of  pupils 
in  collegiate 
department. 

No.  of 
pupils  in  all 

departments. 

Beech  Grove  college                         .... 

1S6S 

Beech  Grove 

None  . 

4 

23 

135 

Central  Tennessee  college 

1S66 

Nashville 

Methodist  Episcopal 

9 

2 

240 

Christian  Brothers'  college  

1871 

Memphis 

Homan  Catholic  

9 

48 

127 

Cumberland  university 

1S42 

Cumberland  Presbyterian 

18 

151 

391 

East  Tennessee  university 

1869 

15 

101 

815 

East  Tennessee  Weslej-an  university.  .. 
Fisk  universitv  .    , 

1867 
1806 

Athens  

Nashville 

Methodist  Episcopal  
None 

7 
16 

16 

10 

86 
262 

Greenville  and  Tusculum  college  

1868 

Greenville. 

Presbyterian  

9 

71 

112 

Iliawassee  college 

1849 

5 

80 

187 

King  college  

1863 

Bristol 

5 

40 

84 

Mary  ville  college  

1819 

Mary  ville  

11 

21 

94 

Stewart  college  

Clarksville 

4 

48 

104 

Southwestern  Baptist  university 

iS75 

Jackson 

Baptist 

Union  university 

1848 

University  of  Nashville  

1785 

Nashville. 

None         

7 

22 

1SS 

Universitv  of  the  South  

1868 

Sewanee 

Protestant  Episcopal 

19 

124 

262 

Vanderbil't  universitv  

1875 

Nashville  

Methodist  Episcopal,  South 

27 

140 

800 

The  East  Tennessee  university  embraces  the 
state  college  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanical 
arts,  for  which  provision  was  made  by  congress 
in  1862.  The  university  was  organized  in  1840 
(the  East  Tennessee  college  having  been  opened 
in  1808),  and  the  agricultural  college  in  1869. 
There  are  three  courses  of  study  of  "four  years 
each,  agricultural,  mechanical,  and  classical; 
and  two  preparatory  courses  of  three  years 
each.  Each  senator  is  entitled  to  name  two, 
and  each  representative  three  students,  who 
may  attend  the  institution  without  charge  for 
tuition,  and  may  also  pass  free  on  railroads 
between  their  homes  and  the  university.  For 
others,  the  annual  cost  of  tuition  is  $36  in  the 
college  and  $30  in  the  preparatory  department. 
Students  are  required  to  perform  manual  labor 
during  ^  the  freshman  and  sophomore  years. 
The  university  has  a  considerable  library,  and 
cabinets  of  geology,  mineralogy,  and  zoology. 
The  university  of  the  South,  at  Sewanee,  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 


church.  It  has  separate  schools  for  each  de 
partment  of  learning.  The  institution  has 
about  10,000  acres  of  land  on  a  plateau  of  the 
Cumberland  mountains,  2,000  ft.  above  the 
sea  and  1,000  ft.  above  the  surrounding  coun 
try.  Owing  to  the  favorable  climate  of  this 
elevation,  studies  are  continued  during  the 
summer,  and  a  long  vacation  occurs  in  the 
winter.  The  university  has  a  library  of  over 
5,000  volumes.  The  East  Tennessee  Wesleyan 
university,  at  Athens,  has  a  collegiate  depart 
ment,  with  classical  and  scientific  courses,  and 
preparatory  and  academic  departments.  Fisk 
university  was  organized  in  1866  through  the 
efforts  of  the  American  missionary  association 
of  New  York.  It  is  designed  for  the  instruc 
tion  of  colored  persons,  and  has  made  the  train 
ing  of  teachers  a  prominent  part  of  its  work. 
It  was  named  after  Gen.  C.  B.  Fisk,  then  com 
missioner  of  the  freedmen's  bureau,  through 
whose  efforts  government  buildings  were  ob 
tained  for  the  institution.  Since  1871  upward 


TENNESSEE 


649 


of  $100,000  have  been  raised  for  it  by  concerts 
given  in  the  north  and  in  Great  Britain  by  the 
"  Jubilee  Singers."  With  this  money  25  acres 
of  land  have  been  purchased,  on  which  has 
been  erected  Jubilee  hall,  128  by  145  ft.  and  six 
stories  high.  For  the  university  of  Nashville 
and  Central  Tennessee  college,  see  NASHVILLE  ; 
for  Cumberland  university,  see  LEBANON;  see 
also  VAXDEEBILT  UNIVERSITY.  Instruction  in 
theology  is  provided  by  Central  Tennessee 
college;  in  law,  theology,  and  medicine,  by 
Cumberland  and  Vanderbilt  universities  ;  and 
in  medicine  and  surgery,  by  the  university  of 
Nashville  and  the  Tennessee  college  of  phar 
macy  in  Nashville.  The  last  named  was  or 
ganized  in  1872,  and  in  1875-' 6  had  seven  in 
structors.  In  1870  the  state  contained  3,505 
libraries  with  an  aggregate  of  802,112  volumes. 
Of  these,  2,732  with  597,399  volumes  were  pri 
vate,  and  773  with  204,713  other  than  private, 
including  the  state  library  of  19,000  volumes. 
The  total  number  of  newspapers  and  periodicals 
in  1875  was  141,  including  9  daily,  1  tri-weekly, 
1  semi-weekly,  110  weekly,  1  bi-weekly,  1  semi 
monthly,  17  monthly,  and  1  quarterly.  In  1870 
there  were  3,180  religious  organizations,  having 
2,842  edifices  with  878,524  sittings,  and  prop 
erty  valued  at  $4,697,675,  divided  as  follows: 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Organi 
zations. 

Edi 
fices. 

Sittings. 

Property.  , 

Baptist   regular  

942 

877 

245,151 

$843,675 

"       other  
Christian     

45 

203 

41 
167 

10,225 
55,455 

16,400 
244,625 

Congregational  

8 

2 

525 

14.100 

Episcopal,  Protestant  
Friends 

33 
5 

31 
4 

12,940 
1,900 

269,573 
4,800 

Jewish            

4 

4 

1.100 

21,000 

Lutheran                       

22 

22 

9,875 

27.664 

Methodist 

1  339 

1.155 

336,433 

1,506,153 

Presbyterian,  regular  
other  

262 
294 
21 

241 
271 

21 

83.590 
105,380 
13,850 

853,105 
400,230 
486,250 

United  Brethren  in  Christ. 
Unknown  (union)  

7 

5 
1 

1,600 
500 

4,100 
1,000 

— The  name  of  Tennessee  is  derived  from  Tan- 
nassee,  the  Indian  name  of  the  Little  Ten 
nessee  river.  De  Soto  probably  visited  the 
spot  where  Memphis  now  stands.  The  first 
settlement  was  attempted  in  1754  by  a  small 
body  of  North  Carolinians,  but  they  were 
speedily  driven  from  the  country  by  the  In 
dians.  In  1756  the  first  permanent  settlement 
was  made,  and  Fort  Loudon  built  on  the 
Tennessee  river  about  30  m.  from  the  present 
site  of  Knoxville.  This  was  the  first  Anglo- 
American  settlement  W.  of  the  Alleghanies 
and  S.  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1760  the  fort  was 
besieged  by  the  Indians,  and  the  whites  capitu 
lated,  stipulating  that  they  should  be  allowed 
to  return  to  North  Carolina.  On  the  second 
day  of  their  march  they  were  overtaken  by 
the  savages  and  many  of  them  butchered,  and 
the  survivors  reduced  to  captivity.  In  1761 
another  armed  force  from  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina  entered  the  district,  and  after  a  num 
ber  of  successful  battles  with  the  Indians  com 
pelled  them  to  sue  for  peace.  A  treaty  was 


made  with  them,  and  the  settlements  along  the 
Watauga  and  Holston  rivers  increased  rapidly, 
being  known  from  1769  to  1777  as  the  Watauga 
association.  In  the  colonial  assembly  of  North 
Carolina  in  1776  the  territory  was  represented 
by  deputies  as  the  district  of  Washington ;  and 
in  the  revolutionary  war  the  settlers  flocked  to 
the  standard  of  the  colonists.  At  the  close  of 
the  revolution  a  settlement  was  made  on  the 
Cumberland  river  where  Nashville  now  stands. 
From  1777  to  1784  the  territory  formed  part 
of  North  Carolina,  which  set  apart  a  portion 
of  the  district  in  the  vicinity  of  Nashville  for 
bounty  lands  for  her  revolutionary  soldiers. 
In  1785  the  people  became  dissatisfied  with  the 
manner  in  which  they  were  treated  by  the 
government  of  that  state,  and  organized  the 
state  of  Franklin,  which  was  maintained  until 
1788,  when  it  was  again  united  with  North 
Carolina.  In  1789  that  state  ceded  the  ter 
ritory  to  the  general  government,  and  in  1790 
it  was  organized,  together  with  Kentucky,  as 
the  territory  of  the  United  States  south  of  the 
Ohio.  In  1794  a  distinct  territorial  govern 
ment  was  granted  to  Tennessee;  and  in  1796 
a  state  constitution  was  formed  at  Knox 
ville,  and  Tennessee  was  admitted  into  the 
Union.  The  constitution  was  amended  in 
1834-'5,  and  again  in  1853.  The  seat  of  gov 
ernment  was  at  Knoxville  from  1794  to  1811, 
excepting  in  1807,  when  it  was  at  Kingston; 
from  1812  to  1815  at  Nashville;  in  1817  at 
Knoxville;  in  1816  and  from  1819  to  1825 
at  Murfreesboro ;  and  from  1826  to  the  pres 
ent  time  it  has  been  at  Nashville.  The  gen 
eral  assembly  of  Tennessee  was  convoked  in 
extra  session  Jan.  7,  1861,  to  consider  what 
action  should  be  taken  by  the  state  in  view 
of  the  impending  difficulties  between  the 
north  and  the  south.  In  East  Tennessee  the 
people  were  generally  opposed  to  secession ; 
in  West  Tennessee  there  was  a  strong  popular 
sentiment  in  favor  of  separation.  The  gov 
ernor,  Isham  G.  Harris,  actively  favored  the 
southern  cause.  On  Feb.  9  the  people  of  the 
state  voted  on  the  question  whether  a  conven 
tion  should  be  held  to  consider  the  subject  of 
withdrawing  from  the  Union,  and  also  for  dele 
gates  to  the  convention.  In  a  total  vote  of 
127,000,  there  was  a  majority  of  nearly  12,000 
against  a  convention.  Of  those  who  voted 
for  delegates  a  majority  of  about  64,000  were 
in  favor  of  the  Union.  The  requisition  for 
troops  made  upon  Tennessee  by  the  president 
after  the  firing  upon  Fort  Sumter  was  refused 
by.  Gov.  Harris,  who  again  summoned  the 
legislature  to  meet  in  extra  session.  Early  in 
May  a  military  league  was  formed  with  the 
Confederate  States  by  commissioners  appointed 
for  that  purpose,  and  was  ratified  by  the  legis 
lature.  On  May  6  the  legislature  again  pro 
vided  for  submitting  the  question  of  secession 
to  the  people.  The  election  was  held  on  June 
8,  and  resulted  in  a  majority  of  57,675  for  sepa 
ration,  the  total  vote  being  152,151.  In  East 
Tennessee  there  was  a  large  majority  in  favor 


650 


TENNESSEE 


TENNESSEE  RIVER 


of  the  Union.  Troops  were  now  recruited  and 
armed  by  the  state  for  the  confederate  army 
and  to  resist  invasion  from  the  north.  Bat 
teries  were  erected  to  command  the  Mississippi 
from  Memphis  to  the  Kentucky  line;  troops 
were  concentrated  in  West  Tennessee  under 
Gen.  Pillow ;  and  the  confederate  forces  took 
possession  of  the  three  gaps  in  the  mountains 
of  East  Tennessee.  The  invasion  of  Tennes 
see  by  the  federal  forces  was  begun  early  in 
1862  by  a  combined  naval  and  military  expe 
dition,  which  captured  Forts  Henry  and  Don- 
elson  in  February.  (See  FORT  DONELSON.) 
Nashville,  the  headquarters  of  the  confede 
rate  general  A.  S.  Johnston,  was  taken  a  few 
days  afterward,  when  the  state  government 
was  removed  to  Memphis.  (See  NASHVILLE.) 
A  large  portion  of  the  state  having  now  been 
restored  to  federal  authority,  Andrew  John 
son  was  appointed  military  governor  by  Presi 
dent  Lincoln,  and  assumed  the  duties  of  the 
office  in  Nashville  on  March  12.  In  the  same 
month  a  formidable  fleet  of  gunboats  left 
Cairo,  111.,  for  the  purpose  of  regaining  the 
Mississippi  river  from  confederate  control.  The 
advance  of  this  fleet  forced  the  confederates 
to  abandon  Island  No.  10,  Forts  Pillow  and 
Randolph,  and  other  strongholds;  and  on 
June  6  Memphis  was  taken  by  the  federal 
forces  after  a  severe  engagement  between  the 
gunboats.  In  November  Gen.  Rosecrans  ad 
vanced  from  Nashville  upon  Murfreesboro, 
which  was  the  centre  of  Gen.  Bragg's  oper 
ations  in  Tennessee.  After  a  severe  engage 
ment  lasting  several  days,  the  place  was  aban 
doned  by  the  confederates,  Jan.  4,  1863,  and 
then  became  the  depot  of  supplies  for  Gen. 
Rosecrans's  army.  The  confederates  now  fell 
back  to  Shelbyville,  and  on  the  advance  of 
Rosecrans  in  June  retired  to  Chattanooga, 
which  they  abandoned  on  Sept.  8  upon  the  ap 
proach  of  Rosecrans.  On  the  19th  and  20th 
a  severe  battle  was  fought  about  12  m.  S.  "W. 
of  Chattanooga.  (See  CHICKAMAUGA.)  The 
Union  forces  were  repulsed,  but  continued  to 
occupy  Chattanooga,  which  however  was  be 
sieged  by  the  confederates.  In  the  latter  part 
of  November  an  advance  was  made  upon  the 
confederate  lines  by  Gen.  Grant,  which  result 
ed  in  the  complete  rout  of  the  confederates. 
In  this  engagement  were  fought  the  battles  of 
Lookout  mountain  and  Missionary  ridge.  (See 
CHATTANOOGA.)  In  the  mean  time  Gen.  Burn- 
side  had  marched  into  East  Tennessee,  and  he 
took  peaceable  possession  of  Knoxville  early  in 
September.  In  November,  1864,  the  state  was 
invaded  by  a  confederate  force  under  Gen. 
Hood.  Battles  were  fought  with  the  federal 
forces  at  Franklin  and  at  Nashville,  the  latter 
resulting  in  the  complete  rout  of  the  confed 
erates,  under  Gen.  Hood,  and  their  retreat 
from  the  state.  (See  NASHVILLE.)  During 
1864  numerous  raids  were  made  in  different 
parts  of  Tennessee  by  the  confederates.  On 
Jan.  9,  1865,  a  state  convention  assembled  in 
Nashville  and  proposed  amendments  to  the 


constitution,  abolishing  slavery  and  prohibit 
ing  the  legislature  from  recognizing  property 
in  man.  A  schedule  was  adopted  annulling 
the  military  league  made  in  1861  with  the 
Confederate  States,  also  the  declaration  of  in 
dependence,  the  ordinance  of  secession,  and 
all  acts  of  the  confederate  state  government, 
and  prohibiting  the  payment  of  any  debts  con 
tracted  by  that  government.  These  amend 
ments  were  ratified  by  the  people  on  Feb.  22. 
W.  G.  Brownlow  was  subsequently  chosen 
governor,  and  members  of  the  legislature  were 
elected.  Each  voter  at  these  elections  was 
required  to  take  an  oath  that  he  had  been 
and  would  continue  to  be  loyal  to  the  United 
States.  The  legislature  met  in  Nashville  early 
in  April,  ratified  the  13th  amendment  to  the 
federal  constitution,  reorganized  the  state  gov 
ernment,  and  elected  senators  to  congress. 
Among  the  acts  passed  was  one  prescribing  the 
qualifications  of  voters,  which  disfranchised 
those  who  had  not  been  "publicly  known  to 
have  entertained  unconditional  Union  senti 
ments  from  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion  until 
the  present  time."  The  14th  amendment  to 
the  federal  constitution  was  ratified  in  1866, 
and  the  state  was  soon  after  admitted  to  rep 
resentation  in  congress.  The  revision  of  the 
constitution  by  a  convention  sitting  at  Nash 
ville  from  Jan.  10  to  Feb.  22,  1870,  was  ratified 
on  March  26  by  a  popular  vote  of  98,128  to 
33,872.— See  "The  Geology  of  Tennessee,"  by 
Dr.  J.  M.  Safford  (1869),  and  "  The  Resources 
of  Tennessee,1'  prepared  under  the  direction  of 
the  state  board  of  agriculture  by  J.  B.  Kille- 
brew  (Nashville,  1874). 

TENNESSEE  RIVER,  the  largest  tributary  of 
the  Ohio,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Clinch 
and  Holston  rivers,  which  rise  in  S.  W.  Vir 
ginia,  and  unite  near  Kingston,  Roane  co., 
Tenn.  At  first  the  course  of  the  Tennessee  is 
S.  W.  to  Chattanooga,  near  the  S.  line  of  the 
state,  where  it  passes  through  a  part  of  the 
Cumberland  range  of  mountains  in  a  series  of 
bends,  and  again  turns  S.  W.,  entering  the  state 
of  Alabama,  and  at  Gunter's  Landing,  Marshall 
co.,  Ala.,  assumes  a  direction  nearly  W.  by  N. 
Between  Lauderdale  and  Lawrence  counties 
it  spreads  in  a  broad  but  shallow  expansion 
called  Muscle  shoals,  flowing  over  flint  and 
limestone  rocks  in  a  succession  of  rapids  for 
36  m.,  and  affording  a  large  amount  of  water 
power.  It  afterward  passes  near  Tuscumbia 
and  Florence,  on  opposite  sides,  and  at  Chicka- 
saw  on  the  Mississippi  line  turns  N.  W.,  and 
forms  the  boundary  thence  to  the  Tennessee 
line  between  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  Reen- 
tering  Tennessee,  after  a  circuit  of  nearly  300 
m.  in  Alabama,  it  flows  almost  due  N.  till  it 
reaches  Birmingham,  Ky.,  when  it  turns  W.  N. 
W.  and  enters  the  Ohio  at  Padueah,  McCracken 
co.,  50  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  latter.  Its 
length  from  Kingston  to  Padueah  is  estimated 
at  800  m.,  but  from  the  source  of  its  longest 
affluent,  the  Holston,  it  is  more  than  1,100  m. 
Its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Sequatchie, 


TENNIS 


TENNYSON 


651 


Paint  Rock,  Flint,  and  Duck  rivers,  and  Elk 
and  Shoal  creeks,  entering  it  from  the  right ; 
and  the  Hiawassee,  Big  Sandy,  and  Clark's 
rivers,  and  Town  and  Big  Bear  creeks,  from 
the  left.  The  fall  of  the  river  in  its  whole 
course  is  computed  at  about  2,000  ft.  It  is 
navigable  from  the  Muscle  shoals  to  its  en 
trance  into  the  Ohio,  259  m. ;  and  above  the 
shoals  steamboats  ascend  to  Knoxville,  nearly 
500  in.  The  scenery  on  the  upper  portion  of 
the  river  is  very  beautiful.  Darby  estimates 
the  area  drained  by  the  Tennessee  and  its  trib 
utaries  at  41,000  sq.  m. 

TENNIS,  a  game  of  ball,  played  in  a  court 
built  for  the  purpose,  with  a  playing  floor  112 
by  40  ft.,  end  walls  30  ft.  high,  side  walls  20 
ft.  high,  and  usually  lighted  by  skylights  or 
windows  above  the  20-foot  line.  The  players 
are  two  or  four  persons  divided  as  partners 
on  the  "service"  side  and  the  "hazard"  side. 
The  ball  is  struck  with  a  bat,  called  a  racket, 
the  striking  part  of  which  is  covered  with  a 
close  hard  network  of  tendon.  The  player  or 
party  in  strikes  a  ball,  or  "  serves  "  it,  against 
the  head  wall  of  the  court.  This  ball  must 
come  to  the  ground  over  "the  line,"  which  is 
a  network  stretched  across  the  middle  of  the 
court,  5  ft.  high  at  each  end  and  3  ft.  high  in 
the  middle.  It  is  returned  by  the  player  or 
party  out,  who  must  in  turn  deliver  it,  by  its 
rebound,  at  a  certain  place  in  the  court,  when 
it  is  again  struck  by  the  player  in ;  and  so  the 
game  continues.  Whoever  fails  to  "put  the 
ball  up"  properly  on  the  head  wall,  or  to  de 
liver  it  at  the  proper  place  on  the  court,  loses. 
If  it  is  the  player  in  that  fails,  he  loses  his 
hand  and  goes  out ;  if  it  is  the  player  already 
out,  his  adversary  scores  a  stroke  toward  game. 
There  are  several  other  contingencies  which 
go  to  making  the  score,  and  the  numerous 
angles  caused  by  the  walls  constitute  the  in 
tricacies  of  the  game. — The  name  is  from  the 
French  tenez,  hold,  as  in  striking  the  ball  the 
racket  must  be  held  firmly.  The  game  origi 
nated  in  France  in  the  15th  century,  and  Louis 
XL,  Henry  II.,  and  Charles  IX.  were  expert 
players.  M.  Barre,  who  died  in  1873,  for 
many  years  superintendent  of  the  tennis  court 
in  the  Tuileries,  was  considered  the  best  play 
er  that  ever  lived.  The  oldest  English  tennis 
court  was  built  early  in  the  16th  century  in 
Hampton  Court  palace.  There  are  two  or 
three  club  courts  in  London,  one  at  Leaming 
ton,  and  one  at  Brighton. 

TENNYSON,  Alfred,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Somersby,  Lincolnshire,  in  1809.  His  father 
was  the  Rev.  George  Clayton  Tennyson,  rector 
of  Somersby  and  vicar  of  Bennington  and 
Grimsby.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the 
Rev.  Stephen  Fytche,  vicar  of  Louth.  Alfred 
is  the  third  of  twelve  children.  He  received 
his  early  education  from  his  father,  and  was 
sent  to  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  where  in 
1829  he  gained  the  chancellor's  medal  for  a 
poem  in  blank  verse  entitled  "Timbuctoo." 
In  1827,  with  his  brother  Charles  (who  has 


since  become  vicar  of  Grasby  and  assumed  the 
name  of  Turner),  he  had  published  a  small 
volume  entitled  "  Poems,  by  Two  Brothers." 
Coleridge  expressed  the  opinion  that  only  the 
pieces  signed  "  C.  T."  gave  promise  of  a  com 
ing  poet.  In  1830  Alfred  published  "Poems, 
chiefly  Lyrical,"  in  which  the  only  striking 
piece  was  "Mariana;"  but  a  revised  and  en 
larged  edition  (1833)  contained  "  The  Lady  of 
Shalott,"  "The  May  Queen,"  "  (En  one,"  "A 
Dream  of  Fair  Women,"  and  "The  Lotos-Eat 
ers."  This  volume  attracted  comparatively 
little  attention.  In  1842  he  published  "Eng 
lish  Idyls,  and  other  Poems  "  (2  vols.),  which 
contained  all  that  he  cared  to  preserve  of  the 
previous  volume,  and  included  also  "Locksley 
Hall,"  "  Morte  d' Arthur,"  "  The  Talking  Oak," 
"The  Day-Dream,"  "The  Two  Voices,"  "St. 
Simeon  Stylites,"  and  "Ulysses."  Tennyson's 
acknowledged  rank  as  the  first  of  living  poets 
dates  from  the  publication  of  these  volumes. 
In  1847  he  published  "  The  Princess,  a  Med 
ley,"  in  blank  verse,  which  has  for  its  theme 
the  question  of  the  proper  sphere  of  woman. 
The  songs  that  form  the  interludes  were  in 
troduced  in  the  second  edition.  "  In  Memo- 
riam,"  a  series  of  129  brief  elegiac  poems,  sug 
gested  by  the  death  of  his  friend  Arthur  Hen 
ry  Hallam  (see  HALLAM),  and  written  at  inter 
vals  since  1833,  appeared  anonymously  in  1850. 
On  Nov.  21,  1850,  after  the  death  of  Words 
worth,  Tennyson  was  appointed  poet  laureate. 
His  only  notable  performances  in  that  capacity 
are  the  "Ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington"  and  the  "Charge  of  the  Light 
Brigade  at  Balaklava,"  the  popularity  of  each 
of  which  has  been  inversely  as  its  merits. 
Both  of  these  were  included  in  the  volume 
entitled  "Maud,  and  other  Poems"  (1855). 
"Maud"  was  so  anomalous,  both  in  narrative 
treatment  and  metrical  construction,  that  crit 
ics  and  readers  were  widely  at  variance  con 
cerning  it;  but  there  was  no  dissent  from 
the  applause  which  greeted  the  "Idyls  of  the 
King"  (1859),  four  stories  in  blank  verse, 
under  the  titles  "Enid,"  "Vivien,"  "Elaine," 
and  "Guinevere,"  drawn  from  the  legends  of 
King  Arthur.  These  began  a  series  which 
was  continued  in  "The  Holy  Grail,"  "Gareth 
and  Lynette,"  "Pelleas  and  Etarre,"  "The 
Last  Tournament,"  and  "The  Passing  of  Ar 
thur  "  (1869-'72).  The  whole  epic  had  been 
foreshadowed  in  the  prelude  to  the  fragment 
entitled  "Morte  d'Arthur,"  which  after  30 
years  found  its  place  in  the  closing  poem  of 
the  series.  "  Enoch  Arden,  and  other  Poems  " 
(1864),  included  "Sea  Dreams,  an  Idyl,"  for 
which  Tennyson  had  received  £10  a  line  on 
its  original  publication  in  "Macmillan's  Ma 
gazine."  With  the  exception  of  "Tithonus," 
"  The  Northern  Farmer "  (in  dialect),  and 
one  or  two  other  short  pieces,  the  volume 
contained  nothing  worthy  of  the  laureate ; 
but  the  principal  poem  met  with  a  wide 
popularity,  and  its  title  has  become  prover 
bial,  from  the  supposed  peculiarity  of  its 


652 


TENOR 


TENT 


plot.  "The  Window,  or  the  Songs  of  the 
.Wrens,"  written  for  music  by  Arthur  Sullivan, 
appeared  in  1870,  and  "  Queen  Mary,  a  Drama," 
in  1875.  Tennyson  lived  at  various  places, 
much  of  the  time  in  London,  till  1851,  when 
he  married  Emily,  daughter  of  Henry  Sell- 
wood,  and  settled  at  Farringford,  Freshwater, 
Isle  of  Wight.  In  1869  he  removed  to  Peters- 
field,  Hampshire.  He  has  also  a  residence  at 
Aldworth,  Haslemere,  Surrey,  and  is  lord  of 
the  manors  of  Grasby  and  Prior's  Freshwater. 
The  university  of  Oxford  conferred  on  him 
the  degree  of  D.  0.  L.  in  1859.  Since  1850  his 
poems  have  been  regularly  reprinted  in  the 
United  States,  and  two  rival  editions  (New 
York  and  Boston,  1871)  contain  the  suppressed 
pieces  of  his  early  volumes,  and  also  some 
never  collected  by  himself.  His  "Poems" 
have  been  translated  .into  German  by  W.  Herz- 
berg  (Dessau,  1854);  "In  Memoriam"  by  R. 
Waldmiiller-Duboc  (Hamburg,  2d  ed.,  1872) 
and  Agnes  von  Bohlen  (Berlin,  1874) ;  and 
"Enoch  Arden"  by  0.  Hessel  (Leipsic,  1874). 
"Enid"  and  "Elaine"  have  been  translated 
into  Spanish  by  Lope  Gisbert  (1875).  His 
"  Idyls  of  the  King"  have  been  illustrated  by 
Dor6.  D.  B.  Brightwell  has  published  a  con 
cordance  to  Tennyson's  works  (London,  1869). 
— See  "  Analysis  of  Tennyson's  In  Memoriam," 
by  the  Rev.  F.  W.  Robertson  (1867);  "A 
Study  of  the  Works  of  Alfred  Tennyson,"  by 
E.  0.  Tanish  (1868) ;  and  "  Victorian  Poets," 
byE.  0.  Stedrnan  (1875). — FREDERICK,  his  elder 
brother,  obtained  at  Cambridge  a  prize  for  a 
Greek  poem  in  1828,  and  in  1854  published 
"Days  and  Hours,"  a  volume  of  poems. 

TENOR  (Lat.  tenere,  to  hold),  the  second  of 
the  four  parts  in  harmonic  composition,  reck 
oning  from  the  bass,  or  the  highest  natural 
adult  male  voice,  having  a  general  compass 
from  0,  the  second  space  in  the  bass,  to  A  or 
B  flat  in  the  treble,  though  composers  in  chorus 
writing  do  ,not  find  it  prudent  often  to  write 
higher  than  G  for  this  voice.  The  term  is  de 
rived  from  the  fact  that  in  the  ancient  part 
compositions  the  tenor  sustained  or  held  the 
plain-song  or  principal  air. 

TEXSAS,  a  N.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana,  bor 
dering  on  the  Mississippi,  and  drained  by  Ten- 
sas  river  and  Macon  bayou ;  area,  680  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1875,  18,520,  of  whom  17,100  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  low  and  flat,  and  the 
soil  fertile.  It  has  steamboat  communica 
tion  with  the  interior  by  way  of  the  Tensas 
river,  which  runs  nearly  parallel  with  the  Mis 
sissippi,  and  joins  the  Washita  in  Catahoula 
parish  to  form  Black  river.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  94,500  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  13,050  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  25,371  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  1,211  horses,  2,404 
mules  and  asses,  2,748  cattle,  1,043  sheep,  and 
2,684  swine.  Capital,  St.  Joseph. 

TENT  (Lat.  tentorium,  from  tendere,  to 
stretch),  a  portable  habitation,  formed  gener 
ally  of  cloth  or  skins  stretched  upon  cords  or 
frames,  and  supported  by  poles.  Tents  have 


always  been  the  dwellings  of  nomadic  tribes. 
The  natives  of  the  East  brought  them  at  an 
early  period  to  a  high  state  of  perfection,  and 
they  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
The  patriarchs  were  dwellers  in  tents,  and 
St.  Paul  was  a  tent  maker.  Skins  are  first 
mentioned  as  a  tent  covering  in  Exodus  xxvi. 
14,  where  the  tabernacle  is  ordered  to  be  cov 
ered  with  rams'  and  badgers'  skins.  Tents 
of  cloth  made  of  camels'  and  goats'  hair,  like 
those  of  the  Arabs  of  the  present  day,  were 
also  used.  The  Persian  monarchs  passed  por 
tions  of  the  summer  in  tents  in  the  mountains, 
and  the  custom  of  living  in  them  during  the 
hot  months  still  prevails  in  the  East.  The 
Greeks  encamped  in  tents  at  the  siege  of  Troy, 
and  the  magnificence  of  the  Persian  tents  and 
tent  equipage  is  attested  by  many  ancient  wri 
ters.  Tents  were  early  used  by  the  Roman 
armies,  the  first  being  made  of  skins  or  leath 
er,  and  Hannibal's  forces  were  provided  with 
them  when  they  crossed  the  Alps  into  Italy. 
The  Roman  tabernaculum  resembled  the  house 
tent,  and  the  tentorium  the  wedge  tent  of  the 


FIG.  1. — 1.  Eoman  Tabernaculum,  from  column  of  Trajan. 
2.  Tentorium,  from  column  of  Antonine. 

present  day.  A  later  and  more  elaborate  tent 
was  called  papilio;  it  was  probably  circular, 
with  a  conical  roof,  but  its  exact  form  is  not 
known.  The  armies  of  the  crusades  were  pro 
vided  with  elaborate  tents,  and  their  Saracen 
antagonists  were  equally  well  furnished.  Me- 
diceval  tents  were  sometimes  of  the  most  splen 
did  description.  The  finest  were  very  large, 
of  the  pavilion  form,  and  divided  into  several 
apartments.  Their  hangings  were  frequently 
of  silk  and  damask  of  many  colors,  and  their 
cords  and  stay  ropes  of  twisted  gold. — Tents 
are  said  to  have  been  first  issued  to  modern 
armies  by  Louis  XIV.,  but  they  were  furnished 
only  to  certain  privileged  corps.  According 
to  Bardin,  the  Prussian  army  was  the  first 
regularly  provided  with  them.  Until  near  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century  there  was  little 
uniformity  in  their  shape  or  quality.  The 
earliest  form  in  use  in  modern  armies  was 
probably  the  wedge  tent,  formed  of  a  square 
piece  of  cloth  over  a  ridge  pole,  and  without 
stay  ropes.  A  wedge  tent  rounded  at  one  end 
and  open  at  the  other  was  called  a  cannoniere 
in  the  French  service  in  the  last  century.  The 
cortine  or  courtine  was  an  oblong  wall  tent, 
used  by  officers;  when  furnished  with  a  fly 
or  second  roof,  it  was  called  a  marquise  or 
marquee.  The  use  of  tents  in  the  French 
armies  was  almost  abandoned  after  the  begin- 


TENT 


653 


ning  of  the  revolution,  and  during  the  wars 
of  the  empire  even  the  officers  were  rarely- 
provided  with  them.  It  was  not  until  about 
1830,  during  the  Algerian  war,  that  the  tente 
abri  or  shelter  tent  began  to  be  regularly  fur 
nished  to  troops.  This  is  made  of  two  rec 
tangular  pieces  of  canvas,  each  5  ft.  9  in.  long 
and  5  ft.  4  in.  wide,  which  are  buttoned  to 
gether  and  raised  upon  two  sticks  so  as  to 
form  a  roof  open  at  both  ends.  Each  soldier 
carries  one  of  these  pieces,  one  of  the  support 
ing  sticks,  and  three  pegs,  which  together 
weigh  3  Ibs.  11  oz.,  and  every  two  men  are 
thus  enabled  to  provide  a  shelter  for  them 
selves.  This  is  still  the  French  regulation 
tent,  and  was  used  in  the  Crimea,  in  Mexico, 
and  in  the  Franco-German  war.  Besides  this 
the  French  have  three  troop  tents  :  the  bonnet 
de  police,  which  has  the  form  of  a  triangular 
prism,  to  each  end  of  which  is  joined  a  hemi- 
cone  ;  the  tente  elliptique  or  Tacconet,  a  slight 
modification  of  the  former ;  and  the  tente  co- 
nique  or  marabout,  a  cone  22  ft.  4  in.  in  di 
ameter  at  base  and  10  ft.  8  in.  high,  with  an 
interior  curtain  14  in.  high,  which  drops  down 
around  its  base,  leaving  an  interior  diameter 
of  18  ft.  8  in.  Each  of  these  tents  has  two 
doors,  opposite  to  each  other.  The  French 
use  also  a  marquee  for  general  officers  and  a 
tente  de  conseil,  the  latter  a  round  wall  tent 
20  ft.  in  diameter,  with  a  conical  roof.  In 
the  British  service  the  use  of  tents  was  more 
generally  adhered  to  after  their  introduction 
than  in  the  continental  armies.  The  troop 
tent  principally  used  is  the  "  bell "  tent,  a  con- 


FIG.  2.— 1.  French  Tente  elliptique.     2.  English  Bell  Tent. 

ical-roofed  round  tent  with  a  wall  one  or  two 
feet  high.  Its  diameter  at  the  base  is  14  ft. 
and  its  height  10  ft.,  and  it  is  intended  to  shel 
ter  12  to  15  men.  The  British  have  made  but 
little  use  of  shelter  tents,  although  many  mod 
els  have  been  proposed.  The  Prussian  troop 
tent  is  similar  to  the  bell  tent ;  but  in  the  cam 
paigns  of  1866  and  1870  the  German  armies 
were  not  furnished  with  tents.  In  the  Aus 
trian  service  a  "  marching  "  tent  is  used,  which 
resembles  the  French  lonnet  de  police.  It  is 
18  ft.  long,  14  ft.  wide,  and  about  7  ft.  high, 
and  accommodates  10  men.  The  Theurekauf 
troop  tent  is  rectangular,  and  26  ft.  long  by 
22  ft.  wide.  It  has  a  conical  roof,  with  side 
walls  3  ft.  high,  and  triangular  end  walls  7  ft. 
6  in.  high  to  the  apex.  An  officers'  tent,  made 
after  the  same  model,  is  also  used.  The  Rus 


sian  infantry  tent  is  square,  with  a  centre  pole 
and  four  corner  poles.  It  is  14  ft.  in  diameter 
and  the  side  walls  are  7  ft.  high ;  it  is  intended 
for  14  men.  The  officers'  tents  are  like  those 
of  the  men,  excepting  that  the  roofs  are  of 
double  canvas.  The  Italians  use  shelter  tents, 
conical  tents,  and  marquees.  The  shelter  tent 
is  formed  of  three  rectangular  sections,  one 
of  which  is  spread  on  the  ground.  The  pieces 
are  a  little  larger  than  those  of  the  tente  alri, 
and  are  supported  by  muskets  instead  of  sticks. 
The  conical  tent,  which  is  used  by  officers,  is 
a  modification  of  the  French  tente  conique. 


FIG.  3.— 1.  Tlieurekauf's  Austrian  Tent.    2.  Sibley  Tent. 

A  similar  tent  is  in  use  in  the  Turkish  army 
also,  for  both  officers  and  men.  In  the  United 
States  the  tents  used  most  commonly  have 
been  the  wedge,  the  Sibley,  and  the  shelter. 
The  wedge  tent  is  6  ft.  10  in.  long,  8  ft.  4  in. 
wide,  and  6  ft.  10  in.  high ;  it  is  intended  for 
five  or  six  men.  The  Sibley  tent  is  a  modi 
fied  Comanche  lodge;  it  is  a  cone  about  13  ft. 
high,  with  a  diameter  at  base  of  18  ft.,  and  will 
shelter  12  or  14  men.  During  the  last  years 
of  the  civil  war  the  shelter  tent  was  used 
almost  exclusively.  The  sections  of  the  regu 
lation  tent  are  each  6  ft.  long  by  5  ft.  6  in. 
broad,  and  are  made  of  cotton  cloth  with  a 
coating  of  caoutchouc.  Each  section  has  a  slit 
in  it,  through  which  the  head  may  be  passed, 
thus  forming  a  poncho  on  the  march,  in  rainy 
weather.  It  can  also  be  used  as  a  blanket. 
Shelter  tents  are  sometimes  formed  in  the 
American  service  into  "  half  -faced  camps,"  by 
fastening  together  two  or  three  sections  and 
stretching  them  from  a  ridge  pole  to  the 
ground,  thus  making  a  back  and  roof.  The 
triangular  ends  are  then  closed  with  other 
sections,  and  a  fire  built  in  the  front,  which 
is  left  open.  This  contrivance  makes  a  very 
comfortable  shelter,  the  heat  which  is  reflect 
ed  from  the  roof  and  sides  keeping  the  men 
sufficiently  warm. — The  coverings  of  tents  are 
now  made  generally  of  flax  or  cotton,  hemp 
being  rarely  employed.  The  French  tissue  is 
of  Belgian  or  Picardy  flax,  the  English  of  the 
best  long  Baltic  flax.  The  Austrian  and  the 
German  canvas  is  also  linen.  The  Italian  gov 
ernment  uses  cotton  canvas  for  large  tents, 
and  the  Turkish  government  uses  it  altogether. 
In  the  United  States  army  tents  are  made  of 
cotton  only,  which  is  cheaper  here  than  linen, 
while  in  Europe  linen  canvas  can  be  produced 
at  a  lower  price  than  cotton.  The  relative 
merits  and  demerits  of  the  two  tissues  depend 
greatly  on  their  mechanical  structure  and  on 


TENURE 


the  quality  of  the  materials  used,  but  the 
weight  of  authority  seems  to  favor  cotton  in 
preference  to  linen.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
American  civil  war,  when  the  price  of  cotton 
became  excessive,  the  United  States  govern 
ment  purchased  a  large  number  of  linen  tents, 
but  the  troops  objected  to  using  them,  and 
they  were  replaced  by  cotton  ones. — Hospital 
Tents.  In  ancient  times  sick  and  wounded 
soldiers  were  treated  in  their  general  quarters. 
Tents  specially  set  apart  for  the  sick  are  said 
to  have  been  first  provided  by  Queen  Isabella 
of  Spain  during  the  wars  of  Granada,  but  they 
did  not  come  into  general  use.  Invalids  were 
occasionally  treated  in  tents  during  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries,  but  no  organized  tent  hos 
pitals,  the  records  of  which  have  any  sanitary 
value,  were  established  before  the  Crimean 
war.  The  enforced  use  of  tents  at  Varna, 
made  necessary  by  the  absence  of  houses,  first 
aroused  attention  to  the  subject  of  tent  hos 
pitals.  The  tent  used  was  the  hospital  mar 
quee  of  the  British  service,  which  is  a  double 
tent,  a  large  one  completely  enveloping  a 
smaller  one,  with  an  air  space  of  about  18  in. 
between  them.  The  inner  tent  is  28  ft.  long, 
15  ft.  wide,  and  12  ft.  high  in  the  middle, 
with  walls  5  ft.  high,  and  it  has  a  fioor  cloth 
of  painted  canvas.  It  will  accommodate  12  or 
14  persons.  The  Prussian  hospital  tent,  adopt 
ed  in  1867,  is  house-shaped,  double,  supported 
by  an  iron  frame,  and  large  enough  for  12 
beds.  In  the  Franco-German  war  a  small 
square  tent,  supported  by  a  light  wooden  frame 
and  having  a  projecting  pyramidal  roof,  was 
used.  It  was  intended  for  but  two  beds,  and 
was  specially  devoted  to  the  treatment  of  those 
suffering  from  contagious  diseases.  The  Turks 
have  made  use  of  a  hospital  tent  which  is 
described  as  of  a  long  oval  shape,  supported 
by  a  pole  at  each  end,  and  made  of  double 
canvas.  The  Russians,  Austrians,  and  Italians 
have  no  special  tent  set  apart  for  this  pur 
pose.  The  hospital  tent  used  by  the  United 


FIG.  4.— American  Hospital  Tent. 

States  government  is  a  rectangular  house  tent, 
14  by  15  ft.  in  diameter,  and  11  ft.  high  in 
the  centre,  with  a  Avail  4  ft.  6  in.  high,  and  a 
fly  forming  a  second  roof  which  overlaps  the 
wall  about  a  foot.  At  one  end  it  is  furnished 
with  a  lapel  so  that  two  or  more  tents  can  be 
joined  together  to  form  one  long  tent.  Each 
tent  accommodates  eight  or  ten  patients. — See 
"  The  American  Ambulance,"  by  Dr.  Thomas 
W.  Evans  (London,  1873). 

TENURE   (Lat.  tenere,  to  hold),  in  its  most 
general  sense,  the  mode  of  holding  property. 


In  law  it  is  usually  confined  to  the  manner  of 
holding  land  or  real  property.  The  first  grand 
division  of  tenures  is  into  allodial  tenures  and 
feudal  tenures.  Of  the  word  allodial,  both  the 
origin  and  the  exact  original  meaning  are  un 
certain.  Practically  it  means  a  tenure  which 
unites  the  right  of  the  lord  and  the  right  of  the 
tenant,  or  all  right  and  title  to  or  interest  in 
the  laud.  Hence,  one  who  held  land  by  allo 
dial  tenure  had  full  and  unencumbered  posses 
sion  of  it,  with  an  absolute  right  to  use  and 
dispose  of  it  at  his  own  pleasure,  with  no  con 
trol  of  any  one,  and  no  responsibility  to  any 
one.  An  allodial  holding  stands  in  direct  con 
trast  with  a  feudal  tenure,  of  which  it  was  the 
essential  quality  that  a  tenant  held  it  of  a  lord, 
and  that  tenant  and  lord  had  each  their  sepa 
rate  rights  and  interests  in  it  and  over  it,  or,  in 
the  language  of  the  law,  their  separate  estates 
in  it.  From  this  characteristic  of  allodial  ten 
ure,  it  is  sometimes  said  that  all  the  land  in 
the  United  States  is  held  by  this  tenure. — It 
seems  to  be  generally  admitted  that  previous 
to  the  prevalence  of  the  feudal  system  the  lands 
of  European  nations  were  held  by  allodial  ten 
ure,  and  that  during  the  convulsions  of  the  9th, 
10th,  and  llth  centuries,  it  became  common 
for  holders  of  land  voluntarily  to  convert  their 
allodial  tenure  into  a  feudal  tenure,  and  so  hold 
of  some  lord.  One  reason,  and  probably  the 
strongest,  was  to  obtain  his  support  and  pro 
tection  in  return  for  the  allegiance  of  the  ten 
ant  ;  but  it  may  be  believed  that  another  cause 
of  this  change  was  the  general  desire  to  profit 
by  the  opportunity  which  the  feudal  system 
offered  of  escaping  from  the  disordered  and 
fragmentary  condition  of  society  then  preva 
lent.  This  feudal  system  was  nowhere  more 
fully  developed  or  more  firmly  established  than 
in  Normandy.  It  was  therefore  a  matter  of 
course  that  when  William  acquired  England 
under  a  claim  of  title,  but  by  the  power  of  a 
feudal  army  which  he  carried  with  him,  he 
should  establish  his  victorious  chiefs  upon  the 
land  their  arms  had  won  under  that  feudal  sys 
tem  which  was  admirably  adapted  to  give  to 
the  sovereign  lord,  at  any  moment,  a  martial 
array  that  should  combine  nearly  all  the  avail 
able  force  of  the  country,  and  be  supported  by 
till  its  available  resources.  He  divided  the  land 
in  unequal  portions,  observing  that  gradation 
of  rank  and  of  possession  which  constituted  a 
characteristic  feature  of  the  system.  While 
he  who  received  a  single  manor  became  a  baron 
and  had  his  own  court,  they  who  received  six 
or  more  were  originally  classed  as  greater 
barons  ;  and  to  some  of  his  principal  chiefs  he 
gave  as  many  as  700  manors.  In  this  way  he 
divided  most  of  the  valuable  land  of  England. 
His  immediate  successors  followed  the  same 
system,  and  before  a  century  had  elapsed  the 
feudal  system  and  the  feudal  tenures  were 
established  over  nearly  all  England.  All  these 
tenures  rested  upon  the  fee  (see  FEE)  ;  but  they 
were  very  various,  and  divided  the  interest  in 
and  the  beneficiary  use  of  the  land,  between 


•=-(/  -=~- 


A^> €,& 


TELESCOPE 


623 


time  for  a  "protection"  or  other  equivalent 
for  a  patent.  Metius  made  a  similar  present 
and  a  similar  application  later  in  the  same 
month,  but  said  that  he  had  manufactured 
such  instruments  two  years  before.  It  has 
been  frequently  said  that  Zacharias  Jansen 
also  invented  the  telescope  more  than  a  year 
later ;  but  the  evidence  adduced  only  proves, 
according  to  Olbers,  that  he  made  telescopes 
which  may  have  been  imitated  from  those  of 
Lippersheini ;  and  this  is  the  more  likely  as 
both  were  spectacle  makers  in  the  same  city, 
and  it  is  hardly  possible  that  the  public  trans 
action  with  the  latter  could  have  escaped  the 
knowledge  of  Jansen.  The  attempt  was  made 
by  the  states  general,  it  is  said,  to  retain  to 
themselves  the  knowledge  of  this  invention, 
the  importance  of  which  in  war  was  at  once 
perceived  by  Prince  Maurice ;  but  it  is  also 
believed  that  the  French  ambassador  soon  ob 
tained  from  them  an  order  for  two  telescopes 
for  his  own  government.  It  is  certain  that 
the  report  of  the  invention  soon  spread  abroad, 
and  the  instruments  found  their  way  to  Lon 
don,  Paris,  and  Venice.  But  by  no  one  was 
the  idea  more  eagerly  welcomed,  or  its  great 
importance  more  quickly  recognized,  than  by 
Galileo,  then  visiting  Venice,  lie  was  evi 
dently  willing,  at  a  later  day,  to  be  thought 
the  second  inventor,  guided  only  by  an  uncer 
tain  rumor  ;  but  it  is  said  that  he  actually  saw 
one  of  the  Dutch  telescopes.  Returning  to 
Padua  with  some  lenses,  he  immediately  began 
to  improve  upon  what  he  had  seen,  if  not  to 
experiment  independently  under  guidance  of 
the  mere  report,  and  he  soon  found  a  better 
and  more  certain  result  than  had  been  chanced 
upon  by  the  original  inventor.  He  made  a  lead 
en  tube,  and  fitted  at  one  extremity  a  double 
convex  lens  for  object  glass,  and  at  the  other 
a  double  concave  for  eye  piece.  This,  his  first 
telescope,  magnified  only  three  times  ;  he  then 
made  another  of  more  than  double  this  power, 
and  soon  after,  with  a  magnifying  power  of 
30,  he  began  to  study  the  heavens,  where  his 
first  discoveries  excited  more  wonder  than  that 
of  the  "optic  glass "  itself .  The  popular  cu 
riosity  was  so  great,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  that 
he  was  compelled  night  after  night  to  stand 
by  his  glass  to  show  its  wonderful  perform 
ances.  The  phases  of  Venus,  questioned  hith 
erto,  were  revealed  to  sight ;  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter  and  the  oblong  shape  of  Saturn  were 
distinctly  seen ;  the  lunar  mountains  were  mea 
sured  ;  spots  were  found  upon  the  sun's  disk ; 
and  the  milky  way  was  resolved  into  stars. 
The  Galilean  telescope  produces  an  erect  im 
age.  The  object  glass  AB  would  form  an 
inverted  image  at  &  a,  fig.  3,  but  the  concave 
eye  lens  N  refracts  the  rays,  which  being  pro 
duced  backward  forms  an  upright  image  at  a'  V. 
In  1609,  the  same  year  in  which  Galileo's  tele 
scopes  were  made,  others  found  their  way  into 
England,  and  were  soon  sought  after  with  an 
avidity  that  was  stimulated  by  the  report  of 
Harriot's  discoveries.  This  young  astronomer 
VOL.  XY. — 40 


made  drawings  of  the  moon,  discovered  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  observed  the  spots 
upon  the  sun.  The  new  "  cylinders,"  as  they 
were  called,  were  soon  in  general  use,  and  were 
exposed  for  sale  in  Paris  in  the  early  part  of 
the  same  year.  These  first  telescopes  are  sup- 


FIG.  3. — Galileo's  Telescope. 

posed  to  have  been  all  made  with  a  concave 
eye  lens.  Kepler  in  1011  suggested  the  use 
of  a  convex  eye  lens ;  but  the  first  actual  ap 
plication  of  one  was  made  by  the  capuchin 
Schyrle  de  Rheita,  who  describes  it  in  his  work 
0ewZ«s  Enoch  et  Elice  (1645).  This  eye  lens 
gives  a  much  larger  field  of  view,  but  shows 
objects  inverted.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Gal 
ilean  telescope  had  the  advantage  of  greater 
distinctness  and  brightness  than  was  found  in 
the  "astronomical"  form.  The  true  cause  of 
this  advantage  is  now  known  to  lie  in  the  par 
tial  compensation  by  the  negative  eye  piece 
of  the  aberrations  caused  by  the  object  glass, 
the  result  being  in  this  case  the  difference, 
while  in  the  astronomical  telescope  it  is  the 
sum,  of  the  aberrations  of  the  two  lenses. 
Rheita  invented  also  the  binocular  or  double 
telescope,  a  construction  which  frequently  re 
curs  afterward,  but  always  as  a  thing  of  cu 
riosity  rather  than  of  practical  utility  until 
in  modern  days,  as  the  double  opera  glass  or 
lorgnette,  it  has  become  serviceable  in  recon- 
noissances,  terrestrial  and  celestial. — The  very 
first  attempts  to  gain  magnifying  power  and 
light  by  enlarging  the  object  glasses  of  tele 
scopes,  revealed  a  most  unexpected  and  for 
midable  obstacle.  It  was  found  that  all  ob 
jects  appeared  strongly  tinged  with  prismatic 
colors.  This  obstacle  remained  unexplained 
until  the  time  of  Newton,  and  unconqiuered 
more  than  half  a  century  longer.  But  if  at 
the  time  insurmountable,  it  did  not  prove  una 
voidable,  for  it  was  ascertained  that  by  making 
the  focal  distance  of  the  object  glass  very  great 
in  proportion  to  the  diameter,  the  colored 
fringes  could  be  rendered  practically  imper 
ceptible.  Enormously  long  telescopes  were 
therefore  constructed,  and  it  was  with  them 
that  the  brilliant  discoveries  of  that  time  were 
made.  Huygens  used  telescopes  of  his  own 
manufacture,  and  one  of  his  object  glasses, 
123  ft.  in  focal  length,  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
library  of  the  royal  society  of  London,  Eng 
lish  makers  also  produced  telescopes  of  nearly 
equal  dimensions,  and  Auzout  in  Paris  spoke 
of  surpassing  all  others,  but  it  does  not  appear 
whether  he  succeeded.  The  elder  Campani, 
at  Rome,  made  lenses  of  from  70  to  136  ft. 
focus,  and  with  these  Cassini  discovered  two 
of  the  satellites  of  Saturn.  Cassini  also  used 


624: 


TELESCOPE 


other  lenses  made  by  Borelli  of  40  and  70  ft., 
and  by  Hartsoeker  of  not  less  than  250  ft. 
focus.  These  object  glasses  were  used  with 
out  any  tube,  the  lens  being  placed  upon  a 
mast,  or,  as  Oassini  recommended,  at  the  angle 
of  a  tower,  and  controlled,  not  without  con 
siderable  difficulty,  by  cords  leading  to  the 
observer  at  the  eye  lens. — The  source  of  the 
inconveniences  attending  the  use  of  shorter 
lenses  was  generally  supposed  to  lie  wholly 
where  it  did  really  lie  in  part,  in  the  imperfect 
collection  of  the  rays  of  light,  which  were  at 
that  time  believed  to  be  homogeneous,  into  a 
simple  focus.  It  was  distinctly  understood 
that  the  rays  which  passed  through  a  lens  near 
its  centre  would  not  be  refracted  to  precisely 
the  same  point  with  those  which  pass  through 
it  near  its  circumference  ;  that  is,  there  would 
be  what  is  technically  called  spherical  aberra 
tion.  This  is  a  true  cause,  but  by  no  means 
the  whole  cause  of  the  indistinctness  of  images 
in  the  telescope.  Accordingly,  with  that  be- 
liof,  it  was  thought  the  evil  might  be  remedied 
by  grinding  lenses  with  other  surfaces  than 
spherical,  and  machines  were  devised  by  Des 
cartes,  by  llevelius  of  Dantzic,  by  Du  Son  of 
London  (who  ground  deep  parabolic  concave 
lenses,  with  which  he  asserted  that  telescopes 
might  be  used  "with  full  aperture,"  and  yet 
show  no  colors),  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren, 
and  others.  But  the  main  reliance  of  the  as 
tronomer  until  near  the  close  of  the  century 
was  in  the  aerial  telescope,  with  which,  un 
wieldy  as  it  was,  many  brilliant  discoveries 
were  made. — An  improvement,  of  more  im 
portance  than  that  of  the  figuring  of  lenses, 
consisted  in  the  modification  of  the  eye  piece. 
By  the  introduction  of  more  than  one  convex 
lens,  Kheita  had  reinverted  the  imago ;  but 
this  was  all  the  gain  that  either  he  or  Kepler, 
who  also  proposed  the  same  thing,  seems  to 
have  expected.  In  fact,  there  was  an  increase 
of  aberrations  which  caused  distaste  for  the 
plan,  and  it  was  not  until  about  1659,  when 
Iluygens  invented  the  combination  which  still 
bears  his  name,  that  much  advantage  was 
gained  by  multiplying  lenses.  This  eye  piece 
is  composed  of  two  convex  lenses  whose 
focal  lengths  are  as  3  to  1,  which  are  sepa 
rated  from  each  other  by  an  interval  equal 
to  half  the  sum  of  these  focal  lengths,  the 
place  of  the  telescopic  image  being  between 
the  lenses.  This  arrangement  was  found  to 
have  a  remarkable  advantage  in  point  of 
distinctness  over  the  single  eye  glass,  by  rea 
son  of  the  apportionment  of  spherical  aberra 
tions  between  the  lenses,  and  the  consequent 
less  amount  of  injurious  effect  in  the  result, 
while  no  addition  whatever  was  made  to  the 
color  of  the  images  formed  by  the  object  glass. 
To  this  day  the  "  Huygenian  eye  piece"  re 
mains  one  of  the  best  combinations  for  or 
dinary  viewing  purposes.  Another  eye  piece, 
less  successful,  was  constructed  by  Carnpani 
with  three  lenses  so  arranged  as  to  show  objects  j 
"  without  any  iris  or  rainbow  colors." — The  \ 


refracting  telescope  remained  full  three  quar 
ters  of  a  century  without  further  material  im 
provement.  Morin,  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  college  de  France,  first  in  1634  attached 
a  telescope  to  the  moving  index  of  a  graduated 
arc,  in  order,  as  he  says,  "  to  measure  the  fixed 
stars  quickly  and  accurately."  lie  was  also 
the  first  to  gain  sight  of  stars  in  the  daytime. 
But  it  was  only  after  the  introduction  of  fixed 
threads  into  the  field  of  the  telescope  that  it 
became  a  really  useful  auxiliary  to  instruments 
of  measurement.  At  the  present  day  it  seems 
at  first  strange  that  astronomers  should  have 
preferred  the  simple  "sights"  or  "pinnules," 
with  which  they  had  always  been  accustomed 
to  observe,  to  the  far  more  accurate  perception 
furnished  us  by  the  telescope ;  and  yet  they, 
without  any  means  of  designating  the  centre 
of  the  field  of  view,  and  with  only  the  feeble 
optical  power  at  their  command,  were  right  in 
their  preference.  Even  as  late  as  1673,  lleve 
lius  argued  earnestly  in  favor  of  the  pinnules 
for  observing,  from  a  want  of  confidence  in 
the  new  method.  As  early  as  1641  Gascoigne, 
an  accomplished  young  English  astronomer, 
had  applied  fixed  threads  to  the  telescope,  and 
had  also  invented  the  wire  or  filar  micrometer. 
He  perished  at  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor, 
and  his  invention,  of  which  no  account  had 
been  published,  remained  forgotten  until  near 
ly  30  years  after,  when  an  opportunity  for 
reclamation  occurred  upon  the  reinvention  of 
the  micrometer  by  Auzout.  About  the  same 
period  Roemer  gave  to  the  telescope  one  of  its 
most  important  applications,  by  attaching  to  it 
an  axis  at  right  angles  to  its  length,  and  pla 
cing  it  so  as  to  revolve  in  the  plane  of  the 
meridian;  and  shortly  afterward  Picard  in 
Paris  and  Flamsteed  at  Greenwich,  following 
up  this  idea,  commenced  a  new  era  in  obser 
vation.  (See  TEAXSIT  CIRCLE.) — Mersenne,  in 
his  correspondence  with  Descartes,  had  be 
fore  1639  suggested  the  practicability  of  using 
a  concave  mirror  instead  of  the  principal  lens 
in  the  telescope.  In  1663  James  Gregory  of 
Edinburgh  published,  in  his  Optica  Promota, 
the  plan  of  a  reflecting  telescope,  consisting 
of  a  concave  mirror,  perforated  in  the  centre, 
by  which  the  rays  were  to  be  converged  to 
a  focus  before  it,  and  after  crossing  would  be 
received  upon  a  second  small  concave  mirror, 
be  reflected  back  by  the  latter,  and,  crossing 
again  near  the  opening  in  the  first  reflector, 
would  be  there  received  by  a  lens  and  trans 
mitted  to  the  eye.  The  rays  having  crossed 
twice,  objects  would  appear  in  their  natural 
position.  An  unsatisfactory  attempt  was  made 
to  construct  such  a  telescope.  Newton  now 
took  up  the  study.  He  soon  found  the  true 
cause  of  the  prismatic  colors,  and  concluded 
"  that  the  perfection  of  telescopes  was  'hith 
erto  limited,  not  so  much  for  want  of  glasses 
truly  figured  according  to  the  prescriptions  of 
optic  authors,  ...  as  because  that  light  itself 
is  a  heterogeneous  mixture  of  differently  re 
frangible  rays.  So  that,  were  a  glass  so  exactly 


TELESCOPE 


625 


figured  as  to  collect  any  one  sort  of  rays  into 
one  point,  it  could  not  collect  those  also  into 
the  same  point  which,  having  the  same  inci 
dence  upon  the  same  medium,  are  apt  to  suffer 
a  different  refraction."  Thus  he  was  led  "to 
take  reflectors  into  consideration,"  since  here 
there  would  be  no  separation  of  colors ;  but  in 
asmuch  as  any  irregularity  of  figure  in  a  con 
cave  mirror  would  produce  greater  distortion 
in  the  image  than  would  be  the  case  with  a  lens, 
"a  much  greater  curiosity  [nicety]  would  be  re 
quisite  than  in  figuring  glasses  for  refraction." 
The  Gregorian  construction,  mentioned  above, 
appeared  to  him  to  have  such  disadvantages, 
that  he  "saw  it  necessary  to  alter  the  design, 
and  place  the  eye  glass  at  the  side  of  the  tube." 
Having  then  found  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin 
which  appeared  to  possess  the  requisite  qualities 
for  mirrors,  and  having  also  devised  a  "  ten 
der  way  of  polishing  proper  for  metal,"  lie  at 
tempted  the  construction  of  a  reflecting  tele 
scope  upon  the  plan  which  has  ever  since  borne 
the  name  of  Newtonian,  and  soon  produced  an 
instrument  with  which  he  could  discern  the 
"  concomitants  "  of  Jupiter  and  the  phases  of 
Venus.  Another  one  made  soon  after  (1671), 


Fro.  4. — Newton's  Telescope. 

having  a  speculum  of  1^  in.  diameter  and  6|- 
in.  focus,  was  presented  by  him  to  the  royal 
society  of  London,  by  whom  it  is  still  pre 
served.  In  these  telescopes  the  mirror  M,  fig. 
4,  is  at  the  lower  end  of  the  tube,  the  mouth 
of  which  is  directed  toward  the  object  to  be 
observed.  The  rays  1  and  2  from  one  end  of 
the  object  being  reflected  toward  a,  and  the 
rays  3  and  4  from  the  other  end  toward  £>,  an 
inverted  image  of  the  object  would  be  formed 
at  5  a  ;  but  a  small  plane  mirror  M7,  interposed 
*at  an  angle  of  45°,  diverts  the  image  to  a'  V, 
and  the  eye  lens  O  magnifies  this  into  A  B.  In 
the  same  year  that  Newton's  new  telescopes 
were  made,  Cassegrain,  a  Frenchman,  pro 
posed  still  another  construction.  The  large 
mirror  was  perforated,  but  the  rays  proceed 
ing  from  it  were,  before  reaching  their  focus, 
received  upon  a  small  convex  mirror  which 
sent  them  back  with  less  convergence  to  form 
the  image  near  the  eye  piece.  It  was  asserted 
that  this  form,  which  like  Gregory's  was  not 
immediately  brought  into  use,  would  possess 
several  advantages  over  the  Newtonian;  but 
the  English  philosopher  showed  that  these 
advantages  were  rather  objections,  and  that 
the  difficulty  of  properly  working  the  mirrors 


would  always  be  a  serious  obstacle  to  their 
general  acceptance.  In  fact,  we  hear  little 
more  of  them  until  70  or  80  years  later,  when 
Short,  a  celebrated  artist  of  Edinburgh,  re 
vived  their  manufacture,  and,  by  his  peculiar 
skill  in  figuring  and  mutually  adapting  the 
mirrors  ("  marrying  them,"  as  he  termed  it), 
brought  them  into  favor  for  a  time.  But 
practical  difficulties,  especially  in  the  manipu 
lations  of  the  large  speculum,  interposed  for 
many  years  to  prevent  even  the  Newtonian 
construction  from  coming  into  general  use. 
It  was  known  indeed  that  in  order  to  reflect 
all  the  rays  accurately  to  the  same  focus,  the 
figure  of  the  mirror  should  be  not  spherical 
but  parabolic  ;  but  no  method  was  known 
whereby  this  figure  could  be  attained  with 
certainty.  At  length,  in  1718,  Hadley  made 
a  mirror  6  in.  in  diameter  and  with  a  focal 
length  of  62  in.,  which  bore  a  magnifying 
power  of  230.  This  instrument  may  be  con 
sidered  to  have  established  the  reputation  of 
reflectors ;  for  on  being  compared  by  Bradley 
and  Pound  with  the  123-foot  aerial  telescope 
of  Huygens,  it  proved  fully  a  match  for  the 
refractor,  except  that  the  latter  showed  ob 
jects  somewhat  brighter.  After  this  period 
reflectors  came  rapidly  into  general  use,  and 
have  ever  since  been  the  favorite  kind  of  tele 
scope  in  England.  Their  construction  was 
greatly  facilitated  to  practical  men  by  the  ap 
pearance  in  1777  of  an  elaborate  memoir  by 
Mudge,  giving  a  detailed  account  of  his  pro 
cess  of  making  and  finishing  specula.  Another 
important  memoir  upon  the  same  subject,  by 
the  Eev.  John  Edwards,  was  published  in  the 
appendix  to  the  "British  Nautical  Almanac" 
for  1787.  (See  SPECULUM.)— About  1766  a  small 
telescope,  only  2  ft.  long,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  a  German  organist  residing  in  Bath,  Eng 
land.  He  sent  to  London  for  a  larger  instru 
ment,  and,  finding  its  cost  too  great,  undertook 
to  make  one  for  himself.  That  organist  was 
the  elder  Herschel.  He  devoted  all  the  time 
at  his  command  to  the  manufacture  of  reflect 
ors.  Improving  continually  upon  his  succes 
sive  results,  and  with  increasing  means  at  his 
disposal,  he  made  many  Newtonian  reflectors, 
some  even  as  large  as  20  ft.,  as  well  as  sev 
eral  of  the  Gregorian  form  of  10  ft.  focus. 
His  discovery  of  the  planet  Uranus,  in  1781, 
brought  him  to  the  notice  of  George  III.,  by 
whose  liberality  he  was  enabled  in  1785  to 
undertake  the  construction  of  the  celebrated 
40-foot  reflector,  which  was  pronounced  fin- 


FIG.  5.— Herschel's  Telescope. 

ished  in  August,  1789;  but  it  never  accom 
plished  any  work  worthy  of  its  dimensions. 
In  it  the  mirror  M,  fig.  5,  was  slightly  inclined, 


626 


TELESCOPE 


so  that  the  image  of  the  object  was  formed  at 
5  a,  near  the  eye  lens  O,  which  magnified  it 
into  &'  a'.  It  is"  commonly  said  that  the  sixth 
satellite  of  Saturn  was  discovered  with  it ;  but 
this  is  a  mistake,  the  satellite  having  been  in 
reality  detected  with  one  of  Herschel's  18 -inch 
reflectors.  After  the  lapse  of  50  years,  during 
the  latter  portion  of  which  the  telescope  had 
lain  unused,  it  was  dismounted  by  Sir  John  Her- 
schel  at  the  end  of  1839,  and  on  New  Year's  eve 
his  family  assembled  within  the  tube  and  sang 
its  requiem.  It  now  rests  horizontally  upon 
three  stone  pillars,  a  monument  to  the  memory 
of  its  constructor. — Newton  evidently  conceived 
that  the  prismatic  rays  of  light,  once  separated, 
could  not  be  recomposed  into  white  light  ex 
cept  by  the  same  refraction  that  had  separated 
them,  and  that  therefore  the  removal  of  these 
colors  from  a  telescopic  image  was  impossible. 
The  weight  of  Newton's  authority  was  suffi 
cient  for  a  time  to  repress  further  investiga 
tions  in  this  direction  ;  and  it  was  not  till  1729 
that  an  Englishman  named  Hall,  guided,  it  is 
said,  by  a  study  of  the  mechanism  of  the  eye, 
was  led  to  a  plan  of  combining  lenses  so  as  to 
produce  an  image  free  from  colors.  Telescopes 
were  made  according  to  his  directions,  and 
were  said  to  perform  well ;  but  the  secret  of 
their  construction  died  with  him,  and  no  public 
account  of  the  facts  was  given  until  called  forth 
by  later  occurrences.  In  1747  Euler,  referring 
to  the  construction  of  the  human  eye,  declared 
that  a  combination  of  lenses  of  different  media 
was  possible  which  should  give  a  colorless  im 
age,  and  investigated  analytically  the  curvatures 
for  a  lens  compounded  of  glass  and  water.  His 
result  was  questioned  by  the  man  from  whom 
opposition  might  have  been  least  expected, 
John  Dollond,  who,  relying  too  implicitly  upon 
Newton's  dictum,  was  contending  against  his 
own  future  fame.  But  he  was  soon  led  to  con 
sider  the  subject  more  attentively  by  the  remark 
of  a  Swedish  mathematician,  that  there  were 
certainly  some  cases  to  which  Newton's  rules 
did  not  apply.  He  undertook  experiments,  at 
first  with  prisms  of  glass  and  water,  and  soon 
found  that  when  the  prisms  were  so  combined 
that  the  rays  passed  through  without  refrac 
tion,  they  were  tinged  with  the  colors ;  next, 
arranging  the  prisms  so  that  the  rays  appeared 
without  colors,  he  found  them  displaced  by 
refraction.  He  arrived  at  the  same  results  by 
using  prisms  of  crown  and  flint  glass.  From 
prisms  to  lenses  the  transition  was  easy,  and 
his  triumph  was  finally  completed,  when,  hav 
ing  combined  a  convex  lens  of  crown  glass 
with  a  suitable  concave  of  flint,  he  was  able  to 
correct  the  colors  and  leave  sufficient  refrac 
tion  outstanding  to  produce  a  telescopic  image. 
Euler  still  believed  all  kinds  of  glass  alike  in 
their  optical  properties,  and  that  it  was  only 
some  happy  combination  of  curvatures  at  which 
Dollond  had  arrived ;  but  his  doubts  soon  gave 
way  before  experience,  and  the  masterly  pow 
ers  of  his  analysis  were  brought  to  bear  suc 
cessfully  upon  the  problem  of  the  compound 


|  object  glasses.  The  subject  attracted  univer 
sal  attention,  and  mathematicians  everywhere 
contributed  toward  perfecting  by  theory  the 
requisite  conditions  of  curvature  of  the  lenses. 
The  new  telescopes  were  called  achromatic,  or 
free  from  color,  and  henceforth  the  "  dispersive 
power  "  of  any  medium,  by  virtue  of  which  the 
differently  colored  rays  are  differently  refract- 
i  ed  (that  is,  are  dispersed  from  each  other),  was 
I  recognized  as  independent  of  the  "refractive 
j  power,"  by  virtue  of  which  the  whole  pencil  is 
I  diverted  from  its  original  source.  Attempting, 
in  1758,  to  make  double  object  glasses  of  short 
focal  distance  to  be  used  with  a  concave  eye 
lens,  Dollond  found  difficulties  in  the  manage 
ment  of  the  spherical  aberration,  and  there- 
.upon  the  idea  occurred  to  him  of  dividing  this 
aberration  by  having  two  lenses  of  crown 
glass  and  including  the  flint  lens  between 
them ;  an  arrangement  which  accomplished 
the  purpose  in  view,  but  did  not  succeed 
with  convex  eye  pieces  also.  His  son  Peter 
resumed  these  experiments,  and  presented  to 
the  royal  society  of  London  a  triple  object 
glass  of  3-^-  ft.  focal  length  and  3f  in.  aperture, 
with  which  the  telescopic  image  was  pro 
nounced  by  Short,  an  excellent  judge,  to  be 
"  distinct,  bright,  and  free  from  colors."  A 
beautiful  suggestion  was  made  by  Wollaston 
of  a  means  of  testing  and  correcting  the  con 
centric  adjustment  of  lenses.  By  removing 
the  eye  glass  of  a  telescope  and  viewing  any 
bright  object,  as  a  lighted  candle,  through 
the  object  glass,  there  may  be  observed  at  the 
same  time  with  the  refracted  image  a  series  of 
fainter  images  formed  by  the  second  reflec 
tions  from  the  different  surfaces.  It  is  evident, 
then,  that  if  the  glasses  be  truly  centred,  these 
images  will  all  be  in  the  same  straight  line;  or 
if  there  be  any  error  of  position  of  either  lens, 
it  will  be  decidedly  manifested,  and  by  proper 
adjusting  screws  may  be  corrected  according 
ly. — Among  the  many  mathematical  solutions 
of  the  new  problem  of  the  object  glasses  were 
the  precepts  given  by  Kliigel,  in  his  ''Diop 
trics,"  viz.:  1,  that  the  radii  of  curvature  of 
the  first,  or  crown  lens,  should  be  such  that 
the  angles  of  the  incident  ray  with  the  nor 
mal  would  be  equal  at  both  surfaces,  which 
would  give  for  crown  glass  a  ratio  of  nearly 
1  to  3 ;  2,  the  radius  of  the  third  surface,  the 
first  of  the  flint  lens,  should  be  such  that  the 
rays  of  mean  refrangibility  passing  through 
both  the  centre  and  edge  of  the  lens  would 
unite  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  part 
of  the  axis,  so  that  the  spherical  aberration 
would  be  sensibly  destroyed;  and  3,  having 
determined  the  outstanding  dispersion  for  the 
red  and  violet  rays,  the  fourth  surface  should 
be  made  such  as  to  unite  these  rays  as  near 
ly  as  possible  in  the  same  point  with  the  rest. 
Early  in  1810  Bohnenberger,  commenting  upon 
these  precepts,  showed  that,  by  changing  the 
ratio  of  the  first  two  surfaces  from  %  to  f,  the 
proportion  of  aperture  to  focal  length  could 
be  materially  increased  without  prejudice  to 


TELESCOPE 


627 


the  performance  of  the  instrument.  Not  long 
afterward  Gauss  remarked  that  it  was  possi 
ble,  theoretically,  to  construct  an  object  glass 
which  would  unite  all  the  rays  of  any  two 
colors  as  well  as  the  mean  rays  at  the  centre 
and  at  a  given  distance  therefrom  into  one  and 
the  same  point.  Both  lenses  should  be  con 
cavo-convex.  With  a  proportion  of  aperture 
to  focal  length  of  T^  he  obtained  an  almost 
perfect  union  of  rays.  The  unusually  deep 
curvatures  of  the  lenses  seem  to  have  occa 
sioned  some  scruples  on  the  part  of  opticians, 
and  this  construction  remained  almost  for 
gotten  for  40  years,  until  Steinheil  found  and 
conquered  the  practical  difficulty,  and  in  1860 
arrived  at  complete  success  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  Gaussian  object  glasses. — The  proper 
construction  of  eye  pieces  was  also  a  mat 
ter  of  some  consideration.  Besides  the  Huy- 
genian  form,  which  is  only  applicable  for 
viewing  objects,  Ramsden  in  17.83  introduced 
another,  which  is  still  used  in  micrometer  ob 
servations.  It  consists  of  two  plano-convex 
lenses,  of  equal  focus,  with  their  convex  sur 
faces  toward  each  other,  and  separated  by  a  dis 
tance  of  two  thirds  of  the  common  focal  length. 
By  this  arrangement,  to  which  he  was  guided 
by  a  remark  of  Newton,  the  essential  condi 
tion  of  a  "flat  field"  is  gained,  and  the  aberra 
tions,  chromatic  and  spherical,  are  so  much  re 
duced  as  to  be  practically  insensible.  For  ter 
restrial  observations,  the  elder  Dollond  sought 
to  reduce  aberrations  and  enlarge  the  field  of 
view  by  increasing  the  number  of  lenses,  and, 
after  improving  the  four-glass  eye  pieces  al 
ready  in  use,  obtained  by  adding  a  fifth  lens  a 
combination  which  very  satisfactorily  effected 
both  the  desired  objects. — Joseph  Fraunhofer 
studied  the  theory  of  light  and  the  laws  to 
which  it  is  subject  in  transmission  through 
various  media,  and  solved  the  difficulty  of 
procuring  disks  of  homogeneous  flint  glass. 
The  process  by  which  his  glass  was  manufac 
tured  is  kept  a  secret,  but  it  is  generally  un 
derstood  that  the  disks  themselves  are  obtained 
by  selecting  and  melting  together  the  most 
faultless  specimens  from  larger  masses  of  the 
best  glass,  whose  constituent  parts  however 
are  not  known.  Having  now  the  glass,  he 
well  knew  how  to  combine  curvatures  to  suit 
its  peculiar  properties,  and  the  results  are  to 
be  found  all  over  Europe.  lie  completed  in 
1824  the  splendid  telescope  for  the  observatory 
at  Dorpat.  The  object  glass  of  this  instrument, 
double  and  not  triple  as  sometimes  stated,  has 
a  clear  aperture  of  9'6  in.,  and  a  focal  length 
of  170*5  in.  Its  optical  performance  is  of  the 
highest  character.  It  gave  to  the  stellar  im 
ages  a  perfect  sharpness  of  definition,  which 
enabled  it  not  only  to  resolve  the  closest  known 
double  stars,  but  also  to  discover  as  double  or 
multiple  others  that  had  passed  unchallenged 
before  the  exquisite  20-foot  reflectors  and  the 
practised  eye  of  the  younger  Herschel.  Fraun- 
hofer's  style  of  "mounting"  the  telescope  re 
mains  to  this  day  essentially  unimproved. — 


The  manufacture  of  optical  glass  has  received 
much  attention  in  England.  In  1824  a  com 
mittee  was  appointed  by  the  royal  society  to 
take  into  consideration  the  theory  and  to  ex 
periment  upon  the  manufacture  of  such  glass. 
The  chief  labor  devolved  upon  three  members, 
G.  Dollond,  Faraday,  and  Herschel.  The  first 
results  were  reported  to  the  society  in  1829. 
The  efforts  of  this  committee  were  directed  to 
the  manufacture  of  very  heavy  glass,  and  they 
obtained  disks  of  7  in.,  which  seemed,  so  far 
as  tried,  to  answer  all  the  requirements  of  the 
telescope.  Dr.  Ritchie  also  devoted  much  at 
tention  for  several  years  to  the  same  subject, 
and  with  considerable  success,  but  was  pre 
vented  by  premature  death  from  publication 
of  any  of  his  processes.  Judging  by  the  appear 
ance  of  Ritchie's  glass,  Mr.  Simms  inferred 
that  it  had  been  fused  in  moulds  and  there  sub 
jected  to  pressure.  The  largest  disk  had  Tf 
in.  diameter,  and  was  ground  for  use  by  Simms 
himself.  It  was  found  to  be  "an  excellent 
glass,  but  not  altogether  faultless."  The  idea 
occurred  to  some  that  the  desired  achroma- 
ticity  might  be  obtained  by  separating  the 
lenses  and  placing  the  flint  at  some  distance 
down  the  tube  in  the  narrowing  cone  of 
rays.  In  1828  Alexander  Rogers  proposed 
to  introduce  in  combination  with  the  crown 
lens  a  smaller  compound  lens  of  plate  and 
flint  glass,  in  which  the  refraction  is  en 
tirely  destroyed,  and  the  outstanding  disper 
sion  left  available  for  the  desired  correction  of 
that  of  the  outer  lens.  The  investigation  of 
the  requisite  curvatures  of  this  compound  lens 
was  found  to  present  no  peculiar  difficulty  ; 
and  moreover  the  final  perfection  of  the  com 
pensating  action  could  be  accomplished  by 
proper  adjustment  of  the  relative  positions 
of  the  lenses,  so  that  less  rigorous  accuracy 
is  requisite  in  their  mechanical  formation. 
Rogers  found  it  probable  that  a  telescope  of 
18  ft.  focal  length,  with  a  crown  lens  of  12 
in.  aperture,  could  be  made  achromatic  with  a 
flint  lens  only  4  in.  in  diameter;  and  four  years 
later  this  construction  was  introduced  into  use 
by  Plossl  at  Vienna  with  much  success.  It 
received  the  name  of  "dialytic"  or  separated 
telescope.  One  of  these  telescopes,  in  the 
possession  of  Schumacher,  having  an  aperture 
of  2£  in.  and  focal  length  of  2  ft.,  was  de 
scribed  by  him  as  of  extraordinary  excellence 
of  defining  power.  Struve  compared  a  dialytic 
telescope  of  3£  in.  aperture,  bearing  a  magni 
fying  power  of  135,  with  a  Fraunhofer  tel 
escope  of  half  an  inch  greater  aperture  and 
a  power  of  210,  and  was  scarcely  able  to  per 
ceive  any  superiority  in  the  latter.  Telescopes 
with  lenses  of  rock  crystal  and  glass  were 
advertised  to  be  made  in  Paris  by  Cauchoix 
in  1831,  and  some  few  came  into  favorable 
notice ;  but  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  ma 
terials  in  proper  shape  and  size  will  be  a  per 
manent  obstacle  to  their  general  manufacture. 
It  had  long  been  observed  that,  even  in  the 
best  telescopes,  there  were  residual  colors  hav- 


628 


TELESCOPE 


ing  their  origin  in  the  want  of  a  perfect  cor 
relation  of  the  colored  spaces  in  the  spectra 
formed  by  the  crown  and  flint  lens;  so  that 
if  any  two  colors  be  made  to  unite  at  the  same 
focus,  as  in  ordinary  object  glasses,  there  would 
not  be  at  the  same  time  a  complete  union  of 
the  rest.  This  want  of  correlation  is  called 
the  "irrationality"  of  the  colored  spaces,  and 
its  effect  is  called  the  "secondary  spectrum." 
Dr.  Blair,  to  overcome  this  effect,  first  made 
each  of  the  lenses  of  his  object  glass  indepen 
dently  achromatic,  and  in  such  a  way  that  their 
secondary  spectra  corrected  each  other.  This 
he  accomplished  by  using  fluid  media,  two 
lenses  of  which  were  enclosed  in  combination 
with  three  of  glass.  Moreover,  in  the  course 
of  his  experiments,  he  discovered  that  muri 
atic  acid  combined  in  proper  proportions  with 
metallic  antimony  gave  a  spectrum  in  which 
the  colors  had  exactly  the  same  proportions  as 
in  crown  glass ;  and  therefore  by  enclosing 
this  fluid  between  two  crown  lenses,  one  a 
plano-convex  and  the  other  a  meniscus-,  he  ob 
tained  a  telescope  absolutely  free  from  colors. 
The  name  "aplanatic,"  or  without  error,  was 
given  to  this  combination.  Another  fluid-lens 
telescope,  of  the  dialytic  form,  was  constructed 
by  Barlow,  who  made  use  of  the  high  disper 
sive  power  of  sulphuret  of  carbon,  a  beauti 
fully  transparent  and  colorless  fluid.  lie  was 
able  to  render  achromatic  a  combination  of  a 
crown  lens  8  in.  in  diameter  with  a  fluid  lens 
of  half  the  size.  There  is  however  a  practi 
cal  objection  to  the  use  of  sulphuret  of  carbon 
arising  from  the  variability  of  its  density  by 
variations  of  temperature. — Reverting  to  what 
may  be  called  the  regular  construction  of  achro- 
matics,  we  find  that  the  successors  of  Fraun- 
hofer  at  Munich,  and  Guinand  and  Cauchoix 
at  Paris,  have  produced  object  glasses  of  di 
mensions  far  superior  to  those  of  the  Dorpat 
lens.  Disks  of  10,  12,  and  even  more  inches 
in  diameter  have  become  familiar  to  these 
master  opticians,  whose  skill  in  working  them 
keeps  even  pace  with  their  manufacture ;  and 
in  three  Munich  telescopes,  two  with  more 
than  15  in.  of  clear  aperture,  one  at  Pulkova, 
another  at  the  observatory  of  Harvard  col 
lege,  and  the  third  at  Greenwich  (aperture  13 
in.),  have  been  in  use  for  years.  The  two  for 
mer  have  been  the  means  of  adding  largely  to 
the  stores  of  astronomical  knowledge ;  the 
Greenwich  telescope  has  not  been  much  used. 
—The  few  attempts  made  in  the  United  States 
to  manufacture  optical  flint  glass  have  hither 
to  been  but  partially  successful,  and  that  with 
only  small  disks;  but  the  American-wrought 
object  glasses  have  earned  for  themselves  a 
high  place.  Many  have  been  made  in  New 
York  by  Henry  Fitz,  whose  largest  glass,  13 
in.  in  diameter,  was  made  for  the  Dudley  ob 
servatory  at  Albany.  Spencer,  famous  for  the 
excellence  of  his  microscopic  objectives,  made 
for^  Hamilton  college  a  ISf-inch  telescope, 
which  is  highly  commended.  But  in  exqui- 
siteness  of  workmanship  and  performance,  the 


object  glasses  made  by  Alvan  Clark  of  Cam 
bridge,  Mass.,  have  fairly  distanced  all  competi 
tors,  native  or  foreign.  Whoever  will  glance 
over  the  list  of  close  double  stars  discovered 
with  his  7-  and  8-inch  lenses  (see  "  American 
Journal  of  Science,"  vols.  xxv.  and  xxix.)  will 
remark  several  stars  that  must  have  passed 
unnoticed  under  the  review  of  Struve  with  his 
superior  optical  power.  (See  CLARK,  ALVAN.) 
Mr.  Dawes,  one  of  the  most  skilful  astronomi 
cal  observers  of  his  day,  took  in  succession  five 
or  six  large  refractors  from  Clark  (disposing 
of  each  in  favor  of  a  successor  including  some 
improvement  of  construction  which  had  sug 
gested  itself),  and  these,  scattered  throughout 
England,  attested  the  skill  of  the  American 
optician  in  the  special  work  of  figuring  object 
glasses,  in  which  at  present  he  and  his  sons 
are  unrivalled.  In  1859  Clark  began  the  con 
struction  of  a  magnificent  object  glass  of  18-£- 
in.  clear  -aperture  and  with  a  focal  distance 
of  23  ft.,  at  that  time  the  largest  in  the  world. 
It  was  made  from  disks  of  Birmingham  glass, 
which  have  a  uniform  density  and  freedom 
from  veins,  and,  though  only  rudely  mounted 
at  first,  quickly  revealed  the  duplicity  of  the 
minute  companion  of  a"  Capricorni.  In  Janu 
ary,  1802,  it  detected  a  companion  to  >3irius, 
perhaps  the  hitherto  invisible  one  whose  work 
ings  have  been  indirectly  manifested  in  the 
variable  movement  of  the  larger  star.  This 
masterpiece,  prevented  from  reaching  its  ori 
ginal  destination,  was  secured  for  the  Chicago 
observatory.  In  1870  Clark  was  authorized 
by  congress  to  begin  the  construction  of  a 
telescope  24  in.  in  aperture  for  the  Washington 
observatory ;  but  before  the  work  was  entered 
upon,  the  proposed  aperture  was  changed  to  26 
in.,  Mr.  Newall  of  Gateshead,  England,  having 
had  a  glass  constructed  for  him  by  Cooke  and 
sons,  York,  of  the  hitherto  unequalled  aperture 
of  25  in.  The  disks  of  glass,  obtained  by 
Clark  from  Chance  and  co.  of  Birmingham, 
reached  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  December,  1871, 
and  the  grinding  was  begun  in  January,  1872. 
"  Owing  to  the  great  size  of  the  glasses,"  says 
Prof.  Newcomb,  "the  first  rough  grinding  was 
done  by  machinery,  the  '  grindstone '  being  a 
rapidly  revolving  iron  wheel,  over  which  a 
stream  of  water  and  sand  was  kept  running. 
The  glasses  were  thus  roughly  brought  to  the 
desired  shape  in  a  few  days.  The  forms  chosen 
were  much  more  simple-  than  those  usually 
employed  in  large  glasses,  the  crown  glass  be 
ing  double  convex,  with  an  equal  curvature 
on  each  face ;  the  flint  nearly  plane  on  one 
side,  while  the  other  was  concave,  with  the 
same  curvature  as  the  crown  glass.  ...  In 
the  month  of  June,  1872,  the  glass  was  in 
such  good  shape  that  only  an  expert  could  see 
any  defect  whatever.  Looking  through  it  we 
could  read,  at  the  distance  of  some  400  ft.,  a 
microscopic  photograph  illegible  to  the  naked 
eye.  .  .  .  Artificial  double  stars,  one  third  of 
a  second  apart,  were  clearly  separated.  In 
hands  less  severely  critical  than  those  of  the 


TELESCOPE 


G29 


makers  it  would  have  passed  as  optically  per 
fect.  Nevertheless  four  months  more  were 
spent  on  it,  and  it  was  not  till  October  that  it 
was  reported  finished.  .  .  .  The  influence  of 
temperature  on  its  figure  was  now  quite  per 
ceptible.  In  the  evening,  while  temperature 
was  falling,  the  defect  of  the  spherical  aberra 
tion  was  one  way,  but  after  it  became  station 
ary  the  defect  was  slightly  in  the  opposite 
direction."  The  telescope  was  mounted  at 
Washington  in  1874,  and  though  as  yet  it  has 
achieved  no  noteworthy  discovery,  the  ease 
with  which  it  has  gone  through  the  work 
which  had  been  usually  regarded  as  closely 
testing  the  powers  of  the  largest  telescopes 
shows  what  it  is  capable  of. — In  England,  the 
attention  of  the  mechanical  astronomers,  if  we 
may  so  call  them,  has  been  of  late  years  more 
especially  occupied  with  the  construction  of 
large  reflecting  telescopes,  and  preeminent  in 
this  department  was  Lord  Rosse,  who  about 
1844  completed  a  telescope  which  has  a  clear 
aperture  of  6  ft.  and  a  focal  length  of  53  ft. 
This  enormous  instrument  has  two  specula,  one 
about  3^  and  the  other  about  4  tons  in  weight. 
At  first  each  rested  upon  a  system  of  27  plat 
forms  most  ingeniously  arranged  to  distribute 
their  support  of  this  enormous  weight  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  produce  equal  pressure  in  every 
position  of  the  instrument.  A  strong  pressure 
of  the  hand  at  the  back  of  a  speculum  4  tons 
in  weight  and  nearly  6  in.  thick  produces  flex 
ure  sufficient  to  distort  the  image  of  a  star. 
At  a  later  period  27  triangles,  each  with  a  ball 
at  each  angle,  were  substituted  for  the  plat 
forms,  so  that  now  the  speculum  rolls  freely 
on  81  balls.  The  tube  of  the  telescope  is  sup 
ported  upon  a  massive  universal  joint  of  cast 
iron  resting  upon  a  pier  of  stonework,  and  it 
is  so  counterpoised  by  a  chain  suspension  ap 
plied  at  the  centre  of  gravity  that  it  can  be 
moved  with  great  facility,  a  quick  motion  being- 
given  by  a  windlass  below,  and  a  controlling 
slow  motion  in  either  direction  by  the  hand  of 
the  observer  above.  Various  micrometers  have 
been  tried  with  this  instrument,  but  the  com 
mon  filar  micrometer  with  coarse  threads  an 
swers  best ;  and  such  is  the  quantity  of  light 
collected  by  the  immense  reflecting  surface 
below,  that  the  threads  in  the  micrometer  are 
always  distinctly  visible  without  artificial  il 
lumination  even  in  the  darkest  night.  The 
general  processes  of  casting,  grinding,  and  fig 
uring  these  large  specula  are  described  in  the 
article  SPECULUM.  Several  other  large  reflec 
tors  have  been  constructed  by  Lassell,  De  la 
Rue,  and  Nasmyth ;  and  the  first  of  these 
transported  to  Malta  a  Newtonian  telescope  4 
ft.  in  diameter.  De  la  Rue  successfully  applied 
his  large  telescopes  to  celestial  photography,  in 
which  he  has  made  many  important  improve 
ments. — The  manufacture  of  reflecting  tele 
scopes  with  glass  specula  received  a  new  im 
pulse  from  the  discovery  by  Liebig  of  a  process 
of  coating  glass  with  an  infinitesimal  film  of 
pure  metallic  silver.  From  the  first  days  of 


reflectors,  as  early  as  Newton,  we  find  a  prop 
osition  to  substitute  a  silvered  lens  for  the 
metallic  mirror  of  his  telescope,  on  account  of 
the  greater  perfection  with  w^hich  glass  could 
be  wrought,  and  the  greater  durability  of  the 
polished  surface.  In  1740  Caleb  Smith  showed 
how,  with  glass  mirrors  silvered  upon  the  pos 
terior  surface,  the  rays  of  different  refrangi- 
bility,  after  twice  passing  through  the  glass, 
and  thus  becoming  separated,  might  be  united 
again  by  the  action  of  a  small  concave  lens 
placed  not  far  from  the  focus  of  the  mirror. 
The  elder  Herschel  sometimes  used  glass  reflec 
tors  for  his  smaller  telescopes.  In  1822  Airy 
proposed  a  combination  of  two  silvered  lenses 
in  the  Gregorian  or  Cassegrainian  form,  and 
showed  how,  by  proper  mutual  adjustment  of 
the  two,  a  perfect  achromatism  might  be  ob 
tained.  In  1838,  and  again  in  1841,  Barfuss 
of  Weimar  found  that,  of  the  various  forms  of 
reflectors,  the  Cassegrainian  was  best  adapted 
for  glass  mirrors.  He  demonstrated  that  in 
this  form  both  chromatic  and  spherical  aberra 
tion  may  be  sensibly  corrected  in  a  telescope 
of  20  in.  focus  with  full  5  in.  aperture,  and 
that  such  a  telescope  would  bear  even  a  power 
of  600.  But  by  Liebig's  discovery  a  still  better 
field  has  been  opened.  His  process  consists 
in  precipitating  the  silver  upon  the  glass  surface 
from  an  alkaline  solution  prepared  by  addition 
of  caustic  soda  to  the  ammonio-nitrate.  After 
immersing  the  glass  for  about  three  quarters 
of  an  hour,  an  extremely  thin  and  regular  film 
is  obtained,  which  has  a  slight  bronzy  hue  by 
reflected  light,  and  will  transmit  a  deep  blue 
light  when  interposed  between  the  sun  and 
the  eye.  This  film  is  said  to  be  harder  than 
ordinary  silver,  and,  by  friction  with  soft 
leather  and  perhaps  a  little  dry  rouge,  is  sus 
ceptible  of  receiving  the  most  brilliant  polish 
externally,  while  it  answers  perfectly  in  figure 
to  that  of  the  glass  beneath.  Foucault  has 
also  made  use  of  a  similar  process  (see  SPECU 
LUM),  and  succeeded  in  constructing  telescopes 
of  considerable  dimensions.  One  was  made 
by  him  of  13  in.  aperture  and  only  88  in.  focus, 
with  which,  under  a  magnifying  power  of  600, 
he  could  separate  the  components  of  the  small 
companion  of  7  Andromeda.  Steinheil,  in 
vestigating  the  relative  reflecting  power  of  a 
speculum  coated  by  this  new  process,  as  com 
pared  with  others  and  with  the  transmitting 
power  of  some  object  glasses,  found  that,  under 
an  ande  of  reflection,  of  45°,  the  amount  of 


brightness  obtained  was  as  follows  : 


Direct  light 

Silvered  mirror 

Quicksilvered  glass 

Metallic  miruor,  one  reflection 


Ilerschel  gives  also : 

Newtonian  telescope 

Gregorian  or  Cassegrainian 

Steinheil : 


100 
91 


67 


Object  glass  by  Fraunhofer  transmits 7C 

Object  glass  by  Steinheil 87 


630 


TELESCOPE 


We  are  now  able  to  substitute  for  the  heavy 
and  intractable  speculum  metal  a  disk  of  glass 
which  is  far  easier  to  cast  and  anneal,  and  be 
ing  much  firmer  can  be  made  of  less  than  half 
the  weight  of  the  metallic  mirrors. — The  helio 
scope,  for  observing  the  sun,  is  a  telescope  with 
the  aperture  diminished  as  much  as  possible, 
and  usually  provided  with  shades  of  stained 
glass  to  protect  the  eye.  Still,  great  inconve 
nience  is  felt  from  the  intense  heating  .pow 
er  of  the  concentrated  solar  rays.  Sir  John 
Herschel  proposed  to  use  only  the  very  small 
portion  of  light  reflected  from  the  first  surface 
of  glass,  by  constructing  the  large  mirror  of  a 
Newtonian  telescope  of  a  double-concave,  well 
polished  lens,  whose  first  surface  only  is  tru 
ly  figured  to  serve  as  reflector  for  the  2 -6  per 
cent,  of  rays  untransmitted  and  unabsorbed. 
The  lower  end  of  the  telescope  tube  being  left 
open,  all  the  remainder  of  the  light  passes  out 
and  is  dispersed.  But  even  the  small  amount 
of  reflected  rays  is  still  further  reduced  by  the 
second  reflection,  which  is  made  to  take  place 
at  the  first  surface  of  a  prism  whose  refracting 
angle  should  not  be  less  than  30°  or  40°,  so 
that  now  the  portion  of  light  finally  reaching 
the  observer  is  but  T-gVo  °^  the  direct  illumina 
tion,  in  consequence  of  which  immense  reduc 
tion  a  very  light  shade  only  is  needed.  Porro 
of  Paris,  in  constructing  a  telescope  upon  this 
principle,  improved  it  by  placing  the  prism  for 
the  second  reflection  at  the  polarizing  angle 
for  glass,  whereby,  upon  introducing  a  Nicol's 
prism,  the  light  may  be  enfeebled'as  much  as  de 
sired  without  using  any  shade  at  all. — The  great 
requisites  of  a  telescope  stand  are  firmness  and 
stability,  combined  with  a  facility  of  motion 
which  will  allow  the  instrument  to  be  pointed 
with  ease  and  certainty  to  any  part  of  the 
heavens.  Fraunhofer,  whose  plan  is  now  gen 
erally  followed,  adopted  the  equatorial  form, 
as  it  is  called,  which  consists  essentially  of  a 
polar  axis  upon  which  the  whole  instrument 
is  moved  parallel  with  the  celestial  equator, 
and  which  carries  in  a  socket  another  axis  at 
right  angles  to  itself,  upon  which  latter  the 
telescope  moves  from  or  toward  the  pole.  By 
the  combined  motions  command  of  the  whole 
visible  hemisphere  is  given,  and  with  the  ad 
vantage  that,  the  instrument  being  once  di 
rected  to  a  star,  the  observer  can  follow  it  in 
its  diurnal  path  by  motion  upon  the  polar  axis 
alone;  moreover,  by  application  of  a  simple 
train  of  wheelwork  this  motion  can  be  effect 
ed  by  machinery,  and  the  observer  is  thus  en 
abled  at  his  leisure  to  contemplate  or  to  mea 
sure  the  objects  which  appear  fixed  as  though 
in  an  immovable  sky.  In  the  immense  English 
reflectors,  the  lower  end  of  the  tube  rests  upon 
the  ground  or  some  solid  support,  and  even 
then  for  the  needful  motions  of  the  instrument 
powerful  appliances  of  machinery  have  been 
required ;  but  in  latter  days  mechanical  engi 
neers  have  been  able  so  to  combine  and  coun 
terpoise  great  masses  of  cast-iron  machinery 
as  to  effect  with  wonderful  ease  every  delicate 


movement  desired  by  the  astronomer,  and  now 
the  idea  of  mounting  even  these  large  tele 
scopes  equatorially  is  growing  familiar.  The 
application  of  clockwork  movement  to  such 
large  reflectors  renders  it  practicable  to  use 
them  for  celestial  photography,  as  well  as  for 
some  'extremely  delicate  astronomical  mea 
surements. — The  application  of  the  telescope 
to  meridian  instruments  will  be  exemplified  in 
the  article  TRANSIT  CIRCLE  ;  but  the  telescope 
is  also  universally  used  for  differential  mea 
surements.  For  such  observations  various 
modifications  or  appliances  have  been  from 
time  to  time  suggested  or  practised.  The 
filar  micrometer  is  the  most  common  auxilia 
ry  of  the  telescope,  and  in  skilful  hands  is  ca 
pable  of  astonishing  accuracy.  (See  MICROM 
ETER.)  Great  use  has  also  been  made  of  the 
power  of  producing  and  comparing  together 
double  images  of  the  objects  to  be  measured. 
These  double  images  are  produced  in  various 
ways.  Savery  in  England  in  1743,  and  Bou- 
guer  in  France  four  years  later,  proposed,  in 
dependently  of  each  other,  to  measure  the  di 
ameter  of  the  sun  by  using  two  object  glasses 
in  the  same  telescope  and  with  the  same  eye 
piece.  In  Savery's  plan  the  glasses  were  all 
fixed  so  as  to  give  two  images  of  the  sun 
whose  outer  edges  were  nearly  in  contact; 
and  by  measuring  the  variable  distance  of 
these  edges,  he  obtained  the  corresponding 
variations  of  the  semi-diameter  from  perigee 
to  apogee.  Bouguer  made  one  of  his  object 
glasses  movable,  and  thus  could  measure  any 
angle  from  zero  to  his  maximum  limit,  which 
was  probably  somewhat  greater  than  the  sun's 
diameter.  In  1753  John  Dollond  invented  the 
divided-object-glass  micrometer,  which  has  in 
later  years,  under  the  technical  name  of  heli- 
ometer,  achieved  such  wonders  in  the  hands 
of  Bessel  and  his  followers.  In  this  instru 
ment  the  object  glass  itself  when  finished  is 
divided  into  two  equal  segments,  each  of  which 
forms  its  image  independently  of  the  other. 
When  the  semi-lenses  are  brought  to  their 
normal  position  of  coincidence,  the  two  im 
ages  coincide  also;  but  when  separated,  the 
images  diverge,  and  the  angle  of  divergence 
is  measured  by  the  amount  of  separation  of 
the  lenses.  Thus  the  apparent  diameter  of  a 
planet,  for  instance,  is  obtained  by  separating 
the  images  until  their  outer  edges  are  in  exact 
contact,  and  this  may  be  more  accurately  per 
ceived  than  the  coincidence  of  the  edge  with 
a  fine  thread  placed  tangent  to  it  as  in  the 
filar  micrometer.  Dollond  proposed  moreover 
to  gain  both  accuracy  and  convenience  of  use 
by  placing  a  divided  object  glass  of  very  long 
focus  before  the  speculum  of  a  reflecting  tele 
scope,  which  would  give  a  larger  scale  for  the 
measurement  of  a  given  angle  than  would  be 
long  to  a  simple  telescope  of  the  same  length. 
Fraunhofer  was  at  the  time  of  his  death  en 
gaged  in  devising  a  heliometer  which,  when 
afterward  completed,  Avas  placed  at  Konigs- 
berg.  Bessel,  whose  "  Theory  of  the  Heliom- 


TELESCOPE 


TELL 


631 


eter  "  is  one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  beau 
tiful  monographs  of  astronomy,  was  able  with 
this  instrument  to  grapple  successfully  with 
that  even  now  most  difficult  practical  problem, 
the  measurement  of  the  parallax  of  a  fixed 
star.  Several  attempts  have  also  been  made,  as 
by  Rochon,  Maskelyne,  and  Boscovich,  to  pro 
duce  the  double  images  by  refraction  through 
prisms  or  pairs  of  prisms,  either  beyond  the 
object  glass  or  sliding  within  the  tube,  as  well 
as  by  dividing  the  small  mirror  of  reflecting 
telescopes,  as  Ramsden  suggested  for  the  Cas- 
segraimaii  form,  and  Brewster  for  the  New 
tonian.  Divided-eye-lens  micrometers  have 
also  been  made,  the  best  form  of  which  is 
that  given  by  Airy,  who  found  the  four-glass 
eye  piece  best  adapted  for  this  purpose,  and 
divided  the  second  lens,  counting  from  the 
object  glass.  But  in  all  the  arrangements  of 
divided  lenses  an  essential  imperfection  arises 
from  the  exhibition  of  color  and  of  some  dif 
fraction  in  the  direction  at  right  angles  to  that 
of  the  line  of  separation,  and  this  practical 
inconvenience  may  be  seriously  felt  in  some 
classes  of  observations.  On  this  account,  it 
will  probably  yet  be  found  most  advantageous 
to  make  use  of  the  double-refracting  property 
of  certain  crystals  for  the  separation  of  im 
ages. — This  account  would  be  imperfect  with 
out  a  sketch  of  the  particular  form  of  tele 
scope  employed  by  the  American  observing 
parties  in  photographing  the  recent  transit  of 
Venus.  What  was  required  was  a  large  im 
age  of  the  sun  at  the  focus  of  the  object  glass, 
or  the  principal  focus  as  it  is  called.  The  size 
of  this  image  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
focal  length,  and  a  focal  length  of  about  40 
ft.  \vas  required  to  give  the  image  the  desired 
dimensions.  It  would  clearly  have  been  im 
possible  to  provide  telescopes  of  this  length 
for  distant  stations,  even  if  at  Washington, 
Greenwich,  or  Paris  instruments  of  such  di 
mensions  could  be  so  driven  by  clockwork 
that  the  tube  should  remain  constantly  direct 
ed  toward  the  sun.  It  became  necessary, 
therefore,  to  make  use  of  a  heliostat,  or  plain 
mirror,  so  worked  by  a  driving  apparatus  as 
to  deflect  the  sun's  rays  constantly  in  the  same 
horizontal  direction.  The  construction,  of  a 
plane  mirror  sufficiently  true  for  this  purpose 
was  a  task  which  fully  taxed  the  skill  even  of 
Alvan  Clark  and  his  sons.  "The  slightest  de 
viation  from  exactness,"  as  Newcomb  points 
out,  "  would  be  fatal ;  for  instance,  if  a  straight 
edge  laid  upon  the  glass  should  touch  at  the 
edges,  but  be  the  100,000th  of  an  inch  above 
it  at  the  centre,  the  reflector  would  be  use 
less."  The  mirrors  were  tested  by  observing 
objects  through  a  telescope,  first  directly  and 
then  by  reflection  from  the  mirror.  If  they 
were  seen  with  equally  good  definition  in  the 
two  cases,  it  would  show  that  there  were  no 
irregularities  in  the  surface  of  the  mirror ; 
while  if  it  were  concave  or  convex,  the  focus 
of  the  telescope  would  seem  shortened  or 
lengthened.  The  first  test  was  sustained  per 


fectly,  while  the  circles  of  convexity  or  con 
cavity  indicated  by  the  changes  of  focus  of 
the  photographic  telescope  were  many  miles 
in  diameter.  During  the  total  eclipse  of 
April,  1875,  the  heliostat  again  came  into  play 
for  photographic  purposes,  but  unsuccessfully 
because  of  unwise  arrangements. 

TELFAIR,  a  S.  county  of  Georgia,  bound 
ed  S.  and  W.  by  the  Ocmulgee  and  N.  E.  by 
the  Little  Ocmulgee  river;  area,  925  sq.  in.; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,245,  of  whom  1,145  were  col 
ored.  The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  sandy, 
with  extensive  pine  forests.  The  Macon  and 
Brunswick  railroad  intersects  the  N.  part. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  62,429 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  15,823  of  oats,  20,569 
of  sweet  potatoes,  19,829  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  704 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  497  horses,  2,563 
milch  cows,  6,946  other  cattle,  8,475  sheep, 
and  7,477  swine.  Capital,  Jacksonville. 

TELFORD,  Thomas,  a  British  engineer,  born 
at  Westerkirk,  Eskdale,  Dumfriesshire,  Aug. 
9,  1757,  died  in  Westminster,  Sept,  2,  1834. 
While  working  in  Edinburgh  as  a  stone  mason 
he  studied  architecture  and  drawing.  In  1783 
he  removed  to  London,  was  employed  on  the 
quadrangle  of  Somerset  house,  afterward  for 
three  years  as  architect  in  the  Portsmouth 
dockyard,  then  upon  the  alterations  of  Shrews 
bury  castle,  and  in  the  construction  of  numer 
ous  bridges,  one  of  which  over  the  Severn  had 
a  flat  arch  of  130  ft.  span.  He  superintended 
the  construction  of  the  Ellesmere  canal,  103 
m.  in  length,  and  requiring  extensive  aque 
ducts,  which  he  built  of  iron;  the  Caledonian 
ship  canal,  whose  locks  surpassed  any  previ 
ously  built  in  size;  and  six  other  canals  in. 
England  and  Scotland,  the  Gotha  canal  in  Swe 
den,  an  immense  tunnel  at  Harecastle  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  canal,  besides  1.000  miles  of  new 
road  and  1,2 00 bridges.  The  St.  Katharine  docks 
of  London,  the  improvement  of  the  Aberdeen 
and  Dundee  harbors,  the  construction  of  iron 
bridges  with  flat  arches  of  170  ft.  span,  and 
above  all  the  Menai  suspension  bridge,  were 
his  work. — See  "  Life  of  Thomas  Telf  ord,  Civil 
Engineer,  written  by  Himself"  (4to,  with  a 
folio  volume  of  plates,  1838). 

TELIOSTS,  a  name  given  by  J.  Mtiller  to  the 
common  bony  fishes  from  their  well  ossified 
skeleton  ;  the  term  has  been  taken  by  Hux 
ley  for  one  of  his  orders.  They  comprise  the 
ctenoids  and  cycloids  of  Agassiz. 

TELL,  William,  a  legendary  hero  of  Switzer 
land.  According  to  tradition,  he  was  a  hunter, 
living  at  Burgelen  in  the  canton  of  Uri.  His 
wife  was  a  daughter  of  Walter  Furst,  who 
with  Stauffacher  of  Schwytz  and  Melchthal  of 
Unterwalden  organized  the  conspiracy  of  the 
Grtitli  in  1307,  and  founded  Swiss  indepen 
dence.  Tell's  part  in  the  revolt  against  Austria 
is  related  as  follows :  Gessler,  Austrian  bailiff 
in  Kiissnacht,  placed  his  cap  upon  a  pole  in  the 
market  place  of  Altorf,  and  gave  orders  that 
passers  by  should  do  it  reverence.  Tell  neg 
lected  or  refused  to  do  this,  and  was  arrested 


032 


TELL 


TELLURIUM 


and  sentenced  to  death.  But  Gessler,  hearing 
that  he  was  a  skilful  marksman,  told  him  his 
life  would  be  spared  on  condition  of  his  shoot 
ing  an  apple  from  his  child's  head.  Tell  ven 
tured  the  shot,  and  succeeded  without  injuring 
the  child.  Gessler  perceived  that  he  had  put 
a  second  arrow  in  his  quiver  just  before  shoot 
ing,  and  asked  the  object.  Tell  replied:  "To 
kill  you  if  I  had  harmed  my  son."  For  this 
he  was  again  put  in  chains.  Gessler  then  em 
barked  for  Kiissnacht,  taking  Tell  with  him. 
On  the  way  the  boat  was  overtaken  by  a  storm. 
The  crew,  fearing  for  their  lives,  begged  Gess 
ler  to  release  Tell,  that  he  might  steer  the  boat. 
He  complied,  and  as  they  neared  the  point 
now  known  as  "Tell's  Rock"  or  "Leap,"  Tell 
sprang  ashore;  but  the  most  dangerous  part 
of  the  coast  had  been  passed,  and  the  crew 
brought  the  boat  safely  to  Brunnen.  Mean 
while  Tell  went  around  by  land,  and,  lying 
in  ambush  between  Brunnen  and  Kiissnacht, 
wounded  Gessler  mortally  with  an  arrow. 
Gessler' s  death  was  the  signal  for  a  general 
uprising;  the  Austrian  bailiffs  were  driven 
from  the  several  cantons,  and  their  castles  de 
stroyed.  In  1315  Tell  took  part  in  the  battle 
of  Morgarten,  and  in  1354  was  drowned  in  the 
Schachen  while  trying  to  save  a  boy's  life. — 
Such  is  the  story  in  its  main  features,  as  Schil 
ler  has  embodied  it  in  his  drama.  But  recent 
historical  investigations  put  it  in  a  very  dif 
ferent  light.  Schwytz,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden 
struggled  for  autonomy  against  the  Hapsburgs 
from  1240  to  1315,  and  later.  The  conflict 
seldom  took  the  shape  of  armed  hostilities ; 
it  was  rather  the  gradual  growth  of  local  in 
dependence.  We  do  not  know  the  names  of 
the  leaders  of  the  S\viss  movement,  but  we  do 
know  that  there  was  no  conspiracy  of  the 
Griitli,  that  no  such  bailiffs  as  Gessler,  Wolfen- 
schiessen,  and  Landberg  existed  by  those  names, 
and  no  such  men  as  Tell,  Stauffacher,  or  Melch- 
thal.  A  league  was  formed  by  Schwytz,  Uri, 
and  Unterwalden,  but  it  was  not  a  secret  con 
spiracy,  and  it  was  formed  in  1291  and  not 
in  1307;  and  there  was  no  uprising  in  1308. 
Kopp  (Urkunden  der  Gescliiclite  der  eidgenos- 
sisckcn  Bilnde,  1835),  Iluber  (Die  Waldstadte 
l>is  zur  Begrundung  Hirer  Eidgenossenchaft, 
1861),  W.  Vischer  (Die  Sage  von  der  Befreiung 
der  Waldsttidte,  1867),  Rilliet  (Les  origines  de 
la  confederation  suisse,  1869),  and  others,  have 
shown  how  patriotic  imagination  in  Switzer 
land,  having  lost  the  remembrance  of  the  pre 
cise  steps  by  which  independence  was  obtained, 
has  actually  created  the  tradition  in  its  pres 
ent  shape.  The  beginning  was  made  by  Das 
weisse  Bucli,  a  chronicle  composed  about  1470, 
in  which  first  occur  most  of  the  names  with 
which  we  are  familiar.  Then  comes  the  Tel- 
lenlied,  composed  about  the  same  time ;  then, 
in  1540,^  the  Hiibsch  Spijl  of  Uri.  But  these 
and  similar  productions  were  all  outdone  by 
^Egidins  Tschudi  (1505-'72),  in  his  Chroni- 
con  llelveticum.  Tschudi  seems  to  have  gath 
ered  scraps  of  tradition  wherever  he  could  find 


them,  to  have  expanded  them  and  put  them 
into  the  most  plausible  shape,  and  to  have 
invented  names,  surnames,  and  even  dates. 
Johannes  von  Muller  and  Schiller  followed 
Tschudi.  The  popular  version  of  the  Swiss 
uprising,  then,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  distor 
tion  of  the  facts,  and  its  prominent  persons 
and  striking  incidents  are  imaginative  decora 
tions  added  by  generation  after  generation 
from  the  loth  to  the  17th  century.  But  Tell  is 
the  embodiment  of  a  wide-spread  Aryan  myth. 
The  Persian  poet  Ferid  ed-Din  Attar  (about 
1175)  sings  of  a  king  who  shoots  an  apple 
from  the  head  of  his  favorite.  Saxo  Gram- 
maticus,  in  his  "Danish  Chronicle"  (about 
1170),  tells  how  Toko  shoots  an  apple  from 
the  head  of  his  son,  by  order  of  King  Harold 
Bluetooth ;  here  the  incident  w;ith  the  second 
arrow  is  mentioned.  In  the  Edda,  Eigil  the 
marksman  is  made  by  King  Nidung  to  shoot 
an  apple  from  the  head  of  his  son,  and  the  in 
cident  with  the  second  arrow  again  occurs. 
The  name  "  Tell "  has  been  variously  explained. 
Grimm  connects  it  with  the  Latin  telum,  an 
arrow ;  others  with  the  German  word  tall, 
meaning  half-witted.  In  Das  weisse  Buck 
Tell  seeks  to  excuse  his  disrespect  to  the  hat 
on  the  ground  that  he  is  dull  of  wit,  saying, 
"Otherwise  I  should  not  be  called  the  tall.'1'1 
According  to  Carriere,  the  Tell  saga  is  neither 
history  nor  pure  invention,  but  the  reminis 
cence  of  ancient  mythological  poetry,  recast 
and  coupled  with  historical  events.  For  a  brief 
account  of  the  Tell  saga,  see  Carriere's  edition 
of  Schiller's  Tell  (Leipsic,  1871),  and  Buch- 
heim's  edition  (London,  1871). 

TELL-TALE,  a  bird.     See  TATTLEE. 

TELLURIUM  (Lat.  tcllus,  the  earth),  an  ele 
mentary  substance,  discovered  by  Muller  von 
Reichenstein  in  1782,  but  first  investigated  and 
named  by  Klaproth  in  1798;  symbol,  To; 
chemical  equivalent,  129;  specific  gravity,  6*65  ; 
hardness,  2  to  2 -5.  Though  commonly  classed 
among  the  metals,  it  has  much  analogy  in  its 
properties  to  sulphur  and  selenium.  It  fuses 
between  800°  and  900°  F.,  and  can  be  distilled 
in  a  current  of  hydrogen.  It  is  a  bad  con- 
i  ductor  of  heat  and  electricity.  It  occurs  in  a 
native  state  associated  with  iron  pyrites  and 
various  metals,  as  gold,  silver,  bismuth,  cop 
per,  or  lead.  The  native  metal  is  of  a  brilliant 
metallic  lustre,  of  a  tin-gray  or  lead-gray  color, 
passing  to  steel-gray.  It  is  very  fusible  before 
the  blowpipe,  and  burns  with  a  bluish  flame, 
green  on  the  edges;  it  volatilizes  in  white 
fumes,  leaving  no  residue;  and  it  is  wholly 
soluble  in  nitric  acid.  The  substance  occurs  in 
small  masses,  irregularly  lamellar,  and  crystal 
lized  in  six-sided  prisms,  at  the  mine  of  Maria 
Loretto  near  Zalatna  in  Transylvania.  Its 
most  common  ore  is  the  black,  foliated  mineral 
of  Nagyag,  which  contains  about  13  per  cent, 
of  tellurium  in  the  form  of  tellurides  of  gold, 
lead,  and  silver,  mixed  with  sulphides  of  anti 
mony  and  lead.  Tellurium  is  almost  always 
combined  with  small  portions  of  iron  or  gold 


TELLUS 


TEMPERAMENT 


633 


in  a  metallic  state,  silver,  or  lead,  so  that  some 
have  supposed  that  the  substance  ouglit  to  be 
considered  as  telluride  of  iron  or  of  gold. 
Many  natural  alloys  have  been  met  with  at  the 
mines  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  and  from 
the  collection  of  those  presented  by  the  em 
peror  of  Austria  to  the  museum  of  natural 
history  at  Paris,  Dufr6noy  has  arranged  the 
varieties  among  the  following  five  species : 
native  tellurium,  Euro-argentiferous  tellurium 
(graphic  gold),  •  auro-plurnbiferous  tellurium 
(mullerite),  plumbo-auriferous  tellurium  (nagy- 
agite),  and  telluric  bismuth  (tetradymite). 
Auro-argentiferous  tellurium  was  recognized 
at  the  Gold  Hill  mines,  North  Carolina,  and 
native  tellurium  at  Red  Cloud  mine,  Gold  Hill, 
Boulder  co.,  Colorado,  by  Dr.  Genth ;  and  tel 
luric  bismuth  is  found  in  many  of  the  gold 
mines  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  in  foli 
ated  scales  and  lamellar  masses.  Gold  and  sil 
ver  tellurides  occur  in  masses  on  the  Calaveras 
range  in  California.  Tellurium  forms  two 
oxides,  Te02,  Te03,  which  correspond  in  com 
position  to  sulphurous  and  sulphuric  anhy 
drides.  Tellurous  acid,  H2TeO3,  and  telluric 
acid,  H2TeO4,  are  analogous  to  sulphurous 
and  sulphuric  acids.  With  hydrogen  it  forms 
the  gaseous  compound  H2Te,  analogous  to  sul 
phuretted  hydrogen. 

TELLIS.     See  TEERA. 

TEMES,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Hungary,  in  the 
Trans-Tibiscan  circle,  watered  by  the  Temes 
and  Bega;  area,  2,289  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
356,174,  mostly  Roumans  and  Serbs,  and  about 
two  thirds  belonging  to  the  orthodox  Greek 
church.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  but  the  cli 
mate  is  unhealthful.  The  chief  products  are 
wheat,  maize,  hemp,  flax,  fruit,  wine,  and  cot 
ton.  Cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  and  bees  are  raised. 

TEMESVAR,  a  city  of  Hungary,  capital  of  the 
county  of  Temcs,  on  the  Bega  canal,  connect 
ing  it  with  the  Danube  at  Belgrade,  75  m. 
S.  S.  W.,  and  155  m.  S.  E.  of  Pesth ;  pop. 
in  1870,  32,754,  chiefly  Germans.  It  consists 
of  the  town  proper,  which  is  strongly  forti 
fied,  and  four  suburbs,  including  the  village 
of  Mehala.  It  has  been  much  improved  by 
the  draining  of  marshes.  It  has  fine  Cath 
olic  and  Greek  cathedrals,  a  magnificent  syn 
agogue,  an  arsenal,  a  theological  seminary,  a 
Catholic  gymnasium,  and  a  normal  school. 
Leather,  cloth,  and  other  articles  are  manu 
factured. — The  origin  of  the  city  is  traced  to 
the  Romans.  The  Turks  held  it,  despite  a 
number  of  sieges,  from  1552  to  1710,  when  it 
was  rescued  by  the  Austrians,  under  whom  it 
became  the  capital  of  the  Banat.  In  1849  it 
was  besieged  for  several  months  by  the  Hun 
garians,  who  were  signally  defeated  here  on 
Aug.  9  by  Haynau.  A  monument  was  erect 
ed  in  commemoration  of  this  siege,  during 
which  the  city  suffered  severely. 

TEMISCAMINGUE,  Lake.  See  OTTAWA,  vol. 
xii.,  p.  734. 

TEMISCOUATA,  an  E.  county  of  Quebec,  Can 
ada,  bounded  N.  W.  by  the  St.  Lawrence  river 


and  S.  E.  by  New  Brunswick;  area,  1,771  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  22,491,  of  whom  21,809 
were  of  French  origin  or  descent.  It  is  war 
tered  by  the  Trois  Pistoles  and  Madawaska 
rivers  and  other  streams,  and  contains  Lake 
Temiscouata,  30  m.  long  and  from  £  m.  to  1£ 
m.  wide,  the  source  of  the  Madawaska.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Grand  Trunk  and  Inter 
colonial  railways.  Capital,  Isle  Verte. 

TEMPE,  a  valley  of  Greece,  in  the  northeast 
of  Thessaly,  between  Mts.  Olympus  and  Ossa, 
celebrated  in  antiquity  for  its  beauty.  Poets 
and  rhetoricians  often  mentioned  it  as  a  type 
of  sylvan  loveliness,  and  it  was  also  famed  as 
a  haunt  of  Apollo.  It  was  with  laurel  from 
Tempe  that  the  victors  in  the  Pythian  games 
were  crowned.  The  most  accurate  description 
of  the  famous  pass  is  that  of  Livy.  The  lofty 
cliffs  rise  almost  perpendicularly  on  either 
side,  and  the  Peneus  rushes  through  the  mid 
dle  of  the  valley.  The  defile  is  about  5  m. 
in  length,  and  is  so  narrow  in  parts  as  to  af 
ford  space  only  for  the  river  and  the  road. 
Right  and  left  are  the  ruins  of  ancient  for 
tresses,  and  numerous  tumuli  are  seen. 

TEMPERAMENT,  a  term  used  to  express  the 
differences  in  the  physical  and  mental  consti 
tutions  of  individuals,  referred  from  remote 
antiquity  to  peculiarities  in  the  quality  of  the 
solids  and  fluids  of  the  body.  The  ancients 
believed  that  the  fluids  of  the  body  consisted 
of  four  humors  (corresponding  to  the  four 
then  so-called  elements,  earth,  air,  fire,  and 
water),  which  they  named  bile,  blood,  black 
bile  (supposed  to  come  from  the  spleen),  and 
phlegm  or  watery  fluid  (believed  to  come  from 
the  brain);  and,  if  either  of  these  elements 
was  in  excess,  that  it  gave  rise  in  the  above 
order  to  the  bilious  or  choleric,  sanguine, 
melancholic,  and  phlegmatic  temperaments. 
This  view  was  maintained  by  physicians  to  the 
time  of  Cullen,  who  admitted  only  two  tem 
peraments,  the  sanguine  and  the  melancholic. 
The  sanguine  temperament  is  marked  by  a 
predominance  of  the  circulatory  system,  with 
a  strong  and  frequent  pulse,  firm  flesh,  plump 
figure,  smooth  and  fair  skin,  ruddy  complex 
ion,  soft  and  light  hair,  and  light  eyes;  there 
is  great  nervous  susceptibility,  ready  memory, 
lively  imagination,  cheerfulness,  and  a  love  for 
sensual  pleasures;  its  diseases  are  generally 
violent  and  inflammatory.  In  Cullen's  melan 
cholic  temperament  the  solids  predominate, 
the  figure  being  less  plump  and  more  firm,  the 
hair  and  eyes  black,  the  skin  coarse  and  dark, 
the  countenance  sallow  and  sad ;  the  disposi 
tion  is  gloomy  and  the  temper  suspicious ;  the 
manner  is  slow,  grave,  cautious,  and  impassive. 
Other  temperaments  as  well  characterized  as 
the  above  are  the  bilious,  lymphatic,  and  ner 
vous,.  The  bilious  or  choleric  temperament  is 
marked  by  a  supposed  predominance  of  the 
biliary  system,  with  strong  hard  pulse,  yel 
lowish  brown  skin  and  dark  hair,  and  mod 
erately  fleshy  body;  by  violent  and  easily 
excited  passions,  firmness  and  inflexibility  of 


634:       TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES 


TEMPLARS 


character,  boldness,  and  perseverance.  In  the 
phlegmatic  or  lymphatic  temperament  the  flesh 
is  soft,  the  skin  pale  and  flabby,  hair  light, 
pulse  weak,  and  the  figure  rounded,  with  little 
expression  of  countenance  or  activity  of  mind 
and  body.  The  prominent  character  of  the 
nervous  temperament  is  a  great  excitability  of 
the  nervous  system,  and  the  preponderance  of 
the  emotions  and  impulses  over  the  reason  and 
will ;  the  muscles  are  small  and  soft,  and  the 
form  generally  slender. 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES.  See  TOTAL  AB 
STINENCE. 

TE3IPERED  GLASS,  a  peculiar  condition  of 
glass  which  has  recently  been  produced  by  M. 
de  la  Bastie  of  France,  by  subjecting  it  while 
hot  to  the  action  of  a  bath  of  prepared  oil,  in 
which  it  is  enclosed  to  prevent  ignition.  This 
treatment  appears  to  confer  a  certain  degree 
of  toughness  to  the  exterior,  which  enables  it 
to  bear  much  harder  blows  than  common 
glass.  When  broken,  however,  it  crumbles 
into  dust  or  small  fragments,  like  Prince  Ru 
pert's  drops,  and  it  cannot  like  ordinary  glass 
be  cut  with  a  diamond  into  regular  forms,  but 
crumbles  under  the  instrument.  An  attempt 
to  grind  it,  or  to  cut  it  with  the  sand  blast  to 
any  depth,  produces  disintegration.  This  in 
dicates  that  the  molecules  are  held  together 
under  a  condition  of  strain,  and  an  optical 
examination  supports  the  same  conclusion. 

TE3IPLARS,  or  Knights  of  the  Temple  (Lat, 
milites  tempU),  the  most  celebrated  and 
powerful  of  the  medioaval  military  orders  of 
Christendom.  Its  origin  dates  from  1117,  when 
two  French  knights,  Hugues  des  Pa'iens  and 
Geoffroi  de  Saint- Ademar  or  Saint-Omer,  took 
on  themselves  the  obligation  of  escorting  the 
pilgrims  who  continually  journeyed  between 
Jerusalem  and  the  river  Jordan.  They  were 
soon  joined  by  seven  other  knights,  and  were 
permitted  by  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  to  adxl 
to  the  three  usual  monastic  vows  a  fourth 
binding  them  to  defend  the  holy  sepulchre  and 
to  protect  pilgrims  travelling  through  Pales 
tine.  They  were  generously  befriended  and 
encouraged  in  the  beginning  by  the  knights 
hospitallers  of  St.  John.  They  were  very  poor, 
being  called  "the  poor  soldiers  of  the  holy 
city;"  and  the  two  founders  in  their  first  ex 
cursions  rode  on  one  horse,  a  fact  perpetuated 
on  the  great  seal  of  the  order.  Baldwin  II., 
king  of  Jerusalem,  gave  them  a  lodging  in  his 
palace  near  the  traditional  site  of  the  temple, 
and  the  canons  of  the  adjoining  church  granted 
them  a  house  for  an  armory.  Their  number 
was  not  allowed  to  increase  beyond  nine  till 
the  council  of  Troves,  1127-'8,  which  Ilugues 
des  Pa'iens  and  five  of  his  brethren  attended, 
and  which  commissioned  St.  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux  to  draw  up  a  rule  for  them,  and  devise  a 
habit  suitable  to  their  mode  of  life.  This 'rule, 
approved  by  Pope  Honorius  II.  in  1128,  is 
divided  into  72  articles,  several  additions  hav 
ing  been  made.  It  bound  the  knights  to  be 
present  at  the  public  canonical  office,  and  when 


absent  on  military  service  to  recite  certain  vocal 
prayers  at  the  stated  hours  ;  they  were  to  ab 
stain  from  flesh  meat  four  days  in  the  week, 
and  to  refrain  from  hunting  and  hawking ; 
each  knight  was  to  have  three  horses  and  a 
squire.  Their  oath,  on  making  their  religious 
profession,  bound  them  to  defend  at  the  peril 
of  their  lives  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian 
faith,  the  seven  sacraments,  the  14  articles  of 
belief,  the  Apostles'  and  Athanasian  creeds, 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  with  the  inter 
pretations  of  the  fathers  as  approved  by  the 
church,  the  unity  of  the  divine  nature  and  the 
trinity  of  persons,  and  the  virginity  of  the 
mother  of  Christ  both  before  and  after  his 
birth  ;  to  perform  military  service  beyond  the 
seas  whenever  called  upon  to  do  so  ;  and  never 
to  fly  before  three  infidels,  even  when  alone. 
The  knights  were  given  a  white  tunic  and 
mantle  to  distinguish  them  from  the  hospital 
lers,  the  squires  and  servitors  wearing  black 
or  the  colors  common  to  the  country ;  and  in 
1140  they  were  permitted  to  wear  a  red  cross 
on  the  left  breast,  the  hospitallers  wearing  a 
white  cross  on  their  black  mantles.  Their  ban 
ner  was  of  white  linen  striped  with  black,  and 
was  thence  called  lemtsefint,  the  name  given  at 
the  time  to  a  horse  marked  with  black  and 
white,  and  beauseant  became  also  the  battle 
cry  of  the  order ;  the  red  cross  was  added  in 
1166.  Their  helmet,  in  token  of  humility,  had 
no  crest,  and  their  beards  were  uncut.  The 
members  were  classed  into  knights,  squires, 
servitors,  and  later  chaplains,  who  were  priests 
of  noble  birth.  On  assuming  the  habit  of  the 
order  all  were  girt  with  a  cincture  of  linen 
thread,  as  a  badge  of  their  service.  The  order 
was  divided  into  provinces,  the  provinces  into 
priories  or  bailiwicks,  and  these  into  precep- 
tories,  composed  of  a  single  house  or  several 
houses  in  close  proximity.  Over  the  whole 
order  presided  the  master  or  grand  master, 
having  as  his  lieutenant  the  grand  seneschal, 
both  of  whom,  as  well  as  the  grand  marshal, 
treasurer,  &c.,  were  elected  by  the  knights  in 
general  chapter.  The  provinces  were  gov 
erned  by  provincial  masters,  grand  priors,  or 
grand  preceptors ;  and  the  inferior  officers 
were  designated  respectively  as  priors  or  bai 
liffs  and  preceptors.  The  head  province  and 
residence  of  the  grand  master  was  Jerusalem, 
and  its  chapter  in  ordinary  times  was  invest 
ed  with  all  the  powers  belonging  to  the  whole 
order  assembled  in  general  chapter.  Pope 
Alexander  III.  allowed  the  order  to  receive 
priests  as  chaplains,  without  binding  them 
by  a  military  vow.  They  were  ex  ofiicio  sec 
retaries  to  the  local  chapters,  and  were  often 
appointed  preceptors,  but  were  not  eligible  to 
the  higher  offices.  The  order  came  in  course 
of  time  to  be  designated  as  sovereign,  the  grand 
master  owing  no  allegiance  to  any  prince,  and 
being  solely  dependent  on  the  pope  in  spirit 
uals.  Their  houses  were  privileged,  the  ordi 
naries  having  no  jurisdiction  over  them  ;  their 
churches  and  cemeteries  were  not  liable  to  in- 


TEMPLARS 


635 


terdicts;  their  properties  and  revenues  were 
exempted  from  tithes  and  taxation ;  and  no 
person  who  had  made  profession  as  a  templar 
could  leave  the  order,  unless  he  entered  an 
other  of  stricter  observance.  Many  persons 
sought  to  be  affiliated  with  the  templars  with 
out  being  bound  by  vows,  in  order  to  share 
these  manifold  exemptions.  There  were  also  ol)- 
lati,  who  in  return  for  these  privileges  pledged 
themselves  to  maintain  the  rights  of  the  order, 
and  donati,  or  children  given  from  infancy  to 
be  reared  and  incorporated  therein. — The  warm 
interest  taken  by  St.  Bernard  in  the  soldiers  of 
the  temple,  his  enthusiastic  advocacy  of  their 
cause,  the  solemn  approbation  given  to  it  by 
the  council  of  Troyes  and  llonorius  II.,  and 
the  heroic  services  already  rendered  by  its  first 
members  to  the  Christians  of  Palestine,  made 
them  at  once  favorites  with  the  princes  and 
peoples  of  Christendom.  The  little  band  of 
nine  soon  grew  into  as  many  thousands.  St. 
Bernard,  whom  the  templars  always  designated 
as  their  "father,"  addressed  them  in  1146, 
at  the  prayer  of  Ilngues  des  Pai'ens,  a  series  of 
exhortations,  in  which  he  defines  their  duties 
and  the  virtues  peculiar  to  their  profession. 
But  while  detailing  their  recent  services  and 
their  extraordinary  increase,  he  mentions  a 
circumstance  pointing  to  an  early  cause  of  de 
generacy  :  "  that  the  greater  number  of  the 
nobles  who  have  joined  the  soldiers  of  the  tem 
ple  had  been  men  stained  by  every  species  of 
crime,  whose  conversion,  while  ridding  Europe 
of  oppressors  and  scourges,  gave  defenders  to 
Palestine.*'  In  the  East,  besides  the  province 
of  Jerusalem,  the  order  possessed  those  of  Tri 
poli  and  Antioch ;  in  the  West  were  the  prov 
inces  of  France,  Auvergne,  Normandy,  Aqui- 
taine,  Poitou,  Provence,  England  (including 
Ireland  and  Scotland),  Germany,  Upper  and 
Central  Italy,  Apulia,  Sicily,  Portugal,  Castile, 
Leon,  and  Aragon.  The  French  provinces 
were  by  far  the  most  important,  and  gave  to 
the  order  the  great  majority  of  its  mem 
bers,  as  well  as  its  wealthiest  possessions.  So 
rapidly  had  these  accumulated  throughout 
Christendom,  that  Matthew  Paris  affirms  that 
in  the  middle  of  the  13th  century  they  held 
9,000  manors.  They  became  more  inter 
ested  in  extending  and  guarding  their  pos 
sessions  than  in  affording  protection  to  pil 
grims  ;  and  notwithstanding  their  unques 
tioned  prowess  and  daring,  their  frequent  feuds 
with  the  rival  order  of  the  hospitallers,  and 
their  open  licentiousness  and  lust  of  gain,  often 
injured  the  cause  to  which  they  had  devoted 
themselves.  They  aided  or  thwarted  the  plans 
of  campaigns  at  their  pleasure,  and  frequently 
stained  their  knightly  name  and  fame  by  open 
treachery,  as  in  the  sixth  crusade  under  the 
emperor  Frederick  II.,  the  partial  failure  of 
which  was  attributed  to  the  machinations  of 
the  templars.  During  the  gradual  decline  of 
the  Christian  kingdom  in  Palestine  they  en 
deavored  by  separate  treaties  with  the  Sara 
cens  to  secure  their  own  possessions  in  that 


country.  After  having  their  chief  seat  suc 
cessively  in  Jerusalem  (1118-'87),  Antioch 
(1187-'91),  Acre  (1191-1217),  and  the  Pilgrim's 
Castle  near  Csesarea  (1217-'91),  they  were  nev 
ertheless  compelled  at  the  final  extinction  of 
the  Latin  power  in  Palestine  in  1291  to  remove 
to  the  island  of  Cyprus,  which  they  had  pur 
chased  from  Richard  I.  of  England  for  35,000 
silver  marks.  Though  driven  out  of  the  Holy 
Land,  the  organization  evinced  no  signs  of 
decay,  and  its  extensive  ramification  through 
out  Europe  drew  upon  it  the  suspicion  and 
jealousy  of  princes,  whose  cupidity  was  also 
excited  by  its  immense  wealth.  Under  the 
influence  of  these  motives,  and  irritated  by  his 
inability  to  tax  the  order,  Philip  the  Fair  of 
France  determined  upon  its  destruction,  and 
induced  Pope  Clement  V.  to  have  a  judicial 
inquiry  instituted  into  the  orthodoxy  and  mo 
rality  of  the  order.  Accordingly,  in  1306 
Jacques  de  Molay,  the  grand  master  of  the 
templars,  was  enticed  to  Paris,  and  on  Oct.  13, 
1307,  all  the  members  of  the  order  in  France, 
including  De  Molay  himself,  were  taken  into 
custody,  and  their  houses  and  goods  were  every 
where  seized.  The  formal  charges  imputed  to 
them  grave  heresies  and  idolatry  connected 
with  their  secret  rites  of  initiation  and  internal 
discipline,  and  graver  violations  of  morality; 
but  there  was  no  evidence  of  these  beyond 
their  own  confessions,  wrung  from  them  by 
torture.  The  pope  hesitated  to  promulgate 
the  decree  for  the  extinction  of  the  order  ;  but 
Philip  procured  one  of  his  creatures,  the  arch 
bishop  of  Sens,  whose  jurisdiction  extended 
over  Paris,  to  convoke  his  provincial  council 
in  that  city  on  May  10,  1310  ;  and  on  the  13th 
of  the  month,  by  command  of  that  body,  54 
members  of  the  order  were  burned  at  the  stake 
in  a  field  behind  the  abbey  of  St.  Antoine. 
The  example  was  imitated  elsewhere,  and  on 
May  2,  1312,  Clement  on  his  own  responsi 
bility,  the  general  council  of  Vienne  then  in 
session  being  averse  to  precipitate  measures, 
issued  a  bull  for  the  abolition  of  the  templars. 
In  it  he  expressly  declares  that  he  does  not 
pronounce  "a  definitive  judgment"  on  the 
guilt  of  the  templars,  the  charges  against  them 
not  being  proven ;  but  that  to  prevent  the 
further  growth  of  a  monstrous  scandal,  and 
for  the  greater  good  of  Christendom,  he  sup 
presses  the  order,  reserving  to  the  holy  see  a 
final  judgment  as  well  as  the  disposition  of 
the  persons  and  property  of  the  members. 
Their  movable  property  was  for  the  most  part 
appropriated  by  the  sovereigns  of  the  coun 
tries  in  which  it  was  deposited  ;  and  although 
their  landed  possessions  were  nominally  trans 
ferred  to  the  hospitallers,  the  crown  as  a  gen 
eral  thing  secured  the  disposition  of  them. 
The  order  ceased  at  once  throughout  Christen 
dom  except  in  Portugal,  where  it  assumed  the 
name  of  the  knights  of  Christ,  which  order 
still  subsists.  Finally  De  Molay,  Guy  of  Au 
vergne,  and  other  high  dignitaries  of  the  order 
were  burned  at  the  stake,  March  18, 1314. 


636 


TEMPLE 


TENASSERIM 


TEMPLE,  Frederick,  an  English  bishop,  born 
Nov.  30,  1821.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1842,  and  was  elected  fellow  and  mathemati 
cal  tutor  of  his  college.  In  1846  he  took 
orders,  in  1848  was  appointed  principal  of  the 
training  college  at  Kneller  Hall,  near  Twicken 
ham,  in  185o-'7  was  an  inspector  of  schools, 
and  in  1858  was  appointed  head  master  of 
Rugby  school  and  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the 
queen.  In  1860  he  contributed  the  first  of  the 
essays  ("  On  the  Education  of  the  World  ")  in 
the  volume  known  as  "  Essays  and  Reviews." 
In  1868  he  supported  Mr.  Gladstone's  measures 
for  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  church, 
and  was  nominated  bishop  of  Exeter,  and  con 
secrated  on  Dec.  21,  1869.  He  has  published 
" Sermons. preached  at  Rugby  School,  1858- 
'69  "  (3  vols.,  1861-71). 

TEMPLE,  RicJiard  Grenville,  earl,  an  English 
statesman,  born  Sept.  26,  1711,  died  at  Stowe, 
Buckinghamshire,  Sept.  11,  1777.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Richard  Grenville  and  Hester 
Temple,  and  in  1752  succeeded  his  mother, 
who  had  been  created  in  1749  Countess  Tem 
ple,  as  Earl  Temple.  The  marriage  of  his  sis 
ter  Hester  Grenville  with  William  Pitt,  after 
ward  earl  of  Chatham,  was  the  means  of  in 
troducing  him  to  public  life,  and  during  the 
first  Pitt  administration  he  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  cabinet.  In  1852-' 3  appeared 
"  The  Grenville  Papers  "  (4  vols.  8vo),  com 
prising  the  correspondence  of  Earl  Temple  and 
his  brother  George  Grenville  between  1742  and 
1777,  edited  by  W.  J.  Smith.  The  present 
representative  of  the  Grenvilles  is  the  duke  of 
Buckingham  and  Chandos. 

TEMPLE,  Sir  William,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  London  in  1628,  died  at  Moor  Park, 
Surrey,  Jan.  27,  1699.  He  was  the  son  of  Sir 
John  Temple,  master  of  the  rolls  in  Ireland. 
After  passing  two  years  at  Emmanuel  college, 
Cambridge,  he  went  abroad  without  taking  a 
degree,  and  made  the  continental  tour,  lie 
was  married  in  1654,  and  for  several  years  re 
sided  with  his  father  in  Ireland.  He  repre 
sented  the  county  of  Carlow  in  the  Irish  con 
vention  in  1600,  and  also  in  the  first  Irish 
parliament  after  the  restoration.  In  1663  he 
removed  to  England,  and  in  1665  was  sent  on 
a  secret  mission  to  the  bishop  of  Minister.  In 
reward  for  his  services,  he  was  created  a  baro 
net  and  appointed  resident  at  Brussels.  In 
1607  he  visited  Holland,  and  urged  upon  his 
government  the  necessity  of  a  league  with  that 
country  against  the  projects  of  Louis  XIV. 
Receiving,  in  January,  1668,  the  necessary 
powers  to  negotiate  such  a  treaty,  he  concluded 
the  triple  alliance  between  England,  Holland, 
and  Sweden,  by  which  the  contracting  parties 
bound  themselves  to  endeavor  to  bring  about  a 
peace  between  France  and  Spain,  and  to  keep 
the  former  power  out  of  the  Low  Countries. 
After  perfecting  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  negotia 
tions  for  peace  in  pursuance  of  this  alliance, 
he  went  in  August,  1668,  as  ambassador  to  the 
Hague.  Recalled  to  England  in  September, 


1670,  he  discovered  that  the  ministry  had 
formed  a  secret  treaty  with  France,  by  which 
the  triple  alliance  was  rendered  of  no  effect, 
and  in  June,  1671,  received  his  dismissal.  For 
two  or  three  years  he  resided  at  his  estate  of 
Sheen ;  but  in  1674  he  was  summoned  to  ne 
gotiate  a  peace  with  Holland,  which  he  accom 
plished  in  London.  He  returned  soon  after 
ward. to  his  former  post  at  the  Hague,  and  was 
also  one  of  the  mediators  deputed  to  attend  the 
congress  of  Nimeguen,  which  resulted  (1678) 
in  an  unsatisfactory  treaty  of  peace  between 
France  and  Holland,  which  Temple  refused  to 
sign.  Returning  to  England,  he  declined  to  ac 
cept  the  office  of  secretary  of  state  ;  but  Charles 
II.,  harassed  by  the  violence  of  parliament, 
gladly  availed  himself  of  Temple's  advice,  and 
his  plan  for  a  new  privy  council  of  30  mem 
bers,  15  to  be  great  officers  of  state  and  15 
independent  noblemen  and  gentlemen  of  great 
weight  and  landed  possessions,  was  carried  into 
effect  in  April,  1679.  But  in  consequence  of 
several  perversions  of  its  fundamental  princi 
ples,  and  the  admission  of  Lord  Shaftesbury 
as  a  member  contrary  to  his  advice,  Temple 
ceased  to  attend  the  regular  meetings.  A  sin 
gle  session  of  parliament,  to  which  he  had  been 
elected  from  the  university  of  Cambridge,  sat 
isfied  him  with  legislative  life ;  and  his  name 
being  stricken  from  the  list  of  privy  council 
lors  in  1680,  he  thenceforth  lived  in  retirement, 
either  at  Sheen  or  at  Moor  Park,  a  seat  in 
Surrey.  During  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life 
Jonathan  Swift  was  his  secretary.  His  works 
comprise  "  Observations  upon  the  United  Prov 
inces  of  the  Netherlands,"  essays  on  the  "  Ori 
gin  and  Nature  of  Government,"  "  Ancient  and 
Modern  Learning,"  "  Gardening,"  &c.,  and  a 
variety  of  political  and  miscellaneous  tracts. 
His  collected  works  were  first  published  in 
1720,  edited  by  Swift;  the  last  and  best  edi 
tion  is  in  4  vols.  Svo  (London,  1814). 

TENANT.     See  LEASE,  and  TEXTJEE. 

TENASSERIM,  a  commissionership  of  British 
Burmah,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  bay  of  Bengal, 
extending  650  m.  from  N.  to  S.,  with  a  breadth 
of  from  30  to  80  m.,  between  lat.  10°  and  19° 
30'  N.,  and  Ion.  95°  30'  and  99°  30' E.,  bounded 
N.  by  Burmah,  E.  by  Siam,  S.  by  the  Malay  pen 
insula,  and  AV.  by  the  bay  of  Bengal,  gulf  of 
Martaban,  and  the  administrative  division  of 
Pegu,  from  which  last  it  is  partly  separated  by 
the  river  Salwen ;  area,  46,730  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  576,765.  The  country  is  divided  into 
the  districts  of  Amherst,  Tavoy,  Mergui,  Shwe- 
gyen,  Salwen,  and  Toungoo  (which  till  recent 
ly  was  a  division  of  Pegu) ;  and  the  chief 
towns  are  Amherst,  the  capital,  Maulmain, 
Martaban,  Tavoy,  Mergui,  and  Tenasserim. 
The  sea  coast  of  Tenasserim  is  about  500  m.  in 
length.  S.  of  lat.  11°  40'  it  is  bold  and  rocky, 
while  further  N.  it  is  flat  and  'much  indented 
with  bays,  creeks,  and  estuaries.  Along  its 
whole  extent  are  situated  islands  which  appear 
from  seaward  to  form  part  of  the  shore.  Those 
lying  S.  of  lat.  14°  40'  1ST.  are  known  collee- 


TENASSERIM 


TENOIN 


637 


tively  under  the  name  of  the  Mergui  archipel 
ago.  They  vary  greatly  in  form  and  dimen 
sions,  and  are  mainly  situated  from  30  to  80  m. 
off  the  shore.  The  most  important  island  on 
the  coast,  however,  is  Balugyun,  opposite  the 
town  of  Maulmain,  IT  m.  long  and  8  m.  broad. 
The  territory  of  Tenasserim  is  generally  hilly 
or  mountainous.  It  is  intersected  by  numerous 
rivers,  particularly  toward  the  north,  the  prin 
cipal  being  the  Salwen,  Attaran,  Tavoy,  and 
Tenasserim.  The  area  of  the  basins  of  the  riv 
ers  is  estimated  at  about  14,000  sq.  in.  The 
E.  boundary  is  formed  by  a  range  of  wooded 
mountains  varying  in  height  from  3,000  to 
4,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  In  the  north  there  is 
a  separate  range,  about  2,000  ft.  high,  covered 
with  bamboo  jungles.  There  are  extensive 
plains  and  fertile  valleys  lying  upon  the  banks 
of  the  northern  rivers.  The  staple  productions 
are  rice,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  indigo,  and  tobac 
co  ;  and  wheat,  nutmegs,  spices,  and  dye  stuffs 
are  raised.  The  country  is  exceedingly  rich  in 
valuable  forest  trees,  prominent  among  which 
is  the  teak.  Nearly  380  different  varieties  of 
timber  have  been  enumerated.  The  timber 
forests  are  under  strict  and  careful  govern 
mental  control.  Tin  is  mined,  and  iron,  gold, 
and  antimony  are  also  found.  Coal  of  good 
quality  has  been  discovered  in  several  places. 
The  climate  is  considered  remarkably  health 
ful,  the  rate  of  mortality  among  Europeans 
being  little  more  than  it  is  in  Europe  under 
like  circumstances.  The  thermometer  rarely 
rises  above  90°,  the  average  being  77°.  The 
rainy  season  begins  in  the  S.  part  of  the  terri 
tory  about  the  1st  of  May,  and  at  Maulmain  a 
month  later;  the  rainfall  is  much  greater  to 
ward  the  north,  where  it  is  estimated  at  200  in. 
a  year.  The  average  for  the  whole  country  is 
not  less  than  100  in. — The  population  com 
prises  Burmese,  Peguans,  Siamese,  Karens, 
Seelongs,  Hindoos  from  the  Coromandel  coast, 
half-caste  Portuguese,  Chinese,  a  few  Ameri 
can  missionaries,  and  the  English  officials  and 
traders.  The  Burmese  and  Peguans  are  the 
most  numerous ;  the  Siamese  are  principally 
settled  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Tenasserim 
river.  The  chief  manufactures  are  cotton  and 
silk  goods,  coarse  pottery,  and  iron  cooking 
vessels.  Ship  building  is  largely  carried  on  at 
Maulmain,  and  to  a  less  extent  at  Mergui  and 
Tavoy.  These  three  places  are  the  principal 
ports  of  Tenasserim,  in  regular  steamship  com 
munication  with  each  other  and  the  Indian 
peninsula.  The  chief  exports  consist  of  rice, 
tobacco,  gambir,  ivory,  edible  birds'  nests,  and 
teak  timber. — The  Portuguese  visited  the  ter 
ritory,  which  forms  the  Tenasserim  division 
early  in  the  17th  century;  and  in  1G87  some 
English  were  massacred  at  Mergui,  the  country 
being  then  a  dependency  of  Pegu.  It  after 
ward  became  subject  to  Siam,  from  which 
power  it  was  taken  about  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century  by  the  Burmese,  who  held  it  till 
it  was  annexed  to  British  India  at  the  termina 
tion  of  the  Burmese  war  in  1820.  From  the 


long  unsettled  state  of  the  country,  the  entire 
population  at  that  time  amounted  only  to  about 
30,000;  and  its  subsequent  rapid  increase  is 
attributable  to  the  security  for  life  and  prop 
erty  afforded  by  British  rule.  The  town  of 
Tenasserim,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in 
lat.  12°  2'  K,  Ion.  98°  55'  E.,  was  formerly  the 
capital,  but  is  now  largely  in  ruins. 

TENCH,  a  soft-rayed,  fresh-water  fish  of  the 
carp  family,  and  genus  tinea  (Cuv.),  peculiar 
to  the  old  world.  The  best  known  species  is 
the  T.  vulgaris  (Cuv.),  rarely  more  than  14  in. 
long,  of  a  deep  yellowish  brown,  and  some 
times  golden  and  greenish ;  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins  have  no  osseous  rays,  and  the  former  is 
inserted  behind  the  commencement  of  the  ven- 
trals ;  the  teeth  on  the  pharynx  are  compressed 
and  club-shaped;  scales  very  minute,  covered 
with  mucus ;  a  very  small  labial  barbel  at  each 
side  of  mouth ;  the  body  thick  and  broad,  and 
the  ventrals  in  the  male  much  larger  than  in 
the  female.  It  is  spread  over  Europe  and  N. 
Asia,  and  is  more  or  less  abundant  in  the  orna 
mental  waters  and  ponds  of  Great  Britain,  but 
is  not  found  much  above  lat.  60°  N. ;  it  prefers 
stagnant  waters  with  a  muddy  bottom,  con- 


Common  Tench  (Tinea  yulgaris). 

cealing  itself  in  winter  in  the  mud  in  a  torpid 
state ;  like  the  carp  it  is  very  tenacious  of  life ; 
the  food  consists  of  worms  and  aquatic  insects, 
with  sometimes  seeds  and  plants.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  in  May  or  June ;  they  are  very 
minute,  greenish,  about  300,000  in  a  single 
female,  and  are  placed  among  aquatic  plants. 
In  its  natural  state  the  flesh  is  not  good,  but 
is  delicate  when  the  fish  are  properly  fed. 

TENCIN,  Clandme  Alexandria  Gnerin  de,  a  French 
woman  of  society,  born  in  Grenoble  in  1G81, 
died  in  Paris,  Dec.  4,  1749.  She  became  a 
nun,  and  like  her  two  sisters  led  a  gay  life  at 
her  convent,  and  after  her  transfer  as  canoness 
to  a  less  strict  monastery  near  Lyons  she  was 
accused  of  being  enceinte.  In  1714  she  was 
absolved  from  her  religious  vows,  and  went 
to  Paris  to  live  in  the  home  of  her  brother, 
the  future  cardinal  and  statesman,  for  whom 
she  displayed  a  passionate  devotion,  which  sub 
jected  her  to  odious  insinuations.  She  worked 
steadily  for  his  advancement,  acquired  a  for 
tune  through  the  financier  Law,  and  was  for 
short  periods  mistress  of  Cardinal  Dubois.  and 
of  the  regent  duke  of  Orleans.  By  the  poet 
Destouches  she  became  (Nov.  16, 1717)  mother 


638 


TENDER 


of  D'Alembert.  (See  ALEMBEET.)  In  172G 
she  was  arrested  on  a  charge  preferred  against 
her  in  the  will  of  La  Fresnay,  one  of  her  many 
lovers,  who  had  killed  himself  in  her  house,  of 
having  sought  to  destroy  him ;  but  the  charge 
fell  to  the  ground.  After  her  speedy  release  she 
showed  greater  discretion,  and  confined  her 
self  more  exclusively  to  her  associations  with 
Fontenelle,  Montesquieu,  and  other  scholars 
who  attended  her  receptions,  which  were  among 
the  first  of  the  kind  in  France.  She  published 
Les  memo  ires  du  comte  de  Comminges  (1735) ; 
Le  siege  de  Calais,  a  historical  novel  (2  vols., 
1739-'40) ;  and  Les  malheurs  de  V amour  (1747). 
Her  correspondence  with  her  brother,  the  car 
dinal,  was  published  in  1700,  and  Lcttres  au 
due  de  Richelieu  in  1806.  Her  works  have 
frequently  been  published  together  with  those 
of  Mme.  de  Lafayette.  One  of  the  best  edi 
tions  is  by  Jay  and  Etienne  (5  vol.s.,  Paris, 
1825). — See  Memo-ires  secrets  de  Mine,  de  Ten- 
cm,  by  the  abbe  Barthelemy  (Grenoble,  1790). 
TENDER,  in  law,  an  offer  to  perform  an  act, 
for  the  performance  whereof  one  person  is 
bound  to  another.  The  obligation,  and  so  the 
offer,  may  be  to  pay  money  or  to  deliver  spe 
cific  articles.  If  the  tender  be  of  money,  it  is 
effectual  only  when  the  demand  is  one  of 
money,  and  is  definite  in  amount,  or  is  capa 
ble  of  being  made  so.  Tims,  a  tender  cannot 
be  pleaded  as  a  defence  to  an  action  upon  a 
contract,  unless  the  contract  be  one  for  the 
payment  of  money,  as  for  rent ;  nor  to  an  ac 
tion  for  a  tort,  as  for  assault  and  battery.  In 
short,  wherever  the  claim  is  for  unliquidated 
damages,  the  general  rule  is  that  no  tender  is 
admissible.  In  some  of  the  United  States, 
however,  cases  of  involuntary  trespass  form 
an  exception,  founded  partly  on  usage  and 
partly  on  express  statutory  provisions.  A 
tender  may  be  by  the  defendant  in  person,  or 
by  a  third  person  at  his  request ;  and  it  should 
be  made  to  the  creditor  personally,  or  to  some 
one  authorized  by  him  to  receive  the  money. 
At  common  law,  a  tender  must  be  made  on 
the  very  day  the  money  is  due,  if  that  day  be 
made  certain  by  the  contract.  But  the  statutes 
and  usages  of  the  states  generally  permit  the 
tender  to  be  made  after  that  day,  if  before  the 
action  is  brought ;  and  in  some  it  may  be  made 
after  the  action  is  brought.  Tender  is  gener 
ally  not  good  if  made  before  the  debt  is  due, 
but  may  in  some  cases  be  so  if  it  includes  in 
terest  up  to  the  day  of  maturity. — A  tender  of 
money  is  not  complete  without  production  and 
offer  of  the  money,  unless  the  creditor  express 
ly  or  impliedly  waives  the  production.  Thus 
it  is  said  not  to  be  enough  in  a  plea  of  tender, 
if  the  plaintiff  did  not  object  to  receive  the 
money,  for  the  defendant  to  prove  that  he  had 
the  money  in  his  pocket,  and  said  to  the  credi 
tor  that  he  had  it  ready  for  him,  and  asked 
him  to  take  it.  He  ought  to  have  produced 
and  offered  the  money  specifically.  What 
amounts  to  a  waiver  on  the  part  of  the  credi 
tor  is  a  nice  if  not  difficult  question.  It  seems 


from  the  cases  that  the  creditor  may  not  only 
waive  the  actual  production  of  the  money,  but 
the  actual  possession  of  it  in  hand  by  the  debt 
or.  The  debtor  is  not  bound  to  count  out  the 
money  if  he  has  it  and  offers  it. — The  tender 
must  be  made  without  any  condition  that  the 
creditor  may  with  good  reason  object  to.  A 
demand  of  a  receipt  in  full  of  all  demands  has 
often  been  held  to  invalidate  a  tender;  not  so 
much  because  a  receipt  was  asked  for,  as  be 
cause  part  was  offered  in  full  payment.  And 
it  seems  that  a  debtor  would  lose  the  benefit 
of  a  tender  if  he  should  accompany  it  with  a 
demand  of  a  receipt  for  the  sum  that  he  pays, 
and  because  it  was  refused  should  retain  the 
money.  Tender  of  a  larger  sum  than  is  due, 
with  a  request  of  the  change  or  the  balance,  is 
not  good ;  but  a  refusal  of  the  money  offered, 
for  reasons  distinct  from  the  manner  in  which 
the  offer  is  made,  as  for  the  insufficiency  of 
the  sum  or  the  like,  is  a  waiver  of  all  objec 
tion  to  the  form  of  the  tender.  The  tender 
should  be  made  in  money  made  lawful  by 
statute.  A  tender  of  good  and  current  bank 
notes  is  good  if  no  objection  is  made  on  the 
ground  that  they  are  not  money.  The  effect 
of  a  tender  will  be  destroyed  if  the  creditor 
can  show  a  subsequent  demand  by  him  of  the 
proper  fulfilment  of  the  contract  at  the  proper 
time,  and  a  refusal  by  the  debtor. — Tender 
does  not  bar  a  debt  as  payment  would,  but 
rather  establishes  the  liability  of  the  defen 
dant;  for,  in  general,  he  is  liable  to  pay  the 
sum  which  he  tenders  whenever  he  is  required 
to  do  so.  But  the  tender  stops  the  recovery 
of  damages  or  interest  for  delay  in  payment, 
and  gives  the  defendant  subsequent  costs,  pro 
vided  the  plaintiff  recovers  nothing  beyond  the 
sum  tendered. — As  in  sales  the  property  in 
chattels  does  not  pass  while  any  necessary  act 
remains  to  be  done,  so  if  there  be  an  obliga 
tion  to  deliver  those  articles,  it  may  be  said  as 
a  general  rule  that  the  obligation  is  not  dis 
charged  by  tender  so  long  as  anything  is  left 
undone  which  would  prevent  the  property 
from  passing  under  a  sale.  Chattels  tendered, 
therefore,  should  be  separated  and  distinguished 
from  any  others,  and  not  be  so  mingled  with 
others  that  are  not  to  be  delivered  that  they 
cannot  be  separately  identified.  The  tender  of 
goods  may  be  made  to  an  agent  or  by  an  agent, 
and  must  be  equally  unconditional  as  if  of 
money ;  and  if  the  agent  of  the  deliverer  has 
orders  to  deliver  the  chattels  to  the  receiver 
only  if  he  will  cancel  and  deliver  up  the  con 
tract,  this  is  not  a  tender,  although  the  agent 
had  the  chattels  at  the  proper  time  and  place. 
Generally,  if  no  time  or  place  be  specified,  chat 
tels  are  to  be  delivered  where  they  were  at  the 
time  of  the  contract,  unless  collateral  circum 
stances  designate  a  different  place.  If  the  time 
be  fixed,  but  not  the  place,  it  will  be  presumed 
that  the  deliverer  was  to  bring  the  articles  to 
the  receiver  at  that  time ;  and  for  that  purpose 
he  must  go  with  the  chattels  to  the  residence 
or  place  of  business  of  the  receiver,  unless 


- 


TENURE 


Or,'  ! 
655 


the  lord  and  the  vassal,  in  very  different  pro 
portions.  There  were  generally  many  lords, 
for  the  system  of  subinfeudation  prevailed, 
and  the  vassal  held  of  his  immediate  lord,  he  of 
the  next  higher,  and  he  of  the  next,  the  series 
always  going  up  to  and  ending  with  the  sov 
ereign.  Hence  we  may  say  that  all  tenure 
rested  upon  two  principles  :  one,  that  all  land 
was  held  of  the  sovereign,  who  retained  cer 
tain  rights  and  interests  therein  ;  the  other,  that 
all  the  rights  and  interests  of  all  the  lords,  and 
of  the  tenant  finally  in  possession,  added  to 
gether,  constituted  that  allodial  tenure  already 
mentioned.  There  were  various  kinds  of  ten 
ure,  as  for  example  tenure  by  copyhold,  ten 
ure  in  gavelkind,  and  the  tenure  of  borough 
English.  Of  copyhold  there  is  nothing  in 
the  United  States.  The  principal  feature  of 
tenure  in  gavelkind  was  that  all  the  sons  in 
herited  equally  and  together,  instead  of  the 
eldest  son  alone,  which  latter  is  the  rule  of  the 
feudal  system,  and  is  nearly  universal  in  Eng 
land.  (See  GAVELKIXD,  and  HEIR.)  Of  tenure 
by  borough  English,  the  essential  principle  is, 
that  neither  the  eldest  nor  all  the  sons  inherit, 
but  the  youngest  takes  as  heir.  For  this  strange 
custom  Littleton  accounts  by  the  lesser  ability 
of  the  youngest  son  to  take  care  of  himself ; 
but  a  custom  prevalent  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States  oilers  a  more  probable  explana 
tion  of  this  tenure.  It  is  common  in  'New 
England,  for  example,  for  the  eldest  son,  as  he 
comes  to  maturity,  to  receive  what  assistance 
his  father  can  give,  which  is  considered  as  his 
share  of  the  estate;  the  same  thing  is  done 
with  other  sons  as  they  reach  full  age ;  until 
at  length  only  the  youngest  son  is  left  to  take 
charge  of  his  parents.  When  they  die  he  has 
the  homestead ;  or  while  they  live  they  relin 
quish  it  to  him,  taking  his  obligation  or  trust 
ing  to  his  affection  for  support.  The  same 
custom  is  said  to  exist  in  Tyrol,  Bavaria,  and 
other  parts  of  Germany. — The  tenure  with 
which  we  have  most  concern  is  that  of  socage. 
This  was  wholly  liberated  from  the  stringent 
military  services  which  generally  prevailed,  and 
the  civil  services  on  which  land  was  held  under 
it  were  for  the  most  part  easy  and  honor 
able.  At  an  early  period  it  became  known  as 
"free  and  common  socage,"  and  as  this  tenure 
spread  over  England,  the  severities,  restric 
tions,  and  encumbrances  of  the  common  feu 
dal  tenures  passed  away,  until  this  process  was 
completed  by  the  statute  12  Charles  II.  (1061), 
and  nearly  all  the  old  feudal  tenures  (all  in 
fact  which  were  in  any  way  burdensome  or 
restrictive  of  the  proper  rights  of  the  tenant) 
were  reduced  to  the  tenure  of  free  and  com 
mon  socage.  This  tenure  has  all  the  actual 
advantages  of  allodial  ownership.  The  bene 
ficial  use  which  one  who  holds  by  this  tenure 
has  in  the  land  comprises,  for  all  practical  pur 
poses',  a  sole,  undivided,  and  unencumbered 
interest.  Escheat  remains  as  a  feudal  incident 
to  the  tenure,  but  the  lord  cannot  profit  by  it 
if  the  tenant  has  an  heir  or  chooses  to  make  a 
VOL.  xv. — 42 


will.  The  tenant  in  fee  simple  of  lands  held 
in  free  and  common  socage  can  make  any  dis 
position  of  them,  and  carve  any  estates  out  of 
them,  which  the  law  of  real  estate  permits; 
and  any  one  to  whom  he  grants  it  by  sale  or 
gift,  or  devises  it  by  will,  takes  title  directly 
from  the  grantor  or  testator,  and  his  title  is 
complete  without  the  consent  or  concurrence 
of  the  lord  or  any  action  whatever  on  his  part. 
It  may  be  added  that  this  tenure,  unlike  most 
other  feudal  tenures,  has  no  reference  what 
ever  to  the  rank  or  occupation  of  the  tenant, 
or  to  the  purposes  to  which  the  lands  are  ap 
plied.  This  was  the  tenure  created  or  pre 
scribed  by  all  the  early  colonial  charters  or 
patents  from  which  our  titles  are  now  de 
rived  ;  as  the  charter  of  Virginia  in  1GOO  ;  the 
patent  of  New  England  in  1620;  the  charter 
of  Massachusetts  in  1629 ;  of  Maryland  in  1632 ; 
of  the  province  of  Maine  in  1639;  of  Connec 
ticut  in  1662;  of  Carolina  in  1663  ;  of  Ehode 
Island  in  1663  ;  of  Pennsylvania  in  1681  ;  the 
act  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  colony  of 
New  York  in  1691 ;  and  the  charter  of  Geor 
gia  in  1732.  But  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Connecticut,  and  Michigan  all  feudal  tenures, 
including  of  course  that  of  free  and  common 
socage,  are  abolished  by  statute ;  and  it  seems 
to  be  held,  that  under  the  provisions  of  the 
ordinance  of  1787  the  doctrine  of  tenures  is 
not  in  force  in  any  of  the  states  formed  out  of 
the  territory  to  which  that  ordinance  applied. 
Substantially,  our  tenure  unites  what  is  best  in 
both  the  allodial  tenure  and  that  by  free  and 
common  socage.  Nor  is  the  fact  without  its 
historical  value,  that  the  allodial  tenure,  which 
formerly  prevailed  over  all  Europe,  among  all 
the  nations  who  were  the  ancestors  of  Euro 
pean  nations  and  so  of  our  own,  after  being 
displaced  for  more  than  1,000  years  by  the 
feudal  system,  is  at  length  reestablished  in  full 
force  throughout  the  United  States.  And  yet 
there  are  reasons  for  thinking  the  tenure  of 
free  and  common  socage,  freed  as  it  certainly 
is  now  from  all  feudal  encumbrance,  explains 
and  illustrates  our  law  of  real  estate  better 
than  the  other  theory.  One  reason  is,  that 
the  principles  of  the  feudal  system  do  in  fact 
underlie  all  the  doctrines  and  all  the  forms  of 
the  common  law  in  regard  to  real  estate;  and 
wherever  the  common  law  prevails,  which  it 
does  in  all  the  states  excepting  Louisiana 
(where  the  municipal  law  is  founded  upon  the 
Roman  civil  law),  the  principles  of  the  feudal 
law  and  of  feudal  tenure  must  be  understood 
and  made  use  of.  Another  reason  is,  that  the 
law  of  escheat  is  universal  with  us  (see  ES 
CHEAT),  and  it  is  governed  by  the  law  of  feu 
dal  tenure,  modified  by  our  statutes.  A  third 
reason  is,  that  the  important  and  universal  law 
of  eminent  domain  is  far  better  understood 
and  applied  by  the  theory  that  all  property  is 
held  from  the  sovereign,  that  is,  the  state  or 
people ;  and  that  in  the  original  grant  on  which 
all  title  is  founded,  the  sovereign  reserved  the 
right  to  resume  the  same  for  his  own,  that  is, 


656 


TEOCALLI 


TERBIUM 


for  the  public  use,  on  making  adequate  com 
pensation.  Yet  another  reason  is,  that  the 
obligation  of  fealty  remains  in  full  force.  It 
is  now  and  here  an  obligation  only  to  the  sov 
ereign.  It  is  implied,  or  rather  it  is  expressed, 
in  the  oath  of  allegiance ;  but  it  does  not  de 
pend  on  this  oath.  It  is  the  obligation  and  the 
duty  which  rest  on  every  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  as  tho  condition  upon  which  he  holds 
all  property,  all  interests,  and  all  rights,  to  be 
"feall  and  loiall,"  as  the  old  law  expressed  it, 
to  be  faithful  and  loyal  to  his  sovereign,  that 
is,  to  the  state  and  to  the  Union. 

TEOCALLI.     See  MEXICO,  vol.  xi.,  p.  474. 

TEOS,  an  ancient  Ionian  city,  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  about  25  m.  S.  "W.  of  Smyrna. 
It  is  noted  as  the  birthplace  of  Anacreon.  It 
had  two  good  harbors,  and  was  a  flourishing 
commercial  town  till  the  Persian  conquest. 
The  village  of  Sighajik,  1£  m.  1ST.  of  Teos,  has 
walls  constructed  from  its  ruins.  The  chief 
ruin  is  that  of  the  temple  of  Bacchus. 

TEPLITZ,  or  Toplitz,  a  watering  place  of  X. 
Bohemia,  in  the  circle  of  Leitmeritz,  45  m. 
N.  W.  of  Prague;  pop.  in  1870,  including  the 
adjoining  village  of  Schonau,  11,018.  In  the 
season  of  1875  it  was  visited  by  about  30,000 
invalids  and  tourists.  Of  the  17  alkalo-saline 
springs,  11  are  now  used,  chiefly  for  the  gout 
and  rheumatism.  A  treaty  of  alliance  between 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  against  Napoleon, 
was  concluded  here,  Sept.  9,  1813. 

TEQUENDAMA,  Falls  of.     See  BOGOTA. 

TERAMO.  I.  A  province  of  S.  Italy,  former 
ly  Abruzzo  Ulteriore  I.  (See  ABRUZZO).  II.  A 
town,  capital  of  the  province  (anc.  Interamntt), 
85  m.  N.  E.  of  Rome ;  pop.  about  19,000.  It 
is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  modernized 
Gothic  cathedral,  and  manufactories  of  hats 
and  cream  of  tartar.  Interamna,  which  is  also 
the  ancient  name  of  Terni  and  other  places, 
was  a  city  of  Picenum.  Many  vestiges  of  the 
ancient  city  have  been  discovered  on  the  site 
of  Teramo. 

TERATOLOGY  (Gr.  rtpas,  a  wonder  or  mon 
ster,  and  ?.<5y0f,  discourse),  that  branch  of  phys 
iological  science  which  treats  of  the  malfor 
mations  and  monstrosities  of  plants  and  ani 
mals.  On  account  of  its  greater  interest,  more 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  latter,  particu 
larly  within  the  present  century,  by  French 
and  German  physiologists.  There  was  no  at 
tempt  to  systematize  the  study  of  monstrosities 
till  the  time  of  Isidore  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire, 
who  gave  the  science  the  above  name.  His 
classification  is  given  in  the  article  MONSTER. 
He  divides  the  history  of  monstrosities  into 
three  periods,  viz. :  the  fabulous,  the  positive, 
and  the  scientific.  The  fabulous  period  is  all 
that  prior  to  the  18th  century;  the  positive 
embraces  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century; 
while  the  scientific  dates  from  the  middle  of 
that  century.  In  tho  fabulous  period  the  prev 
alent  belief  attributed  the  formation  of  human 
monsters  to  divine  anger  as  punishments  to 
parents,  or  to  demoniacal  influence,  and  as  the 


progeny  of  the  devil  they  were  destroyed.  As 
late  as  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  it 
was  said  by  learned  men  that  children  with  six 
fingers  were  made  in  the  image  of  the  devil, 
and  a  remnant  of  such  superstition  still  exists. 
The  first  important  work  was  published  by 
Leicetus  in  1616,  in  which  he  gives  a  great 
collection  of  the  most  fabulous  monsters.  He 
quotes  largely  from  a  work  on  monsters  by 
Lycosthenes  (1557),  and  his  pages  abound  in 
wonders.  A  work  published  by  Haller  in  1768 
is  the  first  which  may  be  regarded  as  scien 
tific.  Buffon  gives  a  classification  of  mon 
sters  in  his  "Natural  History."  Meckel,  the 
celebrated  physiologist,  published  a  complete 
treatise  on  monsters  in  his  Ilandbucli  tier  pa- 
thologischen  Anatomie  (1812-'18),  and  Tiede- 
mann  makes  important  observations  on  the 
genesis  of  monsters  in  his  Anatomie  der  kopf- 
losen  Missgeburten  (1813).  Works  of  the  great 
est  importance  were  those  of  the  two  Geof- 
froy  Saint-Ililaires  (1822,  1829,  and  1832-'6). 
A  work  on  monsters  in  Dutch  and  Latin,  by 
W.  Vrolik,  is  one  of  the  most  complete  man 
uals  on  teratology  (Amsterdam,  1840-'42 ;  new 
ed.,  fol.,  with  100  plates,  1849),  and  contains 
the  most  complete  atlas  that  has  ever  been 
published.  See  also  articles  in  the  transactions 
of  the  New  York  state  medical  society  for 
1865,  '66,  '67,  and  '68,  on  "  Diploteratology," 
by  Dr.  J.  G.  Fisher  of  Sing  Sing,  N.  Y.,  giving 
a  brief  history  of  the  subject  of  teratology, 
adding  to  the  classification,  and  giving  also 
the  history  of  many  cases  of  double  monsters; 
J.  North,  "Lectures  on  Monstrosities1'  (Lon 
don  "Lancet,"  1840);  Allen  Thompson,  "Re 
marks  upon  the  Early  Condition  and  Probable 
Origin  of  Double  Monsters,"  in  "London  and 
Edinburgh  Monthly  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sci 
ences"  (1844);  J.  Vogel,  Pathologisclie  Anato 
mie  des  Menschlichen  Kdrpers  (Leipsic,  1845); 
G.  Rokitansky,  LeJirluch  der  pathologischen 
Anatomie  (Vienna,  1851-'61) ;  William  F.  Mont 
gomery,  "Account  of  a  very  remarkable  Case 
of  Double  Monster,"  &c.,  in  "Dublin  Quar 
terly  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences  "  (1853) ; 
A.  Forster,  Die  Missbildungen  des  Menschen 
(2  vols.  4to,  with  26  plates,  Jena,  1861);  and 
M.  Lerboullet,  Recherches  sur  les  monstruosites 
du  IrocJict  olservecs  dans  Vc&uf,  et  sur  leur  mode 
de  production,  in  the  Annales  des  sciences  na- 
turelles  (Paris,  1863). 

TERBIUM,  a  supposed  metal  discovered  by 
Mosander  in  1843,  associated  with  erbium  and 
yttrium  in  the  mineral  gadolinite.  Very  care 
fully  conducted  experiments  of  Bahr  and  Bun- 
sen  throw  great  doubt  on  the  existence  of  ter 
bium,  and  further  experiments  are  required  to 
afford  a  perfectly  satisfactory  answer  to  the 
question  whether  crude  yttria  is  a  mixture  of 
three  earths  or  of  only  two.  According  to 
Delafontaine,  terbia  is  an  earth  of  a  pale  rose 
color,  the  solutions  of  which  exhibit  an  ab 
sorption  spectrum,  whereas  the  salts  of  erbia 
do  not  exhibit  the  same  phenomenon  by  pris 
matic  analvsis.  The  metal  terbium  has  never 


TEKBUKG 

been  isolated,  and  a  majority  of  chemists  at 
present  discredit  its  existence. 

TERBFRG,  Gerard,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in 
Zwolle  in  1608,  died  in  Deventer  in  1681.  He 
painted  cabinet  size  conversation  pieces,  musi 
cal  parties,  and  ladies  at  their  toilets.  In  1648 
he  painted  a  picture  of  the  plenipotentiaries 
assembled  at  the  congress  of  Minister,  which 
led  to  his  being  invited  to  Madrid  by  Philip 
IV.  He  excelled  in  color  and  the  finishing  of 
his  draperies,  especially  white  satin. 

TERCEIRA,  one  of  the  Azore  islands,  near  the 
centre  of  the  group ;  lat.  38°  40'  N.,  Ion.  27° 
10'  W. ;  extreme  length  20  m.,  general  breadth 
about  12  m. ;  pop.  about  50,000.  The  coast  is 
generally  bold  and  precipitous,  and  the  central 
part  of  the  island  is  mountainous,  the  summits 
consisting  mostly  of  fertile  plains.  Many  of 
the  mountain  masses  are  composed  of  soft 
pumice.  The  island  is  well  watered,  and  the 
soil  fertile.  Grain,  wine,  and  cattle  are  pro 
duced,  and  it  exports  oranges  and  lemons. 
Capital,  Angra.— In  1829  Terceira  became  the 
seat  of  the  regency  for  Dona  Maria  da  Gloria 
during  Dom  Miguel's  usurpation  in  Portugal, 
and  Dom  Pedro  I.  of  Brazil  collected  there 
forces  for  the  recovery  of  his  daughter's  throne. 

TEREDO.     See  Snip  WORM. 

TERENCE  (PuBLius  TEKEXTIT-S  AFEE),  a  Eo- 
man  comic  poet,  born  in  Carthage  about  195 
B.  0.,  died  about  159.  He  became  a  slave  of 
P.  Terentius  Lucanus,  a  Roman  senator,  who 
gave  him  an  excellent  education,  and  finally 
freed  him.  The  Andria,  his  first  play,  was 
acted  in  166,  and  its  success  introduced  him 
into  the  best  society  of  Rome,  Laelius  and  the 
younger  Scipio  being  among  his  associates. 
Later  in  life  he  went  to  Greece,  and  there 
translated  108  of  Menander's  comedies.  The 
manner  of  his  death  is  uncertain,  though  the 
conimon  account  ascribes  it  to  grief  at  the  loss 
of  all  his  translations  of  Menander.  Six  of  his 
comedies  are  extant,  and  besides  the  Andria 
("  The  Woman  of  Andros  "),  the  plot  of  which 
was  adopted  by  Steele  in  his  "  Conscious  Lov 
ers,"  there  are  Ilecyra  ("  The  Stepmother "), 
produced  in  165  ;  Heauton  -  Timoroiimenos 
("The  Self-Tormentor"),  produced  in  163; 
Eunuchus  ("  The  Eunuch  "),  the  most  popular 
of  his  plays,  for  which  he  received  8,000  ses 
terces,  produced  in  162 ;  Phormio,  produced 
in  162  ;  and  Adelphi  ("  The  Brothers  "),  acted 
first  in  160.  -  The  dramas  of  Terence  all  belong 
to  fhefafiulapalliata,  and  with  the  exception 
of  the  last  two  were  first  performed  at  the 
Megalesian  games.  The  plots  were  borrowed 
from  Menander.  Terence's  Latinity  is  elegant, 
and  his  works  have  been  handed  down  in  a 
very  correct  state.  There  have  been  numer 
ous  imitations  of  his  comedies  by  the  mod 
erns,  and  they  have  been  translated  into  near 
ly  all  the  languages  of  Europe.  The  first  edi 
tion  is  probably  that  of  Milan  (fol.,  1470).  Re 
cent  editions  of  the  text  with  notes  are  those 
of  Davies  (London,  1869),  Wagner  (London, 
1869),  and  Umpfenbach  (Berlin,  1870).  Among 


TERMITES 


657 


English  translations  are  those  of  Colman  (Lon 
don,  1765),  Patrick  (Dublin,  1829),  and  Riley 
(London,  1853). 

TERHUNE,  Mary  Virginia  (HA WES),  an  Ameri 
can  novelist,  under  the  pseudonyme  of  Marion 
Harland,  born  in  Amelia  county,  Va.,  about 
1835.  At  the  age  of  16  she 'published  in 
"  Godey's  Lady's  Book "  a  sketch  entitled 
"Marrying  from  Prudential  Motives,"  which 
was  copied  into  an  English  periodical,  trans 
lated  into  French,  retranslated  into  English, 
and  published  in  England  and  America  as  an 
English  tale.  In  1856  she  married  the  Rev. 
E.  P.  Terhune,  and  since  1859  has  resided  at 
Newark,  N.  J.  Her  works  are:  "Alone" 
(Richmond,  1854;  19th  ed.,  1856);  "The 
Hidden  Path"  (New  York,  1855);  "Moss 
Side"  (1857);  "Miriam"  and  "Nemesis" 
(1860);  "Husks"  (1863);  "Husbands  and 
Homes  "  (1865) ;  "  Snnnybank  "  (1866)  ;  "  The 
Christmas  Holly  "  (1867)  ;  "  Ruby's  Husband  " 
(1868)  ;  "  Phemie's  Temptation  "  (1869)  ; 
"  Helen  Gardner,"  "  The  Empty  Heart,"  "  Com 
mon  Sense  in  the  Household,  a  Manual  of 
Practical  Housewifery,"  and  "AtLast"  (1870); 
"  True  as  Steel "  (1872)  ;  "  Jessamine  "  (1873) ; 
and  "From  my  Youth  Up"  (1874). 

TERMINI-IMERESE  (anc,  Thermce  Himer 'enses), 
a  town  of  Sicily,  part  of  the  ancient  northern 
Himera,  in  the  province  and  20  m.  S.  E.  of 
the  city  of  Palermo,  E.  of  the  mouth  of  the 
San  Lionardo  ;  pop.  in  1872,  25,780.  It  has 
fine  churches,  a  good  harbor,  fisheries,  and  an 
active  trade  in  local  products,  including  mac- 
caroni,  which  is  the  best  in  Sicily. — After  the 
destruction  of  the  Greek  city  of  Himera  by 
Hannibal,  the  son  of  Gisco,  in  409  B.  C.,  the 
surviving  inhabitants  fled  to  the  neighboring 
Thermae,  so  named  from  its  celebrated  hot  sul 
phur  springs.  The  town  appears  to  have  ex 
isted  during  the  Roman  empire,  and  consider 
able  portions  of  the  Roman  part  are  still  visi 
ble.  The  southern  Thermae  or  Thermae  Seli- 
nuntias  is  described  under  SCIACCA,  its  modern 
site.  (See  also  HIMEEA.) 

TERMITES,  the  proper  name  of  the  white 
ants,  or  the  neuropterous  insects  of  the  family 
termitince.  Though  they  resemble  the  com 
mon  ants  (formica)  in  their  social  habits,  they 
belong  to  a  different  order,  and  in  many  re 
spects  come  near  the  orthoptera.  In  the  genus 
termes  (Linn.)  the  antennae  are  thread-shaped, 
with  about  20  joints ;  the  eyes  small  but  promi 
nent,  and  the  ocelli  three ;  the  mouth  as  in 
orthoptera ;  thorax  distinct,  and  wings  large, 
long,  and  membranous ;  legs  short  with  four- 
jointed  tarsi ;  abdomen  with  a  pair  of  minute 
caudal  appendages.  They  live  in  vast  com 
munities,  principally  in  the  tropics,  and  do 
great  damage  by  devouring  everything  but 
metals  and  stone  which  comes  in  their  way, 
gnawing  even  the  interior  of  the  beams  of 
houses,  leaving  only  a  thin  shell.  According 
to  Latreille  there  are  five  classes  in  their  com 
munities,  males,  females,  workers,  neuters,  and 
soldiers.  The  males  and  females  are  at  first 


660 


TERNATE 


TERRA  COTTA 


coming  down  to  N".  Europe ;  it  is  a  very  rapid 
and  graceful  flier,  dashing  boldly  into  the  water 
after  fish  and  shrimps ;  the  eggs  are  delicious, 
1J  by  |  in.  There  are  several  other  species, 
arid  another  genus,  the  short-tailed  or  black 
tern,  hydrochelidon  (Boie),  with  the  species  H. 
plumbea  in  America  and  H.  nigra  in  Europe. 

TERNATE.     See  MOLUCCAS. 

TERiYlUX.  L  Guilianine  Louis,  baron,  a  French 
manufacturer,  born  in  Sedan,  Oct.  8,  1763,  died 
in  St.  Ouen,  April  2,  1833.  When  scarcely  16 
years  old  he  managed  his  father's  woollen  fac 
tory,  and  retrieved  the  fortune  of  his  family. 
He  was  a  supporter  of  reform  in  1789,  but  was 
one  of  the  king's  defenders  in  1792.  After  the 
fall  of  Robespierre  he  established  large  manu 
factories  at  Louviers  and  Sedan.  He  natural 
ized  Thibetan  goats  in  France,  and  manufac 
tured  shawls  in  imitation  of  the  Indian  ones, 
known  as  cacJiemires-Ternaux.  He  was  made 
a  baron  by  Louis  XVIII. ;  in  1818  he  was 
elected  a  deputy;  was  reflected  in  1827,  and 
was  one  of  the  221  deputies  whose  decided 
stand  against  the  government  brought  about 
the  revolution  of  July,  1830.  The  commercial 
crisis  which  followed  ruined  him,  though  he 
paid  all  his  debts.  He  published  several  trea 
tises  on  finance  and  manufactures.  II.  Henri, 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  known  as  Henri 
Ternaux-Campans,  born  in  Paris  in  1807,  died 
there  in  1864.  lie  was  distinguished  for  his 
devotion  to  the  study  of  American  history,  and 
published  two  series,  in  10  vols.  each,  of  Voy 
ages,  relations  et  memoircs,  from  inedited  Span 
ish  manuscripts,  relating  to  the  discovery  and 
conquest  of  America  (Paris,  1836-'40) ;  Bibli- 
otheque  americaine,  1493-1700  (8vo,  1837) ; 
Bibliotheque  asiatique  et  africaine  (1841-'2) ; 
and  various  other  works. — MOKTIMEB,  his  broth 
er,  born  in  Paris  in  1808,  has  published  La 
chute  de  la  royaute,  10  aout  1792  (1864);  Le 
yieuple  aux  Tuileries,  20  juin  1792  (1864)  ; 
and  Hixtoire  de  la  terreur  (l792-'4),  from  in- 
edited  documents  (7  vols.  8vo,  1862-'9). 

TERM  (anc.  Interamna\  a  town  of  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Perugia,  on  an  island  formed 
by  the  JSTera,  49  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Rome ;  pop. 
about  10,000.  It  has  a  cathedral  built  from 
the  designs  of  Bernini,  with  a  high  altar  rich 
in  marbles ;  and  there  are  many  Roman  re 
mains  and  inscriptions.  Silk  and  oil  are  the 
chief  articles  of  trade.  About  5  m.  from  Ter- 
ni  are  the  celebrated  falls  of  the  Velino  (cadute 
delle  Marmore),  about  800  ft.  high,  fed  by  an 
artificial  channel  laid  out  by  the  Romans  to 
drain  the  plains  of  Rieti.  The  water  descends 
by  three  separate  leaps,  respectively  50,  500, 
and  250  ft.  high,  forming  one  continuous  sheet 
of  foam,  described  by  Byron  "  as  worth  all  the 
cascades  and  torrents  of  Switzerland  put  to 
gether." — The  ancient  Interamna,  originally 
belonging  to  Umbria,  was  celebrated  under  the 
Romans,  as  Term  still  is,  for  the  remarkable 
fertility  of  the  surrounding  country. 

TERPANDER  (T^Travrfpof),  a  Greek  musician, 
born  at  Antissa  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  flour 


ished  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  7th  century 
B.  0.  He  removed  to  Sparta,  where  in  676 
he  was  crowned  victor  in  the  first  musical  con 
test  at  the  feast  of  Apollo  Carneius,  and  where 
he  established  the  first  musical  school  or  sys 
tem  in  Greece.  He  enlarged  the  compass  of 
the  lyre  from  a  tetrachord  to  an  octave,  but 
with  the  omission  of  the  third  string,  count 
ing  from  the  highest  down,  making  it  really 
a  heptachord ;  and  he  was  the  first  who  regu 
larly  set  poetry  to  music. 

TERPSICHORE,  one  of  the  nine  Muses,  daugh 
ter  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne.  She  presided 
over  choral  song  and  dancing,  and  is  generally 
represented  as  crowned  with  flowers  and  hold 
ing  a  lyre  and  plectrum. 

TERRA,  or  Tellus,  a  goddess  of  the  Roman 
mythology,  in  whose  form  the  earth  was  per 
sonified  and  worshipped,  and  who  is  thus  often 
named  in  contrast  with  Jupiter,  the  god  of 
heaven.  A  festival  in  her  honor  was  celebra 
ted  on  the  15th  of  April,  and  private  sacri 
fices  were  offered  to  her  at  seedtime  and  har 
vest,  and  also  when  any  member  of  a  family 
died.  Terra  corresponds  to  Ga3a  or  Go  in 
Greek  mythology.  In  the  Hesiodic  theogony 
Gasa  was  the  first  born  of  Chaos.  She  gave 
birth  to  Uranus,  whom  she  afterward  married, 
and  from  this  union  sprang  the  Titans,  the 
Cyclops,  and  the  hundred-handed  giants.  Her 
worship  was  universal  among  the  Greeks. 

TERRACI1YA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Rome,  on  a  gulf  of  its  own  name  in  the 
Mediterranean,  at  the  S.  W.  end  of  the  Pontine 
marshes,  26  m.  S.  W.  of  Frosinone;  pop.  about 
5,000.  It  has  a  cathedral  occupying,  according 
to  some  authorities,  the  site  of  the  celebrated 
ancient  temple  of  Jupiter  Anxur,  from  wThich 
its  beautiful  fluted  marble  columns  are  said  to 
have  been  taken.  The  most  picturesque  of  the 
many  ruins  are  those  of  the  palace  of  Thco- 
doric,  on  the  summit  of  the  hill  above  the  town. 
Near  the  shore  is  a  palace  built'  by  Pius  VI., 
who  made  considerable  but  not  successful  ef 
forts  to  drain  the  marshes  and  to  restore  the 
ancient  port,  which  is  still  filled  with  sand, 
though  a  new  pier  affords  protection  to  small 
craft.  The  bishopric  of  Terracina  is  said  to 
date  from  A.  D.  46. — Terracina  was  the  Anxur 
of  the  Volscians  and  the  Romans ;  the  latter 
had  fine  villas  and  a  naval  station  here,  and 
also  called  the  place  Tarracina. 

TERRA  COTTA  (It.,  baked  clay),  an  earthen 
ware  employed  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Egyptians  in  the  manufacture  of  moulds,  ar 
chitectural  ornaments,  statuary,  utensils,  sar 
cophagi,  and  various  other  objects.  An  impor 
tant  use  of  it  among  the  Assyrians  and  Baby 
lonians  was  for  the  preservation  of  records, 
which  were  stamped  upon  terra  cotta  slabs 
and  cylinders.  The  material  is  clay  of  con 
siderable  purity,  and  the  articles  are  generally 
slack-baked,  or  merely  hardened  by  continued 
exposure  to  the  sun.  The  color  is  usually  a 
red  or  buff,  and  the  vases  are  often  ornament 
ed  with  designs  of  leaves,  vines,  &c.,  painted 


TERRA  DEL  FUEGO 


TERRAPIN 


661 


in  black  or  other  colors.  While  these  adorn 
the  rim,  neck,  and  stand,  the  body  is  some 
times  covered  with  allegorical  representations 
of  gods,  men,  and  animals.  The  Romans  em 
ployed  finer  materials  for  their  terra  cottas, 
and  moulded  these  into  lamps,  urns,  &c.,  winch 
they  ornamented  with  depressed  or  raised  fig 
ures.  From  the  12th  to  the  17th  century 
terra  cotta  was  much  used  in  Italy  for  archi 
tectural  decorations,  and  Michel  Angelo  and 
other  sculptors  employed  it  for  their  models 
and  clay  sketches.  The  manufacture  of  deco 
rative  works  in  terra  cotta  has  been  an  im 
portant  branch  of  industry  in  England  since 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century.  The  mix 
tures  employed  are  of  pure  clays  and  fine 
quartz  sand  or  calcined  flints  with  pulverized 
potsherds  or  old  pottery.  The  coats  of  arms 
seen  over  many  of  the  shop  fronts  in  London 
are  moulded  and  baked  in  this  material.  It 
is  also  used  for  statues,  baptismal  fonts,  foun 
tains,  and  ornamental  pieces  of  various  forms  in 
different  parts  of  buildings.  The  ware  is  much 
more  firmly  baked  than  that  of  the  ancients. 
Of  late  years  it  has  been  extensively  employed 
for  elaborate  architectural  ornaments,  such  as 
are  ordinarily  carved  in  stone,  and  also  for 
architectural  models.  Drain  tiles  and  similar 
ware  are  made  of  it.  It  is  also  an  important 
manufacture  in  France,  and  there  was  a  re 
markable  display  of  terra  cotta  statues  and 
other  objects  in  the  Paris  exhibition  of  1867. 

TERRA  DEL  FUEGO.     See  TIEEEA  DEL  FUEGO. 

TERRA  DI  BARI.     See  BAEI. 

TERRA  DI  LAVORO.     See  CASEETA. 

TERRA  D'OTRANTO.     See  LECCE. 

TERRAPIN,  a  name  commonly  applied  to  sev 
eral  species  of  land  tortoises,  but  in  the  Uni 
ted  States  generally  limited  to  the  few  fresh 
water  species  of  the  family  emydoidce,  exten 
sively  used  as  food.  They  have  a  depressed 
head,  and  the  neck  can  be  wholly  retracted 
within  the  shell ;  eyes  large,  and  the  beak 
somewhat  like  that  of  a  bird  of  prey  ;  they  are 
good  swimmers,  and  out  of  the  water  move 
with  more  quickness  than  the  land  tortoises ; 
their  food  consists  of  small  reptiles,  fish;  and 
other  aquatic  animals,  though  in  captivity  they 
eat  vegetables  readily. — The  yellow-bellied  ter 
rapin  (trachemys  scabra,  Ag. ;  emys  serrata, 
Daud.)  is  12  in.  long,  7|-  in.  wide,  and  about 
11  in.  high  ;  the  shell  is  rounded,  very  convex, 
notched  in  front,  deeply  serrated  behind, 
wrinkled  longitudinally,  and  rough  all  over. 
The  color  is  blackish  brown  with  yellow  lines 
and  marks  more  or  less  radiating;  sternum 
yellowish,  notched  behind ;  snout  short  and 
pointed ;  upper  jaw  with  a  very  slight  notch  ; 
eyes  large,  with  golden  iris  having  a  broad 
black  stripe  extending  horizontally  through 
it ;  fingers  five,  each  with  a  short  strong  nail, 
and  toes  five,  fully  webbed,  four  only  having 
nails ;  tail  short,  thick,  and  pointed ;  head  and 
limbs  black,  varied  with  yellow  lines,  a  broad 
transverse  band  of  the  latter  across  the  neck 
behind  the  eyes.  This  species  lives  in  stagnant 


ponds  and  pools,  and  is  fond  of  basking  in  the 
sun  on  the  margins  and  on  stones  and  stumps, 
whence  it  can  readily  plunge  into  the  water 
if  disturbed ;  it  is  found  from  Virginia  to 
Georgia,  south  of  the  latter  being  replaced  by 
the  Florida  and  north  of  the  former  by  the 
red-bellied  terrapin ;  it  is  abundant  about 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  where  it  is  seen  in  great 
numbers  in  the  markets. — The  red-bellied  ter 
rapin,  or  potter  (ptychemys  rugosa,  Ag. ;  E. 
rubriventris,  Le  Conte),  is  11  in.  long,  7  in. 
wide,  and  about  5  in.  high ;  the  shell  is  entire 
in  front,  widest  and  notched  behind;  upper 
jaw  deeply  notched,  and  the  lower  serrated 
with  three  teeth  in  front ;  shell,  head,  neck, 
and  limbs  dusky  brown,  with  blotches,  spots, 
and  lines  of  red ;  sternum  dusky  red.  It  lives 
in  running  waters,  preferring  rocky  bottom; 
it  is  found  between  the  Delaware  river  and 
Chesapeake  bay,  and  is  abundant  about  Tren 
ton,  N.  J. ;  its  flesh  is  less  esteemed  than  that 
of  the  preceding  and  following  species. — The 
Florida  terrapin  (P.  concinna,  Ag. ;  E.  Flori- 
dana,  Harlan)  is  the  largest  of  the  species, 
being  15  in.  long,  10  in.  wide,  and  7J  in.  high ; 
the  shell  is  entire,  compressed  on  the  sides ; 


Ked-bellied  Terrapin  (Ptychemys  rugosa). 

the  jaws  without  teeth,  the  lower  somewhat 
serrated ;  the  shell,  neck,  head,  and  limbs 
brownish,  with  numerous  yellow  lines  and 
bands;  sternum  pale  yellow,  the  marginal 
plates  with  a  black  spot  having  a  yellow  cen 
tre ;  throat  ashy,  striped  with  yellow.  It  is 
extensively  distributed  through  the  southern 
states,  in  lakes  and  rivers,  from  North  Caro 
lina  as  far  as  western  Louisiana,  and  up  the 
Mississippi  valley  to  Arkansas  ;  it  is  very  com 
mon  in  E.  Florida,  especially  in  the  St.  John's 
river ;  its  flesh  is  delicious.— The  chicken  terra 
pin  (deirocJielys  reticulata,  Ag. ;  E.  reticulata, 
Schweig.)  is  9£  in.  long  and  5£  in.  wide ;  the 
shell  is  oval,  entire,  longitudinally  ^  rough  ; 
upper  jaw  slightly  notched,  lower  entire  with 
a  hook  in  front ;  neck  very  long  ;  above,  head, 
neck,  and  limbs  dark  brown,  with  numerous 
yellow  lines  communicating  so  as  to  form  a 
network,  whence  the  specific  name ;  lower 
parts  yellow,  with  black  spots  on  some  of  the 
marginal  plates.  Its  habits  are  the  same  as 
in  the  other  species,  the  long  neck  giving  it 


662 


TEREE  BONNE 


TERRIER 


in  the  water  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 
snake,  as  it  swims  with  this  part  and  the 
head  alone  visible  above  the  surface.  It  is 
found  from  North  Carolina  and  Georgia  to 
Louisiana,  not  far  from  the  sea  coast;  it  is 
often  brought  to  market,  and  is  the  most  es 
teemed  of  the  terrapins  for  food. — The  salt 
water  terrapin  (malacoclemmys  palustris,  Ag. ; 
E.  terrapin,  Holbr.)  is  7i  in.  long  and  3  in. 
high  ;  the  shell  is  nearly  entire,  slightly  notched 
posteriorly  ;  the  head  is  very  large  ;  jaws  strong 
and  cutting,  the  upper  slightly  notched  and 
the  lower  hooked  ;  eyes  small  with  a  gray  iris ; 
neck  short  and  thick.  The  color  is  dusky 
olive-green,  with  darker  concentric  lines  ;  ster 
num  generally  yellowish  with  concentric  dusky 
lines ;  side  of  the  head,  neck,  and  limbs  brown 
ish  white  with  innumerable  black  dots;  the 
males  are  the  smaller,  and  have  deeper  strios. 
It  lives  in  salt  water  and  in  salt  marshes,  where 
it  hibernates  ;  it  is  very  shy,  a  rapid  swimmer, 
and  a  quick  runner  on  land ;  it  is  found  from 
Rhode  Island  to  Florida,  along  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  in  South  America,  and  perhaps  in  the 
West  Indies  ;  it  is  abundant  about  Charleston, 
S.  C. ;  the  flesh  is  excellent,  and  in  the  middle 
states  most  esteemed  during  hibernation. 

TERRE  BONNE,  a  S.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
bordering  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  drained 
by  the  Terre  Bonne,  Black,  and  Caillou  bayous ; 
area,  1,640  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1875,  15,486,  of 
whom  7,988  were  colored.  The  surface  is  flat 
and  marshy,  and  diversified  by  numerous  shal 
low  lakes.  Morgan's  Louisiana  and  Texas 
railroad  intersects  the  N.  part.  The^chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  209,050  bushels  of  In 
dian  corn,  233,000  Ibs.  of  rice,  130  bales  of 
cotton,  6.537  hogsheads  of  sugar,  and  366,282 
gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  676  horses, 
1,798  mules  and  asses,  696  milch  cows,  1,357 
other  cattle,  and  2,426  swine;  4  saw  mills,  64 
manufactories  of  molasses  and  sugar,  and  4  of 
upholstery.  Capital,  Houma. 

TERREBONNE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Quebec, 
Canada,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
opposite  Montreal ;  area,  541  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  19,591,  of  whom  18,151  were  of  French 
and  970  of  Irish  origin  or  descent.  It  is 
drained  by  the  North' river,  an  affluent  of  the 
Ottawa,  and  by  several  streams  that  empty 
into  the  St.  Lawrence.  Capital,  St.  Jerome. 

TERRE  HAUTE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Vigo 
co.,  Indiana,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Wabash 
river,  here  spanned  by  three  bridges,  70  m. 
W.  S.  W.  of  Indianapolis,  and  55  m.  N.  of 
Vincennes ;  pop.  in  1850,  4,051 ;  in  1860,  8,594; 
in  1870,  16,103.  It  is  situated  on  an  elevated 
plateau,  is  well  built,  and  has  broad  streets 
ornamented  with  shade  trees.  It  is  the  centre 
of  trade  for  a  rich  and  populous  region,  abound 
ing  in  coal.  It  is  connected  with  Lake  Erie  by 
the  Wabash  and  Erie  canal.  The  Wabash  river 
is  navigable  a  portion  of  the  year  for  steam 
boats,  and  shipments  are  made  direct  to  and 
from  points  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers. 
The  city  is  an  important  railroad  centre,  being 


the  point  of  intersection  of  seven  lines,  viz.  : 
the  Cincinnati  and  Terre  Haute;  Evansville, 
Terre  Haute,  and  Chicago ;  Terre  Haute,  Paris, 
and  Decatur  ;  Evansville  and  Crawfordsville ; 
Indianapolis  and  St.  Louis ;  St.  Louis,  Vanda- 
lia,  Terre  Haute,  and  Indianapolis;  and  Lo- 
gansport,  Crawfordsville,  and  Southwestern. 
There  are  numerous  large  factories,  blast  fur 
naces,  glass  and  iron  works,  machine  shops, 
nail  works,  &c.  Pork  packing  is  extensively 
carried  on.  Terre  Haute  has  a  handsome  court 
house,  a  commodious  market  house  and  city 
hall,  a  good  opera  house,  two  orphan  asylums, 
eight  fine  public  school  buildings,  and  several 
private  schools  and  academies,  and  is  the  seat 
of  the  state  normal  school.  There  are  three 
daily,  a  tri-weekly  (German),  and  six  weekly 
(one  German)  newspapers,  two  public  libraries, 
and  20  churches.  Terre  Haute  was  laid  out  in 
1816,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1853. 

TERRELL,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  drained 
by  affluents  of  Flint  river;  area,  about  300 
sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1870,  9,053,  of  whom  5,284 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  nearly  tevel. 
The  Southwestern  railroad  traverses  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  158,130  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  13,973  of  oats,  22,898  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  6,163  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  444  horses,  983  mules  and  asses,  982 
milch  cows,  2,083  other  cattle,  1,069  sheep, 
and  6,742  swine ;  several  manufactories,  6  saw 
mills,  and  1  tannery.  Capital,  Dawson. 

TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM.  See  MAGNETISM, 
TEERESTEIAL. 

TERRIER  (cams  terrarius,  Flem.),  a  small 
variety  of  dog,  so  named  from  its  propensity  to 
pursue  and  attack  its  prey  in  subterranean  re 
treats.  It  is  considered  by  Hamilton  Smith  as 
descended  from  an  indigenous  European  canine. 


Skye  Terrier. 

There  are  two  well  marked  varieties,  the  result 
of  fancy  or  accident.  One,  the  English  or  black 
and  tan,  is  smooth,  rounded,  elegant  in  shape, 
usually  black,  with  tan-colored  spots  over  the 
eyes  and  the  same  tint  on  the  legs  and  lower 
parts;  the  nose  is  sharp,  eyes  bright,  ears 
pointed  or  slightly  turned  down,  and  the  tail 
carried  high  and  bowed  over  the  back.  The 
other,  the  Scotch  terrier,  the  oldest  and  purest 
breed,  has  shaggy  and  wiry  hair,  a  shorter  and 
fuller  muzzle,  bearded  snout  and  face,  stouter 
limbs,  less  elegant  form,  and  a  pale  sandy  or 


TERTIARIANS 


TERTULLIAN 


ochrey  color  ;  it  is  sometimes  white.  The  isle 
of  Skye  breed  is  one  of  the  most  prized,  and 
one  of  the  ugliest.  The  terrier  has  an  acute 
sense  of  smell,  and  is  a  good  attendant  on  a 
pack  of  hounds,  forcing  foxes  and  other  game 
from  their  coverts  and  dens ;  it  is  a  determined 
enemy  of  the  weasel,  badger,  and  rat  families. 
The  jaws  are  very  powerful.  The  Scotch  ter 
rier  has  been  known  to  kill  100  rats  in  a  room 
in  less  than  seven  minutes.  In  England  the 
terrier  blood  is  visible  in  most  of  the  sheep  and 
cattle  dogs ;  but  the  most  prized  variety  is  the 
bull  terrier,  from  a  cross  with  the  bulldog,  the 
most  determined,  pugnacious,  and  savage  of 
the  dog  tribe  ;  in  this  the  ears  are  pointed,  and 
the  general  characters  are  those  of  the  bulldog ; 
it  is  usually  white,  with  some  black  about  the 
head. — The  turnspit  is  a  cross  of  the  terrier 
with  larger  and  less  pure  breeds ;  the  body  is 
long  and  heavy,  with  disproportionately  short 
and  generally  crooked  legs  ;  it  is  bold,  vigilant, 
and  spirited,  and,  though  larger,  is  used  in  Eu 
rope  for  the  purposes  of  the  terrier  ;  it  is,  when 
best,  a  cross  with  a  hound;  it  received  its 
name  from  its  being  in  old  times  employed  to 
turn  the  spit  in  the  kitchen,  walking  round  in 
a  kind  of  wheel.  The  C.  vertagus  of  the  an 
cients,  sometimes  erroneously  translated  turn 
spit,  is  the  lurcher,  a  degenerate  greyhound. 

TERTIARIANS  (Fr.  tierciare,  from  Lat.  terti- 
arius,  containing  a  third  part),  men  or  women 
belonging  to  the  "third  order"  in  any  one  of 
the  monastic  orders.  The  tertiarians,  without 
living  in  cloistered  communities,  bind  them 
selves  by  simple  vows  to  certain  prayers  and 
observances  of  the  order.  Such  an  organiza 
tion  of  secular  persons  occurs  for  the  first  time 
in  the  history  of  the  Premonstratensians,  and 
another  was  connected  with  the  order  of  the 
Templars.  But  it  did  not  become  generally 
known  until  Francis  of  Assisi,  after  founding 
the  order  of  the  Franciscans  (the  first  order) 
and  the  order  of  the  Poor  Clares  (second  order), 
founded  a  third  one  for  the  numerous  laymen 
who  wished  to  conform  themselves  to  the  mode 
of  life  of  the  Franciscans  as  much  as  secular 
occupations  would  permit.  When  their  num 
ber  increased,  many  of  them  resolved  to  adopt 
the  common  life,  and  thus  the  third  regular 
order  of  Franciscans  arose.  (See  FRANCIS 
CANS,  vol.  vii.,  p.  425.)  The  example  of  the 
Franciscans  was  followed  by  the  Dominicans, 
Augustinians,  Carmelites,  Servites,  and  other 
orders,  all  which  have  connected  with  them 
both  tertiarians  living  in  the  world,  and  regu 
lar  tertiarians  living  in  common. 

TERTCLLIAN  (Quixxus  SEPTIMIUS  FLOEEKS 
TERTULLIANUS),  one  of  the  early  church  fa 
thers,  born  in  Carthage  about  A.  D.  150,  died 
between  220  and  240.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
Roman  centurion,  became  a  lawyer,  embraced 
Christianity  about  190,  and  entered  the  Chris 
tian  priesthood.  He  preached  at  Carthage  and 
probably  at  Rome,  and  became  widely  known 
by  the  publication  of  several  controversial  trea 
tises,  as  well  as  his  ascetic  practices.  About 


the  year  202  he  joined  the  Montanists,  and  at 
once  became  the  champion  of  the  sect,  with 
which  he  remained  until  his  death.  The  dif 
ference  between  his  works  written  before  and 
those  after  he  became  a  Montanist  seems  to  be 
more  a  difference  of  spirit  than  of  doctrine; 
and  his  writings  are  classed  in  authority  with 
those  of  the  other  church  fathers.  He  was  the 
fearless  champion  of  Christianity  against  Jews 
and  pagans,  and  of  catholic  orthodoxy  in  the 
church.  His  Apologeticus  has  been  called  the 
first  plea  for  religious  liberty  in  Christian  lit 
erature,  and  is  one  of  the  best  defences  of 
Christianity  and  the  Christians  against  their 
pagan  adversaries.  In  his  treatise  "  On  the 
Testimony  of  the  Soul "  he  unfolds  the  pro 
found  thought  that  Christianity  is  grounded  in 
the  nature  of  man,  and  meets  its  deepest  wants. 
He  led  the  way  in  ecclesiastical  anthropology 
and  soteriology,  wras  the  teacher  of  Cyprian, 
and  the  forerunner  of  Augustine.  Among  his 
controversial  works  are  his  books  "Against 
the  Gentiles,"  "Against  the  Jews,"  "Against 
Hermogenes  "  (showing  that  matter  is  not 
eternal,  but  created  by  God),  "Against  the 
Valentinians,"  "  On  the  Prescription  of  Here 
tics  "  (asserting  vehemently  that  no  doctrine 
contrary  to  the  received  faith  had  a  claim  to 
toleration  from  the  church,  or  to  appeal  to  the 
Scriptures,  and  contradicting  the  principles  of 
his  "Apology"),  "Against  Marcion,"  "Against 
Praxeas,"  "  On  the  Soul,"  "  On  Baptism,"  "  On 
the  Flesh  of  Christ,"  and  "  On  the  Resurrec 
tion  of  the  Body,"  in  all  of  which  he  opposes 
growing  errors,  and  seeks  to  show  what  is  the 
true  doctrine  of  the  church.  Among  his  prac 
tical  works  belong  the  book  "On  Penance;" 
that  "  On  Prayer,"  which  explains  the  Lord's 
prayer;  "On  Patience;"  "To  the  Martyrs;" 
"On  Theatrical  Shows;"  "On  Idolatry,"  a 
casuistical  discussion  of  the  degree  to  which 
idol  worship  may  be  tolerated  by  Christians ; 
"  On  the  Dress  of  AY  omen,"  and  on  the  "  Veil 
ing  of  Virgins."  which  teach  that  modesty  and 
the  hiding  of  the  features  are  proper  for  women 
in  the  house  of  God;  and  the  book  "To  his 
Wife,"  in  which  he  proclaims  his  aversion  to 
second  marriages.  His  specially  Montanist 
works  are  the  "Exhortation  to  Chastity"  and 
"  On  Monogamy,"  in  which  he  carries  to  abso 
lute  prohibition  the  theory  of  the  book  "  To  his 
Wife ;"  "On  Chastity,"  which  denies  that  those 
who  are  guilty  of  gross  sins  can  be  absolved ; 
"  On  Repentance  ;"  "  On  Fasting  ;"  "  On  the 
Soldier's  Crown ;"  and  "  On  Flight,"  which  in 
sists  that  Christians  ought  not  to  flee  from  per 
secutions.  Tertulliau's  works  are  written  in  a 
rude  Punic  Latin  interlarded  with  African  or 
old  Latin  idioms  and  phrases  of  Latinized  Greek. 
His 'earlier  works  are  said  to  have  been  written 
in  Greek,  but  have  come  down  only  in  Latin 
translations.  The  style  of  all  is  nervous,  abrupt, 
often  obscure,  and  vehement.  The  first  collected 
edition  is  that  by  Beatus  Rhenanus  (fol.,  Basel, 
1521).  Among  the  numerous  later  editions  are 
those  by  Semler  (6  vols.,  Halle,  1770-'T3),  Leo- 


664 


TEKUEL 


TESTUDINATA 


pold  in  Gersdorf's  BibliotJieca  Patrum  Latino- 
rum  (vols.  iv.  to  vii.,  Leipsic,  1839-'41),  Migne 
(vols.  i.  to  iii.  of  Patrologie  latine,  Paris,  1844), 
and  Oehler  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1853).  Transla 
tions  of  several,  especially  of  the  "Apology," 
have  been  published  in  most  of  the  modern 
European  languages. —The  life  of  Tertullian  has 
been  written  by  Jerome  in  the  early  church, 
and  in  modern  times  by  Neander  (Antignos- 
ticus,  Berlin,  1825)  and  Hesselberg  (Dorpat, 
1848).  See  also  the  special  works  on  Mon- 
tanism  by  Wernsdorf  (1751),  Mtinter  (1829), 
Schwegler  (1841),  and  Baur  (1851). 

TERUEL.  I,  A  N.  E.  province  of  Spain,  in 
Aragon,  bordering  on  Saragossa,  Tarragona, 
Oastellon,  Valencia,  Cuenca,  and  Guadalajara ; 
area,  5,494  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  252,201. 
The  Albarracin  mountains  traverse  it  E.  and 
W.,  sending  off  numerous  spurs  on  both  sides, 
which  are  covered  with  forests  and  abound  in 
game.  Muela  de  San  Juan,  one  of  the  prin 
cipal  summits  of  the  main  range,  is  covered 
with  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
and  the  rivers  Tagus,  Guadalaviar,  and  Jucar 
have  their  sources  on  its  sides.  The  prov 
ince  is  well  watered  by  the  Guadalupe  and 
the  Jiloca,  affluents  of  the  Ebro,  the  Guadala 
viar,  and  numerous  smaller  streams.  There 
are  extensive  plains  producing  grain,  wine,  oil, 
silk,  hemp,  flax,  saffron,  and  fruit.  Numerous 
sheep,  swine,  and  cattle  are  reared.  Coarse 
woollen  goods,  linen,  canvas,  leather,  paper, 
and  earthenware  are  manufactured.  II.  A 
town,  capital  of  the  province,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Guadalaviar,  136  m.  E.  of  Madrid;  pop. 
about  10,500.  It  stands  on  elevated  ground, 
is  surrounded  by  old  walls,  and  entered  by  a 
number  of  gates  surmounted  by  Aragoncse 
towers.  There  is  a  cathedral,  episcopal  palace, 
several  convents,  two  hospitals,  and  a  bull  ring 
capable  of  accommodating  9,000  spectators. 

TESCHEN,  a  town  of  Lower  Silesia,  Austria, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Olsa,  38  m.  S.  E.  of 
Troppau ;  pop.  in  1870,  including  suburbs,  9,779. 
There  is  some  trade  in  local  products.  The 
principal  manufactory  is  one  for  yarns,  and 
there  is  also  a  large  publishing  house. — The 
peace  concluded  at  Teschen,  May  13,  1779,  be 
tween  Maria  Theresa  and  Frederick  the  Great, 
terminated  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession. 
The  former  duchy  of  Teschen  comprised  till 
1849  most  of  an  extensive  circle  of  the  same 
name,  now  divided  into  eight  bailiwicks. 

TESSIN.     See  TICINO. 

TESTAMENT.     See  WILL. 

TESTAMENT,  Old  and  New.     See  BIBLE. 

TESTIMONY.     See  EVIDENCE. 

TESTUDINATA,  a  term  employed  by  Klein,  and 
adopted  by  Agassiz,  synonymous  with  chelo- 
nians,  and  embracing  the  reptiles  known  as 
tortoises  and  turtles.  They  are  the  highest 
of  the  class,  approaching  the  lower  or  aquatic 
birds  in  form,  mode  of  existence,  and  in  some 
points  of  structure ;  the  regions  of  the  body 
are  distinctly  marked,  and  the  head  has  a  con 
siderable  mobility  on  the  neck.  Dumeril  and 


Bibron  divide  the  order  into  four  families : 
thalassites  or  marine  turtles ;  potamites  or  river 
tortoises ;  elodites  or  marsh  tortoises,  with  the 
subfamilies  cryptoderes,  which  bend  the  short 
neck  like  the  letter  Z,  and  conceal  the  head 
on  the  median  line  beneath  the  carapace,  and 
pleurod&r&8,  which  curve  the  long  neck  hori 
zontally  and  on  the  side  of  the  body  under  the 
shell ;  and  chersites  or  land  tortoises,  the  high 
est  in  rank.  Agassiz  ("Contributions  to  the 
Natural  History  of  the  United  States  of  Ameri 
ca,"  vol.  i.,  part  2)  adopts  Oppel's  subdivision 
of  the  order,  making  the  suborders:  I.,  cJie- 
lonii,  with  the  families:  1,  chelonioidce,  marine 
turtles,  and  2,  sphargidida,  leather  or  trunk 
turtles;  and  II.,  amydce,  with  the  families:  3, 
trionycMdw,  soft-shelled  tortoises;  4,  chely- 
oidoB  (matamatd) ;  5,  hydraspididcc,  \\liQplate- 
mys  and  other  flattened  species,  mostly  South 
American,  united  by  J.  E.  Gray  to  the  pre 
ceding  family;  0,  chelydroidce,  snapping  tur 
tles  ;  7,  cinosternoidce,  mud  turtles ;  8,  emy- 
doidcv,  fresh-water  species  like  the  terrapins ; 
and  9,  testudinina,  land  tortoises  like  the  great 
Galapagos,  gopher,  and  common  European  tor 
toises.  The  characters  of  the  suborders  with 
their  families  will  be  given  under  TOIJTOISE  and 


Skeleton  of  Tortoise. 

TUETLE,  which  may  be  considered  as  corre 
sponding  to  the  amydce  and  chelonii  of  Oppel. 
The  skeleton  is  in  great  part  external,  the 
bony  box  being  covered  only  by  comparatively 
thin  scales  or  a  naked  skin ;  the  most  striking 
character  is  the  stiff  vertebral  column,  spread 
ing  in  the  shape  of  a  carapace  or  shield,  con 
nected  by  a  lateral  bridge  with  the  plastron  or 
ventral  plate,  between  which  the  organs  of  the 
trunk  are  enclosed,  and  having  an  anterior  and 
a  posterior  opening  for  the  protrusion  of  the 
head,  limbs,  and  tail,  which  are  all  free ;  loco 
motion  is  always  performed  by  the  four  limbs. 
The  shield  consists  of  a  hard  and  dry  epidermic 
covering,  under  which  is  a  bony  plate  made  up 
of  the  vertebra?,  ribs,  and  sternum,  overlaid 
and  the  intervals  filled  with  the  ossified  skin 


TESTUDINATA 


6G5 


or  dermal  skeleton,  divided  into  many  pieces 
united  by  suture;  in  the  marine  turtles  this 
dermal  skeleton  is  imperfect  (especially  be 
low),  less  developed  in  the  trionyx,  and  least 
of  all  in  the  trunk  turtle  (spliargis).  The 
epidermic  plates  in  the  tortoise-shell  turtle 
grow  only  on  the  anterior  edge,  the  older 
parts  moving  backward,  much  as  in  the  human 
nail ;  but  in  the  land  tortoises  they  increase 
below  and  on  all  sides,  in  concentric  rings, 
like  the  annual  growths  of  a  tree ;  there  is 
ev'ery  intermediate  stage  between  these  types ; 
a  moulting  of  the  epidermis  takes  place  in  all 
chelonians,  scale  by  scale.  In  all  except  the 
imbricated  turtle  the  colors  are  in  the  lowest 
layers  of  the  epidermis ;  in  this  they  exist  in 
the  external  dry  horny  layers,  displaying  the 
beautiful  and  permanent  hues  of  tortoise  shell ; 
in  the  corium  or  true  skin  is  deposited  the 
phosphate  of  lime  of  the  dermal  skeleton.  The 
skull  is  solid  and  compact,  and  the  facial  bones 
are  immovably  fixed  to  the  cranium ;  the  lower 
jaw  consists  of  a  firm  bony  arch ;  the  occipital 
bone  strikingly  resembles  a  vertebra;  the  pari- 
etals  principally  enclose  the  brain;  there  are 
two  pairs  of  frontals,  and  the  nasals  are  almost 
always  wanting.  The  cervical  vertebra  are 
nine,  if  the  odontoid  process  be  considered  dis 
tinct,  and  have  no  transverse  processes ;  some 
have  a  concave-convex  articulation,  others  a 
convex-concave,  one  a  biconcave  (toward  the 
lower  part  of  the  series),  and  one  a  biconvex 
(in  the  middle),  giving  considerable  freedom  of 
motion  in  certain  directions  without  the  flexi 
bility  of  the  bird's  neck.  The  dorsal  vertebrae 
are  11,  of  which  the  first  is  movable,  the  rest 
united  into  a  firm  arch  by  the  continuous 
growth  of  the  spinous  processes ;  the  ribs  ex 
tend  from  between  the  vertebra,  being  strong 
est  where  the  dermal  skeleton  is  least  devel 
oped,  as  in  trionyx,  spliargis,  &c. ;  the  sternum 
consists  of  four  pairs  and  one  odd  bone,  vary 
ing  much  in  size  and  connection,  united  to  the 
ribs  by  a  bony  bridge,  the  marginal  plates  be 
ing  dermal  bones  ;  the  caudal  vertebra?  are  very 
movable,  convex  behind,  concave  before,  and 
without  spinous  processes.  The  scapular  and 
pelvic  arches  are  withdrawn  under  the  bony 
roof  of  the  body ;  the  bones  of  the  shoulder 
are  long,  straight,  and  narrow,  the  scapula  and 
acromion  united  at  right  angles,  the  coracoid 
running  backward  among  the  muscles,  and  the 
three  united  to  form  the  glenoid  cavity;  the 
humerus  is  short,  crooked,  and  turned  inward  ; 
the  forearm  and  hand  have  their  transverse  di 
ameter  vertical,  the  ulna  overlying  the  radius, 
so  that  the  limb  may  be  drawn  back  under  the 
carapace  by  the  bending  of  all  the  joints  in  the 
plane  of  the  scapula;  the  form  of  the  hand 
varies  in  the  different  families,  according  as  it 
is  used  for  terrestrial  or  aquatic  locomotion. 
The  pelvic  arch  is  formed  by  three  permanently 
distinct  bones,  which  meet  in  the  cotyloid  cav 
ity  ;  the  bones  of  the  hind  legs  are  like  those 
of  the  anterior,  but  the  femur  is  straighter 
than  the  humerus ;  there  are  great  differences 


in  the  relative  size  of  the  two  pairs  of  legs  in 
the  two  suborders.  The  cervical  muscles  are 
largely  developed;  the  muscles  of  the  limbs 
are  much  like  those  of  mammals.  The  cere 
bral  hemispheres  are  hollow  and  larger  in  pro 
portion  than  in  other  reptiles,  with  a  generally 
smooth  surface.  There  is  a  tympanic  cavity 
and  membrane,  the  former  divided  into  two 
parts  by  a  bony  partition  ;  the  eyes  are  larger 
and  more  movable  than  in  the  lower  reptiles, 
similar  to  those  of  birds  in  the  lids,  nictitating 
membrane,  osseous  framework  of  cornea,  and 
round  pupil ;  a  lachrymal  gland  is  present. 
Hearing  and  vision  are  acute,  but  smell  is  dull, 
the  nostrils  being  used  chiefly  for  tjieir  slow 
respiration ;  they  chew  their  food,  and  the 
tongue  is  broad,  thick,  and  fleshy,  with  an 
acute  sense  of  touch  ;  the  tongue  is  of  use  also 
in  the  respiratory  process,  as  they  swallow  air 
into  the  lungs.  The  upper  jaw  always  shuts 
over  the  lower,  and  both  are  covered  with  a 
peculiar  horny  sheath  ;  the  intestines,  as  in  the 
higher  classes,  are  longest  in  the  herbivorous 
families,  but  the  proportions  of  the  different 
parts  vary  much  without  any  special  reference 
to  the  food ;  the  liver  and  gall  bladder  are 
large  ;  spleen  and  pancreas  always  present,  the 
former  solid  and  generally  attached  to  the  lat 
ter,  and  this  to  the  duodenum ;  the  pancreas 
is  lobular  and  irregular,  and  much  the  largest 
in  the  carnivorous  feeders;  digestion  is  per 
formed  very  slowly,  and  hunger  can  be  endured 
a  long  time.  Respiration  is  effected  by  swal 
lowing  air,  on  account  of  the  immobility  of  the 
thoracic  cavity,  assisted,  according  to  Agassiz, 
by  the  diaphragm,  which  is  well  developed  in 
the  order,  and  by  the  scapular  and  pelvic  mus 
cles;  the  lungs  are  voluminous,  most  so  in  the 
land  tortoises ;  the  trionyx  can  remain  half  an 
hour  or  more  under  water,  aeration  of  the  blood 
in  this  and  other  aquatic  species  being  doubtless 
partly  effected,  as  in  frogs,  through  the  naked 
skin  ;  many  species  have  the  power  of  emitting 
vocal  sounds,  independent  of  the  sharp  hiss 
which  they  all  produce ;  respiration  is  reduced 
or  entirely  suspended  in  the  hibernating  spe 
cies,  according  to  the  degree  of  this  state.  The 
heart  is  just  above  the  liver,  between  its  halves ; 
the  ventricle  is  single,  divided  into  two  cavities 
by  an  imperfect  partition,  and  gives  rise  both 
to  the  two  aortro  and  the  pulmonary  artery; 
it  beats  about  ten  times  a  minute ;  the  lym 
phatic  system  is  greatly  developed,  two  hearts 
near  the  base  of  the  tail  sending  the  lymph 
over  the  body.  The  kidneys  are  comparatively 
small,  flattened  and  lobed,  in  the  pelvic  cavity, 
outside  the  peritoneum ;  the  ureters  short,  and 
bladder  large ;  the  ovaries  are  much  like  those 
of  birds,  and  the  number  of  eggs  matured  in  a 
year  varies  in  different  members  of  the  order ; 
the  cloaca  is  very  large  in  both  sexes.  All  are 
oviparous,  and  the  eggs  are  spherical,  covered 
with  a  hard  shell,  and  laid  in  moist  or  dry 
ground  or  hot  sand,  the  number  varying  from 
four  or  five  in  the  land  tortoises  to  more  than 
100  in  the  marine  turtles;  the  young,  which 


664. 


TERUEL 


TESTUDINATA 


pold  in  Gersdorf's  BibliotJieca  Patrum  Latino- 
rum  (vols.  iv.  to  vii.,  Leipsic,  1839-'41),  Migne 
(vols.  i.  to  iii.  of  Patrologie  latine,  Paris,  1844), 
and  Oeliler  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1853).  Transla 
tions  of  several,  especially  of  the  "Apology," 
have  been  published  in  most  of  the  modern 
European  languages.— The  life  of  Tertullian has 
been  written  by  Jerome  in  the  early  church, 
and  in  modern  times  by  Neander  (Antignos- 
ticus,  Berlin,  1825)  and  Ilesselberg  (Dorpat, 
1848).  See  also  the  special  works  on  Mon- 
tanism  by  Wernsdorf  (1751),  Mtinter  (1829), 
Schwegler  (1841),  and  Baur  (1851). 

TERUEL.  I.  A  K  E.  province  of  Spain,  in 
Aragon,  bordering  on  Saragossa,  Tarragona, 
Oastellon,  Valencia,  Cuenca,  and  Guadalajara ; 
area,  5,494  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  252,201. 
The  Albarracin  mountains  traverse  it  E.  and 
"W.,  sending  off  numerous  spurs  on  both  sides, 
which  are  covered  with  forests  and  abound  in 
game.  Muela  de  San  Juan,  one  of  the  prin 
cipal  summits  of  the  main  range,  is  covered 
with  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
and  the  rivers  Tagus,  Guadalaviar,  and  Jucar 
have  their  sources  on  its  sides.  The  prov 
ince  is  well  watered  by  the  Guadalupe  and 
the  Jiloca,  affluents  of  the  Ebro,  the  Guadala 
viar,  and  numerous  smaller  streams.  There 
are  extensive  plains  producing  grain,  wine,  oil, 
silk,  hemp,  flax,  saffron,  and  fruit.  Numerous 
sheep,  swine,  and  cattle  are  reared.  Coarse 
woollen  goods,  linen,  canvas,  leather,  paper, 
and  earthenware  are  manufactured.  II.  A 
town,  capital  of  the  province,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Guadalaviar,  136  m.  E.  of  Madrid;  pop. 
about  10,500.  It  stands  on  elevated  ground, 
is  surrounded  by  old  walls,  and  entered  by  a 
number  of  gates  surmounted  by  Aragoncse 
towers.  There  is  a  cathedral,  episcopal  palace, 
several  convents,  two  hospitals,  and  a  bull  ring 
capable  of  accommodating  9,000  spectators. 

TESCHEN,  a  town  of  Lower  Silesia,  Austria, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Olsa,  38  m.  S.  E.  of 
Troppau ;  pop.  in  1870,  including  suburbs,  9,779. 
There  is  some  trade  in  local  products.  The 
principal  manufactory  is  one  for  yarns,  and 
there  is  also  a  large  publishing  house. — The 
peace  concluded  at  Teschen,  May  13,  1779,  be 
tween  Maria  Theresa  and  Frederick  the  Great, 
terminated  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession. 
The  former  duchy  of  Teschen  comprised  till 
1849  most  of  an  extensive  circle  of  the  same 
name,  now  divided  into  eight  bailiwicks. 

TESSIN.     See  TICIXO. 

TESTAMENT.     See  WILL. 

TESTAMENT,  Old  and  New.     See  BIBLE. 

TESTIMONY.     See  EVIDENCE. 

TESTUDINATA,  a  term  employed  by  Klein,  and 
adopted  by  Agassiz,  synonymous  with  chelo- 
nians,  and  embracing  the  reptiles  known  as 
tortoises  and  turtles.  They  are  the  highest 
of  the  class,  approaching  the  lower  or  aquatic 
birds  in  form,  mode  of  existence,  and  in  some 
points  of  structure ;  the  regions  of  the  body 
are  distinctly  marked,  and  the  head  has  a  con 
siderable  mobility  on  the  neck.  Dumeril  and 


Bibron  divide  the  order  into  four  families : 
thalassites  or  marine  turtles ;  potamites  or  river 
tortoises ;  elodites  or  marsh  tortoises,  with  the 
subfamilies  cryptod&res,  which  bend  the  short 
neck  like  the  letter  Z,  and  conceal  the  head 
on  the  median  line  beneath  the  carapace,  and 
2)leuroderes,  which  curve  the  long  neck  hori 
zontally  and  on  the  side  of  the  body  under  the 
shell ;  and  chersites  or  land  tortoises,  the  high 
est  in  rank.  Agassiz  ("Contributions  to  the 
Natural  History  of  the  United  States  of  Ameri 
ca,"  vol.  i.,  part  2)  adopts  Oppel's  subdivision 
of  the  order,  making  the  suborders:  I.,  che- 
lonii,  with  the  families:  1,  clielonioidcz,  marine 
turtles,  and  2,  sphargididcB,  leather  or  trunk 
turtles;  and  II.,  amydm,  with  the  families:  3, 
trionycJiidcv,  soft-shelled  tortoises;  4,  chely- 
oidcB  (matamatd}\  5,  hydraspididcs,  \ikQplate- 
mys  and  other  flattened  species,  mostly  South 
American,  united  by  J.  E.  Gray  to  the  pre 
ceding  family;  G,  chelydroidcs,  snapping  tur 
tles  ;  7,  cinosternoidcB,  mud  turtles ;  8,  emy- 
doidcv,  fresh-water  species  like  the  terrapins ; 
and  9,  testudinina,  land  tortoises  like  the  great 
Galapagos,  gopher,  and  common  European  tor 
toises.  The  characters  of  the  suborders  with 
their  families  will  be  given  under  TORTOISE  and 


Skeleton  of  Tortoise. 

TUETLE,  which  may  be  considered  as  corre 
sponding  to  the  amydoB  and  chelonii  of  Oppel. 
The  skeleton  is  in  great  part  external,  the 
bony  box  being  covered  only  by  comparatively 
thin  scales  or  a  naked  skin ;  the  most  striking 
character  is  the  stiff  vertebral  column,  spread 
ing  in  the  shape  of  a  carapace  or  shield,  con 
nected  by  a  lateral  bridge  with  the  plastron  or 
ventral  plate,  between  which  the  organs  of  the 
trunk  are  enclosed,  and  having  an  anterior  and 
a  posterior  opening  for  the  protrusion  of  the 
head,  limbs,  and  tail,  which  are  all  free ;  loco 
motion  is  always  performed  by  the  four  limbs. 
The  shield  consists  of  a  hard  and  dry  epidermic 
covering,  under  which  is  a  bony  plate  made  up 
of  the  vertebra,  ribs,  and  sternum,  overlaid 
and  the  intervals  filled  with  the  ossified  skin 


TESTUDINATA 


6G5 


or  dermal  skeleton,  divided  into  many  pieces 
united  by  suture ;  in  the  marine  turtles  this 
dermal  skeleton  is  imperfect  (especially  be 
low),  less  developed  in  the  trionyx,  and  least 
of  all  in  the  trunk  turtle  (sphargis).  The 
epidermic  plates  in  the  tortoise-shell  turtle 
grow  only  on  the  anterior  edge,  the  older 
parts  moving  backward,  much  as  in  the  human 
nail ;  but  in  the  land  tortoises  they  increase 
below  and  on  all  sides,  in  concentric  rings, 
like  the  annual  growths  of  a  tree ;  there  is 
ev'ery  intermediate  stage  between  these  types  ; 
a  moulting  of  the  epidermis  takes  place  in  all 
chelonians,  scale  by  scale.  In  all  except  the 
imbricated  turtle  the  colors  are  in  the  lowest 
layers  of  the  epidermis ;  in  this  they  exist  in 
the  external  dry  horny  layers,  displaying  the 
beautiful  and  permanent  hues  of  tortoise  shell ; 
in  the  corium  or  true  skin  is  deposited  the 
phosphate  of  lime  of  the  dermal  skeleton.  The 
skull  is  solid  and  compact,  and  the  facial  bones 
are  immovably  fixed  to  the  cranium ;  the  lower 
jaw  consists  of  a  firm  bony  arch ;  the  occipital 
bone  strikingly  resembles  a  vertebra ;  the  pari- 
etals  principally  enclose  the  brain ;  there  are 
two  pairs  of  frontals,  and  the  nasals  are  almost 
always  wanting.  The  cervical  vertebra  are 
nine,  if  the  odontoid  process  be  considered  dis 
tinct,  and  have  no  transverse  processes ;  some 
have  a  concave-convex  articulation,  others  a 
convex-concave,  one  a  biconcave  (toward  the 
lower  part  of  the  series),  and  one  a  biconvex 
(in  the  middle),  giving  considerable  freedom  of 
motion  in  certain  directions  without  the  flexi 
bility  of  the  bird's  neck.  The  dorsal  vertebrae 
are  11,  of  which  the  first  is  movable,  the  rest 
united  into  a  firm  arch  by  the  continuous 
growth  of  the  spinous  processes;  the  ribs  ex 
tend  from  between  the  vertebras,  being  strong 
est  where  the  dermal  skeleton  is  least  devel 
oped,  as  in  trionyx,  spJiargis,  &c. ;  the  sternum 
consists  of  four  pairs  and  one  odd  bone,  vary 
ing  much  in  size  and  connection,  united  to  the 
ribs  by  a  bony  bridge,  the  marginal  plates  be 
ing  dermal  bones  ;  the  caudal  vertebra  are  very 
movable,  convex  behind,  concave  before,  and 
without  spinous  processes.  The  scapular  and 
pelvic  arches  are  withdrawn  under  the  bony 
roof  of  the  body ;  the  bones  of  the  shoulder 
are  long,  straight,  and  narrow,  the  scapula  and 
acromion  united  at  right  angles,  the  coracoid 
running  backward  among  the  muscles,  and  the 
three  united  to  form  the  glenoid  cavity;  the 
humerus  is  short,  crooked,  and  turned  inward  ; 
the  forearm  and  hand  have  their  transverse  di 
ameter  vertical,  the  ulna  overlying  the  radius, 
so  that  the  limb  may  be  drawn  back  under  the 
carapace  by  the  bending  of  all  the  joints  in  the 
plane  of  the  scapula;  the  form  of  the  hand 
varies  in  the  different  families,  according  as  it 
is  used  for  terrestrial  or  aquatic  locomotion. 
The  pelvic  arch  is  formed  by  three  permanently 
distinct  bones,  which  meet  in  the  cotyloid  cav 
ity  ;  the  bones  of  the  hind  legs  are  like  those 
of  the  anterior,  but  the  femur  is  straighter 
than  the  humerus ;  there  are  great  differences 


in  the  relative  size  of  the  two  pairs  of  legs  in 
the  two  suborders.  The  cervical  muscles  are 
largely  developed ;  the  muscles  of  the  limbs 
are  much  like  those  of  mammals.  The  cere 
bral  hemispheres  are  hollow  and  larger  in  pro 
portion  than  in  other  reptiles,  with  a  generally 
smooth  surface.  There  is  a  tympanic  cavity 
and  membrane,  the  former  divided  into  two 
parts  by  a  bony  partition  ;  the  eyes  are  larger 
and  more  movable  than  in  the  lower  reptiles, 
similar  to  those  of  birds  in  the  lids,  nictitating 
membrane,  osseous  framework  of  cornea,  and 
round  pupil;  a  lachrymal  gland  is  present. 
Hearing  and  vision  are  acute,  but  smell  is  dull, 
the  nostrils  being  used  chiefly  for  their  slow 
respiration ;  they  chew  their  food,  and  the 
tongue  is  broad,  thick,  and  fleshy,  with  an 
acute  sense  of  touch  ;  the  tongue  is  of  use  also 
in  the  respiratory  process,  as  they  swallow  air 
into  the  lungs.  The  upper  jaw  always  shuts 
over  the  lower,  and  both  are  covered  with  a 
peculiar  horny  sheath ;  the  intestines,  as  in  the 
higher  classes,  are  longest  in  the  herbivorous 
families,  but  the  proportions  of  the  different 
parts  vary  much  without  any  special  reference 
to  the  food ;  the  liver  and  gall  bladder  are 
large  ;  spleen  and  pancreas  always  present,  the 
former  solid  and  generally  attached  to  the  lat 
ter,  and  this  to  the  duodenum ;  the  pancreas 
is  lobular  and  irregular,  and  much  the  largest 
in  the  carnivorous  feeders ;  digestion  is  per 
formed  very  slowly,  and  hunger  can  be  endured 
a  long  time.  Respiration  is  effected  by  swal 
lowing  air,  on  account  of  the  immobility  of  the 
thoracic  cavity,  assisted,  according  to  Agassiz, 
by  the  diaphragm,  which  is  well  developed  in 
the  order,  and  by  the  scapular  and  pelvic  mus 
cles;  the  lungs  are  voluminous,  most  so  in  the 
land  tortoises  ;  the  trionyx  can  remain  half  an 
hour  or  more  under  water,  aeration  of  the  blood 
in  this  and  other  aquatic  species  being  doubtless 
partly  effected,  as  in  frogs,  through  the  naked 
skin  ;  many  species  have  the  power  of  emitting 
vocal  sounds,  independent  of  the  sharp  hiss 
which  they  all  produce ;  respiration  is  reduced 
or  entirely  suspended  in  the  hibernating  spe 
cies,  according  to  the  degree  of  this  state.  The 
heart  is  just  above  the  liver,  between  its  halves ; 
the  ventricle  is  single,  divided  into  two  cavities 
by  an  imperfect  partition,  and  gives  rise  both 
to  the  two  aortra  and  the  pulmonary  artery; 
it  beats  about  ten  times  a  minute ;  the  lym 
phatic  system  is  greatly  developed,  two  hearts 
near  the  base  of  the  tail  sending  the  lymph 
over  the  body.  The  kidneys  are  comparatively 
small,  flattened  and  lobed,  in  the  pelvic  cavity, 
outside  the  peritoneum ;  the  ureters  short,  and 
bladder  large ;  the  ovaries  are  much  like  those 
of  birds,  and  the  number  of  eggs  matured  in  a 
year  varies  in  different  members  of  the  order ; 
the  cloaca  is  very  large  in  both  sexes.  All  are 
oviparous,  and  the  eggs  are  spherical,  covered 
with  a  hard  shell,  and  laid  in  moist  or  dry 
ground  or  hot  sand,  the  number  varying  from 
four  or  five  in  the  land  tortoises  to  more  than 
100  in  the  marine  turtles;  the  young,  which 


666 


TETANUS 


appear  from  the  egg  in  from  six  weeks  to  four 
months  or  more,  are  generally  very  different 
in  form  from  the  parents  ;  there  is  a  hard  tu 
bercle  on  the  snout  of  the  young  for  breaking 
through  the  shell  of  the  egg.  The  growth  is 
very  slow,  and  they  attain  the  period  of  pu 
berty  the  latest  of  all  reptiles ;  they  can  exist 
a  long  time  without  nourishment,  and  give 
signs  of  vitality,  according  to  Kedi's  experi 
ments,  23  days  after  decapitation;  the  same 
experimenter  ascertained  that  a  land  tortoise 
lived  for  six  months,  blindly  groping  about, 
after  the  brain  had  been  entirely  removed; 
they  live  more  than  a  century. — Chelonians 
first  appeared  in  the  oolitic  period,  according 
to  Agassiz,  when  neither  genuine  birds  nor 
mammals  existed ;  the  so-called  tortoise  foot 
prints  in  the  new  red  sandstone  and  Devonian 
strata  were  undoubtedly  made  by  crustaceans 
or  other  articulates;  according  to  Pictet,  im-  j 
pressions  of  their  shields  first  occur  in  the  Jura 
limestone  and  the  Stonesfield  oolite,  and  the 
four  types  of  Dume'ril  and  Bibron  together ; 
they  also  are  found  in  the  tertiary  and  diluvial 
deposits.  In  the  diluvium  of  the  Sivalik  hills 
of  the  Himalaya  range  have  been  found  the 
remains  of  a  gigantic  chelonian  (colossochelys 
atlas,  Cautl.  and  Falc.),  which  must  have  been 
18  to  20  ft.  in  length ;  it  appears  that  its  exis 
tence  was  known  to  the  natives,  as  this  figure 
enters  largely  into  the  old  East  Indian  cosmog 
onies.  In  geological  times  chelonians  existed 
in  northern  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  now 
too  cold  for  them ;  marine  and  fresh-water 
species  also  are  often  found  together,  a  fact 
explained  by  estuary  deposits,  a  more  uniform 
constitution  of  the  early  waters  of  the  globe, 
and  a  mixture  by  sudden  inundations  and  sur 
face  changes,  the  present  geographical  range 
of  chelonians  is  less  extensive  than  that  of  the 
other  orders  of  reptiles,  the  marine  turtles  hav 
ing  the  greatest  and  the  terrestrial  species  the 
least;  the  marine  species  are  also  the  largest 
except  the  Galapagos  tortoise. 

TETANUS,  a  spasmodic  disease  characterized 
by  painful,  involuntary,  and  protracted  con 
traction  of  a  greater  or  smaller  number  of  the 
voluntary  muscles.  As  seen  in  temperate  cli 
mates,  the  disease  is  almost  invariably  con 
sequent  upon  a  wound  or  injury ;  but  in  par 
ticular  localities  and  in  hot  climates,  it  may 
occur  without  any  lesion  either  external  or 
internal.  The  disease  usually  begins  with  chills 
and  a  feeling  of  depression  and  debility,  with 
vertigo  and  sleeplessness.  At  first  there  is 
commonly  a  feeling  of  stiffness  and  uneasiness 
about  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  jaws.  The 
patient  thinks  he  has  taken  cold  or  has  a  slight 
rheumatic  affection.  He  finds  he  is  unable  to 
separate  the  jaws  to  any  distance,  and  more  or 
less  gradually  they  close,  so  that  he  is  unable 
to  open  the  mouth  at  all ;  a  condition  called 
locked  jaw.  As  the  disease  advances  there  is 
acute  pain  at  the  bottom  of  the  stomach,  ex 
tending  through  toward  the  back;  and  this 
pain,  like  the  contractions  of  the  voluntary 


muscles,  is  aggravated  in  paroxysms.  Grad 
ually  the  large  muscles  of  the  trunk  and  ex 
tremities  become  affected.  In  some  cases  all 
the  muscles  are  firmly  contracted,  and  the  body 
remains  stiff  and  straight.  Ordinarily  the  strong 
extensors  of  the  trunk  and  limbs  are  more  af 
fected  than  the  flexor  muscles,  or  their  supe 
rior  power  overcomes  the  resistance  of  these 
latter,  and  during  the  paroxysm  the  body  is 
forcibly  curved  backward,  the  patient  resting 
upon  his  hands  and  heels  only.  This  consti 
tutes  opistlwtonos.  Occasionally,  though  it 
must  be  very  rarely,  the  body  is  bent  forward, 
constituting  emprostlwtonos ;  and  still  more 
rarely  there  is  lateral  curvature,  forming  pleu- 
rosthotonos.  The  muscles  concerned  in  deglu 
tition  are  early  affected,  so  that  swallowing  is 
rendered  difficult  or  impossible.  Later,  spasms 
of  the  muscles  of  the  face  occur,  the  brow  be 
coming  knit,  the  eyes  wide  open,  fixed  and 
staring,  the  nostrils  distended,  and  the  angles 
of  the  mouth  drawn  back,  exposing  the  clenched 
teeth,  and  producing  an  expression  called  risus 
sardonicus.  When  the  disease  has  once  set  in, 
the  muscles  affected  are  rarely  at  any  time 
afterward  wholly  relaxed.  At  intervals  more 
or  less  closely  approximated  to  each  other  ac 
cording  to  the  severity  of  the  disease,  paroxysni8 
occur  during  which  the  spasm  is  aggravated, 
the  muscles  affected  becoming  tense  and  hard 
as  boards.  During  these  paroxysms  the  pa 
tient  commonly  suffers  from  intense  pain  in 
the  muscles  affected,  and  the  substernal  pain, 
dependent  probably  on  spasm  of  the  diaphragm, 
is  likewise  aggravated.  Cases  have  occurred 
in  which  the  teeth  have  been  broken,  bones 
fractured,  or  muscles  torn  across.  The  spasms 
come  on  even  when  the  patient  is  perfectly  at 
rest ;  but  they  are  evidently  excited  by  the 
slightest  attempt  at  voluntary  motion,  by  ef 
forts  at  deglutition,  or  by  mental  emotion. 
The  patient's  mind  is  commonly  unaffected 
throughout  the  disease ;  the  bowels  are  apt  to 
be  obstinately  constipated,  and  when  evacua 
tions  are  obtained  they  are  offensive  and  un 
natural.  Death  may  occur  either  suddenly 
during  a  paroxysm  oc  from  suffocation,  the 
muscles  of  respiration  becoming  fixed  and  the 
spasm  in  some  instances  probably  affecting  the 
glottis.  In  other  cases  death  results  from  ex 
haustion,  the  patient  being  worn  out  by  pain, 
sleeplessness,  and  want  of  nourishment.— Te 
tanus  is  fatal  in  the  large  majority  of  cases. 
Post-mortem  examination  throws  but  little 
light  on  its  pathology.  Dr.  Lockhart  Clark 
believes  that  degeneration  of  the  cells  of  the 
spinal  cord  is  always  present ;  but  the  fact  that 
the  symptoms  are  so  similar  to  those  of  poi 
soning  by  strychnia  would  lead  to  the  opinion 
that  the  cause  of  the  disease  is  in  a  morbid 
condition  of  the  blood,  although  the  medulla 
oblongata  and  spinal  cord  are  the  parts  attacked. 
In  cases  arising  from  wounds,  the  nerve  lead 
ing  from  the  wound  shows  evidences  of  in 
flammation,  being  commonly  red  and  swollen  ; 
but  with  this  exception  no  lesions  have  been 


TETANUS 


TETZEL 


66  7 


found  which  are  constantly  connected  with  the  ' 
disease. — I/liopathic  tetanus,  rare  in  temperate, 
is  not  uncommon  in  hot  climates;  but  though 
heat  acts  as  a  predisposing  cause,  the  exciting 
cause  is  generally  exposure  to  damp  and  cold. 
In  traumatic  tetanus,  exposure  to  cold,  particu 
larly  when  the  body  is  debilitated  by  previous 
warm  weather,  seems  to  be  an  efficient  cause. 
Thus  the  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Dresden, 
who  were  exposed  to  cold  and  wet  just  after 
the  battle,  while  the  previous  weather  had 
been  hot  and  oppressive,  suffered  severely  from 
tetanus  ;  and  after  the  battle  of  Bautzen,  where 
the  wounded  lay  on  the  field  exposed  to  cold 
and  rain  during  the  night,  Larrey  found  more 
than  100  attacked  with  tetanus  the  next  morn 
ing.  Tetanus  is  more  liable  to  follow  punc 
tured  and  lacerated  than  incised  wounds:  and 
wounds  of  the  palmar  surface  of  the  feet  and 
hands,  which  are  abundantly  supplied  with 
nerves,  are  particularly  dangerous,  but  it  may 
follow  wounds  of  every  character.  Even  those 
made  by  the  knife  of  the  surgeon  and  the  stroke 
of  a  whip,  the  cutting  of  a  corn  and  extraction 
of  a  tooth,  have  all  been  followed  by  this  for 
midable  and  fatal  disease.  Cases  are  on  record  ' 
in  which  lying-in  women  have  been  seized  by 
the  disease.  The  time  which  elapses  between 
the  reception  of  the  injury  and  the  period  of 
invasion  of  the  disease  varies  greatly.  Larrey 
says  that  during  the  campaign  in  Egypt  it  rarely 
appeared  before  the  fifth  or  after  the  fifteenth 
day ;  yet  some  cases  are  on  record  in  which  it 
came  on  in  a  few  hours,  and  others  in  which 
it  was  delayed  for  more  than  a  month.  "When 
the  paroxysms  come  on  suddenly,  recur  at  short 
intervals,  and  increase  in  violence,  treatment 
is  rarely  of  any  avail :  death  in  such  cases  oc 
curs  often  as  early  as  the  second,  and  is  rarely 
delayed  beyond  the  fifth  day.  When  the  at 
tack  is  less  violent  and  the  interval  between 
the  paroxysms  longer,  the  prospects  of  the 
patient  are  better,  and  if  life  is  protracted 
beyond  the  tenth  day  he  will  frequently  re 
cover. — The  treatment  of  tetanus  is  unsatis 
factory.  The  inhalation  of  chloroform  has 
been  stroni'ly  recommended,  and  where  it  is 
well  borne,  it  mitigates  greatly  the  sufferings 
of  the  patient.  Opium  has  been  given  in  lar^e 
and  repeated  do?es :  when  recourse  is  had  to 
it,  it  should  be  administered  in  a  liquid  form. 
or  some  salt  of  morphia  should  be  used.  A 
strong  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  morphia  may 
be  given  by  subcutaneous  injection.  Wine  and 
distilled  spirits,  with  or  without  opium,  have 
been  given  in  large  quantities,  and  in  many 
cases  apparently  with  benefit.  The  bowels 
should  be  occasionally  moved  by  active  pur 
gatives.  But  as  the"  paroxysms  are  mainly 
excited  by  external  sources  of  irritation,  even 
slight  ones,  the  principle  of  the  treatment 
should  be  to  keep  the  patient  perfectly  quiet. 
Stillness,  a  darkened  apartment,  few  atten 
dants,  and  the  absence  as  far  as  possible  of  all 
causes  of  physical  or  mental  disturbance, 
promise  a  better  chance  of  recovery  than  any 


active  interference  or  the  repeated-  adminis 
tration  of  medicinal  agents. 

TETl'iJf.  a  city  and  seaport  of  Morocco,  in 
the  province  of  Fez.  at  the  W.  end  of  the 
Mediterranean.  21  rn.  S.  bv  W.  of  Centa:  lat. 
35''  37'  N".,  Ion.  5°  18'  W. :  pop.  about  20.000. 
The  town  is  about  6  rn.  W.  of  the  coast,  on 
high  ground,  which  rises  on  the  south  into  a 
ridge  :j.OOO  ft.  high.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
wall  flanked  with  towers,  and  is  defended  by 
a  castle.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty, 
but  there  are  some  fine  buildings,  particular 
ly  mosques,  of  which  there  are  40.  Its  har 
bor  is  an  open  roadstead  unprotected  on  the 
east,  and  is  fit  for  small  vessels  only.  The 
town  has  manufactures  of  leather,  leather 
goods,  swords,  and  firearm.-,  and  a  considera 
ble  inland  trade  through  Fez.  Its  foreign 
trade  consists  principally  in  supplying  Gibral 
tar  with  provisions.  In  1873.  211  vessels,  of 
2.716  tons,  entered  its  port.  The  value  of  its 
imports  was  £1 11. 555  :  exports.  $55.775.  Te- 
tuan  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards  in  1^60, 
but  was  given  up  in  the  following  year. 

TETZEL.  or  Tezel.  Johann.  a  German  monk, 
born  in  Leipsic  about  1460,  died  there  in  Au 
gust,  1519.  He  studied  theology  and  philoso 
phy  at  the  university  of  Leipsic,  and  in  14>:9 
entered  the  order  of  Dominicans.  He  gained 
celebrity  as  a  popular  preacher,  and  was  re 
peatedly  engaged  to  preach  indulgences  granted 
by  the  pope  to  raise  money  for  religious  pur 
poses.  The  early  Protestant  biographers  of 
Tetzel  say  that  he  sold  certificates  of  indul 
gence  without  requiring  previous  confession, 
and  indulgences  for  future  sins ;  that  he  led 
a  very  immoral  life,  and  was  even  convicted 
at  Innspruck  of  adultery;  hut  Catholic  his 
torians  have  generally  qualified  these  state 
ments  as  gross  exaggerations,  though  ttey  ad 
mit  that  he  often  "offered  the  indulgences  in 
an  offensive  and  mountebank  way.  In  1516 
Tetzel  besran  the  publication  of  an  indulgence 
designed  to  procure  means  for  the  construc 
tion  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  receiving  at  the 
same  time  an  appointment  as  inquisitor.  Xever 
before  had  the  preaching  of  an  indulgence 
produced  such  a  commotion.  He  is  said  to 
have  assured  the  people  that  as  soon  as  the 
money  resounded  in  the  chest  their  sins  would 
be  forgiven,  and  the  souls  of  the  departed  re 
ceived  into  heaven:  but  Catholics  maintain 
that  this  is  conclusively  refuted  by  the  Imtrue- 
tio  Summaria  Sattrdotvm  ad  Pradicanda*  In 
dulgent  ia*.  prepared  by  Tetzel  in  1517.  in  which 
he  'makes  the  gaining  of  an  indulgence  ex 
pressly  dependent  upon  repentance  and  con 
fession.  As  a  delegate  of  the  highest  eccle 
siastical  authorities,  Tetzel  was  generally  re 
ceived  with  great  pomp,  but  at  the  same  time 
met  with  a  powerful  and  rapidly  increasing 
opposition.  On  Oct.  31,  1517.  Luther  posted 
the  celebrated  95  theses  against  the  abuses  in 
preaching  indulgences  on  the  doors  of  the 
church  in  Wittenberg.  Tetzel  publicly  burned 
the  theses  at  Juterbozk.  and  in  January.  1518. 


668 


TEUCER 


TEUTONIC  KNIGHTS 


in  a  public  disputation  at  the  university  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  defended  several  anti 
theses.  The  students  of  Wittenberg,  in  their 
turn,  burned  800  copies  of  the  antitheses  of 
Tetzel.  Tetzel  replied  once  more,  in  May,  by 
a  refutation  of  the  sermon  of  Luther  on  indul 
gences  and  grace,  but  seems  to  have  had  no 
longer  any  influence  on  public  opinion.  Among 
the  latest  biographers  of  Tetzel  are  Hoffmann, 
a  Protestant  (Lebensbeschreibung  von  Tetzel, 
Leipsic,  1844),  and  Grone,  a  Roman  Catholic 
(Tetzel  und  Luther,  oder  LebensgescJiicJite  und 
Rechtfertigung  des  Ablasspredigers  und  Inqui 
sitors  Dr.  Johann  Tetzel,  &c.,  Soest,  1853). 

TEUCER  (Gr.  TevKpo^.  I.  The  first  king  of 
Troy,  son  of  the  river  god  Scamander  by  the 
nymph  Idasa,  after  whom  the  Trojans  are 
sometimes  called  Teucrians.  II.  A  Grecian 
hero  in  the  war  against  Troy,  the  son  of  Tela- 
mon,  king  of  Salamis,  and  Hesione  of  Crete, 
and  a  stepbrother  of  Ajax.  He  was  the  best 
archer  among  the  Greeks;  but  on  his  return 
from  Troy  his  father  refused  to  receive  him  in 
Salamis  because  he  had  not  avenged  the  death 
of  Ajax  nor  brought  back  his  body.  He  there 
fore  settled  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  found 
ed  there  the  city  of  Salamis. 

TEUFFEL,  Wilfielm  Sigismund,  a  German  philol 
ogist,  born  in  Ludwigsburg,  Sept.  27,  1820. 
He  studied  at  the  university  of  Tubingen,  de 
voted  himself  to  the  critical  study  of  Horace, 
and  published  valuable  papers  on  the  works 
aud  times  of  that  author.  In  1845  he  became 
editor  of  the  Realencyklopiidie  der  classischen 
Alter thumswissenschaft,  begun  by  Pauly.  In 
1849  he  was  appointed  professor  of  classical 
philology  in  Tubingen.  He  has  especially 
studied  the  literary  history  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  of  late  also  of  Germany,  and  his 
various  publications  on  single  authors,  as  Ju 
venal,  Aristophanes,  and  ^Eschylus,  were  uni 
versally  received  as  important.  His  principal 
work,  Gescliiclite  der  romisclien  Literatur  (2 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1868-'70),  has  been  translated 
into  several  languages  (London,  1874). 

TEUTOBURG  FOREST,  a  mountain  chain  of 
Germany,  partly  in  the  principality  of  Lippe, 
partly  in  Prussia,  extending,  at  first  under  the 
name  of  Egge,  in  a  N.  direction  through  the 
territory  of  Paderborn  to  Driburg,  then  N.  "W. 
toward  Bielefeld  and  Halle,  and  terminating  at 
the  Bervergern,  5  m.  E.  of  Rheine  on  the  Ems. 
Its  total  extent  is  about  80  m.  It  reaches  its 
highest  point  of  more  than  1,500  ft.  near 
Horn  in  Lippc.  According  to  Tacitus,  the  Ro 
man  legions  of  Varus  were  defeated  (A.  D.  9) 
in  this  mountain  region,  which  he  calls  Teuto- 
lurgiensis  saltm,  by  Arminius,  prince  of  the 
Cherusci,  whose  memory  is  celebrated  as  that 
of  the  liberator  of  Germany.  (See  AKMHSTIUS.) 
His  colossal  monument  by  Bandel  was  unveiled 
by_the  emperor  of  Germany,  Aug.  16,  1875, 
amid  national  rejoicings,  on  the  summit  of  the 
Grotenberg  near  Detmold.  (See  BANDEL.) 

TEUTONIC  KNIGHTS,  or  Knights  of  the  Hospital 
of  St.  Mary  in  Jerusalem,  a  powerful  religious 


and  military  order  which  originated  during 
the  crusades.  The  hospital  of  St.  Mary  in 
Jerusalem,  from  which  the  order  derives  its 
canonical  name,  was  founded  soon  after  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  crusaders  in  1099. 
A  German  merchant  and  his  wife  threw  open 
their  dwelling  to  the  poor  and  sick  of  their 
own  nation  ;  a  chapel  was  afterward  attached 
to  the  house  by  permission  of  the  patriarch 
and  dedicated  to  St.  Mary.  The  establish 
ment,  to  which  the  founder  devoted  all  his 
wealth,  was  after  its  extension  maintained  by 
alms  collected  among  the  Germans ;  and  a 
number  of  distinguished  persons  also  devoted 
their  property  and  services  to  the  same  pur 
pose,  assuming  a  religious  dress  and  binding 
themselves  by  monastic  vows  (1119),  with  the 
approbation  of  Pope  Calixtus  II.  During  the 
siege  of  Acre  in  1189  charitable  burghers  of 
Bremen  and  Ltibeck  established  a  guild  of 
hospitallers  for  German  soldiers,  whose  num 
bers  were  so  great  after  the  death  of  Frede 
rick  Barbarossa  that  the  merchants  made  tents 
with  the  sails  of  their  vessels,  and  called  to 
their  assistance  the  brethren  of  St.  Mary  in 
Jerusalem.  Both  confraternities  were  then 
organized  into  one  order  by  Duke  Frederick 
of  Swabia,  who  obtained  the  approbation  of 
Pope  Celestine  III.,  Feb.  23,  1192.  The  new 
order  retained  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine 
adopted  by  the  German  brotherhood  in  Jeru 
salem.  None  were  at  first  admitted  to  mem 
bership  but  Germans  of  noble  birth ;  about 
1221  half-knights  or  sergeants,  as  among  the 
templars  and  hospitallers,  were  added,  as  well 
as  priest-chaplains.  The  dress  was  black  with 
a  white  mantle,  upon  which  was  a  black  cross 
with  a  silver  edging.  The  order  had  an  elec 
tive  grand  master,  who  first  dwelt  at  Jerusalem, 
then  when  Palestine  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks  at  Venice,  and  at  the  close  of  the  13th 
century  at  Marburg.  Conrad,  duke  of  Maso- 
via,  called  the  Teutonic  knights,  then  under 
the  famous  grand  master  Hermann  of  Salza,  to 
his  assistance  about  122G,  to  repel  the  incur 
sions  of  the  heathen  Prussians  and  Lithua 
nians,  and  to  help  in  spreading  the  gospel 
among  them.  He  gave  them  the  territory  of 
Culm  on  the  Vistula,  and  from  this  point  they 
extended  their  conquests  over  the  territory 
of  Prussia,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  knights 
sword-bearers  over  Courland  and  Livonia,  ex 
terminating  the  pagan  inhabitants  with  fire 
and  sword.  In  1309  the  grand  master  fixed 
his  seat  at  Marienburg.  Possessing  the  richest 
and  most  commercial  provinces  of  the  north, 
the  order  became  exceedingly  powerful ;  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  when  it 
had  reached  its  greatest  prosperity,  its  territory 
extended  from  the  Oder  to  the  gulf  of  Finland, 
and  its  yearly  revenue  was  estimated  at  800,- 
000  marks.  Nobles  from  all  parts  of  Europe 
flocked  to  its  banner.  Internal  dissensions, 
luxury,  and  unjust  and  oppressive  acts  threat 
ened  its  decline  from  this  period,  and  a  con 
flict  with  the  Polish  kings  hastened  it.  In  the 


TEUTONS 


TEXAS 


669 


battle  of  Griinwald  or  Tannenberg  in  1410 
they  were  totally  defeated  by  Ladislas  Jagel- 
lon;  and  after  a  subsequent  long  war  with 
Casimir  IV.,  West  Prussia  was  given  up  to 
Poland,  and  for  East  Prussia  they  were  com 
pelled  to  do  homage  (1466).  An  attempt  to 
regain  their  independence  deprived  them  of 
East  Prussia,  which  in  1525  was  presented  by 
Sigismund  I.  of  Poland  to  the  grand  master, 
the  margrave  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  as  a 
hereditary  duchy.  The  order  was  now  re 
duced  to  a  mere  shadow  of  its  former  great 
ness.  In  1527  the  grand  master  fixed  his  seat 
at  Mergentheim  in  Swabia,  became  a  spiritual 
prince  of  the.  German  empire,  and  had  under 
him  11  provinces  divided  into  commanderies. 
In  1805  the  peace  of  Presburg  gave  to  the 
emperor  of  Austria  the  rights,  revenues,  and 
possessions  of  grand  master  of  the  Teutonic 
order;  but  in  the  campaign  of  1809  Napoleon 
while  at  Ratisbon  abolished  the  order  on  April 
24,  its  widely  scattered  territory,  comprising 
about  850  sq.  m.  with  88,000  inhabitants,  fall 
ing  to  the  princes  in  whose  dominions  it  was. 
It  was  revived  in  the  Austrian  empire  in  1834 
and  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  im 
perial  family,  it  was  more  fully  reorganized 
in  1840.  From  1863  till  his  death  in  Mexico, 
the  archduke  Maximilian  was  grand  master. 
The  present  grand  master  is  the  archduke 
Wilhelm. 

TEUTONS  (Lat.  Teutones  or  Teutoni),  a  pow 
erful  people  of  ancient  Germany,  who  prob 
ably  dwelt  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Bal 
tic,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Cimbri,  together 
with  whom  they  invaded  the  dominions  of  the 
Roman  republic  at  the  close  of  the  2d  century 
B.  0.,  when  they  were  annihilated  by  Marius. 
(See  OIMBEI.)  The  name  Teutons  is  also  ap 
plied  to  the  ancient  Germans  in  general.  (See 
GEEMANIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES.) 

TEWKESBURY,  a  market  town  of  Gloucester 
shire,  England,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Avon 
and  Severn,  108  m.  "W.  by  N.  of  London ;  pop. 
in  1871,  5,409.  It  has  an  old  church  in  the  Nor 
man  style,  town  hall,  mechanics'  library,  and 
stocking,  lace,  and  nail  manufactories.  Edward 
IY.  here  defeated  the  Lancastrians  in  1471. 

TEXAS,  a  S.  W.  state  of  the  American  Union, 
the  15th  admitted  under  the  constitution,  situ 
ated  between  lat.  25°  50'  and  36°  30'  N.,  and 
Ion.  93°  30'  and  106°  40'  W. ;  greatest  length, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  N. 
"W.  corner,  about  825  m. ;  greatest  breadth, 
along  the  32d  parallel,  about  740  m. ;  area, 
274,356  sq.  m.,  being  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  state  or  territory  except  Alaska,  and 
nearly  six  times  as  great  as  that  of  New  York. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  New  Mexico  (W.  of  the 
103d  meridian),  the  Indian  territory,  and  Ar 
kansas,  the  Red  river  being  the  dividing  line 
E.  of  the  100th  meridian;  E.  by  the  Indian 
territory  (N.  of  lat.  34°  30'),  Arkansas,  and 
Louisiana,  from  the  last  of  which  it  is  mostly 
separated  by  the  Sabine  river  and  lake ;  S.  E. 
by  the  gulf  of  Mexico ;  S.  W.  by  Mexico,  from 


which  it  is  separated  by  the  Rio  Grande  ;  and 
W.  by  New  Mexico.  The  state  is  (1876)  divided 
into  174  counties,  of  which  26,  marked  with 
an  *,  are  unorganized,  viz. :  Anderson,  An 
gelina,  Aransas,  Archer,*  Atascosa,  Austin, 
Bandera,  Bastrop,  Baylor,*  Bee,  Bell,  Bexar, 
Blanco,  Bosque,  Bowie,  Brazoria,  Brazos, 
Brown,  Burleson,  Burnet,  Caldwell,  Calhoun, 
Callahan,*  Cameron,  Camp,  Cass,  Chambers, 
Cherokee,  Clay,  Coleman,  Collin,  Colorado, 
Comal,  Comanche,  Concho,  Cooke,  Coryell, 
Crockett,*  Dallas,  Dawson,*  Delta,  Denton,  De 
Witt,  Dimmitt,*  Duval,*  Eastland,  Edwards,* 
Ellis,  El  Paso,  Encinal,*  Erath,  Falls,  Fan- 
nin,  Fayette,  Fort  Bend,  Franklin,  Freestone, 
Frio,  Galveston,  Gillespie,  Goliad,  Gonzales, 
Grayson,  Greer*  (see  GEEER),  Gregg,  Grimes, 
Guadalupe,  Hamilton,  Hardeman,*  Hardin, 
Harris,  Harrison,  Haskell,*  Hays,  Hender 
son,  Hidalgo,  Hill,  Hood,  Hopkins,  Houston, 
Hunt,  Jack,  Jackson,  Jasper,  Jefferson,  John 
son,  Jones,*  Karnes,  Kaufman,  Kendall,  Kerr, 
Kimble,*  Kinney,  Knox,*  Lamar,  Lampasas, 


State  Seal  of  Texas. 

La  Salle,*  Lavaca,  Lee,  Leon,  Liberty,  Lime 
stone,  Live  Oak,  Llano,  McCulloch,*  McLen 
nan,  McMullen,*  Madison,  Marion,  Mason,  Mat- 
agorda,  Maverick,  Medina,  Menard,  Milam, 
Montague,  Montgomery,  Morris,  Nacogdoches, 
Navarro,  Newton,  Nueces,  Orange,  Palo  Pinto, 
Panola,  Parker,  Pecos,  Polk,  Presidio,  Rains, 
Red  River,  Refugio,  Robertson,  Rockwall, 
Runnels,*  Rusk,  Sabine,  San  Augustine,  San 
Jacinto,  San  Patricio,  San  Saba,  Shackleford, 
Shelby,  Smith,  Somerville,  Starr,  Stephens,* 
Tarrant,  Taylor,*  Throckmorton,*  Titus,  Tom 
Green,  Travis,  Trinity,  Tyler,  Upshur,  Uvalde, 
Van  Zandt,  Victoria,  Walker,  Waller,  Wash 
ington,  Webb,  Wegefarth,*  Wharton,  Wichita,* 
Wilbarger,*  Williamson,  Wilson,  Wise,  Wood, 
Young,  Zapata,  Zavala.*  An  extensive  region 
in  the  W.  part  of  the  state  N.  of  the  32d  paral 
lel  is  not  divided  into  counties,  the  N.  portion 
being  known  as  Bexar  territory  and  the  S.  por 
tion  as  Young  territory.  The  principal  cities 
are  Galveston  (pop.  in  1870,  13,818),  San  An 
tonio  (12,256),  Houston  (9,382),  Brownsville 
(4,905),  Austin  (the  capital,  4,428),  and  Jeffer- 


670 


TEXAS 


son  (4,190).  Other  important  places  are  Bas- 
trop,  Bonham,  Brazoria,  Bremond,  Brenham, 
Columbus,  Corpus  Ohristi,  Dallas,  Eagle  Pass, 
Fairfield,  Fredericksburg,  Gonzales,  Hender 
son,  Huntsville,  Independence,  Indianola,  La 
Grange,  Laredo,  Lavaca,  Marshall,  Nacog- 
doches,  Navasota,  New  Braunfels,  Richmond, 
San  Marcos,  Seguin,  Sherman,  Sulphur  Springs, 
Victoria,  Waco,  and  Waxahachie.  The  popu 
lation  of  Texas  in  1806  has  been  estimated  at 
7,000  ;  in  1834,  at  21,000  ;  in  1836,  at  38,500  ; 
and  in  1845,  at  150,000.  The  results  of  the 
three  federal  censuses  are  as  follows  : 


YEARS. 

Whites. 

Free 
colored. 

Slaves. 

Total. 

Gain 
per  cent. 

Rank. 

1350  .  .  . 
I860... 
1370  .  .  . 

154,034 

420,891 
564,100 

89T 
355 
253,415 

58,161 
182,566 

212,592 
604,215 

818,579 

184:20 
35-43 

25 
23 
19 

The  total  for  1860  includes  403  Indians,  and 
that  for  1870  379  Indians  and  25  Chinese. 
There  are  very  few  inhabitants  W.  of  the  100th 
meridian,  except  along  the  Kio  Grande.  In 
the  vicinity  of  San  Antonio  there  is  a  large 
population  of  German  origin.  Of  the  total 
population  in  1870,  423,557  were  males  and 
395,022  females,  756,168  native  and  62,411 
foreign  born.  Of  the  natives,  388,510  were 
born  in  the  state,  62,224  in  Alabama,  51,435 
in  Tennessee,  42,537  in  Mississippi,  41,206  in 
Georgia,  27,290  in  Louisiana,  23,357  in  Ar 
kansas,  22,165  in  Virginia  and  West  Virginia, 
18,655  in  North  Carolina,  18,419  in  Missouri, 
17,813  in  Kentucky,  17,717  in  South  Carolina, 
5,854  in  Illinois,  2,873  in  New  York,  2,783  in 
Indiana,  2,385  in  Maryland,  2,052  in  Ohio, 
1,934  in  Florida,  and  1,877  in  Pennsylvania. 
Of  the  foreigners,  23,985  were  natives  of  Ger 
many,  23,020  of  Mexico,  6,762  of  the  British 
isles  (including  2,037  English  and  4,031  Irish), 
2,232  of  France,  and  1,748  of  Austria  (proper). 
Of  the  colored  population,  225,658  were  blacks 
and  27,817  mulattoes.  There  were  145,184 
males  and  139,667  females  between  5  and  18 
years  of  age,  158,765  males  from  18  to  45, 'and 
184,094  males  21  and  upward,  of  whom  169,- 
258  were  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
14,736  unnaturalized  foreigners.  The  number 
of  families  was  154,483,  with  an  average  of 
5-3  persons  to  each;  of  dwellings,  141,685, 
with  an  average  of  5'78  to  each.  Of  persons 
10  years  old  and  upward,  189,423  could  not 
read,  and  221,703  could  not  write ;  of  the  lat 
ter  203,334  were  natives  and  18,369  foreigners, 
110,562  males  and  111,141  females,  70,895 
whites,  150,617  colored,  and  191  Indians; 
47,636  were  between  10  and  15  years  of  age, 
41,768  between  15  and  21,  and  132,299  21  and 
upward,  of  whom  64,819  were  males.  There 
were  404  blind  persons,  232  deaf  and  dumb, 
270  insane,  and  451.  idiotic.  Of  the  237,126 
persons  10  years  old  and  upward  returned  as 
engaged  in  all  occupations,  there  were  em 
ployed  in  agriculture  166,753,  including  81,123 
agricultural  laborers,  79,015  farmers  and  plant 


ers,  3,338  stock  raisers,  and  2,049  stock  herd 
ers  ;  in  professional  and  personal  services,  40,- 
882,  including  831  clergymen,  13,692  domestic 
servants,  14,371  laborers,  1,027  lawyers,  1,906 
physicians  and  surgeons,  and  1,709  teachers ; 
in  trade  and  transportation,  13,612;  and  in 
manufactures  and  mining,  15,879. — Texas  may 
be  divided  into  four  sections,  eastern,  central 
or  middle,  western,  and  northern  Texas.  East 
ern  Texas  embraces  the  territory  between  the 
Sabine  and  Trinity  rivers,  and  is  the  great 
timber  region  of  the  state,  there  being  only  a 
few  prairies  confined  to  the  gulf  coast.  The 
southern  portion  is  low  and  level,  the  northern 
rolling  and  elevated,  but  not  mountainous. 
The  greater  portion  of  central  Texas,  between 
the  Trinity  and  Colorado  rivers,  is  prairie,  but 
there  is  considerable  timber  along  the  streams. 
Northern  Texas,  including  two  or  'three  tiers 
of  counties  from  Ked  river,  is  about  equally 
divided  between  prairie  and  forest.  Western 
Texas  embraces  the  region  between  the  Colo 
rado  and  Rio  Grande  rivers.  Prairies  cover 
about  four  fifths  of  its  surface ;  with  the  ex 
ception  of  occasional  districts  covered  with 
post  oak  or  the  mezquite  tree,  timber  is  con 
fined  almost  entirely  to  the  valleys  of  the 
streams,  which  are  densely  wooded.  The  N. 
W.  extremity  of  the  state,  between  Indian  ter 
ritory  and  New  Mexico,  is  known  as  the  "  pan 
handle."  In  general,  the  S.  and  S.  E.  portion, 
along  the  coast,  is  level  and  of  little  elevation  ; 
N.  of  this  the  country  is  undulating ;  the  W. 
and  N.  W.  region  is  mostly  an  elevated  table 
land;  while  the  district  between  the  Pecos 
and  Rio  Grande  is  mountainous.  The  table 
land  includes  a  large  portion  of  the  Llano 
Estacado,  and  has  been  but  imperfectly  ex 
plored  ;  it  is  said  to  vary  from  2,000  to  4,000 
ft.  in  height.  The  Llano  Estacado  or  Staked 
Plain  (so  named  from  the  great  abundance  of 
yucca  stems,  resembling  stakes)  extends  from 
the  Rio  Pecos  in  New  Mexico  on  the  west  to 
the  head  waters  of  the  Colorado,  Brazos,  and 
Red  rivers  on  the  east,  and  from  the  valley  of 
the  Canadian  on  the  north  to  the  Pecos  on  the 
south.  Its  surface  is  gently  undulating ;  vege 
tation  is  scanty,  owing  to  the  dryness  of  the 
climate  and  the  lack  of  streams.  The  princi 
pal  ranges  between  the  Pecos  and  Rio  Grande 
are  the  Guadalupe,  Sierra  Hueca,  Eagle,  Sierra 
Blanca,  and  Apache  mountains,  attaining  in 
places  an  elevation  of  between  5,000  and  6,000 
ft.  Between  the  upper  waters  of  the  Colorado 
and  Brazos  is  a  large  tract  of  timbered  land 
known  as  the  "mezquite  timber,"  and  be 
tween  the  upper  Brazos  and  Trinity  a  long 
tract  from  5  to  30  m.  in  width,  extending 
from  Johnson  co.  to  the  Canadian  river  in 
Indian  territory,  and  called  the  Cross  Timbers. 
— The  coast  of  Texas,  which  extends  along  the 
gulf  of  Mexico  about  400  m.,  is  bordered  with 
a  chain  of  low  sand  islands,  between  which  and 
the  mainland  lie  a  series  of  bays,  sounds,  and 
lagoons;  the  most  important  of  these,  begin 
ning  at  the  northeast,  are  Galveston,  Matagor- 


;;  N  i  Y 


TEXAS 


671 


da,  Espiritu  Santo,  Aransas,  and  Corpus  Christ! 
bays,  and  the  Laguna  del  Madre.  Galveston 
bay  is  the  largest,  and  has  the  best  entrance, 
its  inlet  having  13  ft.  of  water,  while  in  good 
anchorage  just  outside  there  is  24  ft. ;  it  ex 
tends  inland  from  the  gulf  of  Mexico  35  m. 
Matagorda  bay,  nearly  60  m.  long  by  6  to  10 
m.  wide,  and  Laguna  del  Madre,  nearly  100  m. 
long  by  3  to  6  in.  wide,  are  properly  sounds, 
and  run  parallel  with  the  shore.  The  en 
trance  of  Matagorda  bay,  which  is  rapidly 
filling  up,  has  only  7  ft.  of  water;  and  San 
Luis  inlet,  the  entrance  to  West  bay,  a  sound 
connecting  with  Galveston  bay,  has  but  6  ft. 
Aransas  bay  is  25  m.  long  from  N.  E.  to  S. 
"W.  and  about  10  m.  wide,  and  Copano  bay, 
a  sound  opening  into  it,  is  20  in.  long  by  3 
m.  wide;  Corpus  Christi  bay  is  20  m.  long 
by  15  m.  wide,  and  Espiritu  Santo  20  by  10 
m.  The  entrance  to  all  these  is  much  ob 
structed  by  the  bars  at  the  inlets. — E.  of  the 
100th  meridian  the  state  is  generally  well  wa 
tered.  The  Rio  Grande  forms  the  boundary 
with  Mexico,  and  is  navigable  for  400  or  500 
m.  The  Eio  Pecos,  its  principal  tributary, 
entering  from  Is  ew  Mexico,  flows  S.  E.  through 
the  W.  extremity  of  the  state.  The  most  im 
portant  rivers,  proceeding  N.  E.  along  the  coast 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  are :  the 
Nueces,  emptying  into  Corpus  Christi  bay ;  the 
San  Antonio  and  Guadalupe,  into  Espiritu 
Santo  bay ;  the  Lavaca,  into  Lavaca  bay  and 
thence  into  Matagorda  bay ;  the  Colorado,  into 
Matagorda  bay;  the  Brazos,  into  the  gulf  of 
Mexico ;  the  San  Jacinto  and  Trinity,  into 
Galveston  bay;  and  the  Neches  and  Sabine, 
into  Sabine  lake,  which  discharges  into  the 
gulf  of  Mexico  through  Sabine  pass.  The  Sa 
bine  rises  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  Texas,  flows 
S.  E.  to  the  Louisiana  border  (about  lat.  32°), 
and  thence  S.,  separating  the  two  states.  It  is 
navigable  in  some  portions  by  small  craft.  The 
Neches  and  its  chief  tributary,  the  Angelina, 
are  navigable  for  about  200  m.  from  Sabine 
lake.  The  Trinity  rises  in  the  N".  part  of  the 
state  near  the  Red  river,  and  flows  S.  S.  E. ;  it 
is  navigable  for  about  250  m.  The  Brazos, 
Colorado,  Guadalupe,  San  Antonio,  and  Nueces 
rivers  are  during  most  of  the  year  navigable 
but  a  short  distance,  though  susceptible  of  im 
provement.  The  chief  tributary  of  the  Nue- 
ces  is  the  Rio  Frio.  The  Colorado  and  Bra 
zos  rise  on  the  E.  edge  of  the  Llano  Esta- 
cado,  and  flow  S.  E.  across  the  state.  The 
chief  tributaries  of  the  former  are  the  Con- 
cho,  San  Saba,  and  Llano  from  the  west;  of 
the  latter,  the  Little  river  from  the  west  and 
the  Navasota  from  the  east.  The  N.  E.  cor 
ner  of  the  state  is  watered  by  the  Sulphur  fork 
of  Red  river,  which  joins  the  main  stream 
in  Arkansas.  A  little  S.  of  this  are  Big  and 
Little  Cypress  bayous,  which  discharge  through 
lakes  into  Red  river  in  Louisiana.  Red  river 
rises  by  several  forks  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the 
state,  flows  E.,  and  after  crossing  the  100th 
meridian  separates  Texas  from  Indian  terri- 
YOL.  xv. — 43 


tory  and  Arkansas,  and  enters  the  latter  state. 
It  is  navigable  for  nearly  its  whole  course  on 
the  boundary,  though  obstructed  somewhat  by 
shifting  sands  for  a  part  of  the  distance.  Its 
largest  Texan  tributary  is  the  Big  "Wichita, 
entering  near  Ion.  98°.  .  The  N.  extremity  of 
the  state  is  crossed  by  Canadian  river,  running 
E.  from  New  Mexico  into  Indian  territory. — 
The  principal  geological  formations  are  the 
alluvial,  tertiary,  cretaceous,  and  carboniferous. 
The  alluvial  extends  along  the  gulf  coast;  back 
of  this  is  the  tertiary,  having  its  widest  expan 
sion  in  the  east,  where  it  reaches  Red  river  in 
Lamar  co. ;  N.  W.  of  the  tertiary  is  the  creta 
ceous,  extending  W.  on  Red  river  to  Cooke  co. 
and  S.  to  San  Antonio,  and  probably  forming 
the  table  lands  and  plains  of  the  west  and 
southwest.  The  carboniferous  formation  ex 
tends  through  the  counties  W.  of  Cooke  to  the 
Staked  Plain,  stretching  S.  from  Red  river  to 
and  beyond  the  upper  Colorado.  Coal  beds 
have  been  discovered  here,  but  scarcely  any 
thing  has  been  done  to  test  the  quality  or 
quantity  of  the  mineral.  Coal  has  also  been 
found  at  various  points  in  the  tertiary,  particu 
larly  in  Bastrop  co.,  W.  of  the  Colorado;  in 
Milam,  Robertson,  Leon,  and  Limestone  co?., 
near  the  Brazos  and  Trinity ;  and  in  Anderson 
and  Rusk  cos.,  in  eastern  Texas.  The  tertiary 
coal  has  to  some  extent  been  proved  valuable 
for  fuel.  Iron  ores  are  abundant  in  the  ter 
tiary  in  eastern  and  central  Texas;  they  also 
occur  in  the  N".  W.  part  of  Grayson  co.,  on 
Red  river,  and  in  the  upper  Cross  Timbers ;  in 
Burnet  and  Llano  cos.,  N.  W.  of  Austin ;  and 
also,  it  is  said,  in  Stephens  co.,  further  N. 
They  were  worked  during  the  civil  war  in 
Cherokee  and  Nacogdoches  cos.,  in  eastern 
Texas,  and  in  Bowie  and  other  counties  in  the 
1ST.  E.  corner  of  the  state.  Copper  ore  occurs 
in  the  carboniferous  formation,  particularly  in 
the  N.  part.  Lead  has  been  found  in  connec 
tion  with  silver  in  western  Texas ;  steatite  or 
soapstone  in  Llano  co. ;  and  marble  of  various 
colors  and  fair  quality  in  Burnet,  Llano,  and 
San  Saba  cos.  In  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  state, 
about  the  head  waters  of  Red  river,  is  an  ex 
tensive  gypsum  region.  There  are  salt  wells 
in  Van  Zandt  co.,  in  the  northeast,  in  Young 
and  Wise  cos.,  in  the  northwest,  and  in  Lam- 
pasas  and  Llano  cos.,  on  the  Colorado.  Salt 
beds  are  reported  in  the  gypsum  region  and  on 
the  Rio  Pecos.  Between  Corpus  Christi  and 
Brownsville  are  many  shallow  lagoons  or  arms 
of  the  gulf,  which  during  the  prevalence  of 
wrinds  blowing  inland  are  filled  with  salt  water. 
This  is  evaporated,  depositing  the  salt,  which 
is  collected  upon  the  subsidence  of  the  water. 
Chalybeate  springs  are  common  in  the  iron 
districts  of  the  tertiary.  At  Lampasas  in  the 
county  of  the  same  name  are  fine  sulphur 
springs,  which  also  exist  in  Grimes,  Rusk,  and 
Hopkins  cos.,  in  the  E.  part  of  the  state. — The 
climate  is  remarkably  salubrious,  and  though 
warm  enough  for  the  production  of  most  of 
the  semi-tropical  and  some  of  the  tropical 


672 


TEXAS 


fruits,  it  is  less  enervating  and  more  free  from 
malarious  diseases  than  that  of  any  other  of 
the  gulf  states.  Northers,  cool,  dry  winds, 
occur  from  October  to  May  at  intervals  of 
about  a  week,  rarely  lasting  more  than  three 
days.  They  produce  a  sudden  depression  in 
the  temperature,  but  are  said  to  make  the  cli 
mate  more  healthful  and  the  air  purer.  The 
heat  of  summer  is  tempered  by  winds  from  the 
gulf,  which  blow  far  inland.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  in  the  southwest,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  is  72° ;  about  the  parallel 
of  Austin,  68° ;  thence  N.  it  gradually  dimin 
ishes  to  60°  along  the  Red  river.  The  high 
lands  in  the  west  are  cooler,  and  in  the  extreme 
northwest  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  not 
more  than  56°.  The  thermometer  seldom  falls 
below  25°  in  winter  or  rises  above  95°  in  sum 
mer.  The  E.  and  S.  portions  have  the  most 
rain;  as  we  proceed  N".  AV.  from  the  gulf,  the 
moisture  diminishes.  The  average  annual  rain 
fall  in  the  northeast  is  48  in.,  decreasing  to  24 
in.  in  the  soutlrwest  near  the  gulf.  In  the  ex 
treme  northwest  it  is  only  1(5  in.,  and  at  some 
points  between  the  Pecos  and  Rio  Grande  not 
more  than  8  in.  The  following  are  the  results 
of  observations  for  17  years  (1858  to  1874  in 
clusive)  at  Austin  (lat.  30°  15',  Ion.  07°  47'): 
mean  annual  temperature,  67"61°,  varying  from 
65-82°  in  1869  to  68'92°  in  1862;  mean  tem 
perature  of  the  hottest  month  (July),  84° ;  of 
the  coldest  month  (January),  50° ;  minimum 
observed,  6°;  maximum  observed,  106°.;  aver 
age  annual  rainfall,  34'54  in.,  varying  from 
23-17  in  1862  to  48-79  in  1874.  The"  most  rain 
fell  in  September  (average  4-96  in.)  and  the 
least  in  December  (average  1-93  in.).  Corn 
planting  usually  begins  about  the  middle  of 
February,  and  grain  is  harvested  in  the  latter 
part  of  May,  and  Indian  corn  in  July.  Cotton 
picking  begins  about  July  10,  and  continues  to 
Dec.  1.  The  number  of  deaths,  according  to 
the  census  of  1870,  was  11,197,  of  which  there 
were  from  general  diseases  3,848,  including  680 
from  consumption,  464  from  enteric  fever, 
596  from  intermittent  fever,  and  327  from  re 
mittent  fever ;  from  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system,  1,430;  of  the  circulatory  system,  204; 
of  tho  respiratory  system,  1,979,  including 
1,499  from  pneumonia;  of  the  digestive  sys 
tem,  1,498. — The  soil  of  Texas  is  in  general 
very  fertile.  The  river  bottoms  are  unsur 
passed  in  this  respect  by  those  of  any  state  of 
the  Union.  There  are  three  or  four  varieties 
of  soil,  each  well  adapted  to  certain  crops. 
The  stiff  black  soil  of  the  river  bottoms  is 
fittest  for  sugar  and  cotton,  though  the  latter 
grows  well  on  the  prairies  and  uplands ;  the 
finer  ^  black  or  chocolate-colored  soil  of  the 
prairie  lands  yields  abundant  crops  of  corn  and 
the  cereals,  and  the  lighter  copper-colored  soil 
of  the  uplands  is  admirable  for  the  grasses  and 
fruits ;  while  the  fine  silt  of  the  islands  produces 
tho  best  sea  island  cotton  known.  The  soil 
of  the  desert  tracts  of  the  northwest  is  sandy 
and  charged  with  carbonate  of  soda  and  other 


alkalies ;  but  even  this,  wherever  it  can  be  ir 
rigated,  produces  grass  and  herbage  moderately. 
Irrigation  has  been  successfully  practised  in 
some  instances  in  the  w-est,  where  rain  is 
scanty.  In  1875  an  act  was  passed  granting 
land  in  aid  of  companies  organized  for  con 
structing  canals  for  irrigation  and  navigation. 
Texas  is  especially  noted  as  a  stock-raising 
country,  for  which  the  mildness  of  its  climate 
and  the  great  variety  of  its  nutritious  grasses 
peculiarly  fit  it.  The  W.  portion,  even  where 
too  dry  for  agriculture,  is  particularly  adapted 
to  cattle  and  sheep,  and  here  are  vast  herds 
and  flocks.  Large  numbers  of  horses  and 
hogs  are  also  kept.  The  buffalo  and  deer  are 
found  in  the  northwest,  and  wild  horses  or 
u  mustangs  "  roam  over  the  W.  prairies.  The 
other  wild  animals  and  the  birds  are  similar  to 
those  of  other  portions  of  the  Union.  Among 
the  more  important  grasses  are  the  mezquite 
grasses  of  the  west,  which  afford  excellent 
pasturage  at  all  seasons.  The  principal  for 
est  trees,  of  some  of  which  several  species 
occur,  are  the  oak,  elm,  maple,  hickory,  pecan, 
sycamore  or  button  wood,  magnolia,  willow, 
pine,  cypress,  mulberry,  cedar,  sweet  gum.  ash, 
walnut,  palmetto,  cottonwood,  Osage  orange, 
and  mezquite.  Eastern  Texas  is  an  extensive 
pine  region.  The  principal  species  in  the  north 
is  the  short-leafed  pine  (pinus  mitis},  and  in 
the  south  the  long-leafed  (P.  palustris) ;  tho 
latter  is  valuable  for  timber  and  turpentine. 
The  soil  of  the  pine  lands,  though  sandy,  is 
productive.  The  cypress  occurs  in  swamps 
and  on  the  river  banks  in  various  parts  of  the 
state,  and  attains  a  great  size.  The  live  oak 
extends  N.  through  central  and  western  Texas 
to  the  Red  river.  The  Osage  orange  is  es 
pecially  valuable  for  hedges,  and  in  northern 
Texas  attains  a  large  size.  The  mezquite  is 
one  of  the  indigenous  trees  of  Texas,  growing 
in  the  west,  valuable  for  fuel  and  for  various 
other  uses.  (See  MEZQFITE.)  Numerous  species 
of  cactus  are  abundant  W.  of  the  Nueces  river. 
Peaches  do  well  in  a  large  portion  of  the 
state,  and  apples  thrive  in  the  north.  Pears, 
blackberries,  and  strawberries  are  also  raised. 
Seven  species  of  grapes  are  indigenous.  In 
the  south  figs  and  oranges  may  be  produced. 
The  chief  crops  are  cotton,  Indian  corn,  and 
wheat.  Cotton  and  corn  may  be  grown  in 
nearly  every  part  of  the  state.  Wheat  is  raised 
chiefly  in  the  north.  The  sugar  cane  is  culti 
vated  principally  on  the  Brazos  near  its  mouth, 
and  rice  in  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  state.  Oats, 
barley,  beans,  tobacco,  and  sweet  and  Irish 
potatoes  are  also  raised  to  some  extent.  — 
The  number  of  acres  of  land  in  farms  accord 
ing  to  the  census  of  1870  was  18,396,523,  of 
which  2,964,836  were  improved;  number  of 
farms,  61,125,  of  which  717  contained  under 
3  acres  each,  4,659  from  3  to  10,  13,594  from 
10  to  20,  24,620  from  20  to  50,  10,890  from  50 
to  100,  6,268  from  100  to  500,  305  from  500  to 
1,000,  and  72  more  than  1,000  ;  cash  value  of 
farms,  $60,149,950;  of  farming  implements 


TEXAS 


673 


and  machinery,  $3,396,793 ;  amount  of  wages 
paid  during  year,  including  value  of  board, 
$4,777,638;  estimated  value  of  all  farm  pro 
ductions,  including  betterments  and  additions 
to  stock,  $49,185,170;  value  of  orchard  pro 
ducts,  $69,172 ;  of  produce  of  market  gardens, 
$74,924;  of  forest  products,  $66,841 ;  of  home 
manufactures,  $293,308 ;  of  animals  slaugh 
tered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $4,835,284;  of  all 
live  stock,  $37,425,194.  The  productions  were 
66,173  bushels  of  spring  wheat,  348,939  of  win 
ter  wheat,  20,554,538  of  Indian  corn,  762,663 
of  oats,  44,351  of  barley,  28,521  of  rye,  44  of 
buckwheat,  42,654  of  peas  and  beans,  208,383 
of  Irish  potatoes,  2,188,041  of  sweet  potatoes, 
7  of  clover  seed,  497  of  grass  seed,  2  of  flax 
seed,  63,844  Ibs.  of  rice,  59,706  of  tobacco, 
1,251,328  of  wool,  3,712,747  of  butter,  34,342 
of  cheese,  51  of  hops,  25  of  flax,  13,255  of  wax, 
275,169  of  honey,  6,216  gallons  of  wine,  5,032 
of  maple  molasses,  174,509  of  sorghum  mo 
lasses,  246,062  of  cane  molasses,  2,020  hogs 
heads  of  cane  sugar,  5  tons  of  hemp,  18,982"of 
hay,  and  350,628  bales  of  cotton.  There  were 
on  farms  424,504  horses,  61,322  mules  and 
asses,  428,048  milch  cows,  132,407  working 
oxen,  2,933,588  other  cattle,  714,351  sheep, 
and  1,202,445  swine ;  besides  which  there  were 
150,137  horses  and  496,115  neat  cattle  not  on 
farms.  The  number  of  cattle  was  greater  than 
in  any  other  state.  In  1873  718,247  horses 
and  mules,  3,175,682  cattle,  and  1,476,844 
sheep  were  returned  by  the  assessors. — There 
were  2,399  manufacturing  establishments  in 
1870,  having  540  steam  engines  of  11, 214  horse 
power,  and  116  water  wheels  of  1,830  horse 
power;  hands  employed,  7,927;  capital  in 
vested,  $5,284,110;  wages  paid,  $1,787,835; 
value  of  materials  used,  $6,273,193;  of  pro 
ducts,  $11,517,302.  The  particulars  of  the 
principal  branches  are  as  follows  : 


INDUSTRIES. 

Estab-     Hands 
lish-         em- 
ments.  '  ployed. 

Capital. 

Value  of 
products. 

Agricultural  implements  
Blacksmithin'r 

12 
380 
98 

14 

24 
7 
147 
115 
1 
83 
4 

533 
2 
54 
2 
C 
6 
34 
22 
'27 
324 
11 
15 
3 
2 

25 
18S 
10 

71 

86 

18 
2 

44 

761 
166 

38 

263 
117 
399 
325 
16 
78 
291 

1,123 
13 
140 
18 
112 
30 
62 
2S 
76 
1,750 
123 
275 
155 
23 

158 
292 

US 

237 
140 

41 
59 

$12,559 
177,238 
56,710 

35,800 
82.175 
79,150 
154,005 
130,585 
12,000 
18,800 
496,000 

1,066.893 
2.545 
97.400 
855.500 
65,000 
54.000 
87,476 
17,367 
117.300 
870.491 
137,550 
200.500 
50.220 
46,000 

103,675 
153.590 
140,000 

154,136 
33,645 

28.250 
69,000 

$42,420 
534.550 
166,761 

93,685 

172,670 
464.775 
652,067 
289.124 
45.905 
85.457 
374,598 

2,421.047 
48,000 
209.536 
91.210 
272,740 
77,000 
60,524 
57,887 
145.840 
1,960>51 
170.210 
1,052,106 
75.137 
89,400 

194.430 
848.307 
266,400 

334.665 
102,020 

74,872 
78,596 

Boots  and  shoes  
Bread    and     other    bakery 
products  . 

Brick  

Butchering-  

Carpentering  and  building.  . 
Carriages  and  wagons  
Cars,  freight  and  passenger. 
Clothing,  men's  

Cotton  goods..  . 

Flouring  and  grist-mill  prod 
ucts  
Food  preparations,  animal.. 
Furniture. 

Gas 

Hides  and  tallow  
Iron  castings  ' 
Leather,  tainted.  .  . 

"        curried  
Liquors,  malt  (  
Lumber,  sawed  
i  Machinery. 

Meat  packed,  beef  
Molasses  and  sngar,  reh'ned. 
Oil,  cotton-seed 

Printing     and      publishing, 
newspaper  .  . 

Saddlerv  and  harness  

Sash,  doors,  and  blinds  
Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 

Wheel  wrighting 

Wool-carding     and      cloth- 
dressing  
Woollen  goods 

— Texas  is  divided  into  five  customs  districts: 
Brazos  de  Santiago  (port  of  entry,  Brownsville), 
Corpus  Christi  (the  same),  Paso  del  Norte  (El 
Paso),  Saluria  (Indianola),  and  Texas  (Galves- 
ton).  The  chief  item  of  export  is  cotton.  The 
trade  with  Mexico  is  important.  There  are  no 
returns  of  the  trade  with  other  portions  of  the 
Union.  The  following  table  contains  details 
of  the  foreign  commerce  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1875: 


DISTRICTS. 

Imports. 

Exports 
of  domestic 
products. 

Exports 
of  foreign 
products. 

|            ENTRANCES. 

CLEARANCES. 

No. 

1 

j        Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

Brazos  dc  Santiago 

$2.002,748 
322,803 
308.991 
97,663 
1,218,034 

$833.312 
205.557 
40,323 
237.294 
15,876,632 

$997.658 
243,96(1 

40.i65 
849,275 

49 

!        8 
18 
IS 
163 

1      30.984 
5,142 
4,080 
16.785 
i      91,913 

41 

9     . 
18 
28 
206 

20,956 
5,980 
4.079 
24.359 
127,579 

Corpus  Christi  

Paso  del  Norte        

Saluria    .     . 

Texas  

Total  

$3,950,239       $17,193.118  i  $1,631,004 

!     256 

148,904 

302 

182,903 

The  entrances  and  clearances  in  the  coastwise 
trade  during  the  same  period,  with  the  number 
and  tonnage  of  vessels  registered,  enrolled,  and 
licensed  on  the  above  date,  are  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

ENTRANCES. 

CLEARANCES. 

REGIS 
TERED,  &C. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

Brazos  de  Santiago.. 
Corpus  Christi  

46 

82 

36.504 
52.023 

18 
43 

11,019 
9.310 

14 
35 

1,546 
774 

Paso  del  Norte  

79 

14.SSS 

71 

13.567 

Saluria  214 

197.534 

59, 

11,519 

46 

1.612 

Texas  453 

41^  645 

335 

290  426    °50 

18116 

Total  

719.594 

874 

519  i  335,841    345    22,048 

— On  Oct.  1,  1875,  there  were  10  national  banks 
in  the  state,  of  which  the  resources  were  as 
follows :  loans  and  discounts,  $1,366,805  99 ; 
I  bonds  for  circulation,  $789,000 ;  bonds  for  de 
posits,  $175,000;  total,  including  other  items, 
$3,617,757  88.  The  following  were  the  chief 
liabilities:  capital  stock,  $1,200,000;  surplus 
and  undivided  profits,  $344,287  28;  circula 
tion,  $673,102;  individual  deposits,  $1,081,- 
196  02.  There  are  15  or  20  state  banks.— 
There  were  32  m.  of  railroad  in  operation  in 
1854,  451  in  1862,  and  711  in  1870.  The  fol 
lowing  table  contains  the  particulars  of  the 
different  lines  for  1875  : 


6Y4 


TEXAS 


LINES. 

TERMINI. 

Miles  in 

operation 
in  the 
state. 

FROM 

TO 

Galveston,  Harrisburg,  and  San  An-  j 

Ilarrisburg     (on     the     Galveston,  1 
Houston,  and  Henderson)  j 

Luling,  Caldwell  co  

155 

50 

TI) 

ir/j 

8 
50 
44 
341 
114 
45 
205 
35 
172 

75 
56 

1,572 

Galveston,  Houston,  and  Henderson.  . 
Gulf,  Western  Texas,  and  Pacific  

Indianola.. 

Cuero  De  Witt  co. 

Houston  . 

Palestine  (on  the  International)  
Huntsville  

Phelns.  .  . 

Columbia  division                                 Houston     .    . 

Columbia  Brazoria  co 

Northern  division  
Houston  and  Texas  Central  

Troupe  (on  the  International)  

Miueola  (on  the  Texas  and  Pacific).  . 
lied  River  City 

Hempstead 

Austin  

Brenioud  

Waco  

Long-view  (on  the  Texas  and  Pacific) 
Houston  

Rockdale,  Milam  co 

Texas  and  New  Orleans  

West  Liberty,  Liberty  co  
Eagle  f  ord,  Dallas  co.  (1!>2  in.)  
Texarkana  (  jnst  across  the  Arkaii-  1 

Shreveport,  La  
Marshall  -j 

Branch  

Transcontinental  division  -j 
Total 

Sherman    (on    the    Houston    and  ( 

Brookston,  Lamar  co  

The  Galveston,  Ilarrisburg,  and  San  Antonio 
railroad  is  in  progress  (1876)  toward  San  An 
tonio,  and  the  extension  of  the  Gulf,  Western 
Texas,  and  Pacific  railroad  to  that  city  is  con 
templated.  The  Houston  and  Texas  Central 
railroad  connects  at  Red  Eiver  City  with  the 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas  railroad  for  St. 
Louis.  The  International  railroad  is  intended 
to  extend  S.  W.  to  Laredo  on  the  Rio  Grande. 
The  Texas  and  Pacific  railroad  has  permission 
by  its  charter  to  continue  its  line  across  the 
continent  to  San  Diego,  Cal. ;  the  Transconti 
nental  division,  when  completed,  will  extend 
from  Texarkana  to  Fort  Worth,  Tarrant  co.,  on 
the  main  line.  The  Texas  and  New  Orleans 
railroad  was  in  operation  to  the  Sabine  river 
previous  to  the  civil  war,  during  which  it  was 
nearly  destroyed;  it  is  to  be  repaired.  The 
Galveston  and  Santa  Fe  railroad  has  been  char 
tered  to  connect  those  two  points,  and  40  m. 
are  in  course  of  construction  from  Galveston. 
The  Texas  Western  railroad  (narrow  gauge), 
from  Houston  to  San  Antonio,  is  in  progress 
W.  from  Houston. — A  new  constitution  was 
adopted  by  vote  of  the  .people,  Feb.  15,  1876, 
which  was  to  go  into  effect  on  the  third  Tues 
day  in  April  following.  The  executive  officers 
are  a  governor  (annual  salary,  $4,000),  lieu 
tenant  governor,  secretary  of  state  ($2,000), 
comptroller  of  public  accounts  ($2,500),  trea 
surer  ($2,500),  commissioner  of  the  general  land 
office  ($2,500),  and  attorney  general  ($2,000, 
besides  fees  not  exceeding  $2,000).  They  hold 
office  for  two  years,  and  are  all  elected  by  the 
qualified  voters,  except  the  secretary  of  state, 
who  is  appointed  by  the  governor  and  senate. 
The  lieutenant  governor  is  ex  officio  president 
of  the  senate,  and  in  that  capacity  receives  the 
pay  of  a  senator.  The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate  of  31  members,  elected  by  districts,  and 
a  house  of  representatives  of  93  members,  dis 
tributed  among  the  counties.  At  the  appor 
tionment  in  1880  the  number  of  representatives 
may  be  increased  to  not  more  than  150.  The 
representatives  are  elected  biennially ;  the  sen- 

*  Consolidated  as  the  International  and  Great  Northern. 


ators  hold  office  four  years,  one  half  being 
elected  biennially.  The  sessions  are  biennial. 
Two  thirds  of  each  house  are  necessary  to  a 
quorum,  and  a  two-thirds  vote  is  necessary  to 
overcome  the  governor's  veto.  Members  of 
the  legislature  receive  not  more  than  $5  for 
each  day's  attendance,  and  not  more  than  $5 
for  each  25  miles'  travel  to  and  from  the  capi 
tal.  The  judicial  authority  is  vested  in  a  su 
preme  court,  a  court  of  appeals,  district  courts, 
county  courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace  (in 
ferior  cases).  The  supreme  court  consists  of 
a  chief  justice  and  two  associates,  and  has  ap 
pellate  jurisdiction  of  civil  cases  of  which  the 
district  courts  have  original  or  appellate  juris 
diction.  The  court  of  appeals  consists  of  three 
judges,  and  has  appellate  jurisdiction  of  crimi 
nal  cases,  and  of  civil  cases  of  which  the  county 
courts  have  original  or  appellate  jurisdiction. 
The  judges  of  the  supreme  court  and  court  of 
appeals  are  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  for 
six  years,  and  receive  an  annual  salary  of 
$3,550  each.  A  district  court  is  held  twice  a 
year  in  each  county,  having  original  jurisdic 
tion  of  felonies,  divorce,  land  titles,  &c.,  and 
of  civil  cases  involving  $500  and  upward,  and 
appellate  jurisdiction  of  probate  cases  from 
the  county  courts.  A  district  judge  (annual 
salary,  $2,500 ;  term,  four  years)  is  elected  by 
the  qualified  voters  of  each  of  the  26  judicial 
districts.  A  county  judge  is  elected  by  the 
qualified  voters  of  each  county  for  two  years. 
The  county  courts  have  original  jurisdiction  of 
misdemeanors,  probate  cases,  and  civil  cases 
involving  from  $200  to  $1,000,  and  appellate 
jurisdiction  of  judgments  of  justices  of  the 
peace.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  conferred  upon 
every  male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  per 
son  who  has  declared  his  intention  to  become 
such,  of  sound  mind  and  not  a  pauper  or  con 
vict,  who  has  attained  the  age  of  21  years  and 
has  resided  one  year  in  the  state  and  six  months 
in  the  county  or  district.  Elections  are  by  bal 
lot.  In  elections  in  cities  and  corporate  towns 
to  determine  expenditure  of  money  or  assump 
tion  of  debt  only  taxpayers  may  vote.  Gen- 


TEXAS 


675 


eral  elections  are  held  biennially  on  the  Tues 
day  next  after  the  first  Monday  of  November  in 
even  years  (commencing  with  1878).  Amend 
ments  to  the  constitution  must  be  proposed  by 
two  thirds  of  each  house  of  the  legislature, 
and  approved  by  a  majority  of  the  people. 
Texas  is  entitled  to  six  representatives  and 
two  senators  in  congress,  and  therefore  has 
eight  votes  in  the  electoral  college. — The  valu 
ation  of  property,  according  to  the  United 
States  censuses,  has  been  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

ASSESSED  VALUE. 

True  value  of 
real  and 
personal  estate. 

Real  estate. 

Personal  estate. 

Tutal. 

1850  .. 
1660  .. 
1870  .. 

$52,740,473 
365,200,614 
159,052,542 

$112,47(5,013 
97,186,568 

$155,31  6,322 
52,546,361 

$267,792,335 
149,732,929 

The  decrease  from  1860  to  1870  was  due  to  the 
civil  war,  and  particularly  to  the  emancipation 
of  the  slaves.  The  assessed  value  of  property 
in  1874  was  $241,841,860 ;  in  1875  it  was  be 
lieved  that  with  a  proper  system  of  assessment 
it  would  amount  to  $300,000,000.  The  taxa 
tion  of  1873  amounted  to  $2,517.394,  of  which 
$1,286,188  ($168,254  on  polls  and  $1,117,934 
on  property)  was  state  and  $1,231,206  coun 
ty.  The  estimated  receipts  during  the  year 
ending  Aug.  31,  1876,  available  for  the  gen 
eral  expenses  of  the  state,  are  $1,289,348; 
available  for  school  purposes,  $715,129  70; 
total,  $2,004,477  70,  of  which  $1,400,130  are 
from  taxes  on  property,  $279,000  from  occu 
pation  tax,  $170,347  70  from  poll  taxes,  $125,- 
000  from  interest  on  permanent  school  fund, 
and  $30,000  from  office  fees.  The  appropria 
tions  for  the  same  period  are  as  follows :  for 
executive  departments,  $182,230 ;  judicial  de 
partment,  $256,625  ;  school  department,  $505,- 
400,  including  $500,000  for  teachers'  wages; 
blind  asylum,  $16,120 ;  deaf  and  dumb  asylum, 
$14,000;  lunatic  asylum,  $38,300;  peniten 
tiary,  $40,000;  interest,  $480,000;  frontier 
defence,  $150,000;  other  purposes,  $5,610; 
total,  $1,688,285.  The  bonded  debt  on  Aug. 
31,  1875,  amounted  to  $4,107,588;  floating 
debt,  $614,326  36;  total,  $4,721,914  36.  Be 
sides  this  there  was  a  debt  of  doubtful  valid 
ity,  amounting-  to  $829,687"  66,  and  consisting 
of  bonds  issued  by  the  state  to  the  school 
and  university  funds,  with  accrued  interest 
thereon. — The  state  institutions  are  the  peni 
tentiary,  at  Iluntsville,  and  the  institution 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb  (opened  in  1857),  the 


institute  for  the  blind  (1856),  and  the  lunatic 
asylum  (1861),  at  Austin.  The  labor  of  the 
convicts  is  leased  to  contractors.  The  num 
ber  registered  at  the  penitentiary  in  November, 
1875,  was  1,686,  of  whom  452  were  employed 
at  the  penitentiary  and  the  rest  elsewhere. 
The  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  1874 
had  46  pupils  (31  males  and  15  females) ;  the 
blind  institute,  40  (16  males  and  24  females) ; 
and  the  lunatic  asylum,  127  inmates  (68  males 
and  59  females).  In  1875  an  act  was  passed 
providing  for  the  erection  of  two  additional 
penitentiaries,  one  N.  E.  of  the  Trinity  river 
and  the  other  W.  of  the  Colorado  river. — 
The  governor,  comptroller,  and  secretary  of 
state  constitute  a  board  of  education.  The 
public  schools  are  regulated  by  an  act  of  1873, 
with  amendments.  In  each  county  a  board  of 
five  school  directors  is  elected  for  four  years; 
these  choose  one  of  their  number  president, 
who  is  ex  officio  county  superintendent  of  pub 
lic  instruction.  In  each  school  district  three 
trustees  are  elected  annually.  Cities  may  as 
sume  control  of  the  schools  within  their  lim 
its,  subject  to  the  general  school  law.  The 
schools  for  white  and  colored  children  are  sepa 
rate.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  constitution 
one  fourth  of  the  revenue  from  general  taxa: 
tion  and  a  poll  tax  of  $1  on  males  between  21 
and  60  years  of  age,  together  with  the  interest 
on  the  permanent  school  fund,  are  annually  set 
apart  for  the  support  of  public  schools ;  there 
is  also  a  landed  endowment,  consisting  of  60,- 
314,000  acres  of  the  public  domain.  In  1&74 
there  were  2,129  public  schools,  with  98,308 
pupils  enrolled,  out  of  a  school  population  (G 
to  18  years)  of  313,061;  private  schools,  132, 
with  4,381  pupils;  public  school  houses,  1,007; 
amount  of  state  school  fund  apportioned,  $499,- 
930  50;  teachers'  wages,  $612,878  67.  Only 
77  counties  reported  the  number  of  pupils  en 
rolled  in  the  public  schools;  the  number  en 
rolled  in  the  entire  state  was  estimated  by  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  at  161,670. 
The  permanent  school  fund  on  Aug.  31,  1875, 
amounted  to  $2,637,673  31.  Under  acts  of 
congress  of  1862  and  1866,  the  state  received 
a  donation  of  180,000  acres  of  land  scrip  for 
the  establishment  of  an  agricultural  and  me 
chanical  college.  This  was  sold  in  1871,  and 
the  proceeds  were  invested  in  7  per  cent,  gold 
bonds  of  the  state  ($174,000).  Buildings  have 
been  erected  by  the  state  near  Bryan.  The 
following  table  gives  particulars  of  collegiate 
institutions  for  1874-'5 : 


INSTITUTIONS. 

Location. 

Denomination. 

Date  of 

organization. 

Number  of 
instructors. 

Number  of 
students. 

Baylor  university  
Austin  college  

University  of  St.  Mary  . 

Independence  
Iluntsville  

Baptist  
Presbyterian  
Boman  Catholic  

1S45 
1S50 
1854 

7 
4 
10 

80 
i<53 

Soule  university.. 

Chappell  Hill  Within  <*"ton  co 

Methodist  Episcopal  South. 

1856 

Waco  university. 

Baptist         

1857 

14 

291 

Salado  college 

Silado  Bell  co 

1S69 

5 

204 

Trinity  university  

Cumberland  Presbyterian  .  .  . 

1869 

13 

408 

Henderson  college. 

Non-sectarian  

1871 

6 

200 

Texas  uiiiversitv. 

Methodist  Episcopal,  South- 

1874 

o 

68 

CT6 


TEXAS 


These  institutions,  besides  the  ordinary  col 
lege  course,  have  preparatory  and  inferior  de 
partments,  which  embrace  the  greater  part  of 
the  students.  Several  of  them  admit  both  sex 
es.  A  law  department  has  been  organized  in 
Trinity  university.  The  American  dental  col 
lege  at  Austin,  organized  in  1873,  and  the  Gal- 
veston  medical  college,  founded  in  1864,  have 
each  six  professors.  The  Barnes  institute,  at 
Galveston,  Coronal  institute  at  San  Marcos, 
flays  co.,  St.  Mary's  Catholic  institute,  at  San 
Antonio,  and  the  Texas  military  institute,  at 
Austin,  are  important.  Among  female  semina 
ries  are  the  Andrew  female  college,  at  Hunts- 
ville ;  Baylor  female  college,  at  Independence ; 
Bryan  female  seminary,  Brazos  co. ;  Chappell 
Hill  female  college ;  Lamar  female  college,  at 
Paris,  Lamar  co. ;  Ursuline  academy,  at  Gal 
veston  ;  and  Waco  female  college.  The  state 
has  set  apart  1,221,000  acres  of  land  for  the  es 
tablishment  of  a  university,  but  no  steps  have 
yet  been  taken  to  found  the  institution.  There 
were  also  in  the  treasury  on  Aug.  31,  1874, 
bonds  to  the  amount  of  $134,472  20  belonging 
to  the  university  fund. — The  number  of  libra 
ries  returned  by  the  census  of  1870  was  455, 
with  an  aggregate  of  87,111  volumes,  of  which 
135,  with  25,018  volumes,  were  other  than 
private,  including  131  Sunday  school  libraries, 
with  19,318  volumes.  There  were  112  news 
papers  and  periodicals,  issuing  4,214,800  cop 
ies  annually  and  having  a  circulation  of  55,- 
250,  viz.:  12  daily,  circulation  3,500;  5  tri 
weekly,  2,450;  5  semi-weekly,  3,700;  89  week 
ly,  45,300 ;  and  1  semi-monthly,  300.  The  fol 
lowing  are  the  statistics  of  churches,  accord 
ing  to  the  census : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

1  Organi-     Edi- 
|  zations.     flceg. 

;   Sittings.       Property. 

Baptist  

Christian 

..    275       211 
I     IS          17 

61,700  i     $190,540 
4  450  i          1  1  650 

Congregational  
Episcopal  
Jewish  
Lutheran  
Methodist  
Presbyterian,  regular.  .  . 
"           other  
Roman  Catholic  
Union  

1            1 

.   ;     8'2         31 
.   j       1           1 
.    i     23         21 
.    '  355       244 
...     8(5         70 
..      15          14 
..      36     '     3(5 
1           i 

500              5,'000 

11,400           109.400 
400               6.000 
7,650            47,900 
69.100           251,140 
22,750  ;        128,500 
4,S50  i          14,100 
16,000  i        264,200 
300              1  000 

Total  

..    8-13     '  617 

199,100     $1,035,430 

— In  1G85  a  colony  of  French  emigrants  led 
by  the  sieur  de  La  Salle,  designing  to  found 
a  settlement  in  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi, 
sailed  past  it  unawares,  landed  in  Matagorda 
bay,  and  erected  Fort  St.  Louis  on  the  Lavaca. 
In  1689  Capt.  De  Leon,  a  Spanish  officer,  was 
despatched  to  the  Lavaca  to  scour  the  country 
and  hunt  out  the  French.  He  arrived  there 
on  April  22,  found  the  garrison  scattered,  and 
returned  the  next  year  with  110  men  and  some 
friars,  and  established  on  the  site  of  Fort  St. 
Louis  the  mission  of  San  Francisco.  In  1691 
a  Spanish  governor  of  the  region  was  appoint 
ed,  and  soldiers  were  sent  to  enforce  his  au 
thority ;  but  in  1693  the  hostility  of  the  In 


dians,  the  failure  of  the  crops,  and  the  death 
of  their  cattle  discouraged  the  colonists,  and 
the  settlements  were  abandoned.  The  Span 
iards  had  settlements  at  El  Paso  and  at  San 
Juan  Bautista,  both  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  but  none  within  the  present  bounds 
of  Texas.  In  1714  the  French  again  attempt 
ed  to  effect  a  settlement  within  its  limits,  and 
Crozat,  to  whom  Louis  XIV.  had  granted  the 
whole  of  Louisiana,  sent  Huchereau  Saint- 
Denis  upon  an  expedition  thither.  He  pen 
etrated  from  the  Sabine  to  the  Eio  Grande, 
and  visited  the  Spanish  mission  of  Sari  Juan, 
where  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  governor 
of  Coahuila  ;  but  having  subsequently  married 
the  daughter  of  the  commandant  of  that  mis 
sion,  he  introduced  Spanish  missionaries  into 
Texas,  who  established  a  mission  on  the  bay 
of  San  Bernardo  or  Matagorda,  another  west 
of  the  Sabine  and  near  the  coast  (the  famous 
mission  of  Dolores),  and  a  third  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  San  Pedro,  near  San  Antonio,  sub 
sequently  removed  eastward,  and  known  as 
the  Alamo.  Two  other  missions  were  estab 
lished  soon  after,  one  near  Nacogdoches,  the 
other  not  far  from  San  Augustine.  The  name 
of  "the  New  Philippines"  was  now  given  to 
the  country,  and  in  1715  the  marquis  de  Agua- 
yo  was  made  governor  general  of  the  colony. 
For  20  years  the  Spaniards  held  sole  sway,  and 
multiplied  their  settlements.  In  1735  Saint- 
Denis,  who  had  acquired  great  influence  over 
the  Texas  Indians,  aided  in  removing  a  French 
settlement  on  Bed  river  into  Texas ;  the  Span 
iards  protested,  but  owing  to  quarrels  among 
themselves  did  not  drive  them  out,  and  finally 
conceded  that  they  had  a  right  to  the  region 
they  were  occupying.  In  1758  the  Indians  at 
tacked  the  mission  of  San  Saba,  and  killed  all 
its  inhabitants.  This  caused  the  decline  of  tho 
missions  in  Texas,  as  the  slaughter  was  never 
avenged;  in  1765  there  were  not  more  than 
750  European  inhabitants,  with  about  the  same 
number  of  'domiciled  Indians.  In  1762-'3  the 
feud  between  France  and  Spain  was  finally 
settled  by  the  cession  of  the  vast  Louisiana 
territory  by  the  former  power  to  the  latter. 
In  1803,  Spain  having  re-ceded  Louisiana  to 
France,  that  power  sold  it  to  the  United  States ; 
and  as  there  had  been  no  well  defined  boundary 
between  Louisiana  and  the  old  Spanish  pos 
sessions  W.  of  it,  a  controversy  at  once  ensued 
between  Spain  and  the  United  States  on  the 
question  of  boundaries,  Spain  claiming  a  region 
E.  of  the  Sabine,  and  the  United  States  urging 
that  they  were  entitled  to  the  country  W.  as 
far  as  the  Rio  Grande.  In  October,  1806, 
Gen.  Herrera,  the  Spanish  commander,  en 
tered  into  an  agreement  with  Gen.  Wilkinson 
establishing  the  territory  between  the  Sabine 
and  Arroyo  Honda  as  a  neutral  ground,  and 
retired  W.  of  that  line.  At  this  time  the  pop 
ulation  of  Texas  was  about  7,000,  many  of  the 
settlers  being  adventurers  engaged  in  illicit 
trade  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico. 
From  1806  a  series  of  revolutionary  efforts  com- 


TEXAS 


67T 


menced,  beginning  with  the  projected  move 
ment  of  Aaron  Burr,  and  embracing  the  ex 
peditions  of  Magee,  a  former  lieutenant  of  the 
U.  S.  army ;  of  Col.  Kemper,  his  successor ;  of 
Bernardo  Gutierrez;  of  Col.  Ellis  P.  Bean, 
who  had  suffered  a  protracted  and  cruel  im 
prisonment  from  the  Spanish  authorities ;  "of 
Gen.  J.  A.  Toledo,  a  Cuban  republican;  of 
Col.  Perry,  an  American  officer  ;  of  Auzy,  who 
Styled  himself  governor  of  Texas ;  and  of 
Xavier  Mina,  a  Spanish  refugee,  who  aided  in 
the  capture  of  Galveston  island  in  1816.  In 
these  expeditions  there  were  several  severe 
battles  fought  between  the  invaders  and  the 
Spanish  authorities ;  on  two  occasions  in  1813, 
the  invaders  defeated  the  Spanish  forces,  and 
caused  them  a  loss  of  more  than  1,000.  In 
the  same  year,  of  .a  force  of  2,500  Americans 
and  Mexicans,  all  were  slain  but  about  100, 
a  considerable  number  being  butchered  in  cold 
blood,  and  nearly  700  of  the  peaceable  inhab 
itants  of  San  Antonio  murdered.  In  1817 
Mina  won  several  victories  in  conflict  with  the 
Spanish  troops,  but  was  finally  defeated,  taken 
prisoner,  and  shot  on  Nov.  11  of  that  year. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812  Lafitte,  the 
pirate  of  the  gulf,  made  Galveston  island  his 
headquarters,  and  established  a  town  there 
named  Campeachy.  He  remained  here  till 

1821,  when  a  naval  force  was  despatched  by 
the  United  States  government  to  break  up  the 
settlement.     In  1819  the  long  controversy  be 
tween  the  United  States  and  Spain  in  regard 
to  the  Texan  boundary  was  terminated  by' the 
establishment  of  the  Sabine  as  the  boundary 
line.     This  treaty  occasioned  much  dissatisfac 
tion  on  the  part  of  the  western  and  southwest 
ern  states.      Mr.    Clay  and   other  prominent 
men  opposed  it.     A  revolutionary  expedition 
was  organized  at  Natchez  the  same  year,  un 
der  the  command  of  Dr.  James  Long,  a  Ten- 
nesseean,  which  penetrated  as  far  as  Nacog- 
doches  and  established  a  provisional  govern 
ment  there,  and  the  leader  went  to  Galves 
ton  island  to   secure  the  cooperation  of  La 
fitte  ;  but  while  he  was  absent  his  force  was 
routed  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the  royalist  troops. 
In  a  second  expedition  Long  took  possession 
of  La  Bahia  without  difficulty ;  but,   though 
Mexico  had  become  independent  under  Itur- 
bide,  he  and  his  followers  were  taken  prison 
ers  and  sent  to  the  city  of  Mexico,  where  after 
a  brief  imprisonment  he  was  set  at  liberty, 
but  was  almost  immediately  assassinated,  in 

1822.  Texas  at  this  time  was  almost  whol 
ly  deserted,  the  settlement  at  Galveston  en 
tirely  abandoned,  and  the  few  inhabitants  at 
other  points  reduced  to  poverty  by  the  civil 
war.     In  1820  Moses  Austin,  then  residing  in 
Missouri,  received  from  the  Spanish  authori 
ties  of  Mexico  a  grant  of  lands  in  Texas.     He 
died  before  he  was  able  to  avail  himself  of  it, 
and  his   son,  Stephen   F.  Austin,  received   a 
confirmation   of   the    grant    in   1823,   having 
already  in  the  beginning  of  1822  conducted  a 
considerable  number  of  colonists  to  the  site 


he  had  selected  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pres 
ent  county  of  Austin.  The  colony  increased 
rapidly,  and  Austin  obtained  permission  to 
bring  in  500  more  families  (his  first  grant  was 
for  300).  Others  also  followed  in  the  estab 
lishment  of  colonies  in  the  same  vicinity.  The 
Mexican  constitution,  adopted  in  1824,  united 
Coahuila,  hitherto  a  separate  province,  with 
Texas  in  a  single  state,  and  the  congress  of  the 
united  state  placed  a  Mexican  as  commandant 
of  the  department  of  Texas.  The  injustice  of 
this  commandant  toward  the  American  citi 
zens,  especially  those  attached  to  the  colony 
of  Hayden  Edwards,  created  difficulty;  and 
an  appeal  being  made  to  the  governor  of  the 
state,  who  was  also  a  Mexican,  he  without 
trial  or  examination  annulled  Edwards's  grant 
and  ordered  his  expulsion  from  the  state.  Ed 
wards  and  his  colonists  attempted  unsuccess 
fully  to  effect  a  revolution;  and  in  January, 
1827,  they  were  compelled  to  retreat  into  the 
United  States.  In  1830  Bustamante,  who  had 
seized  the  dictatorship  of  Mexico,  issued  a  de 
cree  forbidding  the  people  of  the  United  States 
to  enter  Texas  as  colonists,  and  suspending 
all  colony  contracts  which  interfered  with  this 
prohibition.  In  1832  the  Texans  sustained  the 
pronitnciamiento  of  Vera  Cruz  in  favor  of  the 
constitution,  and  in  opposition  to  the  rule  of 
Bustamante,  and  defeated  a  force  under  Col. 
Piedras,  who  favored  the  dictator.  In  1833 
the  American  settlers,  now  numbering  over 
20,000,  held  a  convention,  determined  to  sep 
arate  themselves  from  Coahuila,  and  prepared 
a  state  constitution  and  an  address  to  the 
general  government,  of  which  Santa  Anna 
was  now  the  head,  requesting  remission  as  a 
separate  state  into  the  republic.  Col.  S.  F. 
Austin  went  to  Mexico  to  present  the  request 
of  the  memorialists.  He  was  unsuccessful, 
and  was  detained  in  Mexico  till  September, 
1835,  but  in  1834  procured  the  revocation  of 
the  decree  of  Bustamante  prohibiting  the  ad 
mission  of  colonists  from  the  United  States, 
and  several  other  favorable  concessions.  Santa 
Anna  sought  to  amuse  Austin  and  the  Texans 
with  promises  of  allowing  them  a  separate  state 
government  till  he  could  occupy  the  country 
with  his  troops.  The  government  of  the  state 
of  Coahuila  and  Texas  having  been  overthrown, 
committees  of  safety  were  established,  the  first 
being  appointed  at  a  meeting  at. Mina  (now 
Bastrop),  May  17,  1835.  The  first  battle,  or 
rather  skirmish,  was  fought,  near  Gonzales, 
Oct.  2.  Other  battles  followed.  Goliad  was 
captured  by  the  Texans  on  Oct.  9,  and  the 
battle  of  Concepcion,  near  San  Antonio,  was 
fought  on  the  28th.  On  Nov.  3  the  "  Con 
sultation,"  a  body  composed  of  delegates  from 
the  municipalities,  met  at  San  Felipe  de  Aus 
tin,  and  proceeded  to  the  organization  of  a 
provisional  government.  Henry  Smith  was 
elected  governor  and  J.  W.  Eobinson  lieu 
tenant  governor,  and  a  general  council  was 
organized.  At  the  same  time  Sam  Houston 
was  elected  commander-in-chief,  and  Austin 


678 


TEXAS 


was  appointed  a  commissioner  to  the  United 
States.  San  Antonio  do  Bexar  was  taken  on 
Dec.  10,  after  being  cannonaded  for  six  days. 
By  this  victory  the  entire  armed  Mexican 
force  was  driven  out  of  Texas.  On  the  20th 
a  "Declaration  of  Independence"  was  issued 
at  Goliad  by  Capt.  Philip  Diiuitt  and  others 
there.  Santa  Anna  set  out  with  an  army  of 
7,500  men,  well  provided  with  artillery,  ammu 
nition,  and  stores.  On  Feb.  28,  1836,  he  in 
vested  the  Alamo,  a  strong  fort  near  San  An 
tonio,  which  was  garrisoned  at  this  time  by 
110  men  under  command  of  W.  B.  Travis, 
and  32  more  subsequently  forced  their  way 
through  the  Mexicans  into  it.  Santa  Anna 
with  4,000  men  bombarded  it  for  11  days,  and 
finally  carried  it  by  storm.  On  March  G  the 
whole  garrison  were  put  to  the  sword,  and 
but  three  persons,  a  woman,  a  child,  and  a 
servant,  were  spared.  The  Mexican  loss  was 
1,600.  On  March  1  a  convention  assembled 
at  Washington  on  the  Brazos,  and  on  the 
2d  issued  a  declaration  of  independence ;  on 
the  16th  a  provisional  president  (David  G. 
Burnet)  and  other  officers  were  elected,  and 
a  constitution  was  adopted,  which  was  signed 
on  the  17th.  Meanwhile  Gen.  Houston  found 
it  necessary  on  the  approach  of  Santa  Anna 
to  evacuate  Gonzales.  The  tragedy  of  the 
Alamo,  the  murder  of  Col.  Fannin's  com 
mand  in  cold  blood  at  Goliad,  March  27,  1836, 
l>y  Santa  Anna's  order,  in  violation  of  the 
tjrms  of  surrender  (see  FANNIN,  JAMES  W.), 
and  the  successive  defeats  of  the  Texan  troops, 
produced  a  temporary  panic.  This  was  in 
creased  by  the  continued  retreat  of  Gen.  Hous 
ton,  who  fell  back  first  to  the  Colorado,  then 
to  the  Brazos,  and  finally  to  the  San  Jacinto, 
his  design  being  to  scatter  and  divide  the  Mex 
ican  force,  in  which  ho  was  eminently  success 
ful.  The  alarm  soon  passed  away,  and  having 
collected  a  force  of  about  800  troops,  he  gave 
battle  on  April  21  to  the  Mexican  forces  which 
had  pursued  them,  of  about  twice  the  number, 
and  defeated  them  completely,  killing  630, 
wounding  208,  and  taking  730  prisoners; 
among  the  latter  (though  not  captured  till  the 
next  day)  was  the  Mexican  president,  who  had 
commanded  in  person.  The  Mexicans  were  at 
once  demoralized,  and  retreated  rapidly  west 
ward  in  disorder.  Santa  Anna  was  held  a 
prisoner,  but  the  war  was  practically  ended ; 
and  though  the  Mexican  government  made 
several  attempts  to  fit  out  other  armies  to  re 
conquer  Texas,  and  refused  to  acknowledge  its 
independence,  their  forces  did  not  again  in 
vade  the  country.  Gen.  Houston,  who  had 
been  wounded  in  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto, 
and  had  resigned  his  command  of  the  army, 
was  elected  president  in  September,  1836,  and 
on  Oct.  22  was  inaugurated.  The  first  con 
gress  of  the  republic  assembled  about  the  same 
time,  the  constitution  having  been  adopted  in 
the  election  of  September.  In  March,  1837, 
the  United  States  acknowledged  the  indepen 
dence  of  Texas.  In  1838  Mirabeau  B.  Lamar 


succeeded  Gen.  Houston  as  president.  Eepeat- 
ed  incursions  were  made  by  the  Comanches  and 
other  Indian  tribes ;  and  in  1840  the  Texans  pur 
sued  them  after  one  of  their  forays,  penetrated 
into  their  country,  and  inflicted  summary  and 
severe  punishment.  In  1839  the  independence 
of  the  republic  was  acknowledged  by  France, 
and  in  1840  by  England,  Holland,  and  Bel 
gium.  But  while  thus  recognized  by  leading 
powers  as  independent,  her  financial  condition 
was  every  month  becoming  more  deplorable. 
In  September,  1841,  Gen.  Houston  was  again 
elected  president.  In  1841  and  1842  the  Mex 
ican  government  sent  several  marauding  expe 
ditions  into  Texas,  and  in  the  latter  year  San 
Antonio  was  twice  captured  and  plundered. 
The  Texans  attempted  reprisals  by  two  ill- 
judged  expeditions,  neither  under  the  direction 
of  the  government,  the  first  in  1841  to  Santa 
Fe,  the  second  in  1842  to  Mier  in  the  state 
of  Tamaulipas.  Both  were  unsuccessful,  and 
many  of  the  Texans  were  taken  prisoners  by 
the  Mexicans  and  executed.  In  the  spring  of 
1843  a  third  expedition,  intended  to  intercept 
the  Mexican  traders  to  Santa  F6,  was  fitted 
out  by  private  parties,  but  with  the  approba 
tion  of  the  government,  which  also  proved  a 
failure.  The  same  year,  on  the  remonstrance 
of  the  British  charge  d'affaires  to  Mexico, 
Santa  Anna  informed  Gen.  Houston  that  he 
would  agree  to  an  armistice,  and  commission 
ers  were  appointed.  While  the  negotiations 
were  pending,  President  Tyler  made  proposi 
tions  to  the  president  of  Texas  for  her  annex 
ation  to  the  United  States,  which  after  a  time 
were  favorably  received,  and  a  treaty  was 
made  looking  to  annexation.  This  treaty  was 
completed  and  signed  by  the  Texan  commis 
sioners  and  Mr.  Callioun,  secretary  of  state, 
April  12,  1844,  but  was  rejected  by  the  United 
States  senate  on  June  8.  The  agitation  of  this 
subject  greatly  irritated  Mexico,  and  caused 
her  to  terminate  the  armistice  and  threaten 
the  renewal  of  hostilities;  it  also  displeased 
Great  Britain  and  France,  who  desired  to  see 
Texas  under  an  English  or  joint  protectorate, 
without  slavery,  and  free  from  the  influence 
of  the  United  States.  In  December,  1844,  Dr. 
Anson  Jones  was  inaugurated  president  of 
the  republic.  Its  revenues  were  now  increas 
ing,  and  its  population  growing  with  great 
rapidity,  and  the  threats  of  war  from  Mexico 
were  rendered  powerless  by  her  weakness  and 
dissensions.  The  only  disturbances  within 
the  boundaries  of  Texas  were  the  conflicts  be 
tween  the  "regulators"  and  the  "modera 
tors  "  in  Shelby  and  adjacent  counties.  These 
were  finally  put  down  by  armed  force.  Joint 
resolutions  providing  for  the  annexation  of 
Texas  passed  the  United  States  house  of  rep 
resentatives  by  a  vote  of  120  to  98,  Jan  25, 
1845,  and  the  senate  by  a  vote  of  27  to  25 
on  Feb.  27,  with  an  amendment,  which  was 
concurred  in  by  the  house  the  next  day  by 
a  vote  of  132  to  76.  On  March  1  these  reso 
lutions  were  approved  by  President  Tyler. 


TEXAS 


TEXEL 


679 


President  Jones  called  a  convention  of  61 
delegates  to  meet  on  July  4  to  consider  the 
propositions  for  annexation,  and  that  conven 
tion  ratified  the  act  and  prepared  a  constitu 
tion  for  the  republic  as  a  state  of  the  federal 
Union,  which  was  submitted  to  the  people 
and  approved  by  them.  On  Dec.  29  a  joint 
resolution  of  congress  declared  Texas  admit 
ted  into  the  Union  as  a  state.  Its  annexation 
led  to  a  war  with  Mexico,  which  terminated 
in  1848.  (See  MEXICO.)  Under  the  Spaniards 
Texas  was  bounded  W.  by  the  Nueces  and  1ST. 
by  Red  river,  but  at  the  time  of  its  annexa 
tion  the  republic  claimed  as  its  W.  boundary 
the  Rio  Grande  and  a  line  running  N.  from 
the  source  of  that  stream  to  the  42d  parallel, 
making  its  area  376,163  sq.  m.  In  1850  the 
state  ceded  to  the  United  States  its  claim  to 
all  territory  beyond  its  present  limits,  in  con 
sideration  of  $10,000,000  in  bonds,  with  the 
proceeds  of  which  the  state  debt  was  paid. 
At  the  presidential  election  in  1860,  47,548 
votes  were  cast  for  the  Breckinridge  electors, 
and  15,438  for  the  Bell  electors.  As  soon  as 
the  election  of  Lincoln  became  known,  the 
secessionists  began  to  urge  the  governor  (Sam 
Houston)  to  call  an  extra  session  of  the  legis 
lature,  which  he  for  some  time  refused  to  do. 
Finally,  the  secessionists  having  called  an  ir 
regular  convention,  the  governor  assembled  the 
legislature  on  Jan.  21,  1861,  which  sanctioned 
the  convention  thus  called.  The  convention 
met  on  Jan.  28,  and  on  Feb.  1  adopted  an  ordi 
nance  of  secession  by  a  vote  of  166  to  7,  which 
on  Feb.  23  was  ratified  by  the  people  by  a 
vote  of  34,794  to  11,235.  The  governor  hav 
ing  neglected  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  confederacy,  as  required  by  the  conven 
tion,  an  ordinance  was  passed  on  March  16 
declaring  his  seat  vacant,  which  action  was 
confirmed  by  the  legislature  on  the  20th.  The 
permanent  constitution  of  the  Confederate 
States  was  ratified  on  March  23  by  a  vote  of 
68  to  2.  In  the  mean  time,  on  Feb.  18,  Gen. 
Twiggs,  in  command  of  the  United  States  forces 
in  Texas,  surrendered  his  entire  command  and 
all  the  military  posts  and  munitions  of  war  to 
the  state  authorities.  No  very  important  mili 
tary  operations  occurred  in  the  state  during 
the  war.  Galveston  was  occupied  by  a  federal 
force  on  Oct.  8,  1862,  but  it  was  retaken  by 
the  confederates  on  Jan.  1,  1863.  On  Oct.  26 
Gen.  Banks  set  out  from  New  Orleans  with 
an  expedition  under  the  immediate  command 
of  Gen.  Dana,  and  landed  at  Brazos  Santiago 
on  Nov.  2.  Brownsville  was  entered  on  the 
16th,  and  other  points  in  western  Texas  were 
occupied.  The  last  fight  of  the  war  took 
place  in  western  Texas  on  May  13,  1865,  be 
tween  a  federal  force  under  Col.  Barret  and 
a  confederate  force  under  Gen.  Slaughter,  the 
latter  being  victorious.  On  the  26th  Gen. 
Kirby  Smith  surrendered  the  last  confederate 
army.  On  July  21  Gen.  A.  J.  Hamilton,  ap 
pointed  provisional  governor  by  President 
Johnson,  arrived  at  Galveston.  An  election 


was  held  on  Jan.  8,  1866,  for  delegates  to  a 
state  convention,  those  being  entitled  to  vote 
who  were  qualified  according  to  the  laws  in 
force  prior  to  secession,  and  who  had  taken 
the  amnesty  oath  prescribed  by  the  presi 
dent's  proclamation  of  May  29,  1865.  The 
convention  met  on  Feb.  10  and  adjourned  on 
April  25,  having  adopted  amendments  to  the 
constitution  declaring  the  ordinance  of  seces 
sion  void,  abolishing  slavery,  and  repudiating 
the  war  debt.  At  an  election  held  in  June 
these  amendments  were  ratified,  and  J.  W. 
Throckniorton  was  chosen  governor.  On  Aug. 

13  he  entered  upon  his  duties.     Under  the  re 
construction  acts  of  1867  Texas  with  Louisiana 
was  constituted  the  fifth  military  district  under 
Maj.  Gen.  Sheridan,  and  was  placed  in  imme 
diate  command  of  Brev.  Maj.   Gen.   Charles 
Griffin.      Gen.    Sheridan    assumed    command 
March  19,   1867.     On  July  30  Gov.   Throck- 
morton  was  removed,  and  E.  M.  Pease  ap 
pointed  in  his  place.     Several  changes  of  mili 
tary  commanders  subsequently  took  place.    On 
a  registration,  59,633  white  and  49,497  colored 
voters  were  enrolled.     At  an  election  in  Feb 
ruary,  1868,   a  convention  was  called,  which 
assembled  on  June  1'and  remained  in  session 
till  Aug.  31,  when  it  took  a  recess.     Reassem 
bling  on  Dec.  7,  it  adopted  a  constitution,  and 
adjourned  in  February,  1869.     At  an  election 
held  Nov.  30  to  Dec.  3,  1869,  the  constitution 
was  ratified  by  a  vote  of  72,366  to  4,928,  and 
E.  J.  Davis,  republican,  was  chosen  governor 
over  A.  J.  Hamilton,  conservative  republican. 
The  legislature  elected  at  the  same  time  as 
sembled  on  Feb.  8,  1870,  and  ratified  the  14th 
and  15th  amendments  to  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States.     On  March  30  an  act  was 
passed  readmitting  the  state  to  representation 
in  congress,  and  on  April  16  the  government 
was  turned  over  to  the  civil  authorities.    With 
in  the  last  few  years  Texas  has  suffered  severely 
from  Indian  incursions  on  the  N.  TV.  frontier 
and  Mexican  raids  on  the  Rio  Grande. 

TEXAS,  a  S.  county  of  Missouri,  drained  by 
Current  river  and  affluents  of  the  Gasconade ; 
area,  1,250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,618,  of 
whom  95  were  colored.  The  surface  is  hilly, 
with  large  forests  of  yellow  pine,  and  the  soil 
fertile  along  the  streams.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  51,778  bushels  of  wheat, 
256,252  of  Indian  corn,  29,876  of  oats,  16,318 
of  potatoes,  44,349  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  13,238  of 
wool,  67,231  of  butter,  and  601  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  2,061  horses,  2,399  milch  cows, 
4,424  other  cattle,  7,393  sheep,  15,284  swine, 
and  6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Houston. 

TEXEL,  an  island  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
North  sea,  province  of  North  Holland,  sepa 
rated  from  the  mainland  by  the  channel  called 
Mars  Diep,  about  2  m.  broad ;  extreme  length 

14  m.,  breadth  6  m. ;  area,  74  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1869,  6,145.     It  contains  several  villages,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  Burg.     The  sur 
face  is  low  and  a  great  deal  of  it  marshy,  but 
it  is  protected  from  inundations  by  the  line  of 


680 


TEXIER 


THACKERAY 


dunes  or  sand  hills  on  the  W.  side,  and  strong 
dikes  in  other  parts.  The  soil  is  remarkably 
fertile,  and  is  chiefly  occupied  hy  pastures. 

TEXIER,  Charles  Felix  Marie,  a  French  archae 
ologist,  born  in  Versailles,  Aug.  29,  1802.  He 
studied  architecture  at  the  school  of  fine  arts 
in  Paris,  was  employed  for  ten  years  in  ex 
plorations  in  the  East  under  the  patronage  of 
the  government,  and  was  afterward  inspector 
of  public  buildings  in  France  and  Algeria.  His 
\vorks,  remarkable  for  learning  and  magnifi- 
cent  illustrations,  include  Description  de  VAr- 
menie,  de  la  Perse  et  de  la  Mesopotamie  (2 
vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1842-'5);  Description  de  VAsie 
Mineure  (4  vols.,  1839  et  seq.,  and  simultane 
ously  in  English  by  R.  P.  Pullan) ;  Edesse  et 
ses  monuments  en  Mesopotamia  (1859);  and  in 
conjunction  with  Pullan,  "Byzantine  Archi 
tecture"  (London,  1864),  and  "The  Principal 
Ruins  of  Asia  Minor  "  (1805). 

TEZCUCO,  or  Tczcoco,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in 
the  state  and  about  10  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  the  city 
of  Mexico,  near  the  E.  shore  of  the  lake  of  the 
same  name ;  pop.  about  5,000.  It  contains 
several  handsome  buildings,  public  and  private. 
Woollen  and  cotton  goods  are  manufactured. 
In  ancient  times  Tezcuco  was  the  second  city 
in  Mexico.  One  of  the  palaces  of  Montezu- 
ma  is  said  to  have  stood  in  the  N.  W.  quar 
ter,  and  in  the  8.  part  there  are  massive  re 
mains  of  three  pyramids,  each  measuring-  400 
ft.  along  the  base  of  their  fronts. 

THACHER,  James,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Barnstable,  Mass.,  Feb.  14,  1754,  died 
in  Plymouth,  May  2G,  1844.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  revolution  ho  was  appointed  sur 
geon's  mate  to  Dr.  John  Warren  in  the  general 
hospital  at  Cambridge;  in  1778  he  was  made 
chief  surgeon  to  the  first  Virginia  state  regi 
ment,  and  in  1779  was  transferred  to  a  New 
England  regiment.  In  March,  1783,  he  settled 
as  a  physician  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  where  he 
also  gave  some  attention  to  the  manufacture 
of  salt  and  iron.  He  published  "The  Ameri 
can  New  Dispensatory"  (Boston,  1810),  which 
was  long  a  standard  work  on  pharmacy,  medi 
cal  chemistry,  and  materia  medica;  "  Observa 
tions  on  Hydrophobia"  (1812);  "The  Mod 
ern  Practice  of  Physic"  (1817;  2d  ed.,  1826); 
"The  American  Orchardist"  (1822;  2d  ed., 
1825) ;  "  A  Military  Journal  during  the  Revolu 
tionary  War"  (1823;  3d  ed.,  Hartford,  1854); 
"American  Medical  Biography"  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1828);  "A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manage 
ment  of  Bees  "  (1829) ;  "  An  Essay  on  Demon- 
ology,  Ghosts,  Apparitions,  and  Popular  Su 
perstitions"  (1831);  and  "History  of  the  Town 
of  Plymouth"  (1832;  2d  ed.,  1835). 

THACHER,  Peter,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Milton,  Mass.,  March  21,  1752,  died  in 
Savannah,  Ga.,  Dec.  16,  1802.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1769,  and  settled  at  Mai 
den,  Mass.,  in  1770.  He  soon  attained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  preacher,  and  received  the 
name  of  the  "  silver-tongued  Thacher."  From 
January,  1785,  till  his  death,  he  was  pastor  of 


the  Brattle  street  church  in  Boston.  His 
"Oration  against  Standing  Armies,"  delivered 
at  Watertown  in  1776,  still  retains  its  reputa 
tion.  For  15  years  he  was  chaplain  of  one  or 
both  branches  of  the  legislature.  He  published 
22  distinct  works,  including  "Observations  on 
the  State  of  the  Clergy  in  New  England " 
1783),  and  "  Memoirs  of  Dr.  Boylston  "  (1789). 
THACKERAY,  William  Makepeace,  an  English 
author,  born  in  Calcutta  in  1811,  died  in  Lon 
don,  Dec.  24,  1863.  He  was  descended  from 
an  old  Yorkshire  family.  His  father  was  in 
the  civil  service  of  the  East  India  company. 
He  was  educated  at  the' Charterhouse  in  Lon 
don,  and  at  Cambridge,  but  did  not  take  a  de 
gree.  Coming  into  possession  of  £20,000  at 
the  age  of  21,  he  travelled  on  the  continent, 
and  studied  art  for  several  years.  But  he  lost 
the  bulk  of  his  fortune  by  speculation,  and 
about  the  age  of  30  adopted  literature  as  a  pro 
fession.  He  Avrote  for  "Eraser's  Magazine" 
under  the  pseudonymes  of  Michael  Angelo  Tit- 
marsh  and  George  Fitz-Boodle,  and  contributed 
to  "  Punch"  three  series  of  papers  :  "  The  Fat 
Contributor,"  "  Jeames's  Diary,"  and  "The 
Snob  Papers."  These  and  other  works  ap 
peared  in  book  form  from  1840  to  1848,  but 
ho  attained  no  very  marked  success  in  litera 
ture  till  the  publication  of  "  Vanity  Fair,  a 
Novel  without  a  Hero,"  in  monthly  numbers, 
in  1846 -'8.  This  gave  him  a  reputation  as  a 
novelist  which,  though  amply  sustained,  was 
hardly  increased  by  any  of  his  later  works. 
In  1845  he  visited  the  East  for  his  health.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1848,  but  did  not  prac 
tise.  In  1851  he  delivered  to  brilliant  audiences 
in  London  a  series  of  lectures  on  "  English 
Humorists  of  the  Eighteenth  Century."  He 
visited  America  in  1852,  and  again  in  1855-' 6, 
where  he  repeated  this  course,  and  also  de 
livered  for  the  first  time  another  course  on 
"  The  Four  Georges,"  Avhich  he  repeated  in 
the  principal  cities  of  Great  Britain.  In  1857 
he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate,  as  a  liberal, 
for  the  representation  of  the  city  of  Oxford  in 
parliament.  The  "  Cornhill  Magazine"  was 
commenced  at  the  close  of  1859  with  Thack 
eray  as  editor,  and  quickly  attained  an  enor 
mous  circulation.  He  resigned  the  editorship 
in  April,  1862.  He  Avas  found  dead  in  his 
bed,  from  effusion  on  the  brain.  He  Avas 
buried  in  Kensal  Green  cemetery.  A  bust 
of  him,  by  Marochetti,  Avas  unAreiled  in  West 
minster  abbey,  Oct.  21,  18G5.  He  was  tall 
and  powerfully  built,  Avith  a  massive  head 
and  silvery  white  hair.  His  geniality,  even 
temper,  and  kindly  disposition  toward  every 
body  Avith  whom  he  came  into  personal  re 
lations,  were  curiously  at  variance  with  the 
charge  of  cynicism  so  often  brought  against 
his  works.  His  domestic  life  was  clouded  for 
seA7eral  years  by  the  insanity  of  his  Avife.  His 
noArels  and  tales,  with  the  dates  of  their  pub 
lication  in  book  form,  are  :  "  The  Great  Hog- 
garty  Diamond"  (1841);  "The  Memoirs  of 
Barry  Lyndon"  (1843) ;  "  Vanity  Fair"  (1848) ; 


THAER 


THALBERG 


681 


"The  History  of  Pendennis"  (1850);  "The 
History  of  Henry  Esmond"  (1852);  "The 
Newcomes"  (1855) ;  "  The  Virginians"  (1859)  ; 
"Lovel  the  Widower"  (1860);  "The  Adven 
tures  of  Philip  on  his  Way  through  the  World !' 
(1862);  and  "Denis  Duval,"  left  unfinished 
(1864).  His  Christmas  books  are  :  "  Mrs.  Per 
kins's  Ball"  (1846);  "Our  Street"  (1848); 
"Dr.  Birch  and  his  Young  Friends"  (1849); 
"  Rebecca  and  Rowena  "  (1850) ;  "  The  Kickle- 
burys  on  the  Rhine"  (1851);  and  "The  Rose 
and  the  Ring"  (1854).  His  other  publications 
include  "The  Paris  Sketch  Book"  (1840); 
"  Comic  Tales  and  Sketches"  (2  vols.,  1841)  ; 
"  The  Second  Funeral  of  Napoleon"  and  "The 
Chronicle  of  the  Drum,"  in  verse  (published 
together,  1841)  ;  "  The  Irish  Sketch  Book  "  (2 
vols.,  1843)  ;  "  Notes  of  a  Journey  from  Corn- 
hill  to  Grand  Cairo"  (1846);  "The  Book 
of  Snobs"  (1848);  "English  Humorists  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century"  (1853);  "Ballads" 
(1855) ;  "  The  Four  Georges  "  (1860) ;  "  Round 
about  Papers"  (1862);  and  "The  Orphan  of 
Pimlico,  and  other  Sketches,  Fragments,  and 
Drawings,"  with  notes  by  his  daughter  (1875). 
Most  of  his  books  were  illustrated  by  himself. 
James  T.  Fields  has  made  a  collection  of  his 
fugitive  articles,  under  the  title  "  Early  and 
Late  Papers"  (12mo,  Boston,  1867).  There  are 
numerous  approximately  complete  editions  of 
Thackeray's  works,  the  latest  of  which  repro 
duces  the  original  illustrations  (22  vols.,  Lon 
don,  1875  et  seg.}. — See  "  Studies  on  Thacke 
ray,"  by  James  Hannay,  and  "Thackeray,  the 
Humorist  and  the  Man  of  Letters :  the  Story 
of  his  Life,"  by  Theodore  Taylor  (London, 
1864). — His  daughter  ANNE  ISABELLA  has  pub 
lished  "  The  Story  of  Elizabeth  "  (London,  1863 ; 
German  translation,  Leipsic,  1864;  Dutch,  Am 
sterdam,  1864);  "The  Village  on  the  Cliff" 
(1867);  "  Old  Kensington "  (1873);  "Toilers 
and  Spinsters,  and  other  Essays"  (1873); 
"Bluebeard's  Keys"  (1874);  "Miss  Angel,"  a 
novel  founded  on  the  life  of  Angelica  Kauff- 
mann  (1876)  ;  and  numerous  short  tales  and 
sketches. 

THAER,  ilbrcclit.  a  German  agricultural  wri 
ter,  born  in  Celle,  May  14,  1752,  died  at  Moge- 
lin,  near  Potsdam,  Oct.  26,  1828.  He  studied 
at  Gottingen,  and  in  1780  was  appointed  court 
physician  at  Hanover.  In  1790  he  established 
an  agricultural  school  at  Celle,  in  1804  entered 
the  Prussian  civil  service,  and  in  1807  erected 
on  his  estate  of  Mogelin  an  institution  since 
known  as  the  royal  school  of  agriculture.  In 
1810  he  was  appointed  professor  of  agriculture 
and  political  economy  in  the  university  of 
Berlin,  with  a  seat  in  the  ministry  of  the  in 
terior.  In  1815  he  became  superintendent  of 
the  royal  establishments  for  breeding  sheep. 
His  great  work,  Grundsatze  der  rationellen 
Landwirthschaft  (4  vols.,  Berlin,  1809;  6th 
ed.,  1868),  has  been  translated  into  English  by 
W.  Shaw  and  C.  W.  Johnson  ("The  Princi 
ples  of  Agriculture,"  2  vols.,  London,  1844; 
1  vol.,  New  York,  1849),  and  into  other  lan 


guages.  Among  his  other  works  are :  Ein- 
leituny  zur  Kenntniss  der  englischen  Land 
wirthschaft  (3  vols.,  Hanover,  1798-1804;  3d 
ed.,  1816)  ;  Ueber  die  feinwollige  Schafzucht 
(Berlin,  1811);  and  Leitfaden  zur  allgemei- 
nen  landwirthschaftlichen  Gewerfis(ehre(1816). 
A  monument  was  erected  to  him  at  Leipsic, 
Sept.  28,  1850,  and  one  designed  by  Ranch  at 
Berlin,  Nov.  15,  I860.— See  Allrccht  Thaer, 
by  Wilhelm  Korte  (Leipsic,  1839J. 

THAIS,  an  Athenian  courtesan,  who  accom 
panied  Alexander  the  Great  on  his  expedition 
to  Asia.  She  is  said  to  have  instigated  him  to 
set  fire  to  the  citadel  of  Persepolis,  the  resi 
dence  of  the  Persian  kings,  in  revenge  for  the 
injuries  done  to  her  native  city  by  Xerxes ;  but 
this  is  probably  untrue,  as  we  know  on  the 
authority  of  Arrian  that  it  was  his  intention 
to  sack  the  place  and  burn  the  citadel  on 
grounds  of  state  policy.  After  the  death  of 
Alexander,  Thais  became  the  mistress  of  Ptol 
emy  Soter,  and,  according  to  Athenceus,  was 
afterward  married  to  him.  She  was  celebrated 
for  wit  and  repartee. 

THALBERG,  Sigismond,  a  Swiss  pianist,  born  in 
Geneva,  Jan.  T,  1812,  died  in  Naples,  April  27, 
1871.  He  was  the  natural  son  of  Prince  Die- 
trichstein,  and  was  placed  under  the  instruction 
of  Hummel,  whom  he  subsequently  surpassed 
in  firmness  of  touch  and  grace  of  expression. 
At  15  he  began  to  be  known  in  the  concert 
rooms,  and  soon  afterward  published  Iiis  first 
compositions.  From  1830  to  1839  he  made 
extended  concert  tours  through  Europe,  ap 
pearing  in  England  in  1837.  He  visited  South 
America  and  the  United  States  in  1856-'8.  His 
playing  was  distinguished  by  precision,  deli 
cacy,  and  finish,  rather  than  by  the  produc 
tion  of  surprising  effects  ;  but  his  chief  merit, 
both  as  a  performer  and  a  composer,  consisted 
in  his  successful  attempts  to  combine  the  ele 
ments  of  song  and  harmony  and  of  brilliant 
execution,  as  exemplified  respectively  in  the 
schools  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven  arid  of  de 
menti.  In  pursuance  of  this  design  he  discov 
ered  many  ingenious  combinations  for  the  fin 
gers,  whereby  the  song  or  melody,  which  he 
kept*-  in  the  medium  keys  of  the  piano,  could 
always  be  heard  strongly  accented  in  the  midst 
of  rapid  passages,  scales,  arpeggios  running 
from  end  to  end  of  the  instrument,  and  other 
complicated  forms  of  accompaniment.  This 
species  of  composition  has  since  become  ex 
ceedingly  common,  through  the  works  of  a  host 
of  imitators.  Among  the  productions  by  which 
Thalberg  and  his  method  acquired  their  celeb 
rity  are  a  series  of  fantasias  of  great  beauty 
and  brilliancy,  including  those  on  themes  from 
Don  Giovanni,  Robert  le  Diable,  L'Elisire  d'a- 
more,  Les  Huguenots,  La  donna  del  lago,  and 
Mose  en  Egitto,  the  performance  of  any  one  of 
which  by  the  composer  realized  the  perfection 
of  pianoforte,  playing.  In  1851  he  produced 
at  London  under  Balfe's  direction  an  opera 
entitled  Florinda,  founded  on  a  libretto  by 
Scribe,  which-  failed  to  attract  much  attention. 


682 


THALER 


THAMES 


In  1845  lie  married  a  daughter  of  Lablache. 
His  last  public  appearance  was  at  Paris  in  1865. 
After  that  he  retired  to  his  estate  near  Naples, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  vine. — His  daughter  ZAIEE,  horn  in  New 
York  in  1858,  made  a  successful  debut  as  Zer- 
lina  in  Don  Giovanni,  at  Covent  Garden,  Lon 
don,  April  10,  1875. 

THALER  (Dan.  and  Swed.  daler),  a  coin  and 
money  of  account  of  Germany,  Austria,  Hol 
land,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Nor 
way.  Silver  coins  of  an  ounce  weight  were 
struck  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century  at 
Joachimsthal,  a  town  in  Bohemia,  whence  tl;e 
name.  (See  DOLLAR.)  Other  countries  after 
a  time  began  to  coin  thalers,  but  not  always 
of  the  same  value,  and  hence  originated  the 
LaubtJialer  or  leaf  dollar,  the  Philippsthaler, 
the  Swedish  copper  dollar,  &c.  In  most  of 
the  countries  of  Europe  the  royal  or  imperial 
mints  coined  thalers,  hence  called  rigsdaler, 
riksdaler,  or  ReichstJialer,  that  is,  dollar  of  the 
realm.  These  varied  in  value  according  to  the 
amount  of  alloy.  (See  COINS.)  As  money  of 
account  there  is  still  greater  diversity  of  values, 
owing  to  the  depreciation  of  the  issues  of  the 
national  banks  or  treasuries.  In  Sweden  the 
rigsdaler  riksmynt,  now  the  authorized  money 
of  account,  is  about  27  cts.  In  Denmark  the 
rigsbank  daler  is  about  54  cts.  In  Germany 
generally  the  thaler  of  account  is  reckoned  at 
09  to  73  cts.  American  currency. 

THALES,  a  Greek  philosopher,  and  one  of 
the  seven  wise  men,  born  in  Miletus,  Ionia, 
about  636  B.  C.,  died  probably  about  546.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  political  affairs  of 
his  native  country.  Ho  visited  Crete  and 
Egypt,  and  acquired  in  the  latter  country  an 
acquaintance  with  geometry.  Various  physi 
cal  discoveries  are  attributed  to  him.  He  mea 
sured  the  height  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  by 
observation  of  the  time  at  which  a  shadow 
equalled  in  length  the  height  of  the  object ; 
and  he  is  said  to  have  computed  the  sun's  orbit, ' 
to  have  fixed  the  length  of  the  year  at  365 
days,  and  to  have  been  the  first  among  the 
Greeks  to  predict  eclipses,  though  very  vague 
ly.  Aristotle  calls  him  the  originator  of  the 
Ionic  natural  philosophy,  and  hence,  indirectly, 
of  Greek  philosophy  in  general.  He  taught 
that  all  things  are  instinct  with  life,  and  ori 
ginate  from  water.  The  writings  attributed  to 
him  were  declared  spurious  in  antiquity,  and 
his  sayings  recorded  by  Aristotle  and  Diogenes 
Laertius  are  probably  conjectural. 

THALIA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  muse  of 
comedy  and  idyllic  poetry.  She  is  generally 
represented  with  a  mask  in  one  hand  and  a 
shepherd's  staff  or  a  wreath  of  ivy  in  the  other. 

THALLIUM  (Gr.  OalMe,  a,  green  bough),  one 
of  the  three  metals  forming  the  class  of  triads, 
the  others  being  iridium  and  gold.  It  was  dis 
covered  by  Crookes  of  London  in  1861,  in  the 
scleniferous  residue  from  the  manufacture  of 
sulphuric  acid  from  iron  pyrites.  Its  discovery 
resulted  from  the  observation  by  Mr.  Crookes 


of  a  green  band  in  the  spectrum  of  the  vapor 
ized  portion  of  the  residue.  It  is  widely  dif 
fused  as  a  constituent  of  iron  and  copper  py 
rites,  but  forms  only  about  the  4,000th  part  of 
the  mass.  It  also  exists  in  the  lepiclolite  of 
Moravia,  in  mica  from  Zinnwald  in  Bohemia, 
in  the  mother  liquors  of  the  salt  works  at 
Nauheim,  and  in  the  mineral  crookesite  from 
Skrikerum  in  Norway.  It  is  most  economically 
prepared  from  the  flue  dust  of  pyrites  burners. 
This  dust  is  stirred  with  boiling  water  in  wood 
en  tubs,  and  the  decanted  or  syphoned  liquor 
treated  with  an  excess  of  strong  hydrochloric 
acid,  by  which  impure  monochloride  of  thal 
lium  is  precipitated.  This  impure  chloride  is 
then  treated  with  hot  oil  of  vitriol,  and  con 
taminations  of  other  metals  are  separated  by 
sulphuretted  hydrogen.  A  pure  sulphate  is  ob 
tained,  from  which  the  metal  may  be  separated 
by  electrolysis  or  the  action  of  zinc.  Thallium 
resembles  cadmium  in  color,  but  approaches 
lead  in  specific  gravity,  having  a  density  of 
11-8  to  11  '91,  according  to  ite  metallurgic  treat 
ment.  The  symbol  of  thallium  is  Tl ;  its  atomic 
weight,  according  to  recent  extended  researches 
by  its  discoverer,  is  203*642.  (See  "  Chemical 
News,"  London,  1874.)  It  has  a  highly  crys 
talline  structure,  and  crackles  like  tin  when 
bent,  but  is  easily  hammered  into  leaves.  It 
melts  at  561°  F.  A  polished  piece  of  the  metal 
tarnishes  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the  air,  but 
the  action  continues  only  a  short  time,  as  the 
thin  film  of  oxide  protects  it  from  further  oxi 
dation.  The  metal  and  its  compounds  impart 
an  intense  green  color  to  colorless  flames,  which 
when  viewed  by  the  spectroscope  is  found  to 
be  monochromatic,  appearing  as  a  sharply  de 
fined  green  band.  It  forms  numerous  com 
pounds,  including  three  oxides,  the  most  im 
portant  being  thallous  oxide,  TlaO ;  this  dis 
solves  readily  in  water,  producing  a  caustic 
alkaline  solution  which  absorbs  carbonic  acid 
from  the  air.  The  sulphate  forms  with  alu- 
minic  sulphate  an  octahedral  alum. '  The  salts 
of  thallium  are  poisonous.  The  metal  has  been 
used  to  render  glass  highly  refractive. 

THAMES,  a  river  of  Connecticut,  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  Quinebaug  (with  its  branch 
the  Shetucket)  and  Yantic  rivers  at  the  city  of 
Norwich,  and  flowing  thence  S.  about  15  m.  to 
Long  Island  sound,  which  it  enters  below  New 
London.  It  is  wide  and  beautiful,  navigable 
for  large  vessels  to  Norwich,  and  has  an  excel 
lent  harbor  at  its  mouth.  The  streams  which 
form  it  possess  numerous  valuable  mill  sites, 
and  the  large  amount  of  manufactured  goods 
from  the  factories  on  their  banks  make  the 
Thames  an  important  avenue  of  commerce. 

THAMES,  a  river  of  Ontario,  Canada,  flowing 
through  a  fertile  country  in  the  peninsula 
formed  by  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie,  and  after  a 
S.  W.  course  of  about  160  m.  discharging  into 
Lake  St.  Clair.  It  is  navigable  for  small  ves 
sels  from  its  mouth  to  Chatham,  18  m.  The 
city  of  London  is  the  most  important  place  on 
its  banks. — At  the  Moravian  settlement  on  this 


THAMES 


THANKSGIVING  DAY 


G83 


river,  Oct.  5,  1813,  the  battle  of  the  Thames 
was  fought  between  the  British  under  Gen. 
Proctor,  with  an  auxiliary  force  of  2,000  In 
dians  led  by  Tecumseh,  and  the  Americans 
under  Gen.  TV.  II.  Harrison.  The  American 
cavalry,  commanded  by  Col.  Richard  M.  John 
son,  opened  the  battle,  and  defeated  the  enemy. 
Tecumseh  was  killed,  and  600  prisoners,  six 
pieces  of  cannon,  and  large  quantities  of  stores 
were  taken  by  the  Americans. 

THAMES,  or  Isis  (anc.  Tamesis  or  Tamesa\ 
the  largest  and  most  important  river  of  Eng 
land.  Its  source,  called  Thames  Head,  is  in 
the  Cotswold  hills,  about  3  m.  S.  TV.  of  Ciren- 
cester,  376  ft.  above  the  sea  level.  In  the  first 
30  m.  of  its  course  it  receives  the  Churnet, 
the  Coin,  and  the  Lech,  and  below  Lechlade 
becomes  navigable  for  barges;  from  Lechlade 
its  course  is  first  E.  and  then  N.  N.  E.  and  S. 
S.  E.  to  Oxford,  through  a  level  country,  the 
river  receiving  on  its  way  the  TVindrush  and 
the  Cherwell.  Flowing  generally  S.  S.  E.  from 
Oxford  to  Reading,  it  receives  the  Thame  and 
the  Kennet ;  thence  making  a  considerable  cir 
cuit  to  the  north  by  Henley,  Great  Marlow, 
and  Maidenhead,  it  turns  eastward  to  TVind- 
sor,  then  makes  a  detour  southeastward  by 
Staines  and  Chertsey  to  Kingston,  where  it 
turns  N.,  and,  passing  Richmond,  reaches 
Brentford,  whence  its  course  is  nearly  due  E. 
to  its  mouth.  From  Brentford  it  passes  by 
Putney,  Hammersmith,  and  Chelsea  to  London, 
receiving  in  its  course  the  Loddon,  Colne,  Mole, 
Cran,  Brent,  and  TVandle,  all  small  streams. 
From  London  to  its  mouth,  nearly  60  m.,  the 
Thames  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  TOO  or  800 
tons,  and  for  vessels  of  any  burden  to  Dept- 
ford,  3  m.  S.  E.  of  London  bridge.  It  is  about 
300  yards  wide  at  London  bridge;  at  TVool- 
wich,  9  m.  below,  500  yards ;  at  Coalhouse 
point,  20  m.  further  down,  1,300  yards  ;  at  the 
Nore,  6  m. ;  and  at  its  mouth,  18  m.  Below 
London  it  receives  the  Ravensbourne,  Roding, 
Darent,  and  Medway.  Its  tide  is  perceptible 
as  far  as  Teddington,  72  in.  above  its  mouth. 
The  Thames  and  Severn  canal  connects  it  with 
the  Severn ;  the  Oxford  canal  with  the  grand 
canal  system  of  the  central  counties  ;  the  Wilts 
and  Berks  and  the  Kennet  and  Avon  canals 
with  the  Avon  and  the  Severn ;  the  TVey  and 
Arun  and  the  Basingstoke  canals  with  the  Sus 
sex  coast ;  the  Grand  Junction,  the  Regent's, 
and  the  Paddington  canals  connect  the  Brent 
with  the  Oxford  canal,  and  encircle  the  N.  and 
E.  sides  of  the  metropolis.  The  whole  course 
of  the  Thames  is  about  220  ni.  Its  commerce 
is  surpassed  probably  by  that  of  no  river  in  the 
world.  Its  docks  are  described  in  the  article 
DOCK.  It  is  crossed  at  and  above  London  by 
numerous  bridges,  and  several  tunnels  pass 
under  it.  For  a  description  of  the  bridges, 
the  tunnels,  and  the  new  Thames  embankments, 
see  LONDOX,  vol.  x.,  pp.  592  and  617. 

THAN,  Moricz,  a  Hungarian  painter,  born  at 
Old  Becse  in  1828.  After  studying  law  at 
Pesth,  he  devoted  himself  to  painting  at  the 


academy  of  Vienna,  and  spent  some  time  in 
Paris,  where  in  1855  he  painted  the  battle  of 
Mohacs.  He  resided  for  a  time  at  Rome,  re 
ceiving  instruction  from  Cornelius  and  Over- 
beck,  and  then  settled  in  Pesth.  His  works 
include  "Angelica  and  Medor,"  "The Tragedy 
of  Mankind,"  fine  altarpieces  and  frescoes,  and 
the  "  Love  of  Fata  Morgana,"  which  figured 
at  the  Paris  exhibition  of  1867. 

THMET,  Isle  of,  an  island  of  England,  on  the 
N.  coast  of  Kent,  separated  from  the  mainland 
by  branches  of  the  river  Stour  called  the  Stour- 
wantsome,  the  Mele-stream,  and  the  Nether- 
gong-wantsome ;  length  10  m.,  breadth  5  m. ; 
area,  about  40  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  30,134. 
The  most  important  towns  are  the  watering 
places  Ramsgate,  Margate,  and  Broadstairs. 
The  N.  E.  point  of  the  island  is  called  the 
North  Foreland,  and  has  a  lighthouse.  The 
surface,  elevated  and  nearly  level,  is  cultivated 
with  great  care.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans 
the  channel  on  the  N.  TV.  side,  now  almost 
closed,  was  from  1J-  to  4  m.  wide,  and  was 
used  as  the  main  passage  for.  vessels  going 
toward  London;  and  it  continued  to  be  navi 
gable  for  vessels  of  considerable  size  till  the 
time  of  the  Norman  conquest.  The  island  was 
then  nearly  circular,  but  it  is  now  an  irregular 
oval.  The  washing  away  is  still  going  on,  and 
the  average  annual  loss  is  estimated  at  2  ft.  on 
the  N.  side,  and  3  ft.  on  the  S.  side  between 
Ramsgate  and  Pegwell  bay. 

THANKSGIVING  DAT,  an  annual  religious  fes 
tival,  observed  in  the  United  States,  and  par 
ticularly  in  New  England,  suggested  by  the 
Hebrew  feast  of  tabernacles,  or  "  feast  of  in 
gathering  at  the  end  of  the  year."  The  occa 
sional  observance  of  a  day  of  thanksgiving, 
formally  recommended  by  the  civil  authorities, 
was  not  unusual  in  Europe,  and  such  a  day  was 
observed  in  Leyden,  Holland,  Oct.  8,  1575,  the 
first  anniversary  of  the  deliverance  of  that  city 
from  siege.  In  1608  the  Pilgrim  church,  ex 
iled  from  England,  went  to  Holland,  and  re 
mained  there  till  1620,  when  it  sent  off  the 
Mayflower  colony  to  New  England.  After  the 
first  harvest  of  the  colonists  at  Plymouth  in 
1621,  Gov.  Bradford  sent  four  men  out  fowl 
ing,  that  they  "might  after  a  more  special 
manner  rejoice  together."  In  July,  ^  1623,  a 
day  of  fasting  and  prayer  was  appointed  on 
account  of  drought.  Rain  came  abundantly 
while  they  were  praying,  and  the  governor 
appointed  a  day  of  thanksgiving,  which  was 
observed  with  religious  services.  The  Charles- 
town  records  show  a  similar  change  of  fast 
day  into  thanksgiving  in  1631  on  account  of 
the  arrival  of  supplies  from  Ireland.  In  June, 
1632,  Gov.  TVinthrop,  of  the  Massachusetts 
Bay  colony,  recommended  a  day  of  thanks 
giving  on  account  of  action  of  the  British 
privy  council  favorable  to  the  colonies,  and 
invited  the  governor  of  Plymouth  colony  to 
unite  with  him.  There  is  record  of  the  official 
appointment  of  days  of  thanksgiving  in  Massa 
chusetts  Bay  in  1633,  1634,  1637,  1638,  and 


684: 


THASOS 


THEATINES 


1639,  sometimes  of  more  than  one  day  in  the 
same  year,  and  in  Plymouth  in  1651,  1668, 
1680  (when  the  form  of  the  recommendation 
indicates  that  it  had  become  an  annual  custom), 
1689,  and  1600.  The  earlier  of  these  appoint 
ments  were  at  different  seasons  of  the  year, 
and  for  special  reasons,  particularly  for  the 
arrival  of  ships  with  provisions  and  new 
colonists;  but  the  later  were  more  general 
ly  for  the  harvest,  and  were  in  the  late  au 
tumn  or  early  winter.'  Occasional  thanksgiv 
ing  days  were  appointed  by  the  Dutch  gover 
nors  of  New  Netherland  in  1644,  1645,  1655, 
and  1664,  and  by  the  English  governors  of 
New  York  in  1755  and  1760.  During  the 
revolution  thanksgiving  day  was  a  national  in 
stitution,  being  annually  recommended  by  con 
gress  ;  but  after  the  general  thanksgiving  for 
peace  in  1784  there  was  no  national  appoint 
ment  till  1789,  when  President  Washington, 
by  request  of  congress,  recommended  a  day  of 
thanksgiving  for  the  adoption  of  the  constitu 
tion.  Washington  issued  a  second  thanksgiv 
ing  proclamation  in  1795  on  account  of  the 
suppression  of  insurrection.  „  President  Madi 
son,  by  request  of  congress,  recommended 
thanksgiving  for  peace  in  April,  1815.  But 
the  official  recommendation  of  thanksgiving 
day  was  mainly  confined  to  ]STew  England, 
where  regular  annual  proclamations  were  is 
sued  by  the  governors  of  the  states,  and  the  day 
was  observed  almost  universally  with  religious 
services,  and  was  the  principal  social  and  home 
festival  of  the  year.  The  prayer  book  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  church,  ratified  in  1789, 
recommends  for  a  day  of  thanksgiving  the  first 
Thursday  in  November,  unless  another  day  be 
appointed  by  the  civil  authorities.  There  was 
occasional  recommendation  by  other  religious 
bodies,  and  various  local  customs  prevailed  in 
different  parts  of  the  country ;  but  the  day  was 
not  regularly  recommended  by  the  governor  of 
New  York  till  1817,  and  its  adoption  in  the 
southern  states  was  much  later.  In  1855  Gov. 
Johnson  of  Virginia  recommended  a  day  of 
thanksgiving;  but  in  1857  Gov.  Wise,  being 
requested  to  do  so,  publicly  declined,  because 
unauthorized  to  interfere  in  religious  matters. 
In  1858  thanksgiving  proclamations  were  is 
sued  by  the  governors  of  eight  of  the  southern 
states.  During  the  civil  war  President  Lincoln 
issued  proclamations  recommending  special 
thanksgiving  for  victory  in  1862  and  1863,  and 
a  national  proclamation  of  the  annual  thanks 
giving  day  in  1863  and  1864.  Since  that  time 
such  a  proclamation  has  been  issued  annually 
by  the  president,  as  well  as  by  the  governors 
of  _the  states  and  the  mayors  of  the  principal 
cities ;  and  custom  has  fixed  the  .time  for  the 
hist  Thursday  in  November. 

THASOS  (now  Thasso),  the  most  northerly 
island  of  the  Grecian  archipelago,  belonging 
to_  Turkey,  lying  off  the  S.  coast  of  Eoumelia 
(vilayet  of  Salonica),  nearly  circular  in  form  ; 
area,  about  85  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  6,000,  most 
ly  Greeks.  The  centre  of  the  island  is  occu 


pied  by  Mt.  Ipsario,  a  summit  about  3,500  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  thickly  covered  with  fir 
trees.  The  principal  ancient  town,  bearing 
the  same  name,  was  upon  three  eminences 
near  the  N.  coast,  and  some  remains  of  it  still 
exist.  The  soil  is  not  fertile,  and  the  inhabi 
tants,  scattered  in  about  a  dozen  small  villages, 
do  not  produce  grain  enough  for  their  own 
consumption.  The  vine  was  formerly  culti 
vated,  and  the  wine  of  Thasos  was  celebra 
ted,  but  little  or  none  is  now  produced.  In 
ancient  times  it  contained  also  valuable  gold 
mines,  opened  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  marble 
quarries. — Thasos  was  once  of  great  impor 
tance.  It  was  said  to  have  been  settled  by  the 
Phoenicians,  led  by  Thasos,  the  son  of  Agenor, 
when  in  search  of  Europa.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  8th  century  B.  C.  it  was  colonized  by 
settlers  from  Paros,  who  very  soon  became 
powerful,  and  obtained  considerable  posses 
sions  also  on  the  coast  of  Thrace.  The  gold 
mines  worked  by  the  islanders  were  very  pro 
ductive,  leaving  them  a  clear  surplus  revenue 
of  about  $300,000  annually.  They  were  sub 
dued  by  the  Persians,  and  afterward  became 
dependent  on  the  maritime  empire  of  Athens ; 
but  in  465,  in  consequence  of  disputes,  the 
Athenians  subjugated  and  despoiled  the  island, 
after  a  siege  of  more  than  two  years.  Its  sub 
sequent  history  is  one  of  almost  constant  con 
flict  with  Athens,  to  which  it  was  nominally 
subject,  until  the  time  of  the  Koman  wars, 
when  it  submitted  to  Philip  V.  of  Macedon ; 
but  after  the  battle  of  Cynoscephalas  (197)  it 
became  a  free  state. 

THATCHER,  Beiyamin  Bussey,  an  American  au 
thor,  born  in  Warren,  Me.,  Oct.  8,  1809,  died 
in  Boston,  July  14,  1848.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  college  in  1826,  and  studied  law,  but 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  In  1836  he  vis 
ited  England  for  his  health,  and  spent  two 
years  there.  His  published  works  are  :  "  Biog 
raphy  of  North  American  Indians  who  have 
been  distinguished  as  Orators,  Statesmen,  War 
riors,"  &c.  (2  vols.  18mo,  New  York,  1832); 
"  Memoir  of  Phillis  Wheatley  "  (Boston,  1834) ; 
"Traits  of  the  Boston  Tea  Party"  (1835); 
"  Traits  of  Indian  Manners,  Character,"  &c. 
(2  vols.  18mo,  1835) ;  and  "  Tales  of  the  Amer 
ican  Revolution  "  (1846). 

THAYER,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Nebraska,  bor 
dering  on  Kansas,  formed  since  1870;  area, 
576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1875,  2,139.  It  is  inter 
sected  by  the  Little  Blue  river  and  Big  Sandy 
creek,  and  is  crossed  in  the  N.  part  by  the  St. 
Joseph  and  Denver  City  railroad.  It  has  an 
undulating  prairie  surface  and  a  fertile  soil. 
Capital,  Hebron. 

THEATINES,  an  order  of  regular  clerks,  found 
ed  at  Rome  in  1524  by  Gaetano  di  Tiene  (died 
in  1547 ;  canonized  by  Clement  X.),  Bonifazio 
di  Colle,  Giovanni  Pietro  Caraffa  (afterward 
Pope  Paul  IV.),  and  Paolo  Consigliari.  Gae 
tano  and  Bonifazio  were  the  first  who  united 
to  form  a  society  of  priests  following  the  rules 
of  apostolic  life  as  set  down  in  the  New  Tes- 


N  IV 


V   OF 


THEATRE 


C85 


tament ;    hence  its  members  were  popularly  j 
known  as  Cajetans  (Gaetani).     But  the  ex-  I 
tension  and  establishment  of  the  order  were  • 
mainly  due  to  Caraffa,  who  was  archbishop  of 
Ghieti  (Lat.  Theate)  when  he  was  received  by 
Gaetano  as  his  associate,  and  thus  gave  the 
order  its  official  name.     It  was  approved  in 
1524  by  Clement  VII.,  under  the  designation  ; 
of  "regular  clerks,"  the  dress  of  the  members  j 
being  that  of  the  secular  clergy.     Caraffa  had  j 
been  elected  superior  general.     Their  first  res- J 
idence  on  Monte  Pincio  was  sacked  by  the 
Spaniards  May  0,  1527,  and  Gaetano  was  sub 
jected  to  the  most  cruel  tortures  to  make  him 
give  up  the  riches  he  was  thought  to  possess. 
He  soon  after  retired  to  Venice  with  his  com 
panions,  and  was  chosen  superior,  and  he  and 
they  displayed   extraordinary  charity  during 
the  plague  and  famine  of  1528.     They  were 
afterward    united   with   the  congregation    of 
Somascha,  founded  about  this  time  in  a  town 
of  that  name  near  Bergamo  by  St.  Girolamo 
Emiliano.     The  two  congregations  were  sepa 
rated  on  the  elevation  of  Caraffa  to  the  papal 
chair,  May  23,  1555.     In  1547  they  had  only  j 
two  establishments,  one  at  Venice  and  another  | 
at  Naples.     Through  the  influence  of  Paul  IV.  ! 
they  spread  rapidly,  and  soon  possessed  four 
provinces  in  Italy,   one  in   Germany,  one  in 
Spain,  two  establishments  in  Poland,  one  in 
Portugal,  and  one   in  Goa.     In  France  they 
had  only  the  Parisian  residence,  which  pro 
duced    several    remarkable   men.      They   also 
founded  missions  in  Tartary,  Tiflis,  and  Cir- 
cassia.     At  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen 
tury  the  Theatines  did  not  exist  outside  of 
Italy,   where  they  had    nine   establishments. 
These  were  all  suppressed   in    1870. — There 
were  also  two  communities  of  Theatine  nuns 
(one  a  congregation  of  hermits),  both  founded 
by  Ursula  Benincasa,  the  one  in  1583,  the  oth 
er  in  1610.     Neither  had  ever  more  than  two 
establishments,  and  both  are  now  extinct. 

THEATRE  (Gr.  Oearpov,  a  seeing  place,  from 
6eac6ai,  to  view),  a  building  in  which  plays  are 
represented.  The  first  theatres  of  the  Greeks, 
who  were  the  founders  of  the  drama  in  our  sense 
of  the  word  (see  DRAMA),  were  exceedingly  rude 
affairs.  Thespis  is  said  to  have  acted  his  plays 
in  a  wagon,  and  in  the  time  of  ^Eschylus  the  per 
formances  took  place  upon  temporary  wooden 
scaffolds,  one  of  which  having  broken  down 
during  a  representation  in  which  ^Eschylus 
and  Pratinas  were  rivals  (about  500  B.  C.),  the 
Athenians  in  that  year  began  to  build  the  great 
theatre  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus),  the  first  perma 
nent  stone  structure  of  the  kind.  It  was  prob 
ably  used  for  dramatic  purposes  within  a  few 
years,  though  it  was  not  finished  until  about 
340  ;  and  in  the  mean  time  theatres  had  been 
erected  in  many  parts  of  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
and  Sicily.  The  seats  of  the  spectators,  compri 
sing  the  Oea-pov  proper,  rose  one  above  another 
in  arcs  of  concentric  circles,  each  row  forming 
nearly  two  thirds  of  a  circumference.  The  space 
immediately  in  front  of  the  spectators,  corre 


sponding  nearly  to  the  modern  pit  or  parquet, 
was  called  the  orchestra,  and  was  appropriated 
to  the  chorus.  It  was  floored  with  boards, 
and  in  the  centre  of  it  stood  the  6v^i)  or  altar 
of  Bacchus,  upon  a  raised  platform  which  was 
sometimes  occupied  by  the  leader  of  the  chorus, 
the  police,  the  flute  player,  and  the  prompter ; 
the  last  two  were  placed  on  the  side  next  the 
stage,  and  concealed  from  the  spectators  by 
the  altar.  The  stage  was  behind  the  orchestra 
and  above  it,  and  the  chorus,  whenever  they  had 
to  take  a  part  in  the  real  action  of  the  drama, 
ascended  to  it  by  steps.  The  back  was  closed 
by  a  wall  called  the  CKI/V^  (Lat.  scena) ;  the  whole 
space  between  the  scena  and  the  orchestra  was 
known  as  the  proscenium  ;  and  the  part  near 
est  the  audience,  where  the  actors  stood  when 
they  spoke,  was  the  to-yelov.  There  was  no 
scenery  properly  so  called,  but  the  scena  was 
architecturally  decorated  and  made  to  repre 
sent  as  far  as  possible  the  locality  in  which  the 
action  was  going  on.  It  had  an  entrance  in 
the  centre  called  the  royal  door,  through  which 
the  principal  characters  made  their  appearance, 
and  doors  on  the  right  and  left  for  the  subor 
dinate  personages.  The  plays  -of  ^Eschylus 
and  Euripides  seem  to  require  frequent  changes 
of  scene,  but  probably  they  were  rather  hinted 
at  than  actually  made ;  they  perhaps  consisted 
merely  in  turning  the  Trepianroi  (Lat.  xersurce) 
or  "  wings,"  which  were  prism-shaped  frames 
moving  on  pivots  at  each  side  of  the  prosce 
nium.  The  whole  stage  was  never  concealed 
from  the  spectators;  there  is  mention  of  a 
curtain,  which  instead  of  being  drawn  up  was 
lowered  through  a  crevice  in  the  stage,  but  it 
covered  only  the  background,  or  according  to 
some  authorities  the  wings.  The  machines  for 
producing  supernatural  effects  must  have  been 
numerous  and  elaborate,  but  are  now  imper 
fectly  understood.  They  included  the  "Cha- 
ronian  steps,"  by  which  shades  ascended  from 
the  lower  world;  the  fj.7ixav?h  by  which  gods 
and  heroes  were  represented  passing  through 
the  air ;  and  the  6eo?.oye2ov,  an  elevated  place 
above  the  scena,  where  the  deities  appeared  in 
full  majesty.  Neither  the  stage,  the  orchestra, 
nor  the  auditorium  was  roofed,  but  there  were 
porticoes  running  around  the  building,  to  which 
the  people  retreated  in  case  of  rain,  and  awn 
ings  were  sometimes  used  to  ward  off  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  for  the  performances  always  took 
place  by  daylight.  The  vast  size  of  the  ancient 
theatres,  intended  as  thoy  were  to  accommo 
date  almost  the  en-tire  population  of  a  city  at 
each  performance,  made  it  impossible  for  the 
unaided  voice  to  be  heard  by  the  whole  audi 
ence.  Metallic  vases  were  therefore  placed 
under  the  seats  to  serve  as  reflectors  of  sound, 
and  the  actors  wore  masks  with  metallic  mouth 
pieces  to  answer  the  purpose  of  speaking  trum 
pets.  The  spectators  were  seated  according  to 
their  rank.  A  price  was  charged  for  admission, 
at  least  until  the  performance  was  pretty  far 
advanced ;  but  in  Athens  from  the  time  of  Peri 
cles  the  poorer  class  and  subsequently  all  the 


686 


THEATRE 


citizens  were  admitted  at  the  cost  of  the  public 
treasury.  Women,  it  appears,  were  allowed 
to  witness  tragedies,  but  were  excluded  from 
comedies ;  boys  were  admitted  to  both.  The 
actors  were  invariably  males.  The  perfor 
mances  began  early  in  the  morning,  and  not  un- 
frequently  lasted  10  or  12  hours. — The  Roman 
theatres  were  copied  from  those  of  the  Italian 
Greeks.  They  were  at  first  temporary  struc 
tures  of  wood,  which  were  sometimes  extrava 
gantly  magnificent.  One  built  by  M.  ./Emilius 
Scaurus  (58  B.  C.)  was  capable  of  seating  80,000 
people,  and  the  scena  was  decorated  with  3,000 
statues  and  3GO  columns  in  three  stories,  the 
lowest  of  white  marble,  the  middle  one  of  glass, 
and  the  uppermost  of  gilded  wood.  The  first 
stone  theatre  was  pulled  down  when  nearly 
finished  at  the  instance  of  P.  Scipio  Nasica 
(155  B.  C.),  on  the  score  of  public  morality. 
In  the  Roman  theatre  women  performed  in  in 
terludes  and  mimics,  but  not  in  regular  dramas. 
The  orchestra  was  occupied  by  the  senators, 
foreign  ambassadors,  and  other  distinguished 
persons.  There  was  nothing  corresponding  to 
the  dvfjLE^r)  or  altar  of  Bacchus.  The  depth  of 
the  stage  was  proportionally  greater  than  in 
the  Greek  theatre,  being  in  the  latter  about 
one  seventh  of  the  diameter  of  the  orchestra, 
and  in  the  Roman  one  fourth.  Tims,  in  the 
theatre  of  Bacchus  at  Athens  the  diameter  of 
the  orchestra  (and  consequently  the  width  of 
the  available  part  of  the  stage)  was  72  ft.,  and 
the  depth  of  the  stage  only  a  little  more  than 
10  ft.  A  Roman  stage  of  the  same  width 
would  have  been  17^  ft.  deep.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  largest  ancient  theatres  the 
ruins  of  which  are  now  known: 


LOCATION. 

General                    Diameter  of 
diameter,  feet.            orchestra,  feet. 

Ephesus 

600                              °40 

Tralles  
Koine  (theatre  of  Afarc-ellus) 
Miletus 

540                         150 
517                         172 
474                        2-)4 

Sparta.. 

453                        217 

Syracuse  

As  lendus 

440 
400             25  rows  of  se  its 

On  .lus  

400 

Phellus  

400          Width  of  scena,  150 

—In  the  middle  ages  the  only  theatrical  perfor 
mances  were  the  miracle  plays,  mysteries,  and 
interludes.  These  were  given  for  the  most 
part  in  convents,  colleges,  and  churches,  or  in 
the  halls  of  palaces  and  castles.  The  first  thea 
tres  in  France  were  built  for  miracle  plays.  In 
1548  the  confraternity  of  the  Trinity  had  a 
theatre  in  Paris  in  which  they  were  licensed 
by  the  parliament  to  perform  only  "profane 
pieces  of  a  lawful  and  honest  character."  So 
late  as  1561  the  French  had  no  scenery,  and 
the  performers  remained  on  the  stage  during 
the  whole  representation.  The  first  Italian 
theatre  is  said  to  have  been  erected  at  Florence 
in  1581,  by  Bernardo  Buontalenti,  but  it  was 
probably  not  public.  About  the  same  time 
Palladio  made  an  attempt  to  revive  the  classi 


cal  theatre  in  the  still  existing  teatro  Olim- 
pico  at  Vicenza,  but  with  reduced  proportions. 
From  1618,  when  a  theatre  was  built  at  Par 
ma  by  Aleotti,  the  modern  arrangement  began 
to  prevail.  By  narrowing  the  stage  oppor 
tunity  was  given  for  the  use  of  painted  sce 
nery,  and  by  increasing  its  depth  for  the  intro 
duction  of  a  variety  of  complicated  machines 
and  the  production  of  spectacular  pieces. — 
In  England  there  were  regular  companies  of 
players  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  IV., 
long  before  there  were  regular  play  houses. 
Churches,  universities,  private  houses,  and 
the  yards  of  inns  served  at  first  for  their  per 
formances.  Probably  the  first  play  house  was 
the  London  "Theatre,"  built  before  1576; 
the  Curtain  in  Shoreditch,  and  the  theatres  in 
Blackfriars  and  "Whitefriars,  were  built  near 
the  same  time.  In  Shakespeare's  day  London 
had  three  "private"  and  four  "public"  thea 
tres,  the  difference  between  which  is  not  clearly 
understood.  His  own  plays  were  produced  at 
the  house  in  Blackfriars  and  at  the  Globe,  both 
of  which  belonged  to  the  same  company,  known 
as  his  majesty's  servants.  The  Globe  was  a 
hexagonal  wooden  edifice,  partly  open  at  the 
top  and  partly  thatched.  In  the  middle  was 
probably  an  uncovered  court  where  the  com 
mon  people  stood,  and  around  three  sides  ran 
galleries  or  "scaffolds,"  under  the  lowest  of 
which  were  enclosed  boxes  called  "rooms." 
The  prices  of  admission  ranged  from  a  penny 
or  twopence  to  a  shilling.  The  performance 
began  at  3  o'clock ;  in  the  private  theatres  it 
took  place  by  candle  light.  The  stage  at  this 
period  was  strewed  with  rushes  and  concealed 
by  curtains,  which  opened  in  the  middle  and 
drew  backward  and  forward  on  an  iron  rod. 
In  the  background  was  a  balcony  or  upper 
stage,  likewise  curtained,  from  which  parts  of 
the  dialogue  were  spoken,  and  at  each  side  of 
this  balcony  was  a  private  box.  In  the  private 
theatres  the  wits,  critics,  and  other  persons  of 
consequence  were  furnished  with  seats  on  the 
stage.  Movable  scenery  was  first  used  in  a 
regular  drama  in  a  public  theatre  by  Davenant 
in  1662,  though  something  of  the  sort  had  been 
arranged  at  Oxford  by  Inigo  Jones  as  early  as 
1605,  on  the  occasion  of  an  entertainment  given 
to  James  I.  Shakespeare  had  no  other  scenery 
than  tapestry  hangings  and  curtains,  but  the 
use  of  stage  machinery  is  as  old  as  the  drama 
itself.  Women  first  appeared  upon  the  Eng 
lish  stage  about  the  period  of  the  restoration. 
— The  first  theatre  in  America  was  opened  at 
Williamsburg,  Va.,  Sept.  5,  1752.  Others  fol 
lowed  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  and  in  Nassau  street, 
New  York  (1753),  Albany  (1769),  Baltimore 
(1773),  Charleston,  S.  C.  (1774),  Xewbern,  N. 
C.  (1788),  and  Boston  (1792).  The  largest  in 
the  United  States  are  the  opera  houses  of  New 
York,  New  Orleans,  Cincinnati,  Philadelphia, 
and  Brooklyn,  and  the  Boston  theatre.  Modern 
theatres,  except  those  intended  for  opera,  are 
comparatively  small.  It  has  been  found  that 
the  voice,  moderately  exerted,  can  be  distinctly 


THEATRE 


THEBES 


687 


heard  about  90  ft.  in  front  of  the  speaker,  and 
75  ft.  each  side.  In  an  opera  house  the  dimen 
sions  may  be  vastly  increased,  as  singing  can 
be  heard  at  a  greater  distance  than  speaking, 
and  it  is  not  requisite  to  bring  the  audience 
near  enough  to.  see  the  facial  expression  of  the 
performers.  The  theatres  of  New  York  are 
among  the  best  in  the  world,  and  the  seating 
arrangements  of  American  theatres  generally 
are  more  convenient  than  in  foreign  theatres. 
The  opera  houses  and  leading  theatres  in  the 
United  States  are  described  in  the  articles  de 
voted  to  the  different  cities.  The  best  form 
for  the  auditorium  is  either  three  fourths  of 
a  circle,  or  a  semicircle  with  divergent  ends. 
The  latter  affords  the  best  opportunities  for 
seeing,  but  involves  either  a  disproportionate 
and  inconvenient  width  of  stage,  or  a  consid 
erable  useless  space  on  each  side  of  the  pro 
scenium.  Most  American  theatres  differ  from 
those  of  Europe  in  having  no  private  boxes, 
except  a  few  on  and  adjoining  the  proscenium, 
by  which  means  a  vast  gain  is  effected  in  the 
capacity  of  the  house ;  they  are  also  generally 
better  lighted. — The  largest  and  finest  theatre 
in  the  world  is  the  new  Grand  Opera  of  Paris. 
It  was  begun  in  I860,  and  opened  to  the  public 
for  the  first  time  on  Jan.  5,  1875.  It  was  built 
at  the  expense  of  the  government,  and  cost 
$5,600,000,  exclusive  of  the  land  which  it  oc 
cupies.  Notwithstanding  the  vast  size  of  the 
building,  the  auditorium  contains  only  2,194 
seats,  or  about  the  same  as  the  academies  of 
music  in  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  By  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  building  is  occupied  by 
a  vast  number  of  rooms,  halls,  staircases,  shops, 
&c.,  appurtenances  designed  for  the  convenience 
and  pleasure  of  the  spectators  and  of  those 
connected  with  the  theatre.  The  stage  is  about 
100  ft.  in  width  by  220  ft.  in  depth,  and  700 
singers  can  be  grouped  upon  it.  In  its  facili 
ties  for  ingress  and  egress,  in  the  completeness 
of  its  machinery  and  appliances,  and  in  the 
magnificence  and  costliness  of  its  decorations, 
it  far  surpasses  any  theatre  of  modern  times. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  largest  theatres 
in  the  world,  with  the  number  of  spectators 
they  are  capable  of  accommodating : 


London,  New  Pavilion,  Whitechapel 

"        Drury  Lane 

"        Her  Majesty's,  Haymarket 

"        Italian  opera,  Covent  Garden  

Milan,  La  Soala 

Naples,  San  Carlo 

Boston  theatre 

Venice,  La  Fenice 

St.  Petersburg,  Bolshoi  theatre 

Philadelphia,  academy  of  music 

Turin,  theatre  royal 

Florence,  La  Perpola 

Munich,  royal  theatre 

Brooklyn,  academy  of  music 

New  York,  academy  of  music  (burned  in  1SGG,  and  re 
built  smaller)  . .  . ." 

Paris,  Grand  Opera 

"      Ambigu  comique 

"      Porte  St.  Martin 

"      Theatre  Italien 

"      Theatre  Lyrique 

"      Odeon  . . . 


Opera  comique. 


3.700 
3,500 
2.500 
2.000 
8,fino 
3,600 
3.400 
3,000 
3  000 
2.^50 
2,500 
2.500 
2.500 
2,243 

2,100 
2.194 
1.900 
l.SOO 
1.700 
1.700 
1,650 
1,500 


— In  China  every  little  village  has  its  theatre, 
and  each  great  town  has  several.  They  have 
no  scenery  and  no  auditorium,  the  spectators 
remaining  in  the  open  air.  The  expenses  are 
defrayed  sometimes  by  mandarins  or  other  rich 
persons,  but  more  frequently  by  associations 
formed  for  the  purpose  among  the  inhabitants 
of  the  neighborhood.  The  actors  are  generally 
strollers,  and  the  female  parts  are  played  by 
young  men  or  boys.  In  Japan  the  stage  has 
scenery,  the  audience  are  furnished  with  seats, 
and  women  are  allowed  to  perform. 

THEBAIS,  the  ancient  name  of  southern  or 
Upper  Egypt,  from  its  capital  Thebes.  This 
division  of  the  country  extended  from  the  isl 
ands  of  Elephantine  and  Phila?,  near  Syene 
(hit.  24°  N.),  to  Thcbaica  Phylace,  S.  of  Her- 
mopolis  Magna  (about  27°  40'  N.). 

THEBES  (called  No  or  No-Ammon  by  the 
Hebrews,  and  Diospolis  the  Great  by  the  later 
Greeks  and  the  Romans),  anciently  the  capital 
of  Upper  Egypt,  and  for  a  long  time,  known  as 
the  period  of  the  middle  empire,  of  the  whole 
country.  Its  Egyptian  name  was  Ap,  or  Ap6, 
and  with  the  feminine  article  Tape,  the  head, 
which,  being  pronounced  Thaba  in  the  Meni- 
•phitic  dialect,  was  easily  converted  by  the 
Greeks  into  Qij^ai  (Thetse).  Pliny  and  Juvenal, 
desiring  to  render  its  real  name  more  closely, 
call  it  Thebe.  From  the  fact  that  the  names 
of  the  oldest  kings  appear  only  about  Memphis, 
it  is  generally  inferred  that  Thebes  was  not 
founded  as  early  as  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt, 
though  in  antiquity  it  was  reputed  to  be  the 
oldest  city  in  the  world.  It  stood  near  the 
centre  of  the  Thebaid,  extending  on  both  sides 
of  the  Nile  to  the  mountain  chains  which  en 
close  the  valley.  Strabo  speaks  of  the  vestiges 
of  the  city  as  extending  80  stadia  (10  m.)  in 
length.  Diodorus  estimated  its  circuit  at  140 
stadia  or  about  17  m.,  and  Sir  Gardner  ^VYilkin- 
son  infers  from  its  ruins  that  its  length  was  5J 
m.  and  its  breadth  3  m.  Its  most  flourishing 
period  was  that  of  the  18th  dynasty ;  it  began 
to  decline  about  800  B.  C.  (See  EGYPT,  vol. 
vi.,  p.  460.)  Asshur-bani-pal  pillaged  it  in  the 
7th  century,  and  Cambyses  in  the  6th.  After 
its  destruction  by  Ptolemy  Lathyrus  (86  B.  C.), 
it  lost  all  its  political  and  commercial  impor 
tance,  though  it  remained  the  sacerdotal  capi 
tal  of  the  worshippers  of  Ammon.  The  trade 
which  had  contributed  to  its  prosperity  had 
found  new  channels  after  the  foundation  of 
Alexandria ;  and  as  the  capital  of  a  Macedonian 
and  Roman  prefecture  it  took  little  part  in  the 
affairs  of  Egypt.  It  was  desolated  successively 
by  Christians  of  the  Thebaid,  in  their  zeal  against 
idolatrous  monuments,  by  barbarians  from  Ara 
bia  and  Nubia,  and  by  the  Saracens ;  after  whose 
invasion  its  name  scarcely  occurs  for  many  cen 
turies.— The  ruins  of  Thebes,  which  are  among 
the  most  magnificent  in  the  world,  are  found 
at  the  modern  villages  of  Luxor  and  Karnak 
on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  Gurna  and 
Medinet-Abu  on  the  western.  The  eastern 
quarter  of  the  ancient  city  contained  the  mass 


VOL.  xv.— 44 


688 


THEBES 


of  the  population,  while  the  western  side  was 
covered  with  temples  and  palaces  and  their 
avenues  of  sphinxes,  and  with  the  rock-hewn 
tombs  of  the  kings.  The  principal  structures  at 
Gurna  are  the  palace  temples  Mernephtheum 
and  Ramesseum.  The  former,  approached  by 
an  avenue  128  ft.  long,  has  pillars  in  the  oldest 
style  of  Egyptian  architecture  and  remarkable 
bass-reliefs.  The  latter,  which  for  symmetry 
of  architecture  and  elegance  of  sculpture  may 
vie  with  any  other  Egyptian  monument,  occu 
pies  a  series  of  terraces  communicating  with 
each  other  by  flights  of  steps.  It  is  supposed 
to  bo  the  Memnonium  of  Strabo,  and  that  he 
corrupted  Miamun,  the  title  of  Rameses  II., 
into  Memnon.  Its  entrance  is  flanked  by  two 
pyramidal  towers ;  its  first  court  has  a  double 
avenue  of  columns  on  either  side,  and  in  the 
area  a  pedestal  on  which  was  a  syenite  sitting 
colossus  of  Rameses ;  its  second  court  has  walls 
covered  with  sculptures  representing  the  wars 
of  Rameses  III.,  and  Osiride  pillars  which  are 
doubtless  the  monolithal  figures  16  cubits  high 
described  by  Diodorus ;  the  third  stairway, 
from  the  foot  of  which  Belzoni  took  the  head 
of  a  royal  statue  of  red  granite,  now  in  the 
British  museum  and  known  as  the  young  Mem 
non,  conducts  to  a  hall  for  public  assemblies, 
with  columns  and  walls  covered  with  civil  and 
religious  sculptures;  and  beyond  the  hall  ex 
tended  nine  smaller  apartments,  two  of  which 
remain,  supported  by  columns,  one  of  them 
being  the  sacred  library  or  "  dispensary  of  the 
mind"  mentioned  by  Diodorus.  Among  the 
other  monuments  in  this  vicinity  are  two  colos 
sal  statues,  with  the  pedestals  about  60  ft.  high, 
the  wonder  of  the  ancients,  one  of  them  known 
as  the  vocal  Memnon.  (See  MEMNON.)  The 
village  of  Medinet-Abu  stands  upon  a  lofty 
mound  formed  by  the  ruins  of  the  most  splen 
did  temple  palace  in  western  Thebes,  the  Thoth- 
mesium,  connected  with  the  palace  of  Rameses 
by  a  dromos  265  ft.  long.  The  sculptures  in 
the  latter  are  of  singular  interest,  being  the 
only  examples  that  have  been  found  of  the 
decoration  of  the  private  apartments  of  an 
Egyptian  palace.  The  whole  sweep  of  the 
Libyan  hills,  for  the  space  of  5  in.  and  to  the 
height  of  300  ft.  from  Gurna  to  Medinet-Abu, 
is  full  of  sepulchres,  excavated  in  the  native  cal 
careous  rock.  This  was  the  necropolis  of  the 
whole  city,  no  tombs  existing  on  the  eastern 
side.  The  mummies  are  laid  in  rows  by  the 
side  of  or  in  tiers  above  each  other,  but  never 
stand  erect.  The  tombs  of  the  lower  classes 
are  unsculptured,  but  abound  in  mummies  of 
sacred  animals.  The  royal  sepulchres  are  in 
the  valley  of  Bab  el-Muluk,  or  Biban  el-Muluk 
(the  gate  or  gates  of  kings),  the  most  spacious 
and  highly  adorned  belonging  to  those  mon- 
archs  who  enjoyed  a  long  reign.  The  tombs 
near  the  entrance  of  the  gorge  belong  entirely 
to  the  19th  and  20th  dynasties,  and  those  in 
a  branch  path  are  of  the  18th  dynasty.  The 
monuments,  as  also  those  in  the  separate  burial 
place  allotted  to  the  queens,  are  chiefly  inter 


esting  from  their  inscriptions. — Still  more  re 
markable  are  the  ruins  on  the  E.  bank  of  the 
river,  in  the  villages  of  Luxor  and  Karnak. 


Gateway  of  the  Temple  of  Luxor. 

two  beautiful  obelisks  of  red  granite,  covered 
with  inscriptions,  one  of  which  has  been  re 
moved  to  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  in  Paris. 
In  the  rear  are  two  sitting  statues  of  Rameses, 


Gateway  of  Karnak. 

one  39  ft.  high,  but  now  covered  to  the  breast 
with  accumulations  of  earth  and  sand.  Two 
courts  and  a  series  of  apartments,  connected 
and  surrounded  by  colonnades  and  porticoes, 


THEBES 


THEINER 


G89 


extend  beyond.  The  road  from  Luxor  to  Kar- 
nak  lies  through  fields  of  halfa  grass,  though 
they  were  once  united  by  an  avenue  of  andro- 
sphinxes.  The  great  palace  temple  of  Karnak 
stands  within  a  circuit  wall  of  brick,  the  en 
closure  being  1,800  ft.  long  and  somewhat  less 
broad.  It  was  approached  by  an  avenue  of 
crio-sphinxes,  of  which  only  fragments  remain. 
Between  the  end  of  the  drornos  and  the  main 
body  of  the  building,  five  lofty  pylones  and 
four  spacious  courts  intervene.  In  the  first 
court  were  two  obelisks  of  Thothmes  I.,  one 
of  which  still  remains;  in  the  second  court 
is  another  obelisk,  the  loftiest  known  except 
that  of  St.  John  Lateran  at  Rome ;  and  in  one 
of  the  chambers  are  the  sculptures  which  com 
pose  the  Karnak  tablet,  called  the  "hall  of 
the  ancestors"  or  the  "tablet  of  Tuthmosis" 
(Thothmes  III.),  now  in  the  Louvre.  The  king 
is  represented  on  it  as  making  offerings  before 
the  images  of  61  of  his  predecessors.  In  the 
British  museum  is  now  a  tablet  of  the  same 
kind,  known  as  the  "tablet  of  Abydos."  The 
great  hall  is  80  ft.  high,  329  ft.  long,  and  179 
ft.  wide;  the  roof  is  supported  by  a  central 
avenue  of  12  massive  columns,  66  ft.  high  and 
12  ft.  in  diameter,  together  with  122  columns 
of  less  gigantic  dimensions.  These  vast  courts, 
halls,  and  esplanades  were  reared  by  kings  of 
the  18th  and  succeeding  dynasties  for  purposes 
partly  religious  and  partly  secular.  The  sa 
cred  calendar  abounded  in  days  for  periodical 
meetings;  the  troops  were  reviewed  and  the 
spoils  of  victory  apportioned  in  the  courts  of 
royal  palaces,  which  also  served  for  the  ad 
ministration  of  justice  and  occasionally  for  the 
encampment  of  the  army. 

THEBES  (Gr.  QijSai;  Lat.  Theba ;  modern 
Gr.  Thiva),  in  Greek  antiquity,  the  chief  city 
of  Bceotia,  built  on  and  around  a  hill  between 
the  streams  of  Isrnenus  on  the  east  and  Dirce 
on  the  west.  The  citadel  occupied  the  height, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  town  stood  in  the 
valleys.  Of  its  ancient  buildings,  monuments, 
and  walls,  only  a  few  scattered  fragments  re 
main,  and  its  topography  is  entirely  uncertain. 
It  is  impossible  to  harmonize  the  ancient  wri 
ters  as  to  the  position  or  even  the  names  of  its 
seven  gates.  Thebes  was  equally  illustrious  in 
the  mythical  and  the  historical  ages  of  Greece. 
Its  two  sieges  and  the  fortunes  of  its  royal 
houses  were  favorite  subjects  of  tragedy  ;  and 
it  was  for  a  time  the  ruling  city  of  Greece. 
Tradition  ascribed  to  Cadmus  the  foundation 
of  the  city,  which  was  hence  called  Cadmea,  a 
name  afterward  restricted  to  the  citadel.  From 
the  five  Sparti,  the  survivors  of  the  progeny  of 
the  dragon's  teeth,  the  noblest  Theban  families 
claimed  descent.  The  expulsion  of  CEdipus, 
and  the  successive  sieges  by  the  "  Seven  against 
Thebes  "  and  by  the  Epigoni,  were  the  princi 
pal  recorded  events  before  the  Cadmeans  were 
driven  out  by  the  Boeotians,  a  tribe  from  Thes- 
saly.  This  occurred  about  60  years  after  the 
Trojan  war,  according  to  Thucydides.  The  j 
legislation  of  Philolaus,  in  the  8th  century  B.  | 


0.,  gave  it  an  oligarchical  instead  of  monarchi 
cal  form  of  government,  and  made  it  the  head 
of  the  confederacy  of  Boeotian  towns.  The 
first  entirely  certain  event  in  its  history  is  the 
revolt  of  one  of  these  towns,  Platsea  (about 
519),  which  applied  to  Athens  for  protection. 
A  war  ensued  Between  the  Thebans  and  Athe 
nians,  in  which  the  latter  were  successful,  and 
which  initiated  lusting  enmity  between  the 
two  states.  Thebes  lost  credit  by  abandoning 
the  cause  of  Greece  in  the  Persian  war,  and 
fighting  against  the  Athenians  at  Platcea  (479j. 
The  victorious  Greeks  appeared  before  its  walls, 
and  compelled  the  inhabitants  to  surrender 
their  "Medizing"  leaders,  who  were  immedi 
ately  put  to  death.  An  Athenian  invasion 
supplanted  its  oligarchy  by  a  democratic  gov 
ernment  in  456,  but  in  447  the  exiled  aristo 
cratic  leaders  returned,  defeated  the  Athenians, 
and  reestablished  the  former  government.  Du 
ring  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  Thebans  were 
more  anti- Athenian  than  even  the  Spartans, 
but  they  joined  the  coalition  against  the  latter 
in  395,  and  were  the  only  portion  of  the  allied 
army  which  was  not  routed  by  them  at  Coro- 
nea.  The  peace  of  Antalcidas  (387)  deprived 
them  of  their  supremacy  over  the  other  Bo2o- 
tian  towns.  The  Spartans,  who  treacherous 
ly  seized  the  citadel  in  382,  were  expelled  by 
Pelopidas  about  the  close  of  379,  and  were 
defeated  by  Epaminondas  at  Leuctra  in  371. 
Epaminondas  invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
established  there  the  Arcadian  confederation^ 
and  the  state  of  Messenia  as  political  pow 
ers  antagonistic  to  Sparta.  But  the  Thebans 
sought  in  vain  to  establish  their  supremacy 
by  a  general  treaty,  and  lost  it  after  the  death 
of  Epaminondas  at  Mantinea  (362).  In  358 
Athens  wrested  Eubcea  from  Thebes.  In  the 
sacred  war  (357-346)  the  Thebans  were  op 
posed  to  Athens  and  Sparta,  and  received  sup 
port  from  Philip  of  Macedon ;  but  when  the 
design  of  the  latter  to  conquer  the  whole  of 
Greece  became  apparent,  they  joined  the  Athe 
nians  against  him.  Philip,  however,  was  vic 
torious  at  Cheronosa  (338).  Thebes  received  a 
Macedonian  garrison,  and  its  leading  citizens 
were  put  to  death  or  banished.  Alexander  the 
Great  razed  it  to  the  ground  in  335,  sparing 
only  the  house  of  Pindar,  after  which  it  never 
airain  formed  an  independent  state.  Cassan- 
der  restored  the  city  in  315,  and  it  was  taken 
by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  in  292  and  290.  In 
the  time  of  Strabo  it  had  dwindled  down  to 
the  condition  of  a  village,  but  it  was  a  flour 
ishing  town  during  the  10th  and  llth  centuries. 
It  was  plundered  by  the  Normans  of  Sicily  in 
1146.  The  present  town  is  small  and  poor. 

THEFT.     See  LARCEXY. 

THEINE.     See  CAFFEIXE,  and  TEA. 

THEINER.  I.  Anjmstin,  a  German  historian, 
born  in  Breslau,  April  11,  1804,  died  in  Civita 
Vecchia,  Aug.  9,  1874.  He  studied  at  Breslau 
and  Halle,  and  from  1826  to  1828  assisted  his 
brother  Johann  Anton  in  his  work  on  the  his 
tory  of  celibacy.  An  essay  on  the  papal  decre- 


090 


THEINER 


THELWALL 


tals  procured  for  him  from  the  university  of 
Halle  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws,  and  from 
the  Prussian  government  a  stipend  for  a  liter 
ary  journey  to  Vienna,  London,  and  Paris.  In 
1831  he  visited  Rome,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  professing 
thenceforward  an  ultramontanism  as  extreme 
as  had  been  his  Gallicanism.  Ho  continued  to 
reside  in  Rome,  and  was  consultor  of  the  holy 
office,  of  the  congregation  of  bishops  and  regu 
lars,  and  of  the  division  of  the  propaganda  on 
oriental  rites.  In  1848  he  published  Lettere 
historico-critiche  intorno  alle  "Cinque  piaghe 
delict,  santa  cJiiesa  "  del  cJiiar  issimo  D.  Antonio 
Rosmini  Serbati.  In  this  work  Theiner  de 
nounced  the  election  by  laymen  of  bishops  and 
parish  priests,  and  maintained  that  the  tem 
poral  sovereignty  of  the  popes  was  "indispen 
sable,  under  the  modern  formation  of  society, 
to  the  spiritual  independence  of  the  supreme 
pastor  of  the  church."  It  was  translated  into 
Latin  (Naples,  1849).  Being  appointed  prefect 
or  keeper  of  the  secret  archives  of  the  Vatican 
in  1851,  he  issued  in  succession  various  com 
pilations  therefrom  illustrating  the  ecclesiasti 
cal  history  of  nearly  all  the  different  Christian 
nations.  Six  folio  works  were  printed  in 
the  Vatican.  He  also  began  in  1856  a  contin 
uation  of  the  Annales  Ecclesiastici  of  Baro- 
nius,  of  which  3  vols.  fol.  have  appeared,  and 
an  edition  of  the  original  work  to  consist  of 
about  60  vols.  4to,  of  which  15  had  appeared 
in  1868  (Bar-le-l)uc).  In  1853,  in  answer  to 
Cretineau-Joly's  history  of  the  suppression  of 
the  Jesuits,  he  published  Gcschichte  des  Pon- 
tificats  Clemens  XIV.  (2  vols.,  Leipsic  and 
Paris),  which  led  to  a  long  and  bitter  pamphlet 
controversy.  In  1861  ho  began  a  documen 
tary  history  of  the  pope's  temporal  dominion, 
extending  from  756-  to  1793,  entitled  Codex, 
Diplomatic m  Dominii  teniporalis  fianctce  Sedis 
(3  vols.  fol.,  Rome,  1861-'3).  This  was  fol 
lowed  by  a  smaller  work  in  1864  destined  to 
answer  Passaglia's  appeal  to  the  Italian  bish 
ops,  and  maintaining  the  necessity  of  the  tem 
poral  power  from  the  declarations,  of  the  coun 
cils  of  Lyons  (1245)  and  Constance.  At  the  ap 
proach  of  the  Vatican  council  in  1860,  Theiner 
entered  into  a  correspondence  with  Dr.  Dollin- 
ger  and  Prof.  Friedrich,  in  which  he  advocated 
the  Old  Catholic  doctrine  and  position.  The 
discovery  of  this  caused  him  to  be  debarred  all 
access  to  the  archives,  while,  in  consideration 
of  his  age,  he  was  permitted  to  retain  his  sal 
ary  and  his  apartment  in  the  Vatican.  In  1874 
Theiner  visited  Austria  to  make  arrangements 
for  publishing  another  important  literary  work, 
and  on  his  return  to  Italy  died  suddenly  at  the 
seaside,  the  pope  having  sent  him  his  forgive 
ness  and  blessing  on  hearing  of  his  danger.  His 
other  works  include  GeschicMe  der  geistUchen 
Bildungsanstalten  (Mentz,  1835)  ;  Versuc7ie  des 
liciligen^  StuJils  die  Vdlker  des  Nordens  wiede- 
rum  mit  der  Kirche  zu  vereinen  (Augsburg, 
1837);  and  Die  neuesten  Zustande  der  TcatJio- 
lisclien  Kirche  leider  Ritus  in  Polen  und  Russ- 


land  seit  Katharina  II.  (Augsburg,  1841).  II. 
Jokann  Anton,  a  German  theologian,  elder  broth 
er  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Breslau,  Dec.  15, 
1799,  died  there,  May  15,  1860.  He  studied 
Roman  Catholic  theology  at  Breslau,  and  was 
appointed  there  in  1824  professor  of  Scriptural 
exegesis  and  canon  law.  He  was  from  the 
beginning  a  zealous  advocate  of  Gallican  prin 
ciples,  and  eagerly  sought  to  have  them  intro 
duced  and  carried  out  among  the  clergy  of 
Silesia.  Assisted  by  his  brother  Augustin,  he 
published  in  1826  an  extensive  work  on  the 
history  of  celibacy  (Die  Einfuhrung  der  erz- 
wungenen  Ehelosigkeit,  Altenburg,  1828  ;  new 
ed.,  1845).  He  resigned  his  chair  in  1830,  and 
held  a  pastoral  charge  till  1845,  when  he  joined 
the  German  Catholics,  publishing  in  vindica 
tion  of  this  step  Die  reformatorischen  Bestre- 
bungen  in  der  ~katliolischen  Kirche  (Altenburg, 
1845) ;  but  soon  afterward  he  joined  the  Prot 
estant  church,  and  received  an  appointment  in 
the  library  of  the  university  of  Breslau.  He 
wrote  a  commentary  on  the  minor  prophets, 
forming  part  of  the  BibelweTh  of  Dereser,  and 
Das  Seliglceitsdogma  der  rdniisch-lcatholischcn 
KircJie  (Breslau, '1847). 

THEISS  (anc.  Ttl>iscus  ;  Hun.  Tissu),  a  river 
of  Hungary,  which  rises  in  the  northeast,  in 
the  county  of  Marmaros,  Hows  westward  to 
Tokay,  thence  S.  W.  to  Szolnok,  when  it  turns 
S.  and  enters  the  Danube  S.  of  Titel,  near  the 
southern  boundary  of  Hungary.  Its  length  is 
upward  of  600  m.,  for  most  of  which  it  is  navi 
gable.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Bod- 
rog,  Hernad,  Sajo,  and  Zagyva  on  the  right, 
and  the  Szamos,  Koros,  and  Maros  on  the  left. 
Its  lower  course  for  nearly  300  m.  is  parallel 
to  the  Danube,  and  about  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  the  Francis  canal  was  dug 
from  one  river  to  the  other,  which  shortens 
the  route  down  the  Theiss  and  up  the  Dan 
ube  106  m.  The  canal  has  been  enlarged,  and 
a  branch  canal  from  Sztapur  to  Neusatz  on 
the  Danube,  completed  in  1875,  passes  through 
one  of  the  most  fertile  districts  in  southern 
Hungary.  Among  the  principal  towns  on  the 
banks  of  the  Theiss  are  Csongrad,  Szegedin, 
Zenta,  and  Old  Becse. 

THELWALL,  John,  an  English  author,  born  in 
London,  July  27,  1764,  died  in  Bath,  Feb.  17, 
1834.  In  his  22d  year  he  abandoned  the  pro 
fession  of  law  for  literature.  In  1787  he  pub 
lished  "  Poems  "  (2  vols.)  ;  and  embracing  lib 
eral  opinions,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
"  Corresponding  Society."  Taking  a  prom 
inent  part  in  the  political  agitation  of  the 
times,  he  was  prosecuted  for  high  treason 
along  with  John  Home  Tooko  and  Thomas 
Hardy,  and  after  a  trial  of  live  days  was  ac 
quitted.  He  afterward  lectured  on  political 
subjects,  and  in  1801  began  to  act  as  tutor  of 
elocution.  His  works  include  "The  Peripa 
tetic"  (3  vols.  12mo,  1793);  "The  Tribune" 
(3  vols.  8vo,  1796);  "Poems,  with  Memoir  of 
his  Life  "  (1802) ;  "  The  Daughter  of  Adop 
tion,"  a  novel ;  essays  on  the  treatment  of  iin- 


THEMIS 


THfiNABD 


691 


perfections  in  speech,  &c. — His  son  ALGER 
NON  SYDNEY  (1795-1863),  a  clergyman  of  the 
established  church  and  teacher  of  elocution, 
published  religious  works,  "Iniquities  of  the 
Opium  Trade  "  (1839),  &c. 

THEMIS,  in  the  Greek  mythology,  a  daugh 
ter  of  Uranus  and  Gaea,  married  to  Zeus.  She 
dwelt  in  Olympus,  and  convened  the  assem 
bly  of  the  gods.  She  is  represented  in  Homer 
as  the  personification  of  the  order  of  things 
established  by  law,  custom,  and  equity.  At 
Thebes  she  had  a  sanctuary  in  common  with 
Zeus  Agorasus,  and  at  Olympia  in  common 
with  the  Horse,  her  daughters. 

THEMISTOCLES,  an  Athenian  general,  born 
about  514  B.  0.,  died  in  Magnesia,  Asia  Mi 
nor,  about  449.  He  took  part  in  the  battle 
of  Marathon  in  490.  After  the  exile  of  Aris- 
tides  in  483  Themistocles  was  the  great  politi 
cal  leader  in  Athens.  His  main  endeavor  was 
to  make  Athens  a  great  naval  power,  and  to 
prepare  it  to  resist  the  inroads  of  the  Persians. 
In  the  beginning  of  480,  when  the  force  of 
Xerxes  was  on  the  point  of  passing  the  Helles 
pont,  he  and  the  Spartan  Euaanetus  were  in 
command  at  the  defile  of  Tempe,  which  they 
abandoned  on  finding  that  troops  could  be 
landed  in  their  rear,  retreating  to  their  ships. 
Afterward  he  took  charge  of  the  Athenian 
portion  of  the  fleet  stationed  at  Artemisium. 
When  the  vast  number  of  Persian  ships  was 
discovered,  the  Spartans  were  disposed  to  draw 
back  to  the  Peloponnesus;  but  the  Eubceans 
gave  30  talents  to  Themistocles,  with  which  lie 
induced  them  to  remain  and  defend  Euboea. 
In  the  ensuing  battle  the  Greeks  had  the  ad 
vantage  ;  but  the  Athenian  ships  being  much 
crippled,  it  was  determined  to  retire.  (See 
GEEECE,  vol.  viii.,  p.  190.)  At  the  instance  of 
Themistocles  the  Athenians  abandoned  their 
city,  and  removed  mainly  to  Salamis,  where 
the  whole  naval  force  of  Greece  was  gath 
ered.  It  was  only  by  his  influence  and  devices 
that  the  fleet  was  kept  together,  and  the  naval 
battle  was  fought  which  resulted  in  a  com 
plete  victory  for  the  Greeks.  The  Athenians 
were  desirous  of  pushing  on  to  the  Hellespont 
to  prevent  the  retreat  of  Xerxes,  but  their 
confederates  refused.  Herodotus  says  that 
Themistocles  privately  sent  word  to  the  king 
that  he  had  restrained  the  Greeks  from  pur 
suing  his  ships  and  breaking  up  his  bridges 
over  the  Hellespont ;  and  that  he  did  this  in 
order  to  induce  Xerxes  to  return,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  for  himself  a  safe  retreat 
in  case  any  mischance  should  befall  him  at 
Athens.  Modern  historians  consider  this  high 
ly  improbable.  After  the  division  of  the  booty 
gained  at  Salamis,  the  Greeks  sailed  to  the 
isthmus,  where  Themistocles,  though  deprived 
of  the  first  prize  for  skill  and  wisdom  by  each 
of  the  commanders  voting  for  himself,  was 
declared  the  wisest  man  in  Greece,  and  the 
whole  country  was  filled  with  his  fame.  He 
was  received  in  Sparta  with  unprecedented 
honors  ;  and  though  the  Lacedaemonians  gave 


to  Eurybiades  the  crown  of  valor,  they  gave 
to  Themistocles  the  crown  of  wisdom.  When 
the  Athenians  returned  to  their  city,  the  Spar 
tans  opposed  their  rebuilding  their  fortifica 
tions  on  an  enlarged  scale ;  but  Themistocles 
was  sent  to  them  as  ambassador,  and  he  con 
trived  to  deceive  them  until  the  walls  were 
far  enough  a'dvanced  to  be  in  a  state  of  de 
fence.  Athens  was  now  secure  against  ex 
ternal  enemies,  and  Themistocjes  was  more 
than  ever  desirous  of  making  her  a  great  mar 
itime  power.  The  work  on  the  Piraeus  was 
resumed  on  a  far  grander  scale,  and  by  his 
advice  the  three  harbors  were  enclosed  by  a 
wall  nearly  seven  miles  in  circuit.  He  also 
persuaded  the  Athenians  to  add  20  triremes 
to  their  navy  every  year.  His  political  ascen 
dancy  soon  declined.  His  opponents  in  Athens 
were  headed  by  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  and 
by  Alcmseon.  He  was  acquitted  of  treason 
able  intercourse  with  the  Persians,  but  about 
471  was  ostracized  and  went  into  exile  at  Ar- 
gos.  According  to  some  versions,  Themis 
tocles  was  accused  by  the  Lacedaemonians  of 
sharing  the  treasons  of  Pausanias ;  but  he, 
having  notice  of  his  impending  arrest,  fled  to 
Susa,  where  he  addressed  to  Artaxerxes,  the 
son  of  Xerxes,  a  letter  claiming  protection  on 
the  score  of  his  services  to  his  father  after 
the  battle  of  Salamis,  and  asking  permission  to 
wait  a  year  and  then  to  come  before  him  in 
person  to  explain  his  views.  His  request  was 
granted.  At  the  end  of  a  year,  having  mas 
tered  the  Persian  language,  he  entered  into 
personal  communication  with  the  king ;  and 
'  no  Greek,  says  Thucydides,  had  ever  before 
attained  such  a  commanding  influence  and  po 
sition  at  the  Persian  court.  He  excited  Ar 
taxerxes  with  plans  for  the  subjugation  of 
Greece,  and  was  presented  by  him  with  a 
Persian  wife  and  with  large  presents.  After 
having  visited  various  parts  of  Asia,  he  lived 
at  Magnesia  on  the  Meander,  and  received  his 
maintenance  from  the  revenues  of  that  and 
two  other  cities.  Some  of  his  property  at 
Athens  was  secretly  sent  him  by  his  friends, 
but  the  bulk  of  it,  amounting  to  80  or  100 
talents,  was  confiscated.  He  is  said  to  have 
poisoned  himself  because  he  knew  his  prom 
ises  to  the  Persian  king  could  not  be  fulfilled. 
This  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  form  of  the 
story,  of  which  other  versions  relate  that  the 
Persian  king  had  set  a  price  of  200  talents  up 
on  his  head,  that  he  went  to  Susa  in  the  dis 
guise  of  a  stranger  for  the  king's  harem,  and 
I  that  he  was  actually  put  on  trial  to  answer  the 
I  accusations  of  Mandane,  the  sister  of  Xerxes, 
•'  for  the  loss  of  her  sons  who  fell  at  Salamis. 
|  We  have  no  contemporary  history  of  the  life 
!  of  Themistocles,  and  when  Thucydides  wrote 
his  history  his  enemies  had  done  their  best  to 
heighten  prejudice  against  him.  His  life  was 
written  by  Nepos  and  by  Plutarch. 

THEN1RD,  Louis  Jacques,  baron,  a  French  chem 
ist,  born  at  La  Louptiere,  Champagne,  May  4, 
1777,  died  in  Paris,  June  21, 1857.  He  studied 


C92 


THEOBALD 


THEODOLITE 


chemistry  in  Paris  under  Vauquelin  and  Four- 
croy,  in  1798  became  a  teacher  of  that  science  in 
the  polytechnic  school,  in  1804  professor  in  the 
college  de  France  and  the  Sorbonne  as  succes 
sor  of  Vauquelin,  and  in  1810  also  in  the  poly 
technic  school.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elect 
ed  a  member  of  the  academy  in  place  of  Four- 
croy.  Charles  X.  on  his  accession  to  the  throne 
made  him  a  baron,  and  under  Louis  Philippe 
he  was  created  a  peer  in  1832,  and  in  1838  di 
rector  of  the  college  de  France.  He  was  presi 
dent  of  the  society  for  the  encouragement  of 
national  industry,  and  founded  a  society  for 
the  benefit  of  inventors  impoverished  by  use 
ful  researches.  His  most  popular  work,  Traite 
elementaire  de  cJiimie  theorique  et  pratique  (4 
vols.  8vo,  1813-'16  ;  7th  ed.,  5  vols.,  1836),  has 
been  translated  into  several  languages. 

THEOBALD,  Lewis,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Sittingbourne,  Kent,  died  in  September,  1744. 
He  was  an  attorney,  but  did  not  practise.  His 
tragedy  "Electra"  appeared  in  1714;  and 
in  1717  he  contributed  to  Mist's  "Weekly 
Journal"  papers  under  the  title  of  "The 
Censor,"  which  provoked  attacks  from 
other  writers,  one  of  whom  was  Dennis. 
He  published  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Shake 
speare  Restored,  or  a  Specimen  of  the  many 
Errors  as  well  committed  as  unamended  by 
Mr.  Pope  in  his  Edition  of  this  Poet,  designed 
not  only  to  correct  the  said  Edition,  but  to 
restore  the  true  Reading  of  Shakespeare  in  all 
the  Editions  ever  yet  published  "  (4to,  London, 
1726).  For  this  Pope  made  him  the  hero  of 
the  "Dunciad."  (See  POPE,  ALEXANDER,  vol. 
xiii.,  p.  709.)  Theobald  then  brought  out  an 
edition  of  Shakespeare's  works  (7  vols.  8vo, 
1733),  which  destroyed  the  reputation  of 
Pope's  edition.  Theobald  wrote  or  translated 
20  plays,  now  all  forgotten,  and  also  brought 
on  the  stage  a  play  entitled  "  The  Double 
Falsehood,  or  the  Distrest  Lovers,"  the  greater 
part  of  which  he  asserted  was  composed  by 
Shakespeare.  He  also  published  a  life  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh. 

THEOCRITUS,  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  Syracuse, 
who  flourished  about  270  B.  C.  He  went  to 
Alexandria,  and  secured  the  favor  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphia,  but  returned  to  Syracuse  during 
the  reign  of  Iliero  II.  He  wrote  in  a  mixed 
dialect  in  which  the  Doric  predominated,  and 
was  the  creator  of  pastoral  poetry  as  a  depart 
ment  of  literature.  There  are  extant  30  poems, 
called  by  the  general  name  of  "Idyls,"  which 
are  attributed  to  him,  and  22  epigrams.  He 
had  several  imitators,  of  whom  the  greatest 
was  Virgil.  The  first  edition,  containing  only 
18  idyls,  appeared  at  Milan  probably  in  1493, 
and  the  Aldine  edition  in  1495.  Among  the 
more  important  subsequent  editions  are  those 
of  Reiske  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1765-'6),  Warton 
(Oxford,  1770),  and  Paley  (Cambridge,  1863). 
The  principal  English  translations  of  the  poems 
are  those  of  Creech  (London,  1681),  Fawkes 
(1767),  Polwhele  (1786),  Chapman  (1836),  and 
Calverly  (1869). 


THEODOLITE,  a  surveying  instrument  for 
measuring  vertical  and  horizontal  angles  and 
taking  levels,  combining  the  uses  of  the  ordi 
nary  transit,  the  quadrant,  and  the  level.  In 
the  American  form  of  the  instrument,  the  tele 
scope  turns  over  and  the  vertical  angles  are 
read  on  a  graduated  circle.  In  the  English 
form  the  vertical  angles  are  read  on  a  semi 
circle  beneath  the  telescope  and  level;  the 
telescope  cannot  therefore  turn  over,  but  is 
reversible.  The  American  form  is  preferable 
by  reason  of  the  greater  facility  and  precision 
of  the  adjustments.  In  common  with  all  such 
kinds  of  instruments,  it  is  made  of  brass.  The 
principal  parts  are  the  vertical  circle  A  and  the 
horizontal  circle  F,  which  rests  upon  the  plate 
II.  A  magnetic  needle  also  rests  upon  the 
horizontal  plate,  which  may  be  used  when  de 
sired  for  ascertaining  the  earth's  meridian  or 
the  deviation  of  a  line  from  it.  The  telescope, 


Theodolite. 

B,  revolves  on  a  horizontal  axis,  also  the  axis 
of  the  vertical  circle,  and  which  rests  upon  the 
supports  SS.  Beneath  the  telescope  and  at 
tached  to  it  by  adjusting  screws  is  the  long 
spirit  level  L,  with  a  scale  attached  for  mark 
ing  the  position  of  the  air  bubble.  The  small 
spirit  levels  D  and  E  serve  to  level  the  horizon 
tal  circle.  The  vertical  axis  of  the  instrument 


THEODOEA 


THEODOSIUS 


693 


is  held  by  a  socket  in  the  plate  immediately 
above  the  tripod,  and  is  furnished  with  a  clamp 
C,  and  slow-motion  screws  T  T.  The  horizon 
tal  circle  revolves  upon  the  plate  H,  upon 
which  there  is  a  vernier  the  divisions  of  which 
are  sometimes  read  by  means  of  an  attached 
microscope,  although  it  is  preferable  to  employ 
a  pocket  microscope  for  the  purpose.  The 
vertical  circle  is  also  supplied  with  a  vernier, 
and  both  circles  have  clamps  and  slow-motion 
screws.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  vernier  of  the 
vertical  circle  in  the  adjusted  instrument  reads 
zero  when  the  telescope  is  level,  and  then  is 
moved  through  an  arc  of  30°  to  bring  the  cross 
hairs  upon  an  object,  such  object  will  have  an 
elevation  of  30° 'above  the  point  of  observa 
tion  ;  and  also  that  if  the  horizontal  circle  is 
moved  through  an  arc  of  any  number  of  degrees 
to  bring  the  cross  hairs  of  the  telescope  from 
one  object  to  another,  the  lines  passing  through 
such  objects  will  make  corresponding  angles 
with  each  other  at  the  point  of  observation. 
When  used  for  important  surveys  the  circles 
are  30  in.  or  more  in  diameter;  in  the  smaller 
instruments  they  are  5  or  6  in. — See  Gillespie's 
"  Treatise  on  Levelling,  Topography,  and 
Higher  Surveying  "  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1875). 

THEODORA.     See  JUSTINIAN. 

THEODORE,  king  of  Abyssinia.  See  ABYS 
SINIA,  vol.  i.,  p.  46. 

THEODORET  (THEODOEETFS),  a  Syrian  theo 
logian,  born  at  Antioch  probably  in  393,  died 
in  457  or  458.  He  was  of  a  noble  family,  en 
tered  a  cloister,  became  in  423  bishop  of  Cyr- 
rhus  on  the  Euphrates,  and  reunited  many 
'members  of  the  sects  with  the  orthodox  church. 
He  declared  against  the  Xestorians,  and  at  the 
council  of  Chalcedon,  in  451,  subscribed  the 
condemnatory  decree  against  Nestorius.  He 
is  esteemed  as  an  exegetical  writer  (see  Eich- 
ter,  De  Thcodoreto  Epistolarum  Paulmarum 
Interprete^  Leipsic,  1822),  and  he  also  wrote 
homilies,  a  history  of  the  Christian  church 
from  324  to  429,  an  epitome  of  heretical  fa 
bles,  the  lives  of  30  hermits,  and  various  other 
works,  including  180  letters.  Collective  edi 
tions  of  his  works  have  been  edited  by  Sirmond 
(4  vols.,  Paris,  1642  ;  supplement  by  Gamier, 
1684),  and  by  J.  L.  Schulze  and  Nosselt  (10 
parts,  Halle,  1769-'74),  and  in  Migne's  Patro- 
logie  grecque.  vols.  xli.,  xlii.,  and  xliii.  A  trans 
lation  of  his  "Ecclesiastical  History"  was  pub 
lished  in  Bohn's  "Ecclesiastical  Library"  (1854). 

THEODORIC  (Ger.  Dietrich},  surnamed  THE 
GREAT,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  born  in  Pan- 
nonia  about  455,  died  in  526.  He  was  the  son  of 
Theodemir,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Ostrogoths 
settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  when 
eight  years  old  was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  the 
court  of  Constantinople.  At  the  age  of  18  he 
was  restored  to  his  father,  and,  after  greatly 
distinguishing  himself  in  war,  he  succeeded 
him  as  sole  king  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  475.  The 
southern  part  of  Pannonia  and  Dacia  had  pre 
viously  been  ceded  to  them  by  the  emperor 
Zeno  the  Isaurian,  of  whom.  Theodoric  was  for 


some  years  a  faithful  ally;  but  the  emperor 
broke  his  promises,  and  Theodoric  ravaged  the 
Byzantine  territories  till  483,  when  Zeno  con 
ferred  upon  him  large  gifts  and  many  honors, 
and  in  484  he  named  him  consul.  The'war  was 
renewed  in  487,  and  Theodoric  marched  upon 
Constantinople;  and  to  get  rid  of  him  Zeno 
proposed  to  him  the  invasion  of  Italy,  then 
ruled  by  the  usurper  Odoacer.  Consequently 
in  488  he  inarched  toward  the  peninsula  at  the 
head  of  his  whole  people,  amounting  to  about 
200,000,  with  a  large  number  of  wagons.  He 
first  met  in  the  Alpine  passes  and  routed  an 
army  of  Gepidao  and  Sarmatians,  then  defeated 
Odoacer  himself  on  the  banks  of  the  Sontius 
(Isonzo)  in  489.  After  two  other  victories, 
one  on  the  banks  of  the  Adige  and  the  other 
on  those  of  the  Adda,  he  shut  his  opponent 
within  the  walls  of  Eavenna,  and  after  a  siege 
of  three  years  received  his  capitulation  in  493, 
apparently  consenting  to  share  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  with  him ;  but  Theodoric  soon  after 
had  his  rival  assassinated  at  a  solemn  ban 
quet,  and  firmly  established  his  power  over  the 
whole  peninsula.  He  distributed  one  third  of 
the  lands  to  his  soldiers  in  military  tenures, 
but  preserved  as  far  as  possible  the  administra 
tive  organization  of  the  Eoman  empire.  Un 
der  his  fostering  care  Italy  became  prosperous 
again;  agriculture  and  industry  revived ;  liter 
ature  and  the  fine  arts  flourished;  internal  im 
provements  went  on,  and  new  monuments  were 
erected.  Through  well  devised  alliances,  he 
controlled  nearly  all  the  barbarians  that  had 
settled  in  western  Europe.  He  checked  the 
triumphant  progress  of  Clovis  after  the  victory 
of  Youille  in  507,  protected  the  Visigoths,  and 
secured  for  himself  the  possession  of  Provence. 
His  latter  years  were  embittered  by  religious 
troubles.  The  Arians,  to  which  sect  he  be 
longed,  being  persecuted  in  the  East,  he  retali 
ated  against  the  Catholics  of  Italy ;  this  brought 
on  a  conspiracy,  in  which  the  philosopher  Bo- 
ethius,  a  great  favorite  with  him,  and  the  ven 
erable  Symmachus  were  apparently  involved, 
and  in  a^moment  of  passion  he  ordered  them 
to  be  put  to  death.  Their  innocence  being  af 
terward  demonstrated,  remorse  preyed  upon 
his  mind  and  hastened  his  death.  He  is  the 
Dietrich  of  Bern  of  the  Niltelungenlied. 
THEODOSIA,  or  Feodosia.  See  KAFFA. 
THEODOSIl'S,  a  Eoman  general,  beheaded  in 
Carthage,  A.  D.  376.  During  the  reign  of  Va- 
lentinian  he  was  sent  to  the  defence  of  Britain, 
in  367  crossed  the  channel  at  the  head  of  a 
large  army,  and  in  two  campaigns  freed  the 
I  country  from  the  barbarians,  strengthened  the 
|  fortifications,  and  confirmed  the  Eoman  power. 
j  In  370  he  returned,  was  made  master  general 
of  the  cavalry,  and  was  stationed  on  the  upper 
Danube,  where  he  defeated  the  Alemanni. 
When  in  372  Firmus,  a  Moor,  had  made  him 
self  master  of  Mauritania  and  Numiclia,  and 
Count  Eomanus,  the  governor  of  Africa,  un 
able  to  oppose,  had  joined  him  in  rebellion, 
Theodosius  was  sent  to  that  province  to  reduce 


694 


THEODOSIUS  I. 


THEOLOGY 


it  to  its  allegiance.  At  the  head  of  a  small 
body  of  men,  he  advanced  into  the  heart  of  an 
unknown  and  hostile  country,  driving  his  ene 
my  before  him,  until  at  last  the  usurper  fled  to 
Igrnazen,  king  of  the  Isaflenses.  The  latter 
being  threatened  with  destruction  for  harbor 
ing  him,  Firmus  strangled  himself.  Theodo- 
sius  recovered  Africa,  but  for  some  unassigned 
reason,  probably  because  his  name  and  ser 
vices  were  too  great  for  a  subject,  he  was  put 
to  death.  From  him  descended  a  line  of  Ro 
man  emperors. 

THEODOSIUS  L)  the  Great,  a  Roman  emperor, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Italica  or  Cauca, 
Spain,  about  A.  D.  346,  died  in  Milan,  Jan.  17, 
395.  He  learned  the  art  of  war  under  his 
father,  was  early  given  a  separate  command 
and  appointed  duke  of  Moasia,  and  in  374  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Sarmatians.  After  the  exe 
cution  of  his  father  he  retired  to  Spain,  where 
he  led  a  private  life  until  the  emperor  Gratian 
summoned  him  to  take  the  supreme  command, 
declared  him  Augustus,  Jan.  19,  379,  and  as 
signed  to  him  the  administration  of  Thrace, 
Asia,  and  Egypt,  with  Dacia  and  Macedonia. 
Fixing  his  headquarters  at  Thessalonica,  Tlieo- 
dosius  carried  on  the  war  against  the  Goths 
during  four  campaigns  (379-382).  The  Goths, 
divided  by  dissensions  and  jealousies  after  the 
death  of  their  leader  Fritigern,  were  again 
united  tinder  Athanaric,  who  made  peace  and 
visited  Constantinople,  where  he  died ;  and 
the  magnificent  funeral  honors  paid  him  by 
Theodosius  so  won  over  his  followers  that  they 
enlisted  in  the  Roman  army.  In- 383  Gratian, 
the  emperor  of  the  West,  was  dethroned  and 
put  to  death  by  Maximus,  and  Theodosius  en 
tered  into  a  treaty  with  the  usurper,  by  which 
he  recognized  him  as  emperor  of  the  countries 
north  of  the  Alps,  Valentinian,  the  brother  of 
Gratian,  being  secured  the  possession  of  Italy, 
Africa,  and  western  Illyricum.  Theodosius 
now  devoted  his  attention  to  the  affairs  of  the 
church.  Fixing  his  residence  at  Constantinople, 
the  stronghold  of  Arianism,  he  determined  to 
do  away  with  that  creed,  and  gave  to  the  arch 
bishop  Demophilus  the  alternative  of  subscri 
bing  to  the  Xicene  creed  or  instantly  resigning. 
Demophilus  resigned,  and  Gregory  Nazianzen 
was  installed  in  his  place.  Six  weeks  after 
ward  Theodosius  commissioned  his  lieutenant 
Sapor  to  expel  all  the  Arian  clergy  from  the 
churches  in  his  dominions,  and  gave  him  a 
military  force  sufficient  to  carry  out  the  decree. 
In  May,  381,  he  assembled  the  first  council  of 
Constantinople,  to  confirm  and  complete  the 
jSTiceno  creed;  and  during  15  years  he  issued 
at  least  15  edicts  against  all  heretics,  especially 
against  those  disbelieving  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity.  In  the  mean  time  Maximus  had  en 
tered  Italy,  and  dethroned  Valentinian  II. 
Theodosius,  who  had  married  a  sister  of  Va 
lentinian,  marched  against  Maximus,  then  en 
camped  at  the  Pannonian  city  of  Siscia  (now 
Sissek)  on  the  Save,  defeated  him,  and  pursued 
him  to  Aquileia,  where  Maximus  was  given  up 


by  his  own  troops  and  put  to  death.  Theodo 
sius  entered  Rome  in  triumph,  June  13,  389. 
The  people  of  Thessalonica  having  for  a  slight 
cause  murdered  Botheric  and  the  other  princi 
pal  officers  of  the  little  garrison,  the  emperor 
sent  thither  an  army  of  barbarians,  who,  when 
the  inhabitants  were  assembled  by  invitation  at 
the  circus,  massacred  them  to  the  number  of 
many  thousands.  For  this  St.  Ambrose  for 
bade  him  to  enter  a  church  in  Milan  until  he 
had  done  public  penance.  He  remained  in  Italy 
three  years.  When  Valentinian  was  strangled 
in  392  by  his  general  Arbogastes,  who  had  se 
cured  for  himself  all  the  real  power  of  the 
government,  and  now  set  up  as  emperor  the 
rhetorician  Eugenius,  Theodosius  undertook 
again  the  conquest  of  the  West.  After  a  se 
vere  and  long  uncertain  contest  he  defeated 
Arbogastes  near  the  passes  of  the  Julian  Alps. 
Theodosius  was  now  master  of  the  whole  Ro 
man  world.  Ilonorius,  his  younger  son,  was 
called  to  Milan  to  receive  the  sceptre  of  the 
West,  and  here  Theodosius  died  immediately 
after  his  arrival.  In  the  eastern  empire  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  elder  son  Arcadius. 

THEOGNIS,  a  Greek  elegiac  poet,  who  flour 
ished  about  540  B.  C.  He  was  a  citizen  of 
Megara;  and  as  in  the  contests  between  the 
aristocratic  and  democratic  parties  he  belonged 
to  the  former,  he  shared  in  their  defeat,  and 
went  into  exile  at  Thebes.  He  visited  Sicily, 
Eubcea,  and  Sparta,  and  survived  the  Persian 
war  of  490.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous  ele 
gies,  originally  comprising  2,800  verses,  of  which 
1,389  are  extant.  They  discuss  oligarchical  edu 
cation  and  the  humanities.  The  best  editions 
are  Welcker's  (Frankfort,  1826)  and  Bergk's 
in  PoetcB  Lyrici  Greed  (3d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1866). 

THEOLOGY  (Gr.  Qe6^  God,  and  Adyor,  dis 
course),  the  science  which  treats  of  God  and 
divine  things.  The  name  tJieologos  was  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  authors  of  theogonies 
(as  Orpheus  and  Hesiod),  and  to  those  who 
wrote  poems  (as  Empedocles)  or  philosophical 
treatises  (as  Pherecydes)  on  divine  things  and 
the  origin  of  things  through  the  gods.  A  dis 
tinction  was  early  made,  as  by  Varro,  between 
"  mythical  theology,"  a  knowledge  of  the 
myths  and  legends  concerning  the.  deities  in 
the  classic  poets  ;  "  physical  theology,"  the  in 
vestigations  of  philosophers  on  the  origin  of 
the  world  ;  and  "  civil  theology,"  a  knowledge 
of  public  worship.  The  ecclesiastical  writers 
of  the  3d  and  4th  centuries  used  the  word,  but 
applied  it  only  to  doctrinal  treatises  on  the  na 
ture  of  the  Godhead,  or  on  the  Trinity.  Some 
what  later  the  term  was  used  by  Theodoret, 
Maximus,  and  others,  of  the  aggregate  doc 
trines  of  the  Bible,  but  its  most  common  sig 
nification  remained  the  doctrine  of  God.  Abe- 
lard  was  the  first  to  apply  the  term  to  the  en 
tire  science  of  the  Christian  religion,  which 
signification  it  has  since  retained.  With  regard 
to"  the  sources  from  which  theology  derives  its 
contents',  it  is  common  to  divide  it  into  natural 
or  philosophical  theology,  which  confines  itself 


THEOLOGY 


THEOPHRASTUS 


695 


to  the  development  of  the  religious  ideas  rest 
ing  on  rational  argument^  only,  and  positive 
or  revealed  theology,  which  sets  forth  and  sys 
tematizes  the  doctrines  of  the  Scriptures  and 
of  the  church.  Revealed  theology  or  Biblical 
theology  is  occupied  solely  with  the  investiga 
tion  and  representation  of  the  doctrines  con 
tained  in  the  Bible.  A  distinction  is  made 
between  theoretical  theology  or  dogmatics  and 
practical  theology  or  ethics.  Theology,  viewed 
as  the  whole  of  religious  science,  is  commonly 
regarded  as  consisting  of  four  main  branches, 
historical,  exegetical,  systematic,  and  practical 
or  moral  theology.  These  are  again  variously 
subdivided,  and  several  auxiliary  sciences  are 
connected  with  them.  Thus  historical  theology 
embraces  the  history  of  the  church,  of  Chris 
tian  doctrines,  of  heresies,  of  councils,  &c.  To 
exegetical  theology  belong  the  interpretation 
(exegesis)  of  the  Bible ;  hermeneutics,  the  sci 
ence  which  teaches  the  right  principles  to  be 
observed  in  interpreting  the  Bible;  criticism, 
which  investigates  and  tries  to  establish  the 
genuine  original  text ;  the  introduction  to  the 
Bible,  which  discusses  the  time  when  and  place 
where  each  book  of  the  Bible  originated,  its 
authenticity,  and  kindred  questions.  Syste 
matic  theology,  also  called  merely  theology, 
comprises  the  system  of  Christian  doctrines 
(dogmatics) ;  the  system  of  Christian  ethics ; 
symbolics,  the  comparative  statement  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  several  religious  denomina 
tions,  &c.  Practical  theology  includes  homilet- 
ics,  catechetics,  liturgies,  ecclesiastical  law,  &c. 
Polemics  and  apologetics,  which  are  also  often 
treated  as  separate  branches  of  theology,  belong 
to  several  of  the  above  four  principal  divisions 
at  the  same  time. — Until  the  time  of  Abelard 
little  attention  was  paid  to  comprehending 
theology  in  its  totality,  and  to  establishing  the 
connection  of  the  branches  with  each  other. 
Although  nearly  all  the  theologians  of  the  mid 
dle  ages  whose  writings  are  extant  belonged 
to  the  same  church,  yet  they  were  divided  into 
two  fundamentally  different  schools, 'the  scho 
lastics  and  mystics.  The  theologians  of  the 
churches  which  grew  out  of  the  reformation 
of  the  16th  century  followed,  in  their  treat 
ment  of  theology,  either  the  scholastics  or  mys 
tics,  though  the  name  of  the  former  was  dis 
carded  both  by  their  Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic  followers.  A  new  era  in  tha  history 
of  theology  was  inaugurated  by  the  philosophy 
of  Kant,  who  fully  developed  and  systematized 
a  new  theory  of  Christian  theology,  commonly 
called  rationalism,  which  more  or  less  made 
the  belief  in  a  religious  doctrine  dependent  on 
its  demonstrability  by  reason.  This  view  gained 
the  ascendancy  in  several  Protestant  churches. 
Its  opponents,  who  defended  the  Bible  as  the 
absolute  rule  of  faith,  were  called  supranatu- 
ralists,  and  the  subsequent  history  of  theology 
is  a  contest  not  yet  ended  between  these  two 
systems.  The  chief  arena  of  this  controversy 
has  been  Germany  ;  but  it  has  had  little  or  no 
influence  over  Roman  Catholic  schools.  It  has 


also  been  attempted  to  build  up  theological 
systems  in  opposition  to  Christianity,  such  as 
deism  and  pantheism. — In  Roman  Catholic 
schools,  theology  is  divided  into  dogmatic  and 
moral.  Dogmatic  theology,  considered  in  its 
various  methods  of  exposition  and  demonstra 
tion,  is  termed  positive  theology  when  it  bases 
its  proofs  on  Scripture  and  tradition.  Moral 
theology  treats  of  divine  and  human  law  as 
the  rule  of  our  actions.  It  aims  at  determining 
the  true  sense  of  the  decalogue  and  the  gospel 
precepts,  discusses  virtues  and  vices,  examines 
the  principles  of  justice  and  the  foundations 
of  injustice,  points  out  what  is  needful  and 
unlawful,  and  teaches  all  Christians  their  re 
spective  obligations  in  all  states,  conditions, 
and  offices.  Moral  theologians  are  often  called 
casuists,  from  their  treating  ex  profcsso  of  "  cases 
of  conscience."  Scholastic  theology  is  that 
peculiar  method  introduced  into  the  schools 
during  the  llth  and  12th  centuries.  It  reduced 
all  doctrinal  matters  into  one  body,  so  coor 
dinating  them  that  one  question  explained  and 
completed  another,  binding  them  into  a  con 
nected  and  systematic  whole ;  it  observed  in 
its  every  demonstration  the  strict  process  of 
syllogistic  reasoning,  making  use  of  the  admit 
ted  principles  of  metaphysics,  and  thus  con 
ciliating  faith  with  reason,  and  religion  with 
philosophy. — Valuable  systematic  works,  giv 
ing  a  survey  of  the  entire  field  of  Christian 
theology,  have  been  published  by  President 
Dwight,  Dr.  J.  Pye  Smith,  Prof.  Hodge  ("  Sys 
tematic  Theology,"  3  vols.  Svo,  New  York, 
1872-'3),  and  others,  and  useful  encyclopaedic 
manuals  by  Hagenbach,  Pelt,  and  Staudenmaier. 
THEOPHRASTUS,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born 
at  Eresus,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  about  372 
B.  C.,  died  about  287.  His  original  name  was 
Tyrtamus,  and  he  was  surnamed  Theophras- 
tus  probably  for  his  eloquence.  lie  studied 
at  Athens  under  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  suc 
ceeded  the  latter  at  the  lyceum.  The  num 
ber  of  his  pupils  from  all  parts  of  Greece  was 
at  one  time  2,000.  His  influence  on  public 
affairs  excited  a  party  spirit  against  him,  and 
being  brought  before  the  Areopagus  on  a  charge 
of  impiety^  he  pleaded  his  own  cause,  and  was 
acquitted.  After  this  he  taught  in  tranquillity 
till  805,  when  Sophocles,  son  of  Amphiclides, 
carried  a  law  which  prohibited  all  philosophers, 
under  pain  of  death,  from  giving  any  public 
instruction  without  the  permission  of  the  state. 
Theophrastus  left  Athens;  but  in  the  next 
year  the  law  was  abolished,  and  he  returned. 
He  wrote  works  on  politics,  laws,  legislators, 
and  oratory,  which  are  lost,  and  "  A  Disserta 
tion  on  the  Senses  and  the  Imagination,"  a 
work  on  "Metaphysics,"  "Characters,"  and 
tw^o  works  on  botany,  "  The  History  of  Plants  " 
and  "  The  Causes  of  Plants,"  which  are  extant 
in  whole  or  in  part.  The  book  of  "  Charac 
ters"  consists  of  80  sketches  of  the  general 
vices  of  humanity  as  developed  in  individuals. 
I  His  extant  works  were  first  printed  with  those 
!  of  Aristotle  (Venice,  1495-'8) ;  the  best  edition 


THEOPHYLACT 


THERESA 


is  "Wimmer's  (Leipsic,  1854,  and  Paris,  1866). 
His  "  Characters  "  were  translated  into  French 
and  prefixed  to  his  own  by  La  Bruyere  (1688), 
and  into  English,  among  others,  by  Francis 
Howell  (London,  1824). 

THEOPHYLACT  (Geo^vAd/crof),  surnamed  Si- 
MOCATTA,  a  Byzantine  historian,  born  of  an 
Egyptian  family  in  Locris  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  6th  century,  died  about  629.  From  610 
till  about  the  close  of  his  life  he  held  various 
offices  at  Constantinople.  He  wrote  a  history 
of  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Maurice  (582-602), 
of  which  a  Latin  translation,  Historic  Mauricii 
Tiberii  Imperatoris  Libri  VIII.,  was  published 
at.  Ingolstadt  in  1648.  Besides  85  letters  (Epu- 
tolce  Morales,  Rustics  et  Amatorice,  4to,  Cra 
cow,  1509),  he  wrote  a  work  on  the  nature  of 
animals,  especially  of  man  ('Arcopiai  QvaiKai,  or 
Qucestiones  Physicce,  4to,  Leyden,  1596;  Leipr 
sic,  1653.)  These  two  works  were  published 
together  at  Paris  in  1835. 

THEOPHYLACT,  a  Greek  theologian,  born  in 
Constantinople  probably  about  the  middle  of 
the  llth  century,  died  after  1112.  lie  was  in 
structed  by  Clement,  archbishop  of  Bulgaria, 
and  became  archbishop  of  Achris  or  Achrida, 
a  chief  city  of  Bulgaria,  between  the  years 
1070  and  1077.  He  engaged  in  the  contro 
versies  of  his  day,  especially  those  relating  to 
the  true  character,  procedure,  and  office  work 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  question  wheth 
er  or  not  common  bread  or  only  unleavened 
should  be  used  in  the  sacrament,  opposing 
the  views  of  the  Latin  church.  He  compiled 
commentaries  upon  the  minor  prophets  and 
a  large  part  of  the  New  Testament  from  the 
works  of  Chrysostom,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
on  royal  education  (Tlaideta  Botr^/c?/,  or  Insti- 
tutio  Regia)  for  the  instruction  of  his  pupil 
Prince  Constantino  Porphyrogenitus,  the  son 
of  Michael  VII.  There  exist  75  of  his  letters, 
with  some  homilies  and  orations  and  a  few 
small  treatises.  An  edition  of  all  his  works 
in  Greek  and  Latin  was  issued  at  Venice  (4 
vols.  fol.,  1754-'63). 

THERA  (now  Santorbi),  an  island  of  the 
^Egean  sea,  now  forming  with  Amorgos  and 
other  islands  an  eparchy  of  Greece,  in  the  no- 
marchy  of  the  Cyclades;  length  about  9  m. 
from  1ST.  to  S.,  average  breadth  about  4  m. ; 
pop.  about  13,000;  of  the  eparchy,  in  1870, 
21,907.  It  was  originally  circular,  but  the  islet 
Therasia  was  torn  from  it  by  an  earthquake 
about  237  B.  C.,  and  it  now  resembles  a  horse 
shoe.  The  harbor  thus  formed  is  the  crater  of 
a  volcano,  and  as  no  bottom  is  found,  vessels 
make  fast  to  the  abrupt  and  rocky  shores.  The 
soil  is  volcanic  and  inclined  to  dryness,  but 
very  fertile.  The  annual  production  of  wine  is 
about  1,750,000  gallons.  Ship  building  is  the 
only  considerable  industry.  Thera,  the  capi 
tal,  had  a  population  in  1870  of  5,143. — 
Though  an  ancient  Lacedemonian  colony, 
Thera  is  only  of  historic  importance  as  having 
sent  a  colony  to  found  the  city  of  Cyrene  in 
Africa,  631  B.  C.  The  dates  of  the  eruptions 


known  to  have  taken  place  in  or  near  this  isl 
and  are  197  B.  C.  .and  A.  D.  46,  726,  1573, 
1707,  and  1866.  By  that  of  197  B.  C.  the  island 
of  Palea  (Old)  Cammeni  was  formed,  by  that 
of  46  Mikra  (Little)  Cammeni,  and  by  that  of 
A.  D.  1707  Nea  (New)  Cammeni.  The  last  was 
at  first  composed  of  white  pumice,  but  subse 
quently  received  additions  of  brown  trachytic 
rock.  The  eruption  did  not  wholly  cease  or 
the  island  assume  its  present  form  till  1712. 
In  the  beginning  of  1866  stones  flew  up  from 
the  port  of  Volcano,  and  a  new  volcano  arose 
which  attained  a  height  of  about  100  ft.  The 
eruptions  continued  until  the  autumn  of  1870, 
and  enormous  quantities  of  lava  were  thrown 
out,  surpassing  in  size  those  projected  in  1707- 
'12.  Near  Nea  Cammeni  a  regular  cone  was 
formed  325  ft.  high. 

THERAMENES,  a  political  leader  at  Athens 
toward  the  end  of  the  5th  century  B.  C.,  born 
in  Cos.  In  411  he  became  a  member  of  the 
council  of  400  ;  but  he  deserted  it  and  beeame 
one  of  the  leading  agents  in  its  overthrow.  In 
41.0  ho  joined  the  fleet  under  Thrasybulus,  and 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Cyzicus ;  and  in  408 
he  participated  in  the  siege  of  Chalcedon  and 
the  capture  of  Byzantium,  under  Alcibiades. 
He  was  one  of  the  inferior  generals  at  the 
battle  of  Arginusre  in  406 ;  and  it  was  chiefly 
through  his  influence  that  six  of  the  command 
ers  were  condemned  to  death  for  not  saving  the 
drowning  crews,  although,  as  they  asserted, 
he  had  himself  been  sent  with  others  to  per 
form  that  office.  During  the  siege  of  Athens 
by  the  Spartan  general  Lysander,  when  the 
city  was  reduced  to  great  extremity,  Thera- 
menes  was  sent  as  envoy  to  the  Lacedaemo 
nians,  lie  remained  three  months  with  Ly 
sander,  who  he  pretended  detained  him  that 
length  of  time  without  informing  him  that  the 
ephors  only  had  power  to  grant  peace;  and 
upon  his  return  to  the  city,  which  was  now 
suffering  under  a  terrible  famine,  he  was  sent 
back  to  make  peace  on  any  terms.  The  hard 
conditions  imposed  by  the  Lacedemonians 
were  assented  to  (see  GEEECE,  vol.  viii.,  p. 
195),  and  in  404  Theramenes,  who  during  his 
three  months'  stay  with  Lysander  had  made 
arrangements  with  the  Athenian  oligarchical 
exiles,  was  among  the  most  active  in  subvert 
ing  the  constitution,  and  became  one  of  the 
thirty  tyrants.  lie  warmly  supported  the  first 
measures  of  the  government  in  crushing  the 
democracy  and  putting  to  death  its  prominent 
leaders;  but  he  afterward  opposed  the  violent 
measures  of  Critias  and  his  colleagues.  His 
party  daily  increased ;  but  Critias,  after  char 
ging  him  with  being  a  public  enemy,  caused 
him  to  be  dragged  off  to  prison  by  partisans 
with  concealed  daggers  whom  he  had  brought 
into  the  senate  house,  and  compelled  him  to 
drink  the  hemlock. 

THERESA,  or  Teresa,  Saint,  a  Spanish  mystical 
writer,  born  in  Avila,  March  28,  1515,  died  at 
Alba,  Oct.  4,  1582.  She  was  called  Teresa  de 
Ahumada  (her  mother's  family  name)  till  Au- 


TIIERESIOPEL 


THERMO-ELECTRICITY 


697 


gust,  1562,'  when  she  assumed  that  of  Teresa 
de  Jesus.  At  the  age  of  20  she  entered  the 
order  of  Carmelites  in  a  convent  of  her  native 
town,  in  which  she  remained  27  years.  She 
then  founded  a  reformed  branch  of  the  Carmel 
ites  (Barefooted  Carmelites),  sometimes  called 
after  her  Theresians.  During  her  life  29  con 
vents  of  the  reformed  order  were  established, 
and  in  the  18th  century  it  counted  about  2,000 
members  in*  six  provinces,  in  Spain  and  Span 
ish  America.  She  was  beatified  by  Pope  Paul 
V.,  April  24,1614,  and  canonized  by  Gregory 
XV.,  March  22,  1622,  her  feast  being  fixed  on 
Oct.  15.  Theresa  described  the  internal  strug 
gles  and  aspirations  of  her  heart  and  her  fre 
quent  mystic  visions  in  ascetic  treatises  and 
letters,  which  are  among  the  most  memorable 
documents  of  the  mystic  literature  of  the  Ro 
man  Catholic  church,  while  their  excellence 
of  language  and  style  has  secured  for  them  a 
place  in  the  classic  literature  of  Spain.  Five 
of  them  are  extant :  Discurso  6  relacion  de  su 
vida,  written  in  1562 ;  El  camino  de  la  perfec 
tion,  prepared  in  1563  as  a  guide  for  the  nuns 
of  her  reformed  order ;  El  libro  de  las  fun- 
daciones,  an  account  of  the  convents  founded 
by  her;  El  castillo  interior,  6  las  moradas, 
written  in  1577,  and  the  most  celebrated  of 
her  mystic  works,  in  which  she  portrays  in 
glowing  colors  the  gradual  progress  of  the 
soul  to  the  seventh  heaven,  the  celestial  castle 
of  Christ,  her  spouse  ;  and  Santos  conceptos  de 
amor  de  Dios,  the  original  of  which  she  burned 
in  obedience  to  her  confessor,  but  which  has 
been  preserved  from  a  copy  taken  by  one  of 
the  nuns.  The  original  manuscripts  of  the  first 
four  works  are  preserved  in  the  library  of  the 
Escurial.  The  first  complete  edition  appeared 
at  Salamanca  in  1587,  and  a  recent  one,  edited 
by  Ochoa,  at  Paris  in  1847  (Tesoro  de  las  o1>ras 
misticas  de  Santa  Teresa  de  Jesiis).  A  collec 
tion  of  letters  of  St.  Theresa,  addressed  to  dif 
ferent  persons,  was  published  at  Saragossa  in 
1658.  The  abbe  Migne  edited  a  complete  col 
lection  of  her  works  in  French  (4  vols.,  Paris, 
1840-'46),  and  they  have  been  translated  into 
most  other  European  languages.  A  French 
translation  from  the  original  manuscripts  was 
published  by  Pere  Marcel  Bouix  (3  vols.  8vo, 
Le  Mans,  1852-'6).  Among  the  many  lives  of 
jSt.  Theresa  are  those  of  Ribera  (Salamanca, 
1590;  French  by  Pere  Bouix,  Paris,  1865),  the 
Bollandist  Yandermoere  (Brussels,  1845),  and 
Maria  French  (London,  1875). 

THERESIOPEL,  or  Maria-Tlieresiopel.     See  SZA- 

BAD. 

THERMAIC  GULF.     See  SALONICA. 

THERMO-ELECTRICITY,  electricity  developed 
by  heat,  and  also  the  science  which  treats  of 
the  phenomena  and  mode  of  production.  Prof. 
Seebeck  of  Berlin,  in  1822,  was  the  first  to 
make  any  well  directed  observations  upon  the 
subject.  He  found  that  when  two  rods  or  bars 
of  different  metals  were  soldered  together  or 
otherwise  held  in  intimate  contact  at  their 
ends,  and  the  junction  heated,  an  electrical 


disturbance  took  place,  and  that  if  the  ununi- 
ted  ends  were  connected  by  a  conductor  an 
electric  current  was  established.  Several  crys 
tals,  while  their  temperature  is  rising  or  fall 
ing,  also  become  oppositely  electrically  excited 
at  their  opposite  ends,  the  term  pyro-elec 
tricity  is  usually  applied  to  the  electrical  phe 
nomena  which  arise  from  changes  of  heat  in 
crystals.  These  phenomena  were  first  observed 
in  tourmaline,  a  double-refracting  silicate  crys 
tallizing  in  hexagonal  prisms.  (See  TOUEMA- 
LINE.)  Its  electrical  manifestations  are  con 
fined  within  certain  limits  of  temperature, 
chiefly  between  50°  and  300°  F.,  but  these  lim 
its  vary  with  the  length  of  the  crystal.  If  a 
crystal  of  tourmaline  is  suspended  by  a  thread 
at  its  middle,  and  heated,  its  ends  will  be  at 
tracted  and  repelled  by  electrically  excited 
bodies.  Many  other  crystals  exhibit  like  phe 
nomena,  but  less  in  degree,  which  in  many 
cases  can  only  be  detected  by  a  delicate  elec 
troscope.  That  pole  of  a  crystal  at  which  the 
algebraic  sign  of  the  change  of  temperature  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  electricity  developed, 
that  is  to  say,  which  manifests  positive  elec 
tricity  when  the  temperature  is  rising,  is  called 
the  analogous  pole,  and  the  other,  the  anti 
logous  pole.  Brazilian  topaz  becomes  electri 
cal  when  heated,  the  Siberian  variety  slightly, 
.the  Saxon  not  at  all.  When  the  first  two  are 
treated  negative  electricity  appears  at  both 
ends  of  the  crystal,  while  the  positive  is  devel 
oped  on  the  lateral  faces.  Pyro-electricity  is 
chiefly  developed  in  hemihedral  crystals.  .  The 
phenomena  of  thermo-electricity  in  metals  is 
most  strongly  marked  when  two  metals  are 
heated  at  their  junction  ;  but  if  a  wire  of  a  sin 
gle  metal  be  tied  in  a  knot,  and  be  heated  on 
one  side  of  the  knot,  electrical  disturbance  will 
take  place.  "When  two  metals  are  employed, 
the  strength  of  the  current  appears  to  be  in 
proportion  to  the  difference  of  temperature  of 
the  two  metals  on  each  side  of  the  junction, 
and  its  direction  and  also  its  strength  upon 
the  natures  of  the  metals  used.  In  fig.  1,  m  n 
represents  a  plate  of 
copper,  soldered  on  to 
a  plate  of  bismuth,  op, 
the  middle  of  which 
also  supports  a  mag 
netic  needle,  beneath 
the  copper  plate.  If 
heat  be  applied  at  o 
while  the  axis  of  the 
instrument  is  in  the  magnetic  meridian,  the 
north  pole  of  the  needle  will  be  deflected  to 
the  left  hand  of  an  observer  looking  from  n 
to  m  (see  GALVANISM,  vol.  vii.,  p.  592),  which 
indicates  that  a  galvanic  current  is  passing 
through  the  copper  from  n  to  m.  If  however 
the  junction  n  o  is  cooled,  the  current  will  flow 
from  m  to  n.  In  the  following  list,  according 
to  Becquerel,  the  direction  of  the  current  will 
be  from  any  element  to  any  one  following,  the 
intensity  being  greatest  between  the  first  and 
the  last:  bismuth,  platinum,  lead,  tin,  gold, 


FIG.  i. 


698 


THERMOMETER 


FIG.  2. 


silver,  copper,  zinc,  iron,  antimony.  The  di 
rection  of  the  current  often  changes  when 
the  couple  is  heated  beyond  a  certain  degree. 
Thus,  in  a  copper  and  iron  circuit,  the  current 
passes  from  the  copper  to  the  iron  through 
the  heated  part  when  the  temperature  is  not 
higher  than  570° ;  above  this  the  curent  passes 
in  the  opposite  direction.  The  cause  of  ther 
mo-electric  currents  is  diversity  in  the  molec 
ular  structure  of  the  elements,  and  Becquerel 
ascribes  them  to  unequal  propagation  of  heat 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  circuit.  A  thermo 
electric  pile,  or  battery,  in  which  a  series  of 
several  couples  are  joined  somewhat  like  the 
arrangement  in  a  voltaic  pile,  or  at  least  with 
the  opposite  poles  of  the  elements  in  contact 
with  each  other,  was  devised  by  Nobili.  A 
modification  of  this  is 
shown  in  fig.  2,  in  which 
the  lowest  plate  is  bis 
muth,  the  next  above 
antimony,  the  next  again 
bismuth,  and  so  on,  the 
last  plate  being  antimo 
ny.  These  sets  of  ele 
ments  are  arranged  in  a 
copper  frame,  P,  in  four 
vertical  series,  making 
in  all  20  couples.  The 
terminal  plates  are  con 
nected  with  binding  screws,  m  and  n,  by 
which  they  may  be  connected  with  a  resis 
tance  measurer  or  rheostat,  or  with  a  sine  or 
a  tangent  galvanometer.  (See  GALVANISM, 
vol.  vii.,  pp.  593-'o,  and  DIATHERMANCY,  vol. 
vi.,  p.  81.)  When  the  pile  is  composed  of  a 
great  number  of  pairs  and  connected  with  a 
very  delicate  galvanometer,  it  may  be  used  to 
detect  the  slightest  changes  of  temperature; 
it  is  much  employed  in  physical  investigations, 
and  will  undoubtedly  in  time  have  extended 
practical  use  in  physiology  and  medicine. 

THERMOMETER  (Gr.  Oepw,  heat,  and  /u£-pov,  a 
measure),  an  instrument  to  measure  tempera 
tures.  It  is  formed  of  two  or  more  different 
substances,  the  volumes  of  which  expand  and 
contract  to  different  extents  when  they  are 
simultaneously  exposed  to  the  same  differences 
in  intensity  of  heat.  The  first  attempt  at  indi 
cating  to  the  eye  differences  of  temperature 
seems  to  have  been  by  the  contrivance  vari 
ously  ascribed  to  Drebbel  of  Holland  and  Sanc- 
torius  of  Italy,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century,  and  known  as  a  weather  glass. 
This  was  very  rude  and  inaccurate,  consisting 
of  a  glass  bulb  and  tube  inverted,  opening  be 
low  into  a  cup  of  colored  liquid,  which,  the 
air  of  the  bulb  having  been  partly  expelled  by 
heat,  rose  in  the  tube,  and  stood  at  different 
heights  according  as  the  air  remaining  in  the 
bulb  was  more  or  less  expanded  by  heat.  TMs, 
the  origin  of  the  common  air  thermometer, 
as  improved  by  Boyle  and  by  the  Florentine 
academicians,  became  transformed  to  a  smaller 
bulb  with  upright  stem  of  somewhat  fine  bore, 
the  contained  liquid  being  colored  spirits  of 


wine ;  boiling  this  to  expel  air,  the  tube  was 
hermetically  sealed,  and  the  whole  then  affixed 
to  a  case.  A  scale  of  degrees  was  also  intro 
duced,  its  fixed  points  being  the  cold  of  snow 
or  ice  and  the  greatest  heat  known  at  Flor 
ence  ;  it  was  of  necessity  very  variable  in  its 
indications.  At  this  stage  in  the  progress  of 
thermometry,  much  discussion  in  regard  to 
the  most  suitable  fixed  points  for  the  scale, 
the  best  substance  for  use  in  the  instrument, 
&c.,  including  that  of  the  question  whether 
water  did  not  freeze  at  different  temperatures 
in  different  latitudes,  was  carried  on  in  Eng 
land  and  on  the  continent.  Hooke  advocated 
as  the  lower  fixed  point  the  temperature  of 
freezing  water.  Newton  seems  first  to  have 
discovered  or  taken  advantage  of  the  facts, 
that  a  thermometer  placed  in  melting  snow  or 
ice  always  indicates  the  same  temperature,  and 
always  very  nearly  one  temperature  in  boiling 
water ;  but  of  oil,  which,  he  suggested  for  the 
liquid  in  the  bulb,  the  movements  were  found 
to  be  too  sluggish  and  uncertain.  •  Romer, 
overcoming  a  prejudice  that  seems  to  have  ex 
isted  in  regard  to  unequal  expansion  of  mer 
cury,  first  adopted  that  liquid ;  and  he  doubt 
less  devised  the  instrument  and  scale  usually 
attributed  to  Fahrenheit  of  Amsterdam  (1720), 
the  latter  constructing  and  introducing  the  in 
strument,  so  that  it  became  generally  known 
throughout  Europe  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th 
century.  Of  this  thermometer,  the  lower  fixed 
point,  or  zero,  was  taken  at  32°  below  freezing 
point  of  water ;  but  whether  as  the  cold  ob 
tained  by  its  maker  by  m^dng  salt  and  snow, 
or  as  the  greatest  cold  observed  in  Iceland,  and 
in  either  case  as  the  supposed  point  of  absolute 
cold,  is  not  now  definitely  known ;  and  since 
Fahrenheit  kept  his  graduation  of  thermome 
ters  a  secret,  the  same  must  be  said  respecting 
the  choice  of  a  scale  of  180°  between  the  fixed 
points.  Celsius  of  Sweden  (1742)  introduced  a 
scale  of  100°  between  the  fixed  points ;  this 
was  adopted  in  France  at  the  time  of  the 
revolution,  and  named  the  tJicrmometre  centi 
grade ;  and  owing  to  its  convenient  decimal 
division,  it  has  been  wholly  adopted  in  sev 
eral  countries  of  Europe,  while  it  is  coming 
into  general  use  among  scientific  men  through 
out  the  world.  For  the  general  principles 
upon  which  the  use  of  the  thermometer  de 
pends,  see  EXPANSION,  HEAT,  and  PYROMETER. 
— An  increase  in  the  temperature  of  a  body  is 
generally  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  its 
volume,  and  a  decrease  in  its  temperature  by  a 
contraction  in  its  volume.  Definite  changes  in 
the  volume  of  a  given  substance  may  be  used 
as  indications  of  this  substance  having  different 
definite  temperatures,  and  this  substance  will 
have  the  temperature  of  the  bodies  by  which 
it  is  surrounded,  or  of  the  medium  in  which  it 
is  immersed,  and  thus  serve  to  measure  their 
temperature.  The  substances  generally  used 
in  the  thermometer  are  glass  and  mercury,  and 
the  observed  change  of  volume  is  the  difference 
in  the  change  of  volume  of  the  glass  and  of 


THERMOMETER 


699 


the  mercury.  The  instrument  ,which  shows 
this  difference  in  expansions  is  known  as  the 
mercurial  thermometer.  It  consists  of  a  tube 
of  very  small  interior  diameter,  terminating  in 
a  bulb  or  reservoir.  The  bulb  and  a  portion 
of  the  tube  are  rilled  with  mercury,  and  with 
an  increase  or  a  diminution  of  temperature  the 
mercury  will  rise  or  fall  in  the  tube  ;  and  the 
position  of  the  mercury  in  the  tube  can  be 
noted  on  a  scale  of  equal  parts  either  etched 
on  the  tube  or  marked  on  the  surface  or  a 
plate  to  which  the  tube  is  attached.  Mercury 
has  several  advantages  as  a  thermometric  sub 
stance.  The  successive  increases  in  its  volume 
for  equal  and  successive  additions  of  tempera 
ture,  indicated  by  the  air  thermometer  (see 
PYEOMETER,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  Ill),  are  quite  uni 
form  ;  especially  is  this  the  case  when  we 
use  the  differential  expansion  of  mercury  and 
ordinary  glass.  The  ordinary  thermometer 
when  constructed  with  care  is  trustworthy  in 
the  measure  of  temperatures  up  to  300°  0. 
Up  to  100°  C.  mercurial  thermometers  made 
of  any  kind  of  glass  indicate  almost  exactly 
the  same  temperatures  as  those  given  by  the 
air  thermometer.  Another  advantage  of  mer 
cury  is  that  it  does  not  freeze  above  the  low 
temperature  of  —40°  0.,  and  does  not  boil 
below  360°  0.  But  the  mercury  thermometer 
only  gives  accurate  indications  between  —35° 
and  +300°  C.  For  temperatures  above  300° 
C.  some  form  of  pyrometer  must  be  used. 
Mercury  has  a  low  specific  heat,  and  this  prop 
erty  combined  with  its  high  conductivity  causes 
it  rapidly  to  indicate  the  changes  in  the  tem 
perature  of  surrounding  bodies  or  of  the  medi 
um  in  which  it  is  immersed. —  Construction  of 
the  Mercurial  Thermometer.  The  tube  of  the 
thermometer  should  be  of  uniform  calibre 
throughout  its  whole  interior.  To  ascertain 
whether  this  is  the  case,,  a  short  column  of 
mercury  is  introduced  into  the  tube ;  and  if  its 
length  remains  the  same  when  it  is  moved 
throughout  the  length  of  the  tube,  we  may  be 
sure  that  the  tube  has  a  uniform  bore,  and 
hence  that  equal  amounts  of  expansion  of  the 
mercury  will  cause  equal  additions  in  the  length 
of  the  mercurial  column  in  the  tube.  Since 
tubes  of  uniform  bore  are  very  rare,  it  is  gen 
erally  necessary  to  calibrate  the  tube  before 
its  graduation.  This  is  done  by  etching  on  the 
tube  a  scale  of  equal  parts,  and  then,  from 
observations  on  the  different  lengths  occupied 
by  a  column  of  mercury  which  is  made  to  pass 
through  the  tube,  forming  a  table  which  gives 
the  temperatures  corresponding  to  the  arbitra 
ry  divisions  on  the  tube.  A  bulb  is  now  blown 
on  the  tube,  and  this  bulb  and  a  portion  of  the 
tube  are  filled  with  mercury  as  follows :  The 
air  in  the  bulb  is  heated  while  the  open  end  of 
the  tube  dips  into  mercury.  The  heat  having 
been  withdrawn,  the  air  in  the  bulb  contracts 
and  the  mercury  rises  in  the  tube  and  partly 
fills  the  bulb.  To  the  open  end  of  the  tube 
a  funnel  containing  mercury  is  adapted,  and 
the  mercury  in  the  bulb  is  boiled  and  thus 


expels  all  air  and  moisture  from  the.  instru 
ment,  which  on  cooling  necessarily  fills  com 
pletely  with  mercury.  The  bulb  is  now  placed 
in  some  fluid  heated  to  a  few  degrees  above 
the  highest  temperature  which  the  thermom 
eter  is  intended  to  measure,  and  when  the 
mercury  ceases  to  overflow  the  open  end  of 
the  tube  is  sealed  with  a  blowpipe  flame.  In 
order  to  graduate  the  instrument,  the  bulb  and 
part  of  the  tube  are  surrounded  with  melting 
ice,  and.  when  the  top  of  the  mercury  column 
has  remained  some  time  stationary,  its  posi 
tion  is  marked  by  means  of  a  line,  or  a  note  is 
made  of  this  position,  referred  to  the  arbitrary 
scale  etched  on  the  tube.  The  point  on  the 
thermometer  determined  as  above  is  designa 
ted  as  0°,  or  zero  degree,  on  the  thermometers 
known  as  centigrade  (Celsius)  and  Reaumur, 
and  as  32°  on  the  Fahrenheit  system  of  grad 
uation.  To  determine  a  higher  point  on  the 
thermometer,  the  instrument  is  placed  in  the 
interior  of  a  metallic  vessel  with  double  walls, 
between  which  circulates  the  steam  from  wa 
ter  boiling  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  AVhen 
the  top  of  the  mercury  column  in  the  ther 
mometer  has  become  stationary  its  position  is 
marked  on  the  tube.  The  boiling  point  of 
water  is  constant  at  the  same  atmospheric 
pressure,  and  when  the  barometric  column 
has  a  height  of  29'922  inches  or  V60  milli 
metres,  the  boiling  point  of  water  is  desig 
nated  as  100°  on  the  centigrade  thermome 
ter,  212°  on  the  Fahrenheit," 
and  80°  on  the  Reaumur. 
Hence,  between  the  melting 
point  of  ice  and  the  boiling 
point  of  water  there  are  100 
equal  degrees  in  the  centi 
grade  graduation,  180  in  the 
Fahrenheit,  and  80  in  the 
Reaumur.  To  convert  the 
indications  of  one  of  these 
thermometers  into  those  of 
the  other  two,  we  have  the 
following  formula,  in  which 
F,  C,  and  R  denote  equivalent 
temperatures  expressed  in  de 
grees  of  Fahrenheit,  centi 
grade,  and  Reaumur,  respec 
tively  : 


C=f-R=4(F-32) 

E=£C  =  f  (F— 32) 
Fig.  1  shows  a  thermometer 
graduated   according    to    the 
three  systems.     A  few  weeks 
after  a  thermometer  has  been 
made  and  graduated  it  may 
be  observed  that  the  mercury 
will  not  quite  descend  to  the 
melting  point  of  ice  when  the 
instrument    is    immersed    in       Scales. 
pounded    ice.      It   has    been 
found  that  this  "  elevation  of  the  zero  point," 
as  it  is  called,  goes  on  gradually  for  about  two 
years  after  the  thermometer  has  been  con- 


F               R      C 

lie 

fc 

}  \ 

80,—  100 

21T 

200-p- 

_ 

I80J- 

|-80 

170— 

60 

160— 
I50J- 
140— 

50 

—70 
-60 

130— 

120— 

- 

40 

-50 

110— 

-40 

IOO-  — 

30 

BO! 

-30 

— 

20 

70— 

-•20 

60-  — 
50- 

40^ 

IQ 

--10 

F.I.! 

„ 

Q 

30^ 

1° 

20    - 

I 

Jj 

r 

"T 

IG.  1.  —  Thermoin 

eter  with  Fahrcn 

TOO 


THERMOMETER 


THEKMOPYL^ 


structed,  and  at  the  expiration  of  that  period 
the  readings  may  all  be  too  low  by  nearly 
a  degree ;  hence  it  is  necessary  either  to  add 
the  proper  correction  to  the  readings  of  the 
thermometer,  or  to  slide  down  and  refix  the 
scale  to  which  the  thermometer  is  attached, 
so  that  it  will  read  accurately.  Alcohol,  com 
monly  used  where  temperatures  much  below 
0°  F.  are  to  be  observed,  is  liable  at  such  range 
to  much  variation,  although  it  does  not  freeze 
even  at  —132°  F. ;  and  Capt.  Parry,  in  his 
arctic  voyages,  observed  differences  of  full  10° 
0.  between  alcohol  thermometers  by  the  best 
makers. — Self-recording  Thermometers.  Vari 
ous  instruments  have  been  invented  which 
record  the  indications  of  the  thermometer. 
They  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  those 
which  record  only  the  maximum  and  the  mini 
mum  of  the  temperatures  occurring  in  any 
definite  period,  and  those  which  produce  con 
tinuous  records.  In  the  first  class  may  be 
mentioned  the  two  following  instruments.  An 
ordinary  mercurial  thermometer  has  its  tube 
constricted  to  a  thin  passage  at  some  point 
between  its  bulb  and  the  beginning  of  its 
scale.  This  thermometer  is  placed  in  a  hori 
zontal  position,  and  then  as  long  as  an  increase 
of  temperature  takes  place  small  portions  of 


-. 


FIG.  2. — Maximum  and  Minimum  Thermometers. 

the  mercury  will  go  in  a  series  of  jumps 
across  the  constricted  passage;  but  on  a  fall 
of  temperature  the  mercury  contracts  into  the 
portion  of  the  thermometer  below  the  con 
striction,  leaving  a  column  of  mercury  above 
it.  The  upper  end  of  the  latter  column  marks 
the  highest  temperature  reached  during  the 
time  of  exposure.  To  readjust  this  instru 
ment,  the  mercury  is  sent  into  the  vacant  space 
below  the  constriction  by  swinging  the  instru 
ment.  Fig.  2  shows  this  "maximum  ther 
mometer,"  the  invention  of  which  has  been 
claimed  by  several  persons.  The  "minimum 
thermometer  "  of  Kutherford,  which  is  gener 
ally  used,  is  made  of  alcohol  contained  in  the 
ordinary  glass  bulb  and  tube.  In  the  column 
of  alcohol  is  a  small  index  made  of  black  glass 
and  shown  at  »,  fig.  3.  This  piece  of  glass  is 
brought  up  to  the  end  of  the 
fluid  column  by  inclining  the 
instrument.  The  thermome 
ter  is  then  placed  in  a  hori 
zontal  position,  and  as  the 
temperature  falls  the  top  of 
the  liquid  column  during  its 
retraction  carries  the  glass  index  with  it,  and 
leaves  it  at  the  point  which  indicates  the  min 
imum  temperature  reached  during  the  expo 
sure  of  the  instrument.  The  thermometers  of 


FIG.   3.— Index    »f 
Euthcrford's  Ther 
mometer. 


the  second  class  give  continuous  records,  either 
by  causing  a  tracer  attached  to  some  simple  or 
compound  metallic  bar  to  mark  a  continuous 
line  on  a  cylinder  which  revolves  once  in  24 
hours,  or  by  the  aid  of  photography  a  contin 
uous  impression  of  the  image  of  the  top  of  a 
thermometric  column  is  obtained  by  illumina 
ting  a  thermometer  placed  in  front  of  the  lens 
of  a  camera,  while  at  the  back  of  the  camera 
is  a  sensitized  plate  on  which  the  image  is 
formed.  The  plate  traverses  athwart  the  beam 
issuing  from  the  lens  by  a  known  distance  each 
hour. — Differential  Thermometer.  This  is  a 
modification  of  the  air  thermometer,  in  which 
two  large  glass  bulbs  above  are  connected  by  a 
glass  tube  bent  twice  at  right  angles ;  the  hori 
zontal  and  parts  of  the  upright  tubes  are  filled 
in  the  common  form  with  a  colored  liquid, 
which  is  depressed  on  either  side  as  the  corre 
sponding  bulb  is  more  heated ;  thus  the  instru 
ment  indicates  differences  of  the  temperatures 
to  which  the  two  bulbs  may  be  exposed.  It 
is  very  sensitive ;  and  by  a  scale  the  results  it 
affords  are  comparable  with  each  other. 

THERMOPILE,  or  simply  Pylse  (from  6ep[i6?, 
hot,  and  7rfcl;/,  gate),  a  defile  between  Thessaly 
and  Locris,  in  antiquity  the  only  passage  for 
an  enemy  from  northern  into  central  Greece, 
situated  between  Mt.  (Eta  and 
an  inaccessible  morass  forming 
the  edge  of  the  Maliac'  gulf, 
and  containing  several  hot 
springs.  There  was  a  road 
wide  enough  only  for  a  single 
wheel  track,  which  formed  the 
western  gate.  About  a  mile  to 
the  eastward  Mt.  (Eta  again 
approached  the  sea  in  a  similar  manner,  and 
the  passage  there  formed  the  eastern  gate. 
The  space  between  these  two  gates  was  wider, 
and  many  years  before  Leonidas  occupied  the 
pass,  the  Phocians  had  so  conducted  the  warm 
springs  over  the  ground  as  to  render  the  pass 
impracticable.  They  had  also  built  a  wall  near 
the  western  gate  to  prevent  the  incursions  of 
the  Thessalians,  which  was  in  ruins  when  the 
Spartans  came.  This  pass  is  celebrated  for  its 
defence  against  the  army  of  Xerxes  by  the 
Greeks  under  the  Spartan  king  Leonidas,  in 
480  B.  C.  His  forces  numbered  probably  about 
7,000 ;  but  when  during  the  battle  he  learned 
that  one  Ephialtes,  a  Thcssalian,  had  betrayed 
to  the  Persians  a  circuitous  path  over  the 
mountains  leading  to  their  rear,  he  dismissed 
all  but  his  chosen  band  of  300  Spartans,  with 
a  number  of  helots,  about  700  Thespians  who 
volunteered  to  share  his  fate,  and  apparently 
400  Thebans.  This  small  host  sallied  out  and 
fought  till  Leonidas  and  all  the  Spartans  and 
Thespians  were  killed.  The  fate  of  the  The 
bans  is  uncertain ;  according  to  some  they  sur 
rendered  to  the  Persians.  One  Spartan,  Aris- 
todemus,  who  was  prevented  by  illness  from 
partaking  in  the  combat,  returned  home,  and 
was  received  with  scorn,  but  in  the  following 
year  retrieved  his  honor  by  a  heroic  death  at 


THEKOIGNE  DE  M&RIOOUKT 


THESPIS 


701 


Platasa.  Many  other  battles  took  place  at 
Tliermopylaa  in  later  times. — The  pass  is  now 
of  little  importance  as  a  strategic  point.  Na 
ture  has  widened  it  into  a  swampy  plain  from 
the  alluvial  deposit  of  the  Spercheus  and  the 
retreat  of  the  Maliac  gulf.  At  the  S.  end  of 
the  pass  is  a  mound,  supposed  to  he  that  to 
which  the  Spartans  finally  retreated  and  on 
which  they  were  slain.  In  a  small  plain  is 
the  Polyandrium,  one  of  the  sepulchral  monu 
ments  of  the  Greeks  who  fell  at  Thermopylae, 
and  a  few  miles  beyond  are  the  remains  of  the 
wall  mentioned  above,  which  can  be  traced 
from  the  Maliac  gulf  to  the  gulf  of  Corinth. 

THEROIGM!  DE  MERICOIRT  (more  properly 
MAEOOURT),  a  French  revolutionist,  whose  real 
name  was  Anne  Josephe  Terwagne,  born  at 
Marcourt,  Luxemburg,  Aug.  13,  1762,  died  in 
Paris,  June  9,  1817.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  a  farmer,  and  was  educated  at  a  convent. 
In  1789  she  went  to  Paris,  where  she  became 
notorious  as  the  "Amazon  of  the  revolution" 
and  the  "handsome  Liegeoise."  She  lived  in 
luxury,  gathered  around  her  many  conspicuous 
revolutionists,  and  appeared  with  arms  in  the 
.revolutionary  assemblies,  in  which  she  spoke 
with  eloquence.  In  1790  she  was  threatened 
with  arrest  for  participating  in  violent  out 
breaks,  and  fled.  Early  in  1791  the  Austrian 
authorities  arrested  her  near  Liege,  and  incar 
cerated  her  at  Kufstein,  Tyrol,  for  alleged  con 
spiracy  against  Marie  Antoinette,  and  subse 
quently  detained  her  at  Vienna  till  November. 
On  her  return  to  Paris  she  became  still  more 
popular.  In  June,  1792,  she  led  a  corps  of  in 
surgents,  and  received  a  civic  crown  for  her 
courage.  Suleau,  a  journalist,  having  reviled 
her,  she  turned  the  mob  upon  him  during  the 
outbreak  of  Aug.  10,  1792,  and  he  was  mur 
dered.  But  when  a  little  later  she  advocated 
greater  moderation,  she  was  publicly  stripped 
and  whipped  by  infuriated  women.  This  drove 
her  mad,  and  for  the  rest  of  her  life  she  was  in 
a  lunatic  asylum. — See  Theroigne  de  Mericourt, 
elite  la  ~bclle  Liegeoise,  by  Fuss  (Liege,  1854). 

THESEUS,  a  legendary  hero  of  Attica.  He 
was  the  son  of  ^Egeus,  king  of  Athens,  and 
JEthra,  daughter  of  PJttheus,  king  of  Trcezen. 
^Egeus  on  his  departure  from  Trcezen  hid  his 
sword  and  shoes  under  a  stone,  and  charged 
yEthra  if  she  gave  birth  to  a  son  to  send  him 
to  Athens  as  soon  as  he  was  able  to  roll  away 
the  stone.  When  Theseus  arrived  at  maturity 
his  mother  informed  him  of  his  parentage,  and 
taking  possession  of  the  tokens  he  set  out  for 
Attica  by  land,  destroying  various  robbers  and 
monsters  on  the  way.  At  Athens  he  was  rec 
ognized  by  his  father,  but  narrowly  escaped 
death  from  the  hands  of  Medea.  He  engaged 
in  a  war  with  the  Pallantids,  the  sons  and 
grandsons  of  Pallas,  the  brother  of  yEgeus,  in 
regard  to  the  succession  to  the  throne,  and 
was  victorious.  Next  he  voluntarily  sailed  to 
Crete  as  one  of  the  tribute  youths  to  be  offered 
to  the  Minotaur,  for  the  purpose  of  attempting 
the  destruction  of  the  monster.  He  gained 


the  affections  of  Ariadne,  daughter  of  Minos, 
who  furnished  him  with  a  sword  and  a  clue 
of  thread,  with  which  he  killed  the  Minotaur 
and  escaped  from  the  labyrinth.  Hereupon 
he  carried  off  Ariadne,  whom  however  he  left 
behind  at  the  island  of  Naxos.  Theseus,  if 
successful,  was  on  his  return  to  hoist  white 
sails  instead  of  the  black  ones  which  this  ves 
sel  always  carried  ;  but  this  arrangement  was 
forgotten,  and  yEgeus,  imagining  his  son  was 
destroyed,  threw  himself  into  the  sea.  The 
seus  now  ascended  the  throne.  He  invaded 
the  territory  of  the  Amazons,  defeated  them, 
and  carried  off  their  queen  Antiope.  In  re 
venge  the  Amazons  marched  into  Attica,  and 
entered  Athens  itself,  but  were  finally  van 
quished.  He  married  Phaedra,  and  to  her  pas 
sion  his  son  Hippolytus  fell  a  victim.  (See 
PIIJEDEA.)  Theseus  figures  in  the  principal 
heroic  legends  of  ancient  Greece.  He  was  one 
of  the  Argonauts,  was  engaged  in  the  Caly- 
donian  hunt,  fought  with  Pirithous  and  the 
Lapitha3  against  the  Centaurs,  and  also  assist 
ed  Adrastus  in  regaining  the  bodies  of  those 
slain  before  Thebes.  Aided  by  Pirithous,  he 
carried  off  Helen  from  Sparta  when  she  was 
only  nine  years  old.  Attica  was  in  conse 
quence  invaded  by  Castor  and  Pollux.  Me- 
nestheus  incited  the  Athenians  to  rise  against 
their  ruler  ;  and  Theseus,  finding  it  impossible 
to  sustain  himself,  retired  to  the  island  of  Scy- 
ros,  where  he  was  destroyed  by  the  treachery 
of  King  Lycomedes.  In  476  B.  C.  the  oracle 
directed  his  bones  to  be  brought  from  the  isl 
and  to  Athens,  and  in  469,  when  Scyros  was 
taken  by  Cimon,  it  was  pretended  the  body 
was  found.  His  bones  were  laid  in  the  in 
terior  of  the  city,  and  the  temple  called  the 
Theseum,  built  over  the  spot,  served  as  a  sanc 
tuary  for  poor  men  in  dread  of  the  powerful, 
and  for  slaves  in  case  of  cruel  treatment.  At 
the  battle  of  Marathon  Theseus  was  reported 
to  have  been  seen  armed  and  aiding  the  Athe 
nians.  Festivals  in  his  honor  were  celebrated 
on  the  eighth  day  of  each  month,  and  the  fes 
tival  termed  Oschophoria  was  said  to  have 
been  originated  by  him  after  his  return  from 
Crete.  To  him  was  popularly  ascribed  the  re- 
institution  of  the  Pythian  games. 

THESIGER,  Sir  Frederick.     See  CHELMSFORD. 

THESPIS,  the  founder  of  Greek  tragedy,  a 
native  of  Icaria  in  Attica,  lived  in  the  time 
of  Pisistratus  (about  540  B.  C.).  The  ancient 
traditions  represent  him  as  the  inventor  of 
tragedy,  and  to  him  is  also  ascribed  by  some 
the  invention  of  masks.  According  to  one 
account,  Thespis  was  in'  the  habit  of  travel 
ling  through  Attica  at  the  time  of  the  festival 
of  Bacchus  in  a  wagon,  and  upon  this  porta 
ble  stage  performed  comic  plays.  It  is  also 
said  that  he  found  tragedy  already  existing  in 
Athens,  but  made  in  it  the  simple  and  impor 
tant  alteration  of  introducing  an  actor  for  the 
sake  of  giving  rest  to  the  chorus.  Nothing 
which  he  wrote  is  extant,  but  the  titles  of 
four  of  his  tragedies  have  been  preserved. 


702 


THESSALONJANS 


THESSALY 


THESSALOMAJNS,  Epistles  to  the,  two  canonical 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  addressed  to  the 
church  at  Thessalonica  by  the  apostle  Paul. 
They  are  expressly  referred  to  by  Irenssus, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Tertullian._  In 
modern  times  the  authenticity  of  both  epistles 
has  been  doubted  by  Noack,  Van  der  Vries, 
and  Volkmar,  and  that  of  the  second  by  Lip- 
sius,  Ililgenfeld,  Weisse,  Hausrath,  Pfleiderer, 
and  others.  Special  treatises  in  support  of 
their  authenticity  have  been  written  by  "W. 
Grimm,  Lunemann,  and  others..  The  first 
epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  commonly  be 
lieved  to  have  been  the  first  of  the  Pauline 
epistles,  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  from 
Corinth  about  A.  D.  52  or  53.  The  occasion 
seems  to  have  been  the  favorable  report  of 
the  faith  of  the  Thessalonians  which  Timothy 
brought  on  his  return  from  Macedonia.  Chap- 
tors  i.  to  iii.  express  the  apostle's  feelings  re 
specting  their  religious  condition,  and  his  own 
kindly  reception  among  them.  Then  follow 
an  exhortation  to  holiness  (iv.  1-12),  an  in 
struction  on  the  fate  of  the  dead  at  the  ex 
pected  return  of  Christ  (iv.  13-18),  an  admo 
nition  to  be  always  prepared  for  that  event 
(v.  1-11),  several  other  admonitions,  and  the 
conclusion.  The  second  epistle  is  believed 
by  most  of  the  theologians  who  regard  it  as 
authentic  to  have  been  written  soon  after  the 
first,  in  the  year  53  or  54.  It  was  designed 
to  correct  some  errors  into  which  the  church 
had  fallen,  especially  respecting  the  coming 
of  Christ.  The  apostle  commends  the  Thes 
salonians  for  their  patience  and  faith  in  their 
persecutions,  and  announces  that  those  who 
trouble  them  will  bo  punished  (ch.  i.) ;  he 
shows  that  the  arrival  of  Christ  was  not  near 
at  hand,  but  must  be  preceded  by  a  great 
apostasy  and  the  appearance  of  the  Anti 
christ  (ii.  1-12),  and  gives  them  appropriate 
admonitions  (ii.  13-17,  and  iii.).  Among  the 
most  valuable  commentaries  on  these  epistles 
are  those  by  Schott  (Leipsic,  1834),  Jowett 
(London,  1850),  Lunemann  (Gottingen,  1859), 
Ellicott  (2d  ed.,  1862),  Hofmann  (1862),  and 
Auberlen  and  Riggenbach  in  Lange's  Blbehcerlc, 
(2d  ed.,  1867;  English  translation  by  Lillie). 

THESSALONICA.     See  SALONICA. 

THESSALY  (Gr.  QeaaaUa  or  Qerra^ia),  the  lar 
gest  political  division  of  ancient  Greece,  com 
prising  in  its  fullest  extent  the  country  between 
Thermopylae  and  the  Cambunian  mountains  in 
one  direction,  and  between  the  range  of  Pindus 
and  the  /Egean  sea  in  the  other.  But  Thessaly 
proper  was  the  plain  between  the  Cambunian 
mountains  on  the  north,  Ossa  and  Pelion  on 
the  east,  Mt.  Othrys  on  the  south,  and  the 
Pindus  range  on  the  west.  This  plain,  whose 
natural  enclosure  of  mountains  is  broken  only 
at  the  northeast  by  the  vale  of  Tempe,  was  the 
most  fertile  region  and  the  largest  that  was 
continuously  productive  in  Greece,  and  was 
supposed  by  its  inhabitants  to  have  once  been 
a  lake,  of  which  the  lakes  ISTessonis  (now 
Kara  Tchai'r)  and  Bcebeis  (Karla)  were  the 


remains.  It  was  drained  by  the  Peneus  (Se- 
lembria  or  Salamvria)  and  its  tributaries,  and 
was  divided  into  two  plains,  which  in  anti 
quity  were  called  Upper  Thessaly  and  Lower 
Thessaly;  the  former  embracing  Thessaliotis 
and  Hestia3otis,  between  yEginium  in  the  north 
west  and  Thaumaci  in  the  south,  and  having 
Pharsalus  for  its  chief  city ;  the  latter,  Pelas- 
giotis,  stretching  from  Mts.  Olympus  and  Ossa 
on  the  north  to  Mt.  Othrys  and  the  gulf  of 
PagasaB  (now  of  Volo)  on  the  south,  and  hav 
ing  Larissa  as  its  most  important  town.  Thes 
saly  proper  was  early  divided  into  the  four 
districts  of  Thessaliotis,  Hestiasotis,  Pelasgio- 
tis,  and  Phthiotis;  and  this  division,  the  ori 
gin  of  which  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  Aleuas, 
the  founder  of  the  Aleuadse,  was  continued 
down  to  a  very  late  time.  In  addition  to 
Thessaly  proper,  the  name  was  extended  over 
Malis  or  Malia,  a  narrow  valley  between  Mts. 
Othrys  and  CEta,  through  which  the  river 
Spercheus  enters  the  Maliac  gulf ;  and  to 
Magnesia,  a  region  lying  along  the  coast  and 
stretching  S.  from  the  vale  of  Tcmpe,  and 
almost  encircling  the  gulf  of  Pagasas. — The 
Thessalians  were  said  to  have  been  originally 
emigrants  from  Thesprotia  in  Epirus,  who 
conquered  the  Pelasgian  inhabitants  of  the 
plain  of  the  Peneus,  which  is  said  by  Hero 
dotus  to  have  then  been  called  zEolis.  Du 
ring  the  historic  period  three  classes  inhabited 
the  country.  The  first  was  a  body  of  rich  oli 
garchical  proprietors,  who  owned  most  of  the 
soil.  Of  those  the  most  powerful  families 
were  the  Aleuada3  of  Larissa,  the  Scopadto  of 
Crannon,  and  the  Creonida}  of  Pharsalus;  the 
second  were  the  subject  Achoaans,  Magnctes, 
and  Perrluebi,  who  retained  their  tribe  names 
and  separate  votes  in  the  Amphictyonic  coun 
cil;  the  third  were  the  Penesko  or  serf  culti 
vators  of  the  soil,  who  could  not  be  sold  out 
of  the  country,  and  who  kept  up  among  them 
selves  the  relations  of  family  and  community. 
These  were  no  doubt  earlier  inhabitants  re 
duced  to  serfdom ;  but  whether  they  were  Pe- 
lasgians  or  Boeotians,  as  Grote  suggests,  it  is 
impossible  to  determine.  The  language  spoken 
in  Thessaly  was  ^Eolic  Greek.  The  four  divi 
sions  of  the  country  formed  a  political  union, 
existing  rather  in  theory  than  in  fact.  To  en 
force  obedience  to  the  common  authority .  a 
chief  or  tagus  was  sometimes  elected ;  but  con 
stant  feuds  between  the  larger  cities  prevented 
Thessaly  from  occupying  its  rightful  position 
in  Greece.  The  inhabitants  were  early  en 
gaged  in  a  constant  war  with  the  Phocians; 
they  .joined  by  constraint  the  army  of  Xerxes 
in  his  invasion  of  Greece,  but  took  no  part 
in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  About  400  B.  C. 
Phera3  rose  to  political  supremacy  in  Thes 
saly  under  Lycophron,  who  had  made  himself 
tyrant,  and  his  successor  Jason,  who  reduced 
all  Thessaly  to  his  authority,  and  meditated 
not  only  the  conquest  of  Greece,  but  the  over 
throw  of  the  Persian  empire ;  but  before  he 
had  time  to  mature  his  designs  he  was  assas- 


THETIS 


THIBET 


T03 


sinated.  Alexander  of  Pherso  maintained  and 
extended  his  power  (see  PHER^E);  but  after 
his  death  the  country  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Philip  of  Macedon.  It  formed  a  part  of  the 
Macedonian  monarchy  until  the  defeat  of  Phil 
ip  V.  at  Cynoscephala3  in  197,  when  it  came 
under  the  Roman  dominion,  and  the  govern 
ment  was  given  to  wealthy  persons,  who  met 
in  Larissa. — Thessaly  now  forms  a  part  of  the 
Turkish  vilayet  of  Janina,  excepting  the  south 
ernmost  portion,  from  Mt.  Othrys,  which  be 
longs  to  Greece.  (See  PHTIIIOTIS.)  The  chief 
town  of  Turkish  Thessaly  is  Trikala,  and  of 
the  Greek  portion  Lamia  or  Zeitun. 

THETIS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  mistress 
and  chorus  leader  of  the  50  Nereids,  the  wife 
of  Pelous  and  mother  of  Achilles.  She  dwelt 
in  the  depths  of  the  sea  with  her  father  Nereus, 
and  was  sought  in  marriage  by  both  Jupiter 
and  Neptune  ;  but  the  gods  relinquished  their 
suit  when  Themis  declared  that  the  son  of 
Thetis  should  be  more  illustrious  than  his  fa 
ther.  At  her  wedding  with  Peleus  all  the 
gods  and  goddesses  were  invited,  excepting 
Eris,  who  revenged  herself  by  throwing  the 
apple  of  discord  among  the  guests.  (See  PA- 
EIS,  and  ACHILLES.)  She  had  a  temple  in 
Thessaly,  and  was  worshipped  in  Sparta  and 
Messenia. 

THEVEiWT.  I.  Melchisedech,  a  French  traveller, 
born  in  Paris  about  1620,  died  at  Issy,  Oct.  29, 
1692.  He  early  explored  Europe,  learned  ori 
ental  languages,  and  in  1684  became  keeper  of 
the  royal  library,  of  which  he  published  a  cata 
logue  in  1694.  The  gatherings  of  learned  men 
at  his  house  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  future 
academy  of  sciences.  In  1645  he  was  sent  on 
an  official  mission  to  Genoa,  and  from  1652  to 
1655  he  was  employed  by  the  government  in 
Borne.  He  published  compilations  of  travels, 
including  Relations  de  divers  voyages  curieux 
(2  vols.  "fol.,  Paris,  1663-'72),  and  Eecueil  de 
voyages,  comprising  Marquette's  Decouvertes 
dans  VAmerique  Septentrionale  (1681).  II. 
Jean  de,  a  French  traveller,  nephew  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  in  Paris,  June  6,  1633,  died  at 
Miana,  Armenia,  Nov.  28,  1667.  After  travel 
ling  through  Europe,  he  made  two  extensive 
journeys  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  is  said  to 
have  first  introduced  coffee  into  France.  The 
narratives  of  his  travels  were  collected  under 
the  title  Voyages  de  M.  Thevenot  tant  en  Eu 
rope  qrfenAsie  et  en  Afrique  (5  vols.  12mo, 
Paris,  1689),  and  were  translated  into  English, 
German,  and  Dutch. 

THEZA,  or  Tesa,  a  fortified  town  of  Morocco, 
on  the  Wad  el-Asfar  (Yellow  river),  or  Sebu, 
about  60  m.  E.  of  Fez ;  lat.  34°  9'  N.,  Ion.  3° 
55'  W. ;  pop.  about  5,000,  of  whom  800  are 
Jews,  Its  great  mosque  is  a  fine  building,  sup 
ported  in  the  interior  by  antique  monolithic 
columns.  Theza  is  the  centre  of  the  trade 
between  Algiers,  Tlemcen,  and  Fez,  and  cara 
van  roads  lead  from  it  to  Fighig  and  Tafilet. 

THIBAIT  (THEOBALD)  IV.  or  VI.  as  count  of 
Champagne,  I.  as  king  of  Navarre,  a  French 
VOL.  xv. — 45 


trouvere  or  poet,  born  at  Troyes  in  1201,  died 
there  or  at  Pamplona,  July  10,  1253.  He  was 
a  posthumous  son  of  Count  Thibaut  III.  or 
V.,  was  educated  at  the  court  of  Philip  Au 
gustus  under  the  supervision  of  his  mether, 
Blanche,  daughter  of  Sancho  the  Wise,  king 
of  Navarre,  and  became  an  early  adept  of  the 
"  gay  science."  Several  of  his  poems  were 
addressed,  under  an  assumed  name,  to  Blanche 
of  Castile,  the  queen  of  Louis  VIII.,  whom  he 
loved  to  distraction,  although  she  was  14  years 
his  senior.  When  her  husband  died  prema 
turely  at  Montpensier  in  1226,  while  returning 
from  an  expedition  against  the  Albigenses, 
Thibaut,  who  accompanied  him,  was  suspected 
of  being  his  poisoner.  lie  soon  after  joined 
the  league  of  feudal  lords  who  rose  against 
Blanche,  then  regent ;  but  her  influence  brought 
him  back  to  his  duty  to  the  king,  and  through 
his  assistance  she  baffled  the  designs  of  the 
confederates.  In  1234  Sancho  died  without 
male  issue,  and  the  count  of  Champagne  in 
herited  the  kingdom  of  Navarre  in  right  of  his 
mother.  In  1239  he  went  to  the  Holy  Land; 
but  he  met  with  a  dreadful  defeat  near  Gaza, 
and  had  to  pay  a  heavy  ransom  for  the  release 
of  his  brother.  His  provinces  were  very  pros 
perous  under  his  government,  and  he  was  a 
patron  of  literature  and  the  line  arts.  He  al 
lowed  the  Albigenses  to  be  persecuted  in  his 
dominions,  and  assisted,  May  13,  1239,  in  the 
burning  at  the  stake  of  83  of  them,  at  Mon- 
trimer,  near  Yertus.  Of  his  poems,  66  songs 
were  published  by  L6vesquo  de  la  Ravalliere 
(2  vols.  12mo,  Paris,  1742  ;  best  ed.  by  Rocque- 
fort  and  ^lichel,  1829).  A  collection  of  81 
songs  is  contained  in  Tarbe's  Collection  dcs 
poetes  champenois  (8vo,  Pvheims,  1851). 

THIBAIT,  Anton  Friedrich  Jnstns,  a  German  ju 
rist,  born  in  Hameln,  Hanover,  Jan.  4,  1774, 
died  in  Heidelberg,  March  28,  1840.  He  grad 
uated  at  Kiel,  taught  jurisprudence  there  from 
1799  to  1802,  and  at  Jena  till  1805,  and  was 
afterward  professor  at  Heidelberg  till  his  death. 
In  1814  he  advocated  a  national  code,  but  Sa- 
vigny  regarded  it  as  premature.  His  principal 
work  is  System  des  Pandektenreclds  (2  vols., 
Jena,  1803;  9th  ed.,  1846;  abridged  English 
translation,  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Ju 
risprudence,"  with  notes  by  Nathaniel  Lind- 
ley,  London,  1855).  Guyet  has  edited  his 
posthumous  writings  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1841-'2). 

THIBET,  or  Tibet  (Sansk.  Bhot;  Thib.  Bod; 
Pers.  Tibet),  a  region  of  central  Asia,  between 
lat.  27°  and  38°  N.,  and  Ion.  78°  and  104°  E., 
bounded  N.  by  East  Turkistan  and  China  prop 
er,  E.  and  S.  E.  by  China,  S.  by  Burmah,  Boo- 
tan,  Sikkim,  Nepaul,  and  British  India,  and  W. 
by  Cashmere ;  area  estimated  at  from  650,000 
to  800,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  6,000,000.  Thibet 
forms  the  S.  E.  portion  of  the  great  central 
Asiatic  plateau,  with  a  mean  elevation  of  about 
15,000  ft.  toward  its  southern  edge,  which  is 
bordered  by  the  Himalaya.  The  Kuen-lun 
range  is  generally  regarded  as  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  country.  The  transverse 


704 


THIBET 


chains  which  connect  the  western  extremities 
of  these  two  great  ranges  separate  Thibet  from 
Cashmere.  It  appears  now  to  be  established 
beyond  doubt  that  a  third  lofty  and  snow 
capped  chain  intervenes  between  the  Himalaya 
and  the  Knen-lim,  parallel  with  them,  proba 
bly  a  prolongation  eastward  of  the  Kara- 
korum  mountains,  under  the  name  of  Nian- 
tsin-tangla  according  to  Ritter,  and  Tanla  ac 
cording  to  Hue.  Hodgson  calls  it  the  Nyen- 
chhen-thangla  range.  It  forms  the  northern 
boundary  of  Great  Thibet,  a  region  which  ex 
tends  thence  southward  about  200  m.  to  the 
outer  Himalaya  overlooking  India,  and  750  m. 
from  W.  to  E.  along  the  basin  of  the  Sanpo  or 
upper  course  of  the  Brahmapootra.  Western 
Thibet  (Thib.  Ari),  in  the  widest  sense,  com 
prises  Ladakh  (outside  of  the  limits  above  sta 
ted  ;  see  LADAKH)  and  the  lofty  Himalaya  re 
gion  about  the  sources  of  the  Ganges  and  the 
Sutlej;  while  of  eastern  Thibet  (Thib.  Kani) 
little  is  known  except  that  it  is  deeply  indent 
ed  by  the  gorge-like  valleys  of  the  numer 
ous  great  rivers  which  flow  thence  into  China, 
Indo-China,  and  Burmah. — In  its  main  physi 
cal  features  Thibet  is  a  vast,  arid,  mountainous 
plateau,  with  an  altitude  seldom  less  than  10,- 
000  ft.  above  the  sea,  except  in  the  lowest  val 
leys,  and  over  a  great  part  of  its  area  more 
than  14,000  ft.  The  northern  portion  of  the 
country,  between  the  Nyenchhen-thangla  range 
and  the  Kuen-lun,  consists  of  a  series  of  lofty 
table  lands,  uncultivated,  and  inhabited  only 
by  nomads  and  robbers  and  the  residents  of 
the  Buddhist  monasteries,  which  are  the  only 
permanent  dwellings  met  with  in  the  region. 
Great  Thibet  is  comparatively  a  cultivated 
country,  of  settled  habitations,  and  contains 
the  capital  and  principal  cities;  but  by  far  the 
largest  part  of  its  surface  is  occupied  by  vast 
grassy  steppes,  which  afford  abundant  and  val 
uable  pasture.  In  western  Thibet  the  area 
capable  of  cultivation,  or  even  habitable  by 
man,  is  proportionately  very  small,  owing  to 
the  exceedingly  mountainous  character  of  the 
region. — Thibet  has  four  systems  of  drainage. 
North»of  the  great  middle  range  of  mountains, 
on  the  slopes  of  which  are  numerous  glaciers, 
the  drainage  is  wholly  interior,  the  streams 
being  received  by  the  salt  lakes  which  occupy 
some  of  the  principal  depressions.  The  most 
considerable  of  these  is  that  known  as  Tengri- 
nor,  or  more  properly  Nam-cho,  the  Sky  lake, 
15,190  ft.  above  the  ocean,  about  50  m.  long 
and  from  16  to  35  in.  wide.  One  of  the  trans 
verse  ridges  extending  northward  from  the 
Himalaya  separates  the  southern  part  of  the 
country  into  two  basins,  forming  a  watershed 
with  the  Indus  and  the  Sutlej  flowing  off  its 
W.  slope,  while  its  E.  side  sends  the  Brahma 
pootra  to  water  Great  Thibet,  which  finally 
likewise  makes  its  way  down  to  the  Indian 
plain.  Near  the  great  Kailas  peak  of  the  Him 
alaya  are  Lakes  Rhawan-rhad  and  Manasaro- 
Avar,  out  of  which  last  pours  the  Sutlej ;  and 
the  remarkable  ring-shaped  lake  of  Palte,  or 


Yamdok-cho,  is  about  35  m.  S.  W.  of  Lassa, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Sanpo  or  Brahmapootra. 
Lake  Koko-nor,  in  eastern  Thibet,  is  near  the 
head  waters  of  the  Hoang-ho. — The  nature  of 
the  rocks  near  the  southern  edge  of  the  table 
land  indicates  that  the  Thibetan  plateau  must 
be  of  recent  geological  origin.  The  plains 
consist  of  horizontal  gravel  strata  on  which 
rest  bowlders,  and  extensive  fossil-bearing  de 
posits  occur  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Himalayan 
range.  In  the  north  metamorphic  rocks  alter 
nate  with  beds  of  granite.  Among  the  Nyen- 
chhen-thangla  mountains  are  numerous  hot 
springs,  as  well  as  geysers  the  waters  of  which 
freeze  as  they  fall,  forming  lofty  columns  of 
ice. — The  climate  in  the  higher  districts  is  cold, 
dry,  and  almost  rainless,  and  even  the  snow 
fall  is  light.  Timber  never  rots,  but  becomes 
so  dry  as  to  break,  and  the  flesh  of  animals 
exposed  to  the  air  dries  till  it  can  readily  be 
reduced  to  powder.  The  limit  of  perpetual 
snow  is  higher  on  the  Thibetan  than  on  the 
Indian  side  of  the  Himalaya,  which  is  attrib 
uted  to  the  excessive  dryness  of  the  atmos 
phere  on  the  N".  slope  of  the  range.  It  is 
there  18,000  or  19,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  while 
in  India  it  descends  to  15,000  ft.  During  sum 
mer  the  sky  is  clear  and  the  atmosphere  won 
derfully  transparent,  but  the  plains  are  subject 
to  violent  winds  and  dust  storms  in  winter, 
and  the  cold  is  intense.  A  warmer  climate 
prevails  in  many  of  the  valleys,  where  Euro 
pean  fruits  and  vegetables  arc  raised. — With 
the  exception  of  the  pasturage  on  the  steppes, 
the  vegetation  of  Thibet  is  scanty.  Forest 
trees  are  unknown  except  in  some  of  the 
mountainous  districts,  and  in  such  as  have 
been  explored  they  consist  principally  of  cedar 
and  birch.  In  the  warmer  valleys  the  apple, 
fig,  pomegranate,  apricot,  peach,  vine,  and  sev 
eral  varieties  of  nuts  are  grown.  Wheat  and 
rice  are  cultivated  sparingly,  and  some  buck 
wheat,  but  gray  or  black  barley  is  the  prin 
cipal  grain  and  the  chief  article  of  diet.  The 
mineral  productions  comprise  gold,  silver,  mer 
cury,  cinnabar,  lead,  iron,  salt,  and  borax,  as 
well  as  several  kinds  of  precious  stones,  in 
cluding  lapis  lazuli.  Gold  occurs,  not  only  in 
the  sands  of  some  of  the  rivers  but  in  many 
mines,  of  which  perhaps  the  most  productive 
are  in  western  Thibet  K  of  the  Kailas  moun 
tain.  There  are  rich  silver  mines  in  the  neigh 
borhood  of  Lassa,  and  although  it  is  said  that 
the  authorities  prohibit  working  them,  large 
quantities  of  silver  are  constantly  exported 
from  Thibet  into  China.  Salt,  which  is  also 
an  abundant  article  of  export,  is  obtained  by 
solar  evaporation  from  the  saline  lakes.  The 
number  of  animals  is  greater  than  might  be 
expected  from  the  scantiness  of  vegetation ; 
among  them  are  the  tiger,  ounce,  lynx,  wolf, 
fox,  bear,  buffalo,  wild  ox,  wild  goat,  long- 
j  haired  sheep,  and  yak,  which  abounds  through 
out  Thibet.  The  shawl  goat  is  the  most  im- 
I  portant  of  the  domestic  animals,  and  the  musk 
I  deer  the  most  valuable  object  of  the  chase. 


THIBET 


THIERRY 


705 


Wild  fowl  and  fish  are  abundant,  but  Lamaism 
prohibits  them  as  articles  of  food. — The  Thi 
betans  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race,  and  it  is 
believed  that  all  were  once  nomadic,  as  those 
in  the  north  still  remain.  They  are  pliant  and 
agile,  usually  brave,  generous,  frank,  and  hon 
est,  eminently  commercial  in  their  habits,  and 
many  of  them  skilled  workers  in  gold,  silver,  and 
precious  stones.  They  are  rude  agriculturists. 
The  fine  wool  which  their  flocks  afford,  and  the 
hair  of  the  shawl  goat,  enable  them  to  manu 
facture  superior  woollens  and  shawls  of  fine 
texture.  Sacking  and  other  articles  are  also 
woven  in  considerable  quantities  for  the  Chi 
nese  market.  Cloths  are  dyed  with  great  skill, 
and  the  manufacture  of  pottery  and  of  idols 
is  a  thriving  trade.  The  traffic  with  China  is 
carried  on  along  the  great  road  between  Lassa 
and  Tasienloo,  a  town  in  the  western  part 
of  the  Chinese  province  of  Sechuen.  The  ex 
ports  are  drugs,  blankets  and  .other  woollens, 
furs,  musk,  salt,  and  silver,  in  return  for  which 
China  sends  cotton  goods  and  thread,  ponies 
from  Yunnan,  porcelain,  and  tea.  The  chief 
trade  routes  from  India  lead  through  Cash 
mere  and  Ladakh,  Nepaul,  and  Bootan,  over 
lofty  mountain  passes.  English  woollen  cloths, 
flowered  calicoes,  indigo,  rice,  and  precious 
stones,  including  pearls,  turquoises,  and  dark 
corals  (which  here  sell  for  their  weight  in  gold), 
reach  the  country  by  these  highways;  while 
gold  and  silver,  salt,  borax,  wool  of  the  shawl 
goat,  coarse  blankets,  ponies,  and  yaks'  tails 
are  sent  southward  into  India  over  the  same 
routes.  The  roads  throughout  the  country 
are  poor.— The  language  which  is  common  to 
Thibet  and  Bootan,  and  hence  called  indiffer 
ently  Thibetan  or  Bhotanta,  is  classed  with 
the  monosyllabic  languages,  though  possessing 
some  polysyllables.  Its  alphabet  is  phonetic, 
reads  from  left  to  right,  and  is  evidently  bor 
rowed  from  the  Sanskrit ;  but  the  language 
owes  most  of  its  derivatives  and  some  of  its 
root  words  to  the  Chinese.  It  is  copious  and 
well  adapted  for  the  expression  of  philosophi 
cal  and  religious  ideas.  There  is  an  extensive 
literature,  mainly  composed  of  translations  and 
commentaries  on  the  Buddhist  sacred  books. 
The  religion  of  Thibet  is  Lamaism.  (See  LA 
MAISM.)  There  are  some  Mohammedans  in 
western  Thibet,  chiefly  natives  of  Cashmere, 
and,  according  to  Hue,  several  thousand  Ro 
man  Catholics.  Polyandry  prevails  in  many 
districts. — Politically  Thibet  is  tributary  to  the 
emperor  of  China,  and  is  therefore  usually 
classified  as  a  part  of  the  Chinese  empire. 
But  the  direct  government  of  the  country  is 
vested  in  the  two  great  lamas  or  priestly  rulers, 
who  hold  sway  respectively  in  the  two  prov 
inces  into  which  Great  Thibet  is  divided  for 
spiritual  and  administrative  purposes.  These 
are  the  province  of  U,  of  which  Lassa  is  the 
capital,  ruled  over  by  the  dalai  lama,  and  the 
province  of  Tsang,  to  the  southwest,  over 
which  presides  the  equally  sacred  teshu  lama, 
with  his  capital  at  the  city  of  Shigatze,  about 


140  m.  further  up  the  Sanpo  valley.  The  com 
bined  names  of  these  two  provinces  form  the 
native  appellation  Utsang,  applied  to  Great 
Thibet.  As  Lassa  is  the  sacred  capital  of  all 
Buddhistic  countries,  it  is  regarded  as  the  cap 
ital  of  Thibet  in  preference  to  Shigatze.  There 
are  many  other  large  towns,  in  most  of  which 
the  Chinese  government  has  its  governors  or 
representatives,  who  exert  great  influence  if 
not  positive  authority  over  the  Thibetan  rulers. 
A  considerable  Chinese  military  force  has  usu 
ally  been  maintained  in  the  country. — As  a 
kingdom  Thibet  is  said  to  date  from  A.  D. 
313.  Buddhism  was  first  introduced,  accord 
ing  to  some  authorities,  as  early  as  the  4th  or 
5th  century;  but  its  general  diffusion  there 
is  of  later  date.  After  various  struggles  with 
China,  Thibet  finally  became  tributary  to  that 
empire  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century. 
The  country  was  visited  by  Jesuit  missionaries 
in  the  ITth  and  18th  centuries.  Thomas  Man 
ning,  an  English  traveller,  made  his  way  to 
Lassa  in  1812,  and  the  abbe  Hue  in  1845-'6. 
Although  Western  Thibet  has  been  frequently 
and  quite  thoroughly  explored,  Great  Thibet 
and  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  the 
country  are  very  imperfectly  known.  Much 
valuable  geographical  information  has  recently 
been  acquired,  however,  through  the  efforts  of 
the  trigonometrical  survey  of  British  India,  by 
which  native  Asiatics  trained  for  the  purpose 
have  been  despatched  to  explore  the  regions  N. 
of  the  Himalaya.  In  1865  and  1871  Great  Thi 
bet  was  visited  by  three  of  these  trans-Himalay 
an  explorers,  and  many  of  the  results  of  their 
observations  are  incorporated  in  this  article. 

THIERRY.  I.  Jacques  Mcolas  Ingnstin,  a  French 
historian,  born  in  Blois,  May  10,  1795,  died  in 
Paris,  May  22,  1856.  He  was  educated  at  the 
college  of  Blois  and  the  normal  school  in  Paris, 
where  he  began  his  career  in  1814  as  a  disci 
ple  and  literary  collaborator  of  Saint-Simon, 
whom  he  left  in  1817  to  elaborate  his  new 
historical  theories  according  to  the  principles 
of  nationalities.  lie  wrote  much  for  the  Cen- 
seur  evropeen  (1817-'20),  and  established  his 
reputation  as  the  most  original  historian  of  his 
day  by  his  Histoire  de  la  conquete  de  VAncjlc- 
terre  par  les  Normands  (3  vole.,  1825;  10th 
ed.,  2  vols.  8vo,  1858,  and  4  vols.  12mo,  1860), 
English  translations  of  which  were  published 
in  1825  and  1847,  the  latter  by  Hazlitt.  These 
labors  impaired  his  sight,  which  he  lost  alto 
gether  in  1826,  but  he  continued  them  with 
the  assistance  of  secretaries,  of  whom  Armand 
Carrel  was  one  of  the  first.  After  the  acces 
sion  of  Louis  Philippe,  he  spent  several  years 
with  his  brother  Amedee  at  Vesoul.  At  Lux- 
euil,  where  he  resided  in  summer,  he  married 
in  1831  Julie  de  Querangal,  daughter  of  a  rear 
admiral,  who  became  of  great  assistance  to 
him  as  an  amanuensis,  and  who  published  sev 
eral  works  of  her  own.  She  died  in  1844,  and 
after  residing  for  some  time  with  the  princess 
Belgiojoso,  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  with 
his  brother's  family.  Guigniaut  characterized 


706 


THIERS 


him,  in  an  essay  read  in  1862  before  the  acad 
emy  of  inscriptions,  as  a  martyr,  and  as  the 
first  historical  scholar  who  had  vindicated  the 
rights  of  oppressed  nationalities.  His  works 
include  Lettres  sur  Vhistoire  de  France  (1827; 
latest  revised  ed.,  1859);  Dix  cms  d1  etudes  his- 
toriques  (1834:-,  9th  revised  ed.,  1857;  English 
translation,  "Historical  Essays,"  1845);  Recits 
dcs  temps  meroiiingiens  (1840;  8th  ed.,  1864; 
English  translation,  1846) ;  Recueil  de  monu 
ments  de  Vhistoire  du  tiers  etat,  prepared  under 
the  direction  of  the  government  and  with  the 
assistance  of  several  writers  (vols.  i.  to  iii., 
1850  -'56) ;  and  Essai  sur  VMstoire  de  la  forma 
tion  et  des  progres  du  tiers  etat  (1853;  English 
translation  by  Francis  B.  Wells,  2  vols.  12mo, 
London,  1855).  Ho  prepared  a  complete  edi 
tion  of  his  works  (8  vols.  18mo,  1846-'7;  new 
ed.,  10  vols.,  1856-'GO).  II.  Amedee  Simon  Do 
minique,  a  French  historian,  brother  of  the  pre 
ceding,  born  in  Blois,  Aug.  2,  1797,  died  in 
Paris,  March  26,  1873.  He  was  educated  at 
the  college  of  Blois,  and  in  1820  received  an 
office  in  the  ministry  of  marine.  In  1828  he 
was  for  a  short  time  professor  of  history  at 
Besangon.  At  Guizot's  recommendation  he 
was  appointed  in  1830  prefect  of  the  depart 
ment  of  Haute-Saone.  At  the  end  of  1838  he 
entered  the  council  of  state,  of  which  he  was 
also  a  member  during  the  second  empire,  and 
in  1860  was  made  a  senator.  He  was  less  bril 
liant  but  more  judicious  than  his  brother.  His 
works  include  Histoire  des  Gaulois  jusqifa  la 
domination  romaine  (3  vols.,  1828;  6th  ed., 
1866) ;  IHstolre  de  la  Gaule  sous  I' 'administra 
tion  romaine  (3  vols.,  1840-'47);  Histoire  d'At- 
tila  et  de  ses  successeurs  (2  vols.,  1856;  3d  ed., 
1864);  Recits  et  nouveaux  recits  de  rhistoire 
romaine  (I860-' 64);  Tableau  de  V empire  ro- 
main  (1862);  Saint  Jerome:  la  societe  chre- 
tienne  d  Rome  et  ^emigration  romaine  en  Terre 
Sainte  (2  vols.,  1867) ;  and  Saint  Jean  Chrysos- 
tome  et  Pimperatrice  Eudoxie:  la  societe  chre- 
tienne  en  Orient  (1872). — His  son,  GILBERT 
AUGUSTIN,  published  in  1875  a  historical  drama 
entitled  Aventures  d'une  dme  en  peine. 

THIERS,  a  town  of  Auvergne,  France,  in  the 
department  of  Puy-de-D6me,  on  the  Durolle, 
23  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Clermont;  pop.  in  1872, 
16,635.  It  has  two  interesting  churches,  and 
is  chiefly  noted  for  extensive  manufactories 
of  cutlery.  Paper,  playing  cards,  candles,  rib 
bons,  and  thread  are  also  manufactured. 

THIERS,  Lonis  Adolphe,  a  French  statesman, 
born  in  Marseilles,  April  16,  1797.  He  was 
educated  at  the  lyceum  of  Marseilles  and  the 
law  school  of  Aix,  where  he  practised  at  the 
bar  from  1818  to  1821.  He  then  followed 
Mignet  to  Paris,  and  wrote  for  the  Constitu- 
tionnel  and  other  journals.  He  became  a  fa 
vorite  of  Laffitte  and  Talleyrand,  and  wrote 
Histoire  de  la  revolution  francaise  (10  vols., 
1823-'7;  English  translation  with  notes  by  F. 
Shoberl,  5  vols.,  London,  1838).  In  January, 
1830,  he,  Mignet,  and  Carrel  started  the  Na 
tional,  which  promoted  the  change  of  dynas 


ty  effected  by  the  revolution  of  the  following 
July.  Under  Louis  Philippe  he  became  an 
official  in  the  treasury  and  a  member  of  the 
chamber  of  deputies.  The  ministry  of  finance 
was  tendered  to  him,  but  he  recommended 
Laffitte  as  its  chief,  though  he  virtually  acted 
in  that  capacity,  and  retired  with  him,  March 
13,  1831.  On  joining  Soult's  cabinet,  Oct.  11, 
1832,  as  minister  of  the  interior,  he  procured 
with  Deutz  the  arrest  (Nov.  6)  of  the  duchess 
de  Berry  (see  BEERY),  and  immediately  left  the 
department.  This  act  he  had  deemed  neces 
sary  for  the  pacification  of  the  Vendee  at  the 
time  when  all  the  military  resources  were 
needed  for  the  relief  of  Antwerp  in  the  inter 
est  of  Belgian  independence.  Eesuming  ofnce 
in  December  as  minister  of  commerce  and  ag 
riculture,  he  obtained  large  appropriations  for 
public  works.  Early  in  1834  he  returned  to 
the  interior  department,  and  quelled  the  bloody 
insurrections  at  Lyons  and  Paris.  After  min 
isterial  combinations  which  revealed  his  dis 
agreement  with  Soult  and  Mole  and  his  rivalry 
with  Guizot,  he  finally  retained  his  office  under 
the  duke  de  Broglie,  and  at  the  same  time  (De 
cember)  took  his  seat  in  the  French  academy. 
The  attempt  of  Fieschi  upon  the  king's  life 
(July  28,  1835),  from  which  he  himself  barely 
escaped,  made  him  support  the  restrictive  press 
and  jury  laws,  known  as  the  laws  of  Septem 
ber.  He  resigned  with  the  other  ministers  in 
January,  1836,  on  the  rejection  of  the  bill  for 
the  conversion  of  the  rentes,  but  in  February 
became  premier  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
On  Aug.  25  he  retired,  chiefly  on  account  of 
the  king's  opposition  to  armed  intervention  in 
Spain.  His  successor  Mole  in  vain  tempted 
him  in  1838  with  the  Russian  mission,  to  get 
rid  of  his  influence.  He  was  reinstated  as  pre 
mier  March  1,  1840,  and  proposed  the  fortifi 
cation  of  Paris  and  extraordinary  armaments 
to  prepare  for  war,  in  view  of  the  compli 
cations  arising  from  Mehemet  Ali's  conflict 
with  the  sultan;  but  being  again  baffled  by 
the  king's  "  peace  at  any  price "  policy,  he 
resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  Guizot,  Oct. 
29.  He  now  began  his  Histoire  du  consulat  et 
de  V empire  (20  vols.,  1845-'62  ;  English  transla 
tion  by  D.  F.  Campbell,  London,  1845-'62),  for 
which  he  visited  England  and  examined  the 
battle  fields  in  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain.  At 
the  same  time,  as  the  recognized  leader  of  the 
opposition,  he  advocated  enlightened  measures 
of  education  and  progress,  and  opposed  ultra 
montane  schemes  and  political  corruption.  He 
also  denounced  the  right  of  search,  and  the 
excessive  complacency  toward  England  in  the 
Pritchard  question  (see  Du  PETIT-THOUAES), 
and  in  adopting  her  objections  against  the  in 
corporation  of  Texas  with  the  United  States, 
on  which  occasion  he  deprecated  alienation 
from  the  "great  American  nation,  the  harbin 
ger  of  French  liberty."  Shortly  before  the 
outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1848  he  made 
withering  attacks  upon  Louis  Philippe's  pusil 
lanimity  in  foreign  affairs,  and  favored  politi- 


THIERS 


THIERSCH 


707 


cal  reforms,  but  not  a  republic.  Yet  when 
this  became  an  accomplished  fact  (Feb.  24),  he 
accepted  it  as  a  protection  against  monarchi 
cal  factions,  and  in  June  was  elected  to  the 
constituent  assembly.  "When  Cavaignac  asked 
for  extraordinary  powers-  against  the  socialists, 
he  was  the  first  to  concede  them ;  but  subse 
quently  he  supported  Louis  Napoleon  for  the 
presidency,  and  fought  a  duel  with  Bixio  for 
repeating  a  rumor,  which  he  denied,  that  he 
had  previously  disparaged  such  an  election. 
Elected  to  the  legislative  assembly,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  active  leaders  of  the  reactionary 
majority.  In  January,  1851,  however,  after  the 
removal  of  Changarnier,  he  raised  his  warning 
voice  against  a  new  Napoleonic  empire.  In 
November  he  adjured  the  assembly  to  adopt 
Baze's  resolution  for  its  military  protection, 
and  in  vain  admonished  the  radicals  that  the 
rejection  of  this  measure  threatened  the  safety 
of  the  most  truly  representative  body  which 
France  ever  had.  He  was  arrested  on  the 
coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  imprisoned  till  Jan.  9, 
and  banished  till  Aug.  7,  1852.  He  kept  aloof 
from  politics  until  the  apparent  relaxation  of 
the  autocratic  regime  encouraged  him  in  1863 
to  solicit  the  suffrages  of  Paris  liberals,  who 
returned  him  (May  31),  despite  governmental 
opposition.  In  1865  he  referred  in  his  great 
speech  on  the  budget  to  the  extravagant  ex 
penditures  for  the  Italian  war,  the  Mexican 
expedition,  and  Ilaussmann's  stupendous  en 
terprises.  In  1866  and  1867  he  exposed  the 
fatal  blunders  of  the  emperor  in  permitting 
the  aggrandizement  of  Prussia  and  the  unifica 
tion  of  Italy,  to  the  detriment  of  the  grandeur 
of  France.  In  1870  he  opposed  the  declara 
tion  of  war  against  Prussia,  maintaining  that 
the  government,  being  unprepared,  was  rush 
ing  to  a  certain  defeat ;  and  his  influence  rose 
with  the  verification  of  his  predictions.  He 
urged  the  vigorous  defence  of  Paris,  and  visit 
ed  the  principal  foreign  courts  to  secure  their 
influence  in  favor  of  an  armistice.  On  his  re 
turn  in  October,  he  had  several  interviews 
with  Bismarck,  but  without  results  excepting 
that  his  efforts  increased  his  popularity  and 
the  universal  confidence  in  his  statesmanship. 
On  Feb.  8,  1871,  he  was  elected  to  the  assem 
bly  in  26  departments,  and  selected  that  of 
Seine-Inferieure.  On  Feb.  17  he  was  chosen 
by  the  assembly  as  chief  of  the  executive.  His 
great  measures  were  the  immediate  negotia 
tion  of  the  preliminary  treaty  of  peace,  his 
crushing  of  the  commune,  and  the  wonder 
fully  successful  national  loan  for  paying  the 
German  indemnity  and  the  redemption  of  the 
territory.  On  Aug.  31  his  term  of  office  was 
prolonged  by  the  assembly  for  three  years, 
with  the  title  of  president  of  the  republic.  He 
was  always  a  protectionist,  and  on  the  rejec 
tion  of  the  tariff  bill  he  resigned  (Jan.  20, 1872) ; 
but  he  was  finally  induced  to  remain,  and  his 
subsequent  intention  to  withdraw  was  arrested 
(Nov.  29)  by  the  appointment  of  a  commit 
tee  for  regulating  his  relations  with  the  as 


sembly.  In  foreign  affairs  he  favored  peace 
and  non-intervention.  After  he  had  succeeded 
in  substituting  Verdun  for  Belfort  as  a  pledge 
in  German  hands,  he  concluded  in  March,  1873, 
a  new  convention  providing  for  the  whole  in 
demnity  and  for  the  final  withdrawal  of  the 
remaining  German  troops  in  September,  for 
which  he  received  the  thanks  of  the  legislature 
as  one  "who  deserved  well  of  his  country." 
But  on  May  24  he  was  baffled  in  his  attempt 
to  make  the  republic  permanent  by  legislative 
enactment,  and  therefore  resigned,  and  was 
succeeded  by  MacMahon.  He  has  ever  since 
upheld  the  republican  form  of  government, 
which  he  advocated  with  great  force  at  Arca- 
chon,  Oct.  17, 1875.  On  Jan.  30,  1876,  he  was 
elected  to  the  new  senate  for  Belfort,  and  on 
Feb.  20  to  the  assembly  for  Paris;  and  in 
March  he  took  his  seat  in  the  latter  body. — His 
literary  fame  rests  upon  his  historical  works. 
His  other  publications  include  Histoire  de  Law 
(1826  ;  new  ed.,  1858  ;  English  translation  by 
F.  S.  Fiske,  New  York,  1859) ;  Le  monarchic 
de  1830  (1831) ;  De  la  propriete  (1848)  ;  and 
Ullomme  et  la  matiere  (1875  et  seq.}.  Late 
ly  he  has  visited  Italy  to  gather  additional 
materials  for  a  long  projected  history  of  art, 
and  has  also  been  engaged  upon  his  memoirs. 
As  a  speaker  his  vivacity,  parliamentary  ex 
perience,  and  perfect  mastery  of  the  questions 
discussed  make  him  exceedingly  effective.  His 
house  in  the  place  St.  Georges,  destroyed  under 
the  commune,  has  been  restored  by  the  gov 
ernment,  and  is  still  the  centre  of  the  most  in 
fluential  society. 

THIERSCH.  I.  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  a  German  phi 
lologist,  born  at  Kirchscheidungen,  near  Frei 
burg,  June  17,  1784,  died  in  Munich,  Feb.  25, 
1860.  He  studied  in  Leipsic  and  Gottingen, 
and  in  1809  became  professor  at  the  gymnasium 
in  Munich.  Being  looked  upon  as  a  foreigner 
by  the  Bavarians,  he  wrote  a  vigorous  pam 
phlet  entitled  Ueber  die  angenommenen  Unter- 
schiede  sicischen  Stid-  itnd  Norddeutschland 
(1810).  Soon  after  its  publication  an  attempt 
was  made  to  assassinate  him.  In  1811  he 
founded  a  philological  institute,  which  in  the 
following  year  was  incorporated  with  the  uni 
versity  of  Munich,  and  from  1811  to  1829  he 
edited  the  Acta  Philologorum  Monacensium. 
He  took  a  special  interest  in  the  Hellenic  strug 
gle  for  independence  and  in  the  amelioration  of 
education  in  Greece,  and  published  in  1833,  af 
ter  a  two  years1  sojourn  in  that  country,  L^etat 
actuel  de  la  Qrece,  et  des  moyens  d'arriver  a  sa 
restauration.  In  his  work  Ueber  die  neuesten 
Angriffe  auf  die  Universitaten  (1837)  he  ex 
pressed  anew  his  conviction  of  the  importance 
of  classical  studies,  and  in  1838  initiated  a  bit 
ter  literary  warfare  against  Diesterweg,  Linde, 
Schmitthenner,  and  others,  by  his  Ueler  den 
gegenwartigcn  Zustand  des  offentlichen  Unter- 
richts  in  den  icestliclien  Staaten  von  Deutsch- 
land,  in  Holland,  Frankreich  und  Eelgien. 
He  wrote  a  Greek  grammar,  with  special  ref 
erence  to  the  Homeric  dialect,  which  passed 


708 


TI-IIONVILLE 


through  several  editions,  and  has  been  trans 
lated  into  English  and  other  languages.  He 
published  also  a  school  edition  of  this  work, 
an  account  of  his  travels  in  Italy  (1826),  an 
edition  of  Pindar  (2  vols.,  1850),  and  other 
school  books  and  philological  treatises.  His 
life  has  been  written  by  his  son  Heinrich  (2 
vols.,  Leipsic,  I860).  II.  Heinricli  Wilhelin  Josias, 
a  German  theologian,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Munich,  Nov.  5,  1817.  He  was  pro 
fessor  at  Marburg  from  1843  to  1864,  and  sub 
sequently  resided  at  Heidelberg.  He  is  the 
principal  representative  of  Edward  Irving's 
doctrines  in  Germany.  His  works  include 
Gescliichte  der  KircJie  im  apostolischen  Zeital- 
ter  (2  vols.,  Frankfort,  1852 ;  English  transla 
tion,  London,  1854),  and  Ueber  christliches 
Familienleben  (6th  ed.,  1872). 

THIOMILLE.     See  DIEDENIIOFEN. 

THIRD  ESTATE.     See  STATES  GENERAL. 

THIRLWALL,  Conuop,  an  English  historian, 
born  at  Stepney,  Middlesex,  Feb.  11,  1797, 
died  July  27,  1875.  lie  was  educated  at  Cam 
bridge,  was  tutor,  Craven  scholar,  Bell's  schol 
ar,  and  senior  chancellor's  medallist,  received 
the  degree  of  master  in  1821,  and  became  a  fel 
low,  lie  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1825,  but  in 
1828  entered  the  church,  and  became  rector  of 
Kirby-under-Dale,  Yorkshire.  In  1840  he  was 
created  bishop  of  St.  Davids,  which  office  he 
resigned  in  June,  1874.  With  J.  C.  Hare  he 
translated  the  first  two  volumes  of  Niebuhr's 
"History  of  Rome"  (1828),  and  he  contributed 
to  Lardner's  "  Cabinet  Cyclopedia"  a  history 
of  Greece  (1835  et  seq.},  afterward  enlarged  (8 
vols.,  1845-'52).  He  published  a  speech  de 
livered  in  the  house  of  lords  in  1869  on  the 
Irish  church,  and  several  sermons.  His  "  Lit 
erary  and  Theological  Remains"  were  edited 
by  Canon  Perowne  (3  vols.,  London,  1875-'6). 

TIHRST,  the  sensation  by  which  the  want  of 
fluid  in  the  system  is  made  known,  dependent 
on  the  condition  of  the  stomach,  throat,  and 
fauces,  and  in  a  state  of  health  a  tolerably  faith 
ful  indication  of  the  requirements  of  the  body. 
It  is  generally  considered  as  immediately  re 
sulting  from  an  impression  on  the  nerves  of  the 
stomach,  as  it  is  allayed  by  the  introduction  of 
liquids  through  a  tube,  so  that  the  fauces  are 
not  touched ;  in  tliis  way  speedy  relief  is  ob 
tained,  because  of  the  instantaneous  absorption 
of  the  fluid  by  the  veins  of  the  stomach.  This, 
however,  must  be  taken  with  some  qualifica 
tion,  as  the  intensity  of  thirst  bears  no  neces 
sary  relation  to  the  amount  of  liquid  in  the 
stomach,  but  indicates  a  want  of  the  system 
which  can  be  supplied  through  the  blood  ves 
sels,  the  rectum,  or  the  skin  ;  in  fact,  the  con 
ditions  are  very  analogous  to  those  mentioned 
under  HUXGER.  A  supply  of  fluid,  as  indicated 
by  thirst,  is  necessary  to  make  up  for  the  losses 
by  cutaneous  and  pulmonary  exhalation,  and 
by  the  urinary  and  other  secretions,  which  are 
effected  chiefly  at  the  expense  of  the  water  in 
the  blood.  Thirst  is  greatest  in  a  dry  and  hot 
air,  when  the  perspiration  and  other  secretions 


THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

are  excessive ;  salted  or  highly  spiced  food, 
strong  fermented  liquors,  and  irritating  sub 
stances  and  poisons  applied  to  the  intestinal 
mucous  membrane,  excite  thirst,  no  doubt  to 
induce  an  ingestion  of  fluid  by  which  they  may 
be  diluted.  A  sudden  loss  of  blood,  either  by 
the  lancet  or  from  a  wound,  or  a  rapid  drain 
on  the  vascular  system,  as  in  Asiatic  cholera, 
diarrhoea,  or  diabetes,  causes  thirst  in  propor 
tion  to  its  amount.  Thirst  is  less  when  the 
food  is  watery,  and  when  liquid  can  be  ab 
sorbed  by  the  skin  from  the  surrounding  air 
or  water.  The  thirst  of  fever  does  not  neces 
sarily  indicate  a  pressing  demand  for  fluids,  but 
depends  on  the  dry  ness  and  heat  of  the  throat, 
mouth,  and  skin,  with  diminished  transpira 
tion,  and  is  better  relieved  by  small  pieces  of 
ice  than  by  copious  draughts  of  water.  Ani 
mals  with  naked  skins,  like  batrachians,  living 
in  water  or  moist  air,  have  no  need  to  drink 
to  quench  thirst,  cutaneous  absorption  supply 
ing  the  necessary  fluid.  The  camel,  on  the 
other  hand,  supports  thirst  for  a  long  time, 
carrying  a  supply  of  fluid  in  the  water  stomach. 
The  daily  quantity  of  fluid  taken  by  a  man  de 
pends  upon  the  temperature,  the  amount  of 
exercise  and  perspiration,  and  the  nature  of 
the  food.  As  a  general  rule,  a  man  in  good 
health,  taking  a  fair  amount  of  bodily  exercise, 
consumes  about  2^  Ibs.  of  solid  food  and  ratber 
less  than  3  Ibs.  of  liquid  food  in  a  day.  But  as 
most  articles  of  solid  food,  such  as  meat,  bread, 
and  vegetables,  themselves  contain  a  notable 
proportion  of  water,  they  contribute  so  far  to 
satisfy  the  daily  demand  for  liquids.  The  body 
requires  to  be  supplied,  either  in  the  solid  or 
liquid  form,  with  about  4|  Ibs.  of  water  daily ; 
and  if  this  quantity  from  any  cause  be  deficient, 
the  sensation  of  thirst  indicates  the  require 
ments  of  the  system.  Every  loss  of  water  from 
the  body,  as  above  mentioned,  increases  this 
demand.  Consequently,  when  from  any  acci 
dental  circumstance,  as  in  cases  of  shipwreck, 
a  sufficient  supply  of  water  for  drink  cannot 
be  obtained,  every  care  should  be  taken  to  pre 
vent  the  loss  of  fluids  from  the  system.  The 
avoidance  of  perspiration,  the  protection  of  the 
skin  from  evaporation,  and  frequent  bathing 
in  salt  water  when  practicable,  are  all  efficient 
in  diminishing  the  danger,  and  in  protracting 
as  long  as  possible  the  period  of  endurance. 

THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR,  a  religious  and  politi 
cal  conflict  which  involved  the  German  em 
pire,  and  with  it  the  principal  states  of  Europe, 
from  1618  to  1648.  The  causes  which  led  to 
this  struggle  reach  back  to  the  early  part  of 
the  16th  century,  when  the  reformation  divided 
Germany  into  two  hostile  religious  parties. 
Protestantism,  nearly  crushed  in  the  war  of 
the  Smalcald  league,  rose  triumphant  under 
Maurice  of  Saxony,  and  with  the  peace  of  Augs 
burg  (1555)  Charles  V.  beheld  the  chief  aim 
of  his  policy  for  ever  frustrated.  By  the  terms 
of  this  peace,  which  extended  to  those  Prot 
estants  only  who  had  embraced  the  confession 
of  Augsburg,  the  right  was  secured  to  each 


i:  x  i  \ 


v  OF  :! 


THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 


709 


state  of  prescribing  the  form  of  worship  within 
its  limits,  and  to  all  subjects,  Lutheran  or  Catho 
lic,  the  privilege  of  emigrating  from  the  states 
where  their  creed  was  prohibited.  The  Prot 
estants  were  to  retain  the  ecclesiastical  pos 
sessions  which  they  had  appropriated  previous 
to  the  peace  of  Passau  in  1552.  But  though 
the  basis  of  a  definite  settlement  was  estab 
lished,  two  important  points  remained  on  which 
no  agreement  could  be  reached.  The  Catholic 
party,  to  guard  against  the  danger  that  would 
accrue  to  the  church  in  the  future  appropria 
tion  of  her  prelacies  by  the  Protestants,  intro 
duced  an  article,  known  as  the  ecclesiastical 
reservation,  by  which  all  prelates  who  should 
henceforth  abjure  Catholicism  were  to  for 
feit  their  benefices.  This  article  was  inserted 
against  the  protest  of  the  Lutheran  members 
of  the  diet.  The  other  point  related  to  Prot 
estant  subjects  in  the  ecclesiastical  states,  for 
whom  the  Protestant  members  sought  to  se 
cure  the  right  of  worship  in  such  territories. 
The  Catholics  refused  to  admit  such  an  article, 
and  they  could  only  obtain  instead  a  personal 
declaration  to  the  same  effect  from  the  empe 
ror's  brother  Ferdinand,  who  presided  at  the 
diet  of  Augsburg.  The  exclusion  of  the  Cal- 
vinists  proved  another  source  of  contention. 
Under  the  rule  of  Ferdinand  I.  (1556-' 64)  and 
his  son,  the  mild  Maximilian  II.  (1564— "TO),  a 
general  tranquillity  was  maintained,  while  the 
balance  was  fast  turning  toward  the  side  of  the 
Protestants,  who  in  the  Austrian  territories 
began  to  tyrannize  over  the  Catholics.  The 
bigoted  Rudolph  II.  (1576-1612),  swayed  by  the 
Jesuits  and  the  court  of  Spain,  resolved  to  re 
press  Protestantism,  and  in  his  immediate  do 
minions  proceeded  to  restrict,  and  finally  even 
to  abolish  the  Protestant  worship.  Religious 
disputes  again  distracted  Germany.  The  en 
mity  between  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  equalled 
their  mutual  hate  for  the  Catholics.  The  aulic 
council,  whose  decisions  were  inspired  by  the 
imperial  court,  usurped  an  unlawful  jurisdic 
tion  in  the  empire.  In  Aix-la-Chapelle  the 
Protestants  established  their  worship  in  spite 
of  the  Catholics  (1580),  and  at  first  beat  back 
the  troops  sent  to  execute  the  imperial  ban. 
About  the  same  time  an  opportunity  was  pre 
sented  of  enforcing  the  ecclesiastical  reserva 
tion.  Gebhard,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  ab 
jured  his  faith  to  marry  a  Calvinist  lady,  but 
determined  not  to  renounce  his  see.  He  was 
accordingly  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  em 
pire,  and  a  war  ensued,  which  ended  in  his 
defeat  and  expulsion  in  1584.  A  violent  con 
test  followed  for  the  see  of  Strasburg.  In  1607 
the  Protestant  imperial  city  of  Donauworth, 
whose  inhabitants  an  abbot  had  provoked  to 
acts  of  violence  by  processions,  prohibited 
within  the  town,  was  deprived  of  its  liberties, 
in  open  violation  of  the  peace  of  religion. 
Alarmed  for  their  safety,  the  Protestant  princes, 
in  May,  1608,  formed  at  Auhausen  in  Franco- 
ma  an  offensive  and  defensive  league  styled 
the  "Evangelical  Union."  It  soon  comprised 


the  Palatinate,  Neuburg,  Baden,  Wiirtemberg, 
Brandenburg,  Strasburg,  Nuremberg,  and  other 
states  of  the  empire.  Frederick  IV.,  elector 
palatine,  a  Calvinist,  was  placed  at  its  head, 
though  its  most  active  member  was  Christian 
of  Anhalt.  The  Lutheran  elector  of  Saxony, 
however,  declined  to  join  the  union.  On  their 
side  the  Catholic  states,  independently  of  Aus 
tria,  established  the  league  (July,  1609),  with 
Maximilian,  duke  of  Bavaria,  at  their  head. 
In  the  mean  while  the  Protestants  of  Hun 
gary  and  Austria  had  risen  against  Rudolph 
and  recovered  their  rights  (see  RUDOLPH  II., 
and  MATTHIAS)  ;  and  thus  encouraged,  their 
brethren  in  Bohemia,  in  July,  1609,  wrung 
the  Majestatsbrief  from  the  emperor.  Amid 
these  disorders  the  heirless  duke  of  Jiilich  died 
(March,  1609),  leaving  a  host  of  claimants  to 
his  dominions,  which  were  at  once  jointly 
seized  by  Brandenburg  and  Neuburg.  Rudolph 
ordered  a  levy  of  troops  to  enforce  their  se 
questration.  The  Protestant  princes  flew  to 
arms,  and  invoked  the  aid  of  France,  the  Neth 
erlands,  and  other  powers.  Henry  IV.  of 
France  now  hoped  to  execute  his  design  of 
humbling  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  and  was  pre 
paring  to  invade  Germany  when  the  dagger 
of  Ravaillac  terminated  his  career  (May  14, 
1610).  Hostilities  ceased,  but  under  the  em 
peror  Matthias,  who  succeeded  in  1612,  the 
unsettled  claims  of  Jtilich  again  led  to  war, 
and  Dutch  and  Spaniards,  called  in  by  Branden 
burg  and  Neuburg  respectively,  occupied  the 
disputed  lands.  Matthias,  being  without  heirs, 
was  induced  to  put  forward  as  his  successor  his 
cousin  Ferdinand  of  the  Styrian  line,  whose  big 
otry  and  rigor  alarmed  the  Protestants.  Fer 
dinand  was  nevertheless  crowned  in  Bohemia  in 
1617  and  in  Hungary  in  1618.  But  already 
in  Bohemia  an  event  had  occurred  which  pre 
cipitated  the  thirty  years'  war.  The  Protes 
tant  inhabitants  of  Klostergraben  and  Braunau 
had  erected  new  churches  against  the  prohi 
bition  of  the  archbishop  of  Prague  and  the 
abbot  of  Braunau,  lords  of  the  two  places, 
who  enforced  their  authority  by  seizing  the 
buildings.  Protestants  and  Catholics  appealed 
to  a  somewhat  obscurely  worded  clause  in  the 
Majestatsbrief,  which  the  former  contended 
gave  the  right  of  building  new  churches  to 
the  Protestants  of  the  towns  in  general,  while 
the  latter  maintained  that  it  extended  only  to 
the  states  and  royal  towns.  The  court  sup 
ported  the  Catholics,  and  refused  all  redress. 
The  storm  now  burst.  On  May  23,  1618,  an 
assemblage  of  Protestants,  led  by  Count  Thurn, 
entered  the  palace  at  Prague,  and  seizing  Sla- 
vata  and  Martinitz,  the  most  odious  members 
of  the  council  of  regency  appointed  by  the 
crown,  hurled  them  together  with  their  secre 
tary  from  a  lofty  window.  They  escaped  as  if 
by  a  miracle.  Thurn  and  his  associates  organ 
ized  a  general  rising,  and  evoked  the  assistance 
of  the  union  and  of  Bethlen  Gabor  of  Transyl 
vania.  In  a  short  time  nearly  all  Bohemia  was 
in  their  hands.  They  were  joined  by  the  Sile- 


710 


TPIIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 


sians,  and  by  Mansfeld  with  4,000  men  raised 
by  the  union.  Matthias  was  forsaken  by  the 
empire,  and  the  troops  of  Spain  sent  to  his 
aid,  under  Bucquoy  and  Dampierre,  were  un 
able  to  check  the  insurrection,  which  spread 
into  Upper  Austria  and  Moravia.  In  the  midst 
of  this  crisis  Matthias  died  (March,  1619),  and 
Ferdinand,  abandoned  by  his  subjects,  was  soon 
shut  up  in  Vienna  by  the  victorious  Thurn. 
His  firmness  and  timely  succor  from  Dampierre 
saved  his  sinking  throne.  Thurn  withdrew, 
and  Ferdinand,  hastening  to  Frankfort,  was 
elected  emperor  (August,  1619).  The  Bohe 
mians,  who  had  declared  their  throne  vacant, 
offered  it  to  the  young  elector  palatine  Fred 
erick  V.,  son-in-law  of  James  I.  of  England, 
and  he  was  crowned  in  Prague.  Bethlen  Gabor 
overran  Hungary,  and  Vienna  was  again  threat 
ened,  but  again  saved.  The  emperor  now  pre 
pared  to  conquer  Frederick  by  means  of  the 
duke  of  Bavaria,  who  was  to  be  indemnified 
for  his  services.  Maximilian  assembled  the 
forces  of  the  league,  awed  the  union  into  in 
action,  and  quickly  subdued  Upper  Austria. 
John  George,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  though 
a  Protestant,  took  up  arms  against  Frederick, 
and  overran  Lusatia,  and  the  Spanish  general 
Spinola  invaded  the  Lower  Palatinate,  while 
Maximilian  joined  Bucquoy  in  Bohemia.  The 
battle  of  the  White  mountain,  before  the  walls 
of  Prague,  Nov.  8, 1 620,  drove  Frederick  from 
his  throne,  and  left  Bohemia  to  the  vengeance 
of  the  emperor.  Executions  and  confiscations 
followed.  The  Protestant  worship  was  abol 
ished,  the  kingdom  given  over  to  the  Jesuits, 
and  the  Majestdtsbrief  cut  into  pieces.  The 
electoral  dignity,  forfeited  by  Frederick,  and 
the  Upper  Palatinate,  were  eventually  trans 
ferred  to  Maximilian.  The  battle  of  Prague  was 
followed  by  the  dissolution  of  the  Protestant 
union,  but  the  intrepid  Mansfeld,  who  had  not 
shared  in  the  defeat,  determined  to  retain  his 
army.  He  marched  from  Bohemia  to  Alsace, 
and  struggled  with  Tilly,  the  general  of  Maxi 
milian  and  the  league.  George  Frederick, 
margrave  of  Baden-Durlach,  and  Christian  of 
Brunswick,  a  lawless  adventurer  like  Mans 
feld,  who  made  war  support  war,  took  up 
arms  for  Frederick.  Tilly  crushed  the  mar 
grave  at  Wimpfen  on  the  Neckar,  and  routed 
Christian  at  Hochst  (1622).  Christian  and 
Mansfeld  passed  into  the  Netherlands,  but  soon 
renewed  the  contest  with  Tilly,  who  finally 
drove  them  from  the  field.  Bethlen  Gabor, 
who  had  broken  the  peace  of  Nikolsburg  and 
penetrated  into  Moravia,  made  a  truce  with 
the  emperor  in  1624.  The  Catholic  party  was 
triumphant,  but  the  persecutions  and  the  ex 
cesses  which  now  ensued  rekindled  the  flames 
of  war.  The  states  of  Lower  Saxony  rose 
in  1625,  and  united  with  Christian  IV.  of 
Denmark,  who  took  the  lead  in  the  struggle. 
England  sent  subsidies,  Holland  aided  with 
troops,  and  Christian  of  Brunswick  and  Mans 
feld  reappeared  in  the  field.  Hitherto  it  was 
not  with  the  forces  of  Austria  but  with  those 


of  the  league  and  Spain  that  Ferdinand  had 
carried  on  the  contest.  Wallenstein  now  came 
forward  with  his  remarkable  offer,  and  with 
his  own  resources  raised  a  vast  and  indepen 
dent  army  for  the  emperor.  In  April,  1626, 
he  nearly  annihilated  the  army  of  Mansfeld  at 
Dessau,  and  pursued  him  into  Hungary,  while 
Tilly  in  August  overwhelmed  the  king  of  Den 
mark  at  Lutter.  Wallenstein  returning  drove 
back  the  Danes  into  Jutland  and  their  islands, 
occupied  Mecklenburg  and  Pomerania,  and  ex 
tended  his  designs  to  the  Baltic,  when  the  walls 
of  Stralsund  arrested  his  career  (1628).  Peace 
was  made  with  Christian  IV.  at  Liibeck,  May, 

1629.  The  Protestants  were  everywhere  sub 
dued.     Ferdinand  had  proceeded  to  consum 
mate  the  work  of  the  Catholic  reaction.     He 
issued  the  edict  of  restitution,  dated  March  6 
(N.  S.),  1629,  ordering  the  surrender  by  the 
Protestants  of  all  mediatized  church  property 
secularized  since  1552,  and  the  transfer  to  Cath 
olic  prelates  of  all  immediate  sees  held  by  Prot 
estants  against  the  ecclesiastical  reservation,  in 
cluding  two  archbishoprics  and  many  important 
bishoprics.     This  impolitic  measure  inflamed 
afresh  the  Protestant  states.    Magdeburg  firmly 
resisted  its  execution.     But  the  power  of  Aus 
tria  and  the  league  was  suddenly  repressed  by 
a  new  attack  from  the  north.     Ferdinand  was 
combating  France  in  the  contest  for  Mantua. 
Richelieu,  eager  to  involve  him  in  a  foreign 
war,  mediated  a  truce  between  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  and  Poland,  and  the  Swedish  hero  came 
forward  to  the  rescue  of  German  Protestantism. 
At  the  very  moment  of  this  new  danger,  the 
league,  exasperated  by  the  conduct  of  Wallen 
stein,  compelled  Ferdinand  to  dismiss  him,  and 
Tilly  received  the  chief  command.     In  June, 

1630,  Gustavus  landed  in  Pomerania  and  en 
tered  into  a  treaty  with  the  aged  and  overawed 
duke  Bogislas   XIV.,  and  in  January,  1631, 
concluded  a  subsidiary  alliance  with  France. 
John  George  of  Saxony,  George  William,  elec 
tor   of    Brandenburg,    and    other    Protestant 
princes  met  at  Leipsic  in  February,  1631,  and 
formed  a  league  of  neutrality.     William  V.  of 
Hesse-Cassel  became  the  bold  ally  of  Sweden. 
Gustavus  forced  the  imperialists  from  Pome 
rania  and  advanced  through  Brandenburg,  but 
was   unable   to   prevent  the   terrible  fate   of 
Magdeburg,  which  on  May  10  (N.  S.,  20)  was 
stormed  by  Tilly  and  Pappenheim.     He  now 
compelled  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  to  enter 
into   a  treaty,  avoided  an  engagement  with 
Tilly,  and  restored  Mecklenburg  to  its  dispos 
sessed  dukes.     Tilly,  who  had  received  orders 
to  break  up  the  Leipsic  union,  attacked  Sax 
ony,  and  drove  the  mean-spirited  elector  into 
an  alliance  with  Sweden.     Gustavus  marched 
against  him,  and  on  Sept.  7  (N.  S.,  17),  1631, 
Tilly  sustained  a  crushing  defeat  at  Breiten- 
feld  near  Leipsic.     The   Catholic  power  lay 
prostrate.     While  the  Saxon  general  Arnheim 
invaded  Bohemia  and  occupied  Prague,  Gus 
tavus  carried  his  victorious  arms  to  the  Rhino 
and  into  Swabia,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Lech, 


THIRTY   YEARS'  WAR 


711 


where  Tilly  was  mortally  wounded  (April  5, 
1632),  and  overrunning  Bavaria  threatened 
the  Austrian  dominions.  He  was  checked  by 
Wallenstein,  who,  after  -witnessing  with  se 
cret  joy  the  misfortunes  of  the  Catholics, 
had  been  reinvested  by  Ferdinand  with  the 
supreme  command.  A  new  army  had  arisen 
at  his  call.  He  was  joined  by  Maximilian  and 
Aldringer  with  the  forces  of  the  league,  and  at 
Nuremberg  the  contending  armies  stood  face 
to  face  till  their  ranks  wasted  away.  Then 
carrying  the  war  northward,  they  fought  a 
desperate  battle  at  Ltitzen,  Nov.  6  (N.  S.,  16), 
1632.  Gustavus  fell,  but  the  Swedes  remained 
masters  of  the  field.  Pappenheim  was  among 
the  slain.  The  death  of  the  Swedish  king, 
which  was  followed  by  that  of  the  unfortunate 
Frederick  V.,  spread  consternation  among  the 
Protestants.  But  the  Swedish  chancellor  Ox- 
enstiern  was  equal  to  the  occasion,  while  gen 
erals  like  Bernhard  of  AVeimar,  Horn,  Baner, 
and  Torstenson,  trained  in  the  school  of  Gus 
tavus,  emulated  his  deeds.  In  1633  Oxenstiern 
assembled  the  states  of  upper  Germany  at  Heil- 
bronn,  and  was  charged  with  the  conduct  of 
the  war.  Wallenstein,  instead  of  securing  to 
the  emperor  the  advantages  resulting  from  the 
death  of  his  great  adversary,  surprised  the 
world  by  his  inactivity  and  mysterious  con 
duct.  He  led  his  army  into  Silesia,  and  con 
fronted  the  Saxons  and  Swedes,  but  wasted 
the  campaign  in  negotiations.  With  a  devoted 
army  at  his  command,  he  was  now  bent  ex 
clusively  on  schemes  of  personal  ambition. 
The  suspicions  of  the  court  were  aroused,  and 
his  treasonable  designs  ended  in  his  assassina 
tion  in  February,  1634.  (See  WALLEXSTEIN.) 
The  chief  command  was  transferred  to  the 
emperor's  son  Ferdinand,  who,  seconded  by 
Gallas  and  Piccolomini,  advanced  through  Ba 
varia.  He  was  joined  by  Charles  of  Lorraine 
and  a  Spanish  army,  and  on  Sept.  6  the  Prot 
estant  forces  under  Bernhard  of  Weimar  and 
the  Swedish  general  Horn  were  nearly  anni 
hilated  at  Nordlingen.  This  blow  was  fol 
lowed  by  the  defection  of  the  elector  of  Sax 
ony,  who  in  May,  1635,  entered  into  the  peace 
of  Prague  with  the  emperor  and  turned  his 
arms  against  his  recent  allies.  The  accep 
tance  of  the  terms  of  this  peace,  which  sac 
rificed  the  Calvinists  and  Swedes,  was  to  be 
made  compulsory  in  all  the  states  and  enforced 
by  an  army  of  execution.  Many  of  the  Prot 
estant  states  assented  or  were  forced  to  yield, 
but  Sweden,  having  no  alternative  short  of  re 
linquishing  her  conquest,  determined  to  con 
tinue  the  struggle.  Richelieu  seized  the  op 
portunity  offered  by  the  depression  of  the 
Protestant  cause  to  promote  the  aggrandize 
ment  of  France.  He  renewed  the  alliance 
with  Sweden,  declared  war  against  Spain,  and 
made  Bernhard  commander  of  the  French 
forces.  Baner  began  a  series  of  brilliant  cam 
paigns,  won  a  great  victory  over  the  armies 
of  John  George  and  Hatzfeld  at  AVittstock, 
Sept.  24,  1636,  and  carried  the  war  into  the 


Austrian  territories.  In  the  mean  while  France 
was  attacked  by  the  Spaniards,  the  imperial 
ists,  and  Charles  of  Lorraine,  and  John  de 
Weert  spread  terror  to  the  gates  of  Paris.  In 
February,  1637,  the  emperor  died,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Ferdinand  III.  The  year 
1638  opened  with  the  successes  of  Bernhard, 
who  in  February  captured  John  de  Weert 
and  other  generals  at  Rheinfelden.  In  De 
cember  he  took  the  important  fortress  of  Brei- 
sach,  and  outwitted  the  French  by  appropria 
ting  his  conquests.  On  his  sudden  death  in 
1639,  France  obtained  control  of  his  army, 
and  pressed  the  war  with  vigor.  Torstenson, 
a  general  unsurpassed  in  the  celerity  of  his 
movements,  who  became  the  Swedish  com- 
mander-in-chief  on  the  death  of  Baner  in  1641, 
shook  the  Austrian  throne  by  repeated  inva 
sions,  overthrew  the  archduke  Leopold  AY illiam 
and  Piccolomini  at  Breitenfeld,  Oct.  23,  1642, 
chastised  Christian  IV.  for  his  designs  against 
Sweden,  completely  defeated  Gallas  in  1644, 
won  a  great  victory  at  Jankau  in  Bohemia, 
Feb.  24,  1645,  taking  Hatzfeld  prisoner,  and 
marched  on  Vienna.  Rakoczy,  prince  of  Tran 
sylvania,  advanced  through  Hungary,  and  Vien 
na  barely  escaped  the  combined  attack.  On  the 
side  of  the  French,  Guebriant  signalized  him 
self  at  Kempen  in  January,  1642,  and  the  young 
duke  d'Enghien  (the  future  Conde)  beat  the 
Spaniards  at  Rocroy  in  1643.  But  in  Novem 
ber,  1643,  the  French  suffered  a  great  defeat 
at  Tuttlingen  in  Swabia  through  the  genius  of 
John  de  AVeert.  Conde  and  Turenne  retrieved 
this  disgrace  near  Nordlingen  in  August,  1645, 
where  Mercy,  their  eminent  adversary,  fell. 
Turenne  and  AA'rangel,  the  successor  of  Tor 
stenson,  reduced  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  the 
steadfast  ally  of  Austria,  to  the  last  extremity. 
Ivonigsmark,  another  Swedish  general,  made 
himself  master  of  a  part  of  Prague  in  July, 
1648,  and  the  old  town,  on  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  Moldau,  had  been  attacked,  though  fruit 
lessly,  when  on  Nov.  3  the  news  came  of  the 
signing  of  the  peace  of  AA'estphalia.  This  peace 
terminated  a  struggle  which  had  converted  Ger 
many  into  a  vast  field  of  desolation  and  horror. 
— As  early  as  1641  the  preliminaries  regard 
ing  the  conduct  of  the  negotiations  had  been 
arranged  at  Hamburg,. and  Munster  and  Osna- 
briick  in  the  circle  of  AVestphalia  assigned  for 
|  the  meeting  of  two  separate  congresses.  At 
I  Munster  the  empire,  France,  Spain,  and  the 
I  Catholics  generally  were  to  negotiate,  under 
the  mediation  of  the  pope  ;  and  at  Osnabrtick 
the  empire,  Sweden,  and  the  Protestants,  under 
that  of  Denmark.  But  discussions  on  cere 
monial  and  the  varying  fortunes*  of  the  war 
caused  years  to  elapse  before  the  congresses 
could  assemble  and  enter  upon  earnest  delib 
erations.  Denmark  and  the  pope  ultimately 
withdrew,  and  Venice  became  the  mediator. 
Separate  treaties  were  concluded  at  Osna 
brtick  (Aug.  6,  1648)  and  Munster  (Sept.  8), 
and  on  Oct.  24,  1648,  the  definitive  signa 
tures  were  annexed.  Nearly  every  power  of 


712 


THIRTY   YEARS'  WAR 


THISTLE 


Europe  was  represented.  Holland  and  Switz 
erland  were  declared  independent  of  the  em 
pire.  France  gained  Alsace,  and  was  con 
firmed  in  the  possession  of  the  bishoprics  of 
Toul,  Metz,  and  Verdun.  Sweden  received 
Pomerania  W.  of  the  Oder,  together  with  Stet 
tin  and  other  towns,  the  island  of  Riigen,  Wis- 
mar,  and  the  secularized  sees  of  Bremen  and 
Verdcn ;  the  whole  to  be  held  as  a  fief  of  the 
empire,  with  three  votes  in  the  diet.  The 
Swedes  were  furthermore  accorded  5,000,000 
thalers.  Brandenburg  retained  further  Pome 
rania,  received  the  secularized  sees  of  Halber- 
stadt,  Minden,  and  Oammin,  and  secured  the 
succession  to  the  see  of  Magdeburg.  The 
elector  of  Saxony  was  to  retain  Lusatia  and 
some  minor  acquisitions ;  and  the  secularized 
bishoprics  of  Schwerin  and  Ratzeburg  were 
allotted  to  Mecklenburg.  The  Upper  Pala 
tinate  with  the  dignity  of  elector  was  con 
firmed  to  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  and  an  eighth 
electorate  was  erected  for  Charles  Louis,  son 
of  Frederick  V.,  who  recovered  the  Lower 
Palatinate.  By  a  singular  article  the  see  of 
Osnabriick  was  to  bo  alternately  vested  in  a 
Catholic  bishop  and  a  prince  of  the  house  of 
Brunswick-Ltineburg.  The  possession  of  the 
ecclesiastical  benefices  was  placed  on  the  basis 
of  Jan.  1  (N.  S.),  1624;  and  in  the  case  of  the 
Palatinate,  Baden-Durlach,  and  Wiirtemberg, 
the  Catholics  were  obliged  to  accept  1618  as 
the  normal  year.  The  treaty  introduced  an  age 
of  more  general  toleration  in  Germany.  The 
peace  of  religion  of  1555  was  confirmed  and 
extended  to  the  Calvinists,  and  the  equality  of 
the  Catholic,  Lutheran,  and  Reformed  creeds 
was  established.  In  all  religious  questions  the 
Protestants  were  to  have  an  equal  weight  with 
the  Catholics  in  the  diet  and  high  courts  of  the 
empire.  Each  state  of  the  empire  Avas  to  ex 
ercise  the  right  of  sovereignty,  with  the  liberty 
of  concluding  treaties  and  alliances.  The  au 
tonomy  thus  accorded  to  the  states,  and  the 
still  further  diminution  of  the  emperor's  au 
thority,  weakened  the  structure  of  the  Ger 
manic  body,  and  paved  the  way  for  foreign 
intervention.  The  constitutional  provisions 
of  the  treaty  became  the  fundamental  law  of 
the  empire.  The  peace  of  Westphalia  termi 
nated  the  religious  wars  of  Europe,  and  forms 
a  grand  landmark  in  its  history.  The  em 
pire  had  declined  into  little  more  than  a  con 
federation  of  states,  and  the  era  of  French 
greatness  succeeded  to  that  of  Hapsburg  ascen 
dancy.  Spain  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  Holland,  and  continued  the  war  against 
France  with  disastrous  results. — See  the  his 
tories  of  the  thirty  years'  war  by  Schiller,  K. 
A.  Mcnzel  (3  vols.,  Breslau,  1835-'9),  Gindely 
(Prague,  1800),  and  S.  R.  Gardiner  (London, 
1874) ;  also  Sir  Edward  Cust,  "  Lives  of  the 
Warriors  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  "  (London, 
1865);  Ranke,  Gcscliiclite  Wallensteins  (Leip- 
sic,  1869) ;  and  Felix  Stieve,  Ursprung  des  \ 
dreissifijahrigen  Kriegcs.  1607-1619  (vol.  i., 
Munich,  1875). 


THISBE.     See  PYEAMUS  AND  THISBE. 

THISTLE,  the  common  name  for  plants  of 
the  genus  cnicus  (Gr.  nvi&w,  to  prick),  of  the 
composite  family.  In  most  works  the  Ameri 
can  species  are  placed  under  cirsiurn,  a  genus 
mainly  differing  from  cnicus  by  the  character 
of  the  pappus,  and  some  European  authors 
unite  all  the  thistles  under  carduus.  Gray  in 
a  late  revision  of  the  North  American  thistles 
("Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy") 
restores  them  to  the  Linna3an  genus  cnicus. 
The  name  is  sometimes  used  in  combination 
for  plants  not  closely  related ;  thus  the  teasle  is 
called  fuller's  thistle.  The  thistles  are  herbs, 
often  with  perennial  roots,  with  sessile  alter 
nate  leaves  which  are  often  much  divided  and 
prickly ;  the  branches  of  the  stem  terminated 
by  heads  of  flowers  (often  very  large),  with 
an  ovoid  or  spherical  involucre,  the  scales  to 
which  are  imbricated  in  many  rows,  and  tipped 
with  a  point  or  prickle ;  the  flowers  in  the 
head  are  all  tubular  and  similar,  usually  perfect, 
but  sometimes  dioecious;  their  usual  color  is 
purple,  but  in  some  species  they  are  yellowish 
or  cream-colored ;  the  receptacle  on  which  the 
flowers  are  placed  is  furnished  with  numerous 
soft  bristles ;  the  one-seeded  akenes  bear  at 
the  top  a  pappus,  or  tuft  of  numerous  hairs, 
which  are  united  into  a  ring  at  the  base  and 
are  feathery  with  smaller  hairs,  forming  the 
well  known  thistle  down.  About  30  species 
are  found  in  the  United  States;  two  of  them 
are  introduced,  and  are  among  the  most  com 
mon  and  most  annoying  weeds.  The  common 
thistle  (C.  lanccolatus),  often  called  in  this 


Common  Thistle  (Cnicus  lanceolatus). 

country  bull  thistle,  is  one  of  these,  and  the 
most  frequent  of  all  the  species.  The  large 
leaves  are  decurrent,  i.  e.,  their  bases  are  pro 
longed  downward  upon  the  stem  as  a  spiny, 
lobed  wing;  they  are  prickly  on  the  upper 
surface  and  covered  below  with  cobwebby 
hairs;  the  heads,  about  an  inch  in  diameter, 
have  all  the  scales  tipped  with  prickles,  the 


THISTLE 


THOLUCK 


713 


outer  ones  spreading ;  flowers  purple.  This  is 
a  large  showy  species;  its  stems  in  rich  soil 
are  3  to  4  ft.  high,  and  its  robust  spreading 
leaves  give  it  a  formidable  appearance,  while 
in  reality  it  is  very  easily  destroyed  ;  its  root 
being  biennial,  there  is  no  danger  that  it  will 
retain  possession  of  the  soil.  In  Great  Britain 
this  is  called  spear  thistle ;  it  is  the  Scotch  na- 


Canada  Thistle  (Cnicus  arvensif-). 

tional  emblem.  The  other  introduced  species 
is  G.  arvensis,  known  as  the  creeping  this 
tle  in  Europe,  and  in  this  country  by  the  mis 
nomer  of  the  Canada  thistle ;  it  is  a  perennial, 
spreading  rapidly  and  extensively  by  its  long 
creeping  rootstocks,  which  send  to  the  sur 
face  numerous  stems  18  in.  to  3  ft.  high;  the 
handsomely  cut  leaves  are  smooth,  or  some 
what  woolly  below,  and  very  prickly  on  the 
margins  with  slender  spines;  the  heads  about 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  on  short  pedicels  and 
forming  a  loose  terminal  corymb ;  the  outer 
scales  of  the  involucre  with  minute  prickly 
points;  flowers  pale  lilac.  In  this  species  the 
flowers  are  dioecious,  the  male  heads  nearly 
globular,  with  more  conspicuous  flowers  than 
the  female  heads,  which  are  longer  ;  plants  of 
each  sex  form  separate  patches.  This  plant, 
which  has  followed  cultivation  to  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  world,  is  supposed  to  have  re 
ceived  the  name  by  which  it  is  exclusively 
known  in  this  country  from  its  having  been 
introduced  in  the  fleeces  of  sheep  brought 
from  Canada ;  it  is  justly  regarded  by  our 
farmers,  as  it  was  in  Lapland  in  the  days  of 
Linnseus,  as  "the  greatest  pest  of  our  fields;" 
its  deep  roots,  below  the  reach  of  the  plough, 
and  its  abundant  seeds,  furnish  it  with  ample 
means  for  spreading;  the  creeping  rootstock 
is  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  and  when 
broken  every  fragment  is  capable  of  forming 
a  new  plant.  Many  states  have  a  law  which 
makes  it  obligatory  on  each  owner  to  destroy 
it  upon  his  land,  under  penalty  of  its  being 
done  by  the  authorities  and  the  cost  charged 
as  a  tax.  Like  other  perennial  weeds,  it  soon 


yields  to  frequent  mowing ;  but  to  be  effective 
this  must  be  persistent.  None  of  our  native 
thistles  can  be  regarded  as  troublesome  weeds. 
The  yellow  thistle  (C.  liorriduhis)  is  found 
near  the  coast;  the  pasture  thistle  (C.  pumi- 
lus)  is  a  low  species  with  very  large  heads  of 
fragrant  purple  (or  white)  flowers;  the  tall 
thistle  (C.  altissimus),  a  more  southern  spe 
cies,  is  often  10  ft.  high  and  a  rather  showy 
plant.  The  blessed  thistle  (C.  lenedictus),  so 
called  on  account  of  its  former  use  in  medi 
cine,  is  barely  naturalized  southward. — The 
cotton  thistle,  of  a  closely  related  European 
genus,  is  onopordon  acanthium  ;  it  is  a  stately 
plant  covered  with  whitish  cottony  hairs,  and 
is  occasionally  met  with  in  the  older  states. 
This  is  said  to  be  cultivated  in  Scotland  as  the 
Scotch  thistle,  but  the  best  authorities  give  the 
common  species  already  described  as  the  em 
blematic  thistle.  The  milk  thistle  is  silylum 
Marianum,  related  to  the  true  thistles,  and 
sometimes  cultivated  in  old  gardens;  it  has 
purple  flowers,  and  leaves  blotched  with  white. 
Torch  thistle  is  a  name  given  in  tropical  coun 
tries  to  the  tall  species  of  ccreus  of  the  cacta- 
cece.  Sow  thistles  are  coarse  composite  weeds 
of  the  genus  sonchus. 

THISTLE,  Order  of  the  (also  called  the  order 
of  St.  Andrew),  a  Scottish  order  of  knight 
hood,  reputed  on  very  insufficient  grounds  to 
be  of  great  antiquity.  The  thistle  is  men 
tioned  as  the  national  emblem  of  Scotland  in 
the  inventory  of  the  effects  of  James  III.,  who 
is  thought  to  have  adopted  it.  It  appears  on 
coins  of  James  IV.,  James  V.,  Mary,  and  James 
VI.,  on  the  last  with  the  motto  Nemo  me  im- 
pune  lacessit.  A  collar  of  thistles  appears  on 
the  gold  bonnet  pieces  of  James  V.  of  1539, 
and  with  the  royal  ensigns  depicted  in  Sir 
David  Lindsay's  armorial  register  of  1542.  But 
this  was  a  mere  device.  The  order  had  no  dis 
tinct  existence  previous  to  1687,  when  a  war 
rant  for  its  restitution  was  issued  by  James 
VII.  of  Scotland  and  II.  of  England.  It  fell 
into  abeyance  after  the  abdication  of  James, 
but  was  restored  by  Anne  in  1703,  and  is  now 
one  of  the  recognized  orders  of  the  British  em 
pire.  The  warrant  of  1687  confined  the  num 
ber  of  knights  to  12,  besides  the  sovereign; 
but  since  May,  1827,  it  has  been  permanently 
extended  to  1 6. 

THOLICK,  Friedrich  August  Gotttrcn,  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  Breslau,  March  30,  1799. 
He  completed  his  education  at  the  university 
of  Berlin,  and  was  thoroughly  converted  from 
his  skeptical  tendencies  under  the  influence  of 
Schleiermacher  and  Meander,  and  more  espe 
cially  through  Baron  von  Kottwitz,  a  mem 
ber  of  the  Moravian  brotherhood.  In  1824 
he  became  professor  of  oriental  literature  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1826  was  transferred  to  Halle, 
where  he  has  labored  ever  since,  except  in 
1828-' 9,  when  he  was  chaplain  to  the  Prussian 
embassy  at  Rome.  He  at  first  suffered  perse 
cution  from  the  prevailing  rationalism  of  his 
colleagues,  but  succeeded  in  effecting  a  radical 


714 


THOMAS 


change,  the  whole  theological  faculty  of  Halle 
becoming  decidedly  evangelical.  His  numer 
ous  works  include  Wahre  Weihe  des  Zweiflers 
(1824;  8th  ed.  published  in  1867  under  the 
title  Die  Lehre  win  Sunder  und  wm  Versohner  ; 
translated  into  English  by  Ryland,  with  an  in 
troduction  by  John  Pye  Smith,  "  Guido  and 
Julius,  the  Doctrine  of  Sin  and  the  Propitia 
tor,"  republished  in  Boston,  1856);  Bluten- 
sammlung  aus  der  morgenldndischen  My  stile 
(1825),  a  collection  of  translations  from  the 
mystic  poets  of  the  East ;  commentaries  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (1824,  twice  trans 
lated  into  English),  the  first  exegetical  fruit  of 
the  new  evangelical  theology;  the  Gospel  of 
John  (1827;  translated  into  English  by  Kauf- 
mann,  1836,  and  by  Dr.  C.  P.  Krauth,  Phila 
delphia,  1859),  less  thorough  but  better  adapt 
ed  for  students  than  his  other  commentaries ; 
the  sermon  on  the  mount  (1833;  translated 
into  English  by  B.  L.  Brown,  Edinburgh,  1860), 
his  most  elaborate  and  valuable  exegetical  pro 
duction;  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (1836); 
and  the  Psalms  (1843 ;  translated  into  English, 
Philadelphia,  1859) ;  Die  Glaubwiirdiglceit  der 
evangelischen  Geschichte  (1837),  a  vindication 
of  the  Gospels  against  the  mythical  theory 
of  Strauss ;  Stunden  der  Andacht  (2  vols., 
1840 ;  7th  ed.,  1867),  containing  several  origi 
nal  hymns  ;  Vorgescliiclite  des  Rationalisms  s 
(4  vols.,  Halle,  1853-'62);  Predigtcn  uber  die 
IlauptstilcJce  des  christlicJien  Glaubens  und  Le- 
lens  (5  vols.,  3d  ed.,  Gotha,  1863-'4);  and  Ge- 
scliichte  des  Rationalismus  (parti.,  Berlin,  1865). 
His  complete  works  are  in  11  vols.  (1863-'72). 
THOMAS.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Georgia,  bor 
dering  on  Florida,  and  drained  by  the  Ockloc- 
konee  river  and  its  head  streams ;  area,  920 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,523,  of  whom  8,363 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil 
fertile.  The  Atlantic  and  Gulf  railroad  trav 
erses  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
248,618  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  58,962  of  oats, 
58,187  of  sweet  potatoes,  6,092  bales  of  cotton, 
24,022  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  21,378  of  rice.  There 
were  907  horses,  1,026  mules  and  asses,  3,375 
milch  cows,  7,631  other  cattle,  9,805  sheep, 
and  14,916  swine.  Capital,  Thomasville.  II. 
An  unorganized  N.  "W.  county  of  Kansas ;  area, 
1,080  sq.  m.  It  is  intersected  in  the  north 
west  by  the  N".  and  S.  forks  of  Sappa  creek, 
and  contains  the  sources  of  Saline  river,  the 
N.  and  S.  forks  of  Solomon  river,  and  Prairie 
Dog  creek.  It  has  a  rolling  surface  and  pro 
ductive  soil,  well  adapted  to  stock  raising. 

THOMAS,  Cilarles  Louis  Amforoise,  a  French 
composer,  born  in  Metz,  Aug.  5,  1811.  In 
1828  he  was  admitted  to  the  conservatory  of 
Paris,  where  in  1829  he  took  the  first  prize  for 
piano  playing,  and  in  1830  for  harmony;  two 
years  later  the  academy  of  fine  arts  gave  him 
the  first  prize  for  musical  composition,  which 
entitled  him  to  a  course  of  musical  instruction 
in  Italy,  where  he  remained  several  years. 
Returning  to  Paris  in  1836,  he  composed  the 
following  operas,  which  were  represented : 


La  double  echelle  (1837);  Le  per ruquier  de  la 
regence  (1838) ;  La  Gypsy,  a  ballet  (1839)  ; 
Le  panier  fleuri  (1839);  Carline  (1840) ;  Le 
comte  de  Carmagnola  (1841) ;  Le  guerrillero 
(1842)  ;  Angelique  et  Medor  (1843)  ;  Le  cald,  a 
comic  opera  (1849)  ;  and  Le  songe  d'une  nuit 
(Pete.  His  later  works  are  Raymond,  La  .To- 
nelli,  La  coiir  de  Celimene,  Psyche,  Le  carnaval 
de  Venise,  Mignon  (1866),  and  Hamlet  (1868). 
The  last  two  are  the  best  of  this  composer's  ef 
forts,  though  Hamlet  is  redeemed  from  dulness 
only  by  the  fine  music  of  the  fourth  act.  The 
opera  was  written  for  Mile.  Nilsson,  who  crea 
ted  the  role  of  Ophelia.  He  is  now  (1876)  en 
gaged  upon  a  grand  opera,  Francesca  da  Rimini. 

THOMAS,  Christians  of  St.  See  CHRISTIANS  OF 
ST.  THOMAS. 

THOMAS,  George  Henry,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Southampton  co.,  Va.,  July  31,  1816, 
died  in  San  Francisco,  March  28,  1870.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1836,  was  assigned 
to  the  artillery,  and  served  in  the  Florida  war 
(1840-'42).  In  the  war  with  Mexico  (1846-'8) 
he  was  engaged  in  the  defence  of  Fort  Brown, 
and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Monterey  and 
Buena  Vista,  being  successively  brevetted  as 
captain  and  major.  He  served  in  the  war 
against  the  Seminole  Indians  in  1849-'50,  from 
1851  to  1854  was  instructor  of  artillery  and 
cavalry  at  West  Point,  and  was  afterward  on 
frontier  duty,  principally  in  California  and 
Texas,  till  1860,  and  was  wounded  in  a  skir 
mish  with  the  Indians  near  the  head  waters  of 
the  Brazos.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
he  was  made  colonel  of  cavalry,  and  took  part 
in  the  operations  in  the  valley  of  the  Shenan- 
doah  in  the  summer  of  1861.  In  August  he 
was  made  brigadier  general  of  volunteers,  and, 
being  in  command  of  a  division  of  the  army  of 
the  Ohio,  took  part  in  the  operations  in  Ten 
nessee  and  Mississippi.  He  was  made  major 
general  of  volunteers,  April  25,  1862,  and  was 
engaged  in  the  operations  in  Alabama,  Tennes 
see,  and  Kentucky.  During  Rosecrans's  cam 
paign  in  Tennessee  and  Georgia  he  commanded 
a  corps  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland,  and 
bore  an  important  part  in  the  battle  of  Mur- 
freesboro,  Dec.  26,  1862,  to  Jan.  2,  1863,  and  in 
that  of  Chickamauga,  Sept.  19,  20,  1863,  where 
his  firmness  prevented  that  check  from  becom 
ing  a  disaster.  In  October  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  department  and  army  of  the 
Cumberland,  and  was  made  brigadier  general 
of  the  regular  army.  At  the  battle  of  Chat 
tanooga  three  divisions  of  his  army  gave  the 
finishing  blow  at  Missionary  ridge.  During 
Sherman's  Atlanta  campaign  the  army  of  the 
Cumberland,  comprising  three  corps  and  three 
cavalry  divisions,  was  constantly  engaged.  In 
October,  1864,  Thomas  was  sent  to  Nashville, 
to  concentrate  the  forces  in  Tennessee  against 
the  invasion  of  Gen.  Hood,  whom  he  finally 
routed  before  Nashville,  Dec.  15,  16.  He  was 
made  major  general,  and  received  the  thanks 
of  congress  for  his  conduct  in  these  operations, 
March  3,  1865  ;  and  on  the  first  anniversary  of 


THOMAS 


THOMASIUS 


715 


the  battle  of  Nashville  a  gold  medal  was  pre 
sented  to  him  by  the  state  of  Tennessee.  From 
June,  .1865,  to  March,  1867,  he  was  in  com 
mand  of  the  military  division  (afterward  the 
department)  of  the  Tennessee,  his  headquar 
ters  being  at  Nashville  and  Louisville.  He 
was  subsequently  assigned  to  the  command  of 
the  third  military  district,  comprising  Georgia, 
Florida,  and  Alabama,  and  next  to  that  of 
the  Cumberland  ;  and  in  1868,  having  declined 
the  brevet  rank  of  lieutenant  general,  on  the 
ground  that  he  had  since  the  war  done  noth 
ing  to  entitle  him  to  such  promotion,  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  fourth  military  divi 
sion,  comprising  the  territory  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  including  Alaska,  respecting  which  he 
made  a  valuable  report. 

THOMAS,  Isaiah,  an  American  printer,  born 
in  Boston  in  1749,  died  in  Worcester,  April  4, 
1831.  He  commenced  business  as  a  printer  in 
Newburyport  in  1767.  In  1770  he  removed  to 
Boston  and  established  the  "  Massachusetts 
Spy,"  in  which  he  attacked  with  great  boldness 
the  oppressive  measures  of  the  British  govern 
ment  toward  the  colonies  ;  and  Gov.  Hutchin- 
son  vainly  endeavored  to  procure  his  indict 
ment.  In  1775  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
skirmish  at  Lexington,  and  on  May  3  com 
menced  issuing  his  paper  from  Worcester.  In 
1788  he  opened  a  bookstore  in  Boston,  and 
soon  after  established  branches  of  his  business 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  while 
continuing  to  reside  in  Worcester.  In  1791  he 
printed  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in  folio,  and 
subsequently  issued  numerous  editions  of 
smaller  size.  For  many  years  most  of  the 
school  books  of  the  country  were  printed  and 
published  by  him.  In  1810  he  published  his 
"History  of  Printing  in  America"  (2  vols. 
8vo).  The  American  antiquarian  society  of 
Worcester  was  founded  through  his  efforts  in 
1812,  and  liberally  endowed  by  him. 

THOMAS,  Joseph,  an  American  author,  born 
in  Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y.,  about  1811.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Rensselaer  institute,  Troy,  and 
at  Yale  college,  was  for  some  time  professor 
of  Latin  and  Greek  in  Haverford  college,  Pa., 
took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  in  Philadelphia,  and 
settled  there  as  a  physician.  In  1857-'8  he 
was  in  India  studying  oriental  languages.  He 
is  the  author  of  the  system  of  pronouncing 
geographical  names  in  "Baldwin's  Pronoun 
cing  Gazetteer"  (Philadelphia,  1845),  of  the 
geographical  and  biographical  vocabularies  in 
several  editions  of  Webster's  Dictionary,  and 
of  "Travels  in  Egypt  and  Palestine"  (1853). 
With  Thomas  Baldwin  he  edited  "A  New  and 
Complete  Gazetteer  of  the  United  States " 
(1854),  and  "  Lippincott's  Pronouncing  Gazet 
teer  of  the  World"  (1855;  new  ed.,  1866)^; 
and  he  edited  alone  a  "  Comprehensive  Medi 
cal  Dictionary"  (1864),  and  a  "Universal  Pro 
nouncing  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  Mythol 
ogy  "  (2  vols.  large  8vo,  1870-'71). 

THOMAS,  Saint,  also  called  Didymus,  one  of 
the  twelve  apostles.  Both  names,  the  Hebrew 


Thomas  (Th'om)  and  the  Greek  Didymus,  de 
note  a  twin.  Thomas  is  rarely  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament,  and  little  is  known  of 
him.  The  principal  traits  of  his  character  are 
given  in  the  Gospel  of  John.  When  Jesus 
after  his  crucifixion  appeared  to  his  disciples, 
Thomas  was  not  present,  and  refused  to  be 
lieve  until  he  himself  saw  and  touched  Jesus. 
As  to  the  scene  of  his  apostolical  labors,  the 
statements  of  the  ecclesiastical  writers  of  the 
first  centuries  do  not  agree  ;  according  to  some 
it  was  Parthia,  according  to  others  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia,  and  according  to  others  India,  where 
the  Portuguese  in  the  16th  century  asserted 
that  they  had  found  his  body.  An  ancient 
sect  (see  CHRISTIANS  or  ST.  THOMAS),  who 
early  in  the  middle  ages  were  numerous  in 
Persia  and  still  survive  in  India,  claim  St. 
Thomas  as  their  founder ;  but  many  theolo 
gians  consider  the  account  of  the  labors  of  St. 
Thomas  in  India  as  having  been  invented  by 
the  Manichreans,  and  as  early  as  the  5th  cen 
tury  the  Thomas  of  India  was  regarded  by 
Theodoret  as  a  disciple  of  Manes.  To  the 
apostle  Thomas  an  Eiangelium  Infantm 
Christi  (also  called  Eiangelium  secundum 
Thommii)  is  ascribed,  which  pretends  to  fill 
up  the  gaps  left  by  the  canonical  Gospels  in 
the  time  from  the  infancy  of  Jesus  until  his 
public  appearance ;  but  it  has  always  been 
regarded  as  apocryphal.  (See  Thilo,  Acta 
Thomce  Apostoli,  Leipsic,  1823.)  St.  Thomas 
is  commemorated  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  on  Dec.  21  ;  in  the  Greek  church  on 
the  first  Sunday  of  her  church  year,  beginning 
with  Easter  (hence  called  Thomas  Sunday). 

THOMAS  A  REMPIS.     See  KEMPIS. 

THOMAS  AQUXAS.     See  AQCIXAS. 

THOMASIUS.  I.  Christian,  a  German  philoso 
pher,  born  in  Leipsic  in  January,  1655,  died  in 
Halle,  Sept,  23,  1728.  He  was  educated  by  his 
father,  the  rector  of  the  celebrated  Thomas- 
schule,  and  from  1675  to  1679  studied  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder.  Returning  to  Leipsic  in 
1679,  he  undertook  a  course  of  lectures  at  the 
university,  and  in  1687  he  began  to  lecture 
in  the  German  instead  of  the  Latin  language. 
From  1688  to  1690  he  issued  a  monthly  series 
of  papers  devoted  chiefly  to  current  literature. 
Persecution  finally  forced  him  to  flee  from 
Leipsic,  and  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  was 
kindly  received  by  the  elector  Frederick  III., 
afterward  King  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia.  He 
subsequently  delivered  lectures  at  Plalle,  and 
his  success  induced  the  elector  in  1694  to  found 
the  university  of  Halle,  of  which  in  1710 
Thomasius  became  rector  and  dean  of  the  fac 
ulty  of  jurisprudence.  It  was  principally  by 
his  exertions  that  trials  for  witchcraft  and  tor 
ture  were  abolished  in  Germany.  His  most 
important  works  are  :  Historic  der  Weis- 
lieit  und  Thorlieit  (Halle,  1693),  and  Ver- 
nilnftige  und  christliclie,  ciber  nicht  scliein- 
neilige  Gedanken  und  Erinnerungen  iiberaller- 
hand  amerlesene,  gemischte  pJiilosopMscJie  und 
juristische  Handel  (3  vols.,  1723-'6).  His  life 


716 


THOMASSIN 


THOMPSON 


has  been  written  by  Luden  (Christian  Thoma- 
sius  nach  seinen  ScJiicksalen  und  Schriften, 
Berlin,  1805),  and  by  Wagner  (1872).  II.  Gott 
fried,  a  German  theologian,  a  descendant  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1802,  died  in  1875.  He  was 
a  Lutheran  pastor  and  teacher  in  Nuremberg 
from  1829  to  1842,  and  for  the  rest  of  his  life 
professor  of  dogmatics  at  Erlangen.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Zeitschrift  far 
Protestantismus  und  KircJie.  His  works  in 
clude,  besides  treatises  on  the  Lutheran  church, 
Origines  :  ein  Beitrag  zur  DogmengescliicJite  des 
3.  Jahrhunderts  (1837);  Beitrdge  zur  JcircJi- 
lichen  Christologie  (1845)  ;  and  Christi  Person 
und  WerTc  (3  vols.,  1856-'64). 

THOMASSIN,  Louis  de,  a  French  theologian, 
born  in  Aix,  Provence,  Aug.  28,  1619,  died  in 
Paris,  Dec,  24,  1695.  He  studied  in  the  college 
of  Marseilles,  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Oratory,  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  philos 
ophy  in  the  college  of  Pezenas,  where  he 
adopted  Platonic  principles,  and  taught  dog 
matic  theology  for  six  years  at  Saumur.  From 
1654  to  1667  he  was  professor  of  dogma  in 
the  seminary  of  St.  Magloire,  Paris,  also  de 
livering  lectures  on  church  history  and  disci 
pline.  He  seemed  at  first  to  favor  the  opinions 
of  the  Jansenists,  but  soon  declared  against 
them.  In  1667  he  published  Dissertationes  in 
Concilia  Generalia  et  Particularly  in  which 
he  taught  that  to  the  pope  alone  belongs  the 
right  of  assembling  general  councils ;  that  these 
councils  are  not  in  themselves  necessary;  that 
in  all  matters  of  discipline  and  government  the 
authority  of  the  pope  is  superior  to  that  of  a 
general  council ;  that  the  question  of  papal  in 
fallibility  should  never  be  discussed,  but  that  it 
was  "  sufficient  to  hold  that  the  pope  is  greater 
than  himself  when  at  the  head  of  a  council,  and 
a  council  inferior  to  itself  when  separated  from 
the  pope."  These  opinions  aroused  the  hos 
tility  of  the  parliament  and  of  the  Gallican  por 
tion  of  the  clergy,  and  the  regent  suppressed 
the  work.  His  most  important  works  are  : 
Memoircs  sur  la  grace  (3  vols.  8vo,  1668  ;  2 
vols.  4to,  1682) ;  Ancienne  et  nouvelle  disci 
pline  de  VEglise  touchant  Us  lenefices  et  les 
leneficiers  (3  vols.  fol.,  1678-9;  translated  into 
Latin  by  the  author,  1688,  1728);  Dogmata 
Theologica  (3  vols.  fol.,  1680-'89 ;  6  vols., '1864- 
'9) ;  Traite  de  V  unite  de  V&glise  et  des  moyens 
que  les  princes  Chretiens  ont  employes  pour  y 
faire  rentrer  ceux  qui  en  etaient  separes  (1686- 
'8) ;  and  Traite  des  edits  et  autrcs  moyens  spiri- 
tuels  et  temporels  dont  on  s'est  servi  dans  tons 
les  temps  pour  etal>lir  et  pour  maintenir  I'unite 
de  VEglise  catliolique  (3  vols.  4to,  1703). 

THOMASTON,  a  town  of  Knox  co.,  Maine, 
adjoining  Rockland,  on  the  Knox  and  Lincoln 
railroad,  60  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Portland ;  pop.  in 
1870,  3,092.  The  state  prison  is  situated  here, 
and  extensive  granite  quarries  in  the  neigh 
borhood  are  worked  by  convict  labor,  which 
is  also  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  boots, 
shoes,  and  carriages.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  manufacturing  and  export 


ing  lime  and  in  ship  building.  About  140,000 
casks  of  lime  are  produced  annually.  There 
are  a  few  other  manufactories,  two  national 
banks,  a  savings  bank,  a  fire  insurance  com 
pany,  and  six  churches.  Thomaston  was  in 
corporated  in  1777,  and  included  until  1848 
Rockland  and  South  Thomaston. 

THOMPSON,  a  S.  E.  central  county  of  Da 
kota,  recently  formed  and  not  included  in  the 
census  of  1870 ;  area,  about  925  sq.  m.  It  is 
intersected  by  the  Dakota  or  James  river  and 
its  N.  fork.  The  surface  is  rolling  prairie. 

THOMPSON,  Augustus  Charles,  ah  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Goshen,  Conn.,  April  30, 
1812.  He  was  educated  at  Yale  college,  at 
the  theological  seminary  at  East  Windsor  Hill, 
Conn.,  and  at  the  university  of  Berlin.  Since 
1842  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  Eliot  Congre 
gational  church,  Roxbury,  Mass.  In  1854-'5 
he  accompanied  the  Rev.  Dr.  Anderson  as  a 
deputation  to  the  missions  of  the  American 
board  in  India,  He  has  published  "  Songs  in 
the  Night"  (Boston,  1845);  "The  Lambs 
Fed,"  which  has  been  translated  into  the  Mah- 
ratta  language ;  "  The  Young  Martyrs  ;"  "  Last 
Hours,  or  Words  and  Acts  of  the  Dying" 
(1851);  "The  Poor  Widow,  a  Memorial  of 
Mrs.  Anna  F.  Waters"  (1854;  translated  into 
Tamil)  ;  "The  Better  Land,  or  Believer's  Jour 
ney  and  Future  Home"  (1855);  "  The  Yoke 
in  Youth,  a  Memorial  of  H.  M.  Hill "  (1856)  ; 
"  Gathered  Lilies,  or  Little  Children  in  Heav 
en"  (1858);  "Feeding  the  Lambs"  (1859); 
"Morning  Hours  in  Patmos  "  (1860);  "Lyra 
Ccelestis"  (1863)  ;  "The  Mercy  Seat"  (1863)  ; 
"Seeds  and  Sheaves"  (1868);  and  "Christus 
Consolator"  (1869). 

THOMPSON,  Benjamin.     See  RTTMFOED. 

THOMPSON,  Daniel  Pierce,  an  American  nov 
elist,  born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Oct.  1,  1795, 
died  in  Montpelier,  Vt.,  June  6,  1868.  He 
graduated  at  Middlebnry  college  in  1820,  was 
private  tutor  for  several  years,  and  waa  ad 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  Virginia.  He  practised 
law  in  Montpelier,  Vt,,  and  held  the  offices  of 
register  of  probate,  clerk  of  the  legislature, 
compiler  of  the  statutes,  judge  of  probate, 
clerk  of  the  county  and  of  the  supreme  court, 
and  secretary  of  state.  He  published  "May 
Martin,  or  the  Money  Diggers  "  (1835,  many 
times  reprinted);  "Adventures  of  Timothy 
Peacock "  (1835) ;  "The  Green  Mountain  Boys '" 
(Montpelier,  1840)  ;  "  Locke  Amsden,"  a  graph 
ic  picture  of  the  New  England  district  school 
as  it  was  (Boston,  1847);  "Lucy  Ilosmer" 
(1848) ;  "  The  Rangers,  or  the  Tory's  Daugh 
ter  "  (1850);  "Gant  Gurley,  or  the  Trappers 
of  Lake  Umbagog"  (1857);  "The  Doomed 
Chief"  (1860)  ;  and  "History  of  the  Town  of 
Montpelier,  Vermont"  (1860).  From  1849  to 
1856  he  edited  the  "  Green  Mountain  Free 
man  "  newspaper. 

THOMPSON,  Elizabeth,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  London  about  1850.  In  1874  she  acquired 
great  fame  by  her  "Roll  Call,"  relating  to  the 
Crimean  war,  which  was  purchased  by  the 


THOMPSON 


queen.  In  the  summer  of  1875  she  exhibited 
another  military  picture,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  same  year,  on  her  return  from  Italy,  a 
"  Vintage  Sketch  in  Tuscany." 

THOMPSON,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  surgeon, 
born  at  Frarnlingham,  Suffolk,  Aug.  6,  1820. 
He  was  educated  at  University  college,  Lon 
don,  became  assistant  surgeon  of  the  college 
hospital  in  1853,  surgeon  in  1863,  and  professor 
of  clinical  surgery  in  1866,  and  was  knighted 
in  1867.  He  has  published  "  The  Pathology 
and  Treatment  of  Stricture  of  the  Urethra" 
(London,  1853  ;  3d  ed.,  1869)  ;  "The  Enlarged 
Prostate,  its  Pathology  and  Treatment "  (1857 ; 
2d  ed.,  including  the  Jacksonian  prize  essay 
of  the  royal  college  of  surgeons  for  1860,  1861 ; 
3d  ed.,  1868)  ;  "Practical  Lithotomy  and  Lith- 
otrity"  (1863;  2d  ed.,  1871);  and  "Clinical 
Lectures  on  Diseases  of  the  Urinary  Organs  " 
(1868  ;  2d  ed.,  1870). 

THOMPSON,  Joseph  Parrish,  an  American  clergy 
man,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Aug.  7,  1819.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1838,  studied  the 
ology  at  Andover  and  New  Haven,  and  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Chapel  street  Congre 
gational  church,  New  Haven,  in  November, 
1840.  From  1845  to  1872  he  was  minister 
of  the  Broadway  Tabernacle  church  in  New 
York.  While  at  New  Haven  he  was  one  of 
the  originators  of  the  "New  Englander,"  a 
Congregational  quarterly  review,  and  he  was 
also  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Indepen 
dent"  newspaper.  In  1852  he  originated  the 
plan  of  the  Albany  Congregationalist  conven 
tion.  He  was  also  a  manager  of  the  American 
Congregational  union,  and  of  the  American 
home  missionary  society.  In  1852  he  visited 
Palestine,  Mt.  Sinai,  Egypt,  and  other  oriental 
countries ;  and  he  has  since  devoted  much  time 
to  oriental  studies,  especially  Egyptology,  the 
results  of  which  have  appeared  in  his  contri 
butions  to  the  "North  American  Review,"  the 
"Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  the  "Journal  of  the 
American  Geographical  and  Statistical  Soci 
ety,"  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Biblical  Geog 
raphy  and  Antiquities,"  and  the  revised  edi 
tion  of  Kitto's  "  Cyclopsedia  of  Biblical  Liter 
ature."  Harvard  university  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  D.  D.  in  1856.  He  now 
(1876)  resides  in  Berlin.  Dr.  Thompson  has 
published  "  Memoir  of  Timothy  Dwight "  (New 
Haven,  1844) ;  "  Lectures  to  Young  Men  "  (New 
York,  1846);  "Hints  to  Employers"  (1847); 
"  Memoir  of  David  Hale  "  (1850) ;  "  Foster  on 
Missions,  with  a  Preliminary  Essay  "  (1850) ; 
"  Stray  Meditations  "  (1852  ;  revised  ed.  en 
titled  "The  Believer's  Refuge,"  1857);  "The 
Invaluable  Possession"  (1856);  "Egypt,  Past 
and  Present"  (Boston,  1856);  "The  Early 
"Witnesses"  (1857);  "Memoir  of  Rev.  David 
T.  Stoddard"  (New  York,  1858) ;  "The  Chris 
tian  Graces"  (1859);  "The  College  as  a  Re 
ligious  Institution"  (1859);  "Love  and  Pen 
alty  "  (1860) ;  "  Bryant  Gray  "  (1863) ;  "  Chris 
tianity  and  Emancipation  "  (1863) ;  "  The  Holy 
Comforter "  (1866) ;  "  Man  in  Genesis  and 


Geology"  (1869);  "Theology  of  Christ,  from 
His  Own  Words"  (1870);  "Home  Worship" 
(1871);  "  Church  and  State  in  the  United  States  " 
(1874);  and  "Life  of  Christ"  (1875). 

THOMPSON,  Lannt,  an  American  sculptor,  born 
in  Queen's  county,  Ireland,  in  1833.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  at  an  early  age  with  his 
mother,  a  widow,  who  settled  in  Albany,  N. 
Y.  While  studying  in  the  medical  college  he 
also  attended  a  drawing  school,  and  was  en 
couraged  in  his  taste  for  art  by  William  Hart 
and  E.  D.  Palmer.  When  the  latter  opened  a 
studio  for  sculpture  in  Albany,  Thompson  be 
came  his  pupil,  and  remained  with  him  nine 
years,  making  himself  known  by  his  ideal  head 
of  "Little  Nell,"  which  he  twice  copied  to  fill 
orders,  and  by  his  busts  and  medallion  portraits. 
In  1858  he  settled  in  New  York,  and  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  national  academy  of  design. 
In  1859  his  bust  of  the  "Trapper"  secured  his 
election  as  an  academician,  and  he  soon  after 
became  a  member  of  the  council ;  and  he  also 
served  on  the  committee  for  the  erection  of  the 
new  building  of  the  academy.  He  now  (1876) 
resides  in  Florence,  Italy.  Among  Mr.  Thomp 
son's  principal  works  are  a  statue  of  Gen.  John 
Sedgwick,  erected  at  West  Point ;  a  colossal 
statue  of  Napoleon,  now  owned  by  Mr.  Pinchot 
of  Milford,  Pa. ;  a  statue  of  Gen.  Winfield  Scott, 
erected  at  the  soldiers'  home  near  Washington ; 
a  soldiers'  monument  at  Pittsfield,  Mass. ;  a 
statue  of  the  Rev.  Abraham  Pierson,  first  pres 
ident  of  Yale  college,  erected  in  the  college 
grounds ;  and  many  busts  and  bass-reliefs. 

THOMPSON,  Thomas  Perronet,  an  English  po 
litical  reformer,  born  in  Hull,  March  15,  1783, 
died  Sept.  6,  1869.  In  1803  he  entered  _the 
navy  as  midshipman,  and  in  1806  went  into 
the  army  as  second  lieutenant.  In  1808  he 
was  made  governor  of  Sierra  Leone.  One  of 
his  first  acts  was  to  issue  a  proclamation  for 
the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  in  the  col 
ony  ;  and  the  opposition  raised  against  him  by 
the  slave  traders  caused  his  recall.  He  ar 
rived  in  England  in  1810,  returned  to  the 
army,  and  served  in  the  peninsular  campaign 
of  1813,  in  France  in  1814,  and  afterward  in 
the  Pindaree  campaign  in  India.  In  1819, 
having  learned  Arabic,  he  accompanied  Sir 
William  Keir  Grant  in  the  expedition  up  the 
Persian  gulf,  and  assisted  in  the  negotiation  of 
the  treaty  with  the  Arab  tribes,  by  which  the 
slave  trade  was  declared  piracy.  In  1854  he 
was  made  major  general.  In  1814  he  pub 
lished  a  work  entitled  "  On  a  Constitution." 
He  was  one  of  the  contributors  to  the  "West 
minster  Review  "  on  its  establishment  in  1824, 
and  five  years  afterward  became  joint  pro 
prietor,  writing  for  it  constantly  till  1836. 
His  "Corn  Law  Catechism"  (1827)  was  the 
most  effective  attack  upon  the  protectionist 
system.  He  Avas  several  times  elected  to  par 
liament.  A  selection  from,  his  miscellaneous 
writings  was  published  (6  vols.,  1842). 

THOMPSON,  Waddy,  an  American  lawyer,  born 
at  Pickensville,  S.  C.,  Sept,  8,  1798,  died  in 


718 


THOMPSONTILLE 


THOMSON 


Tallahassee,  Fla.,  Nov.  23, 1868.  He  graduated 
at  the  South  Carolina  college  in  1814,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1819.  He  was  a  mem 
ber  of  the  legislature  from  1826  to  1830,  when 
he  became  solicitor  of  the  western  circuit. 
During  the  nullification  excitement  he  was 
elected  by  the  legislature  brigadier  general  of 
militia  (1835).  From  1835  to  1841  he  was  a 
member  of  congress,  and  was  prominent  in 
debate  as  a  leader  of  the  whig  party.  In  1842 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  Mexico.  During 
his  mission,  he  made  two  important  treaties, 
and  procured  the  liberation  of  more  than  200 
Texan  prisoners,  many  of  whom  were  sent 
home  at  his  own  charge.  On  his  return  he 
published  "  Recollections  of  Mexico "  (8vo, 
New  York,  1846). 

THOMPSONVILLE,  a  village  in  the  town  of 
Enfield,  Hartford  co.,  Connecticut,  17  m.  N. 
of  Hartford ;  pop.  about  3,500.  It  is  on  the 
E.  bank  of  the  Connecticut  river,  and  on  the 
New  Haven,  Hartford,  and  Springfield  rail 
road.  It  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  manufacture 
of  carpets,  being  the  seat  of  the  Hartford  car 
pet  company's  works,  which,  according  to  the 
latest  returns,  contain  297  looms  and  produce 
2,600,000  yards  annually. 

THOMS,  William  John,  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  Westminster,  Nov.  16,  1803.  He  was 
for  some  years  clerk  of  printed  papers  in  the 
house  of  lords,  and  in  1862  was  appointed  sub 
librarian  of  that  house.  His  first  separate  pub 
lication  was  "A  Collection  of  early  Prose  Ro 
mances"  (3  vols.,  1828).  This  was  followed 
by  "Lays  and  Legends  of  Various  Nations" 
(1834)  ;  "  Book  of  the  Court"  (1838)  ;  "  Three 
Notelets  on  Shakespeare"  (1865)  ;  and  "  Han 
nah  Lightf oot,  Queen  Charlotte,  and  the  Cheva 
lier  d'Eon  "  (1867).  He  has  also  edited  "Anec 
dotes  and  Traditions"  (1839),  "  Stow's  Survey 
of  London"  (1842),  and  "  Caxton's  Reynard 
the  Fox"  (1844).  His  reputation  rests  princi 
pally  on  the  establishment  of  the  periodical 
"Notes  and  Queries." 

THOMSON.  I.  Anthony  Todd,  a  British  physi 
cian,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Jan.  7,  1778,  died  at 
Ealing,  Middlesex,  July  3,  1849.  He  was  edu 
cated  at  the  high  school  of  Edinburgh,  studied 
medicine,  in  1798  became  a  member  of  the 
speculative  society,  and  in  1799  of  the  royal 
medical  society,  and  in  1800  settled  in  London 
as  a  general  practitioner.  In  1826  he  became 
a  member  of  the  royal  college  of  physicians, 
in  1828  professor  of  materia  medica  in  London 
university,  now  University  college,  and  in  1832 
professor  of  medical  jurisprudence.  His  works 
include  "The  London  Dispensatory"  (8vo, 
1811),  and  "  Elements  of  Materia  Medica"  (8vo, 
1832),  both  many  times  reprinted.  II.  fiathe- 
rine  Byerly,  an  English  authoress,  wife  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Etruria,  Staffordshire,  in 
1800,  died  in  Dover,  Dec.  17,  1862.  She  pub 
lished  "  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  Henry  VIII." 
(2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1826) ;  "  Memoirs  of 
Sarah,  Duchess  of  Maryborough,  and  of  the 
Court,  of  Queen  Anne"  (2  vols.,  1839)  ;  "  Me 


moirs  of  the  Jacobites  of  1715  and  1745"  (3 
vols.,  1845) ;  "  Memoirs  of  the  Viscountess 
Sundon,"  &c.  (2  vols.,  1847) ;  "  Recollections 
of  Literary  Characters  and  Celebrated  Places  " 
(2  vols.,  1853) ;  "  Court  Secrets  "  (3  vols.,  1857)  ; 
"Life  and  Times  of  George  Villiers,  Duke  of 
Buckingham  "  (3  vols.,  1860)  ;  and  several  nov 
els.  "Queens  of  Society"  and  "Wits  and 
Beaux  of  Society"  were  written  with  her  son, 
John  Cockburn  Thomson,  under  the  pseudo- 
nymes  of  Grace  and  Philip  Wharton. 

THOMSON,  Charles,  an  American  patriot,  born 
at  Maghera,  county  Derry,  Ireland,  Nov.  29, 
1729,  died  at  Lower  Merion,  near  Philadelphia, 
Aug.  16,  1824.  He  came  to  America  at  the 
age  of  11,  was  educated  in  Maryland,  taught  a 
Friends'  academy  in  Philadelphia,  and  after 
ward  went  into  business  in  that  city,  and  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Franklin.  He  was  secre 
tary  of  the  continental  congress  throughout  its 
existence  (l774-'88),  and  of  the  first  United 
States  house  of  representatives  till  his  resigna 
tion  in  July,  1789.  John  Adams  called  him 
"  the  Sam  Adams  of  Philadelphia,  the  life  of 
the  cause  of  liberty."  He  was  the  author  of 
"An  Enquiry  into  the  Causes  of  the  Aliena 
tion  of  the  Delaware  and  Shawanese  Indians" 
(8vo,  London,  1759)  ;  a  translation  of  the  Bi 
ble,  the  first  English  version  of  the  Septua- 
gint  (4  vols.  8vo,  1808);  and  "A  Synopsis  of 
the  four  Evangelists"  (1815). 

THOMSON,  Edward,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Portsea,  England,  in  October,  1810, 
died  in  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  March  22, 1870.  In 
1819  his  parents  settled  inWooster,  Ohio.  lie 
graduated  in  medicine  at  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1829,  and  in  1833  joined  the 
Ohio  Methodist  Conference.  In  1838  he  be 
came  principal  of  Norwalk  seminary,  Ohio, 
and  in  1844  was  elected  by  the  general  confer 
ence  editor  of  the  "  Ladies'  Repository."  In 
1845  he  became  president  of  the  Ohio  Wesley- 
an  university  at  Delaware,  Ohio,  and  in  1860 
was  elected  editor  of  the  "  Christian  Advocate 
and  Journal."  He  was  elected  bishop  in  1864, 
made  an  extensive  tour  of  missionary  observa 
tion  in  Germany,  Scandinavia,  Bulgaria,  India, 
and  China,  and  organized  the  Indian  mission 
into  an  annual  conference.  lie  was  a  member 
of  every  general  conference  from  1840  to  1864. 
He  published  "  Educational  Essays  "  (new  ed., 
Cincinnati,  -1856) ;  "Moral  and  Religious  Es 
says"  (1856);  "Biographical  and  Incidental 
Sketches"  (1856);  "Letters  from  Europe," 
notes  of  a  tour  through  England,  France,  and 
Switzerland  (1856)  ;  "  Letters  from  India, 
China,  and  Turkey  "  (2  vols.,  1870). 

THOMSON,  James,  a  British  poet,  born  at  Ed- 
nam,  Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  Sept.  11,  1700, 
died  at  Kew  Lane,  near  Richmond,  Aug.  27, 
1748.  He  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  and 
passed  six  years  at  the  university  of  Edin 
burgh,  the  last  four  of  which  were  devoted  to 
theological  studies.  About  1724  he  went  to 
London,  and  for  several  months  was  tutor  in 
the  family  of  Lord  Binning.  A  fragment  of 


THOMSON 


719 


blank  verse,  written  by  him  at  the  age  of  14, 
was  first  published  in  a  life  of  the  poet  by 
Allan  Cunningham  in  1841.  lie  published  in 
March,  1720,  his  blank  verse  poem  of  "  Win 
ter,"  for  the  copyright  of  which  he  received 
three  guineas,  and  three  editions  were  called 
for  in  a  year.  In  1727  appeared  "  Summer," 
followed  by  "  Britannia"  and  a  "Poem  sacred 
to  the  Memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  ;"  in  1728, 
"  Spring ;"  and  in  1730,  "  The  Seasons,"  com 
pleted  by  the  addition  of  "Autumn,"  in  a  4to 
volume,  of  which  454  copies  were  subscribed 
for  at  a  guinea  each.  In  1729  he  produced 
"  Sophonisba,"  a  tragedy,  acted  with  moderate 
success  at  Drury  Lane.  In  l731-'2  he  travelled 
on  the  continent  as  tutor  of  the  son  of  Sir 
Charles  Talbot,  afterward  lord  chancellor,  and 
on  his  return  to  England  commenced  an  elab 
orate  poem  on  "Liberty"  (5  parts,  1735-'6). 
It  was  abridged  by  Lord  Lyttelton  in  collect 
ing  the  author's  works  for  publication,  and  in 
that  condition  it  still  appears.  He  had  mean 
while  been  placed  in  easy  circumstances  by 
the  appointment  of  secretary  of  briefs  in  the 
court  of  chancery,  bestowed  upon  him  by  Lord 
Talbot.  After  the  death  of  the  chancellor  in 
1737*  he  lost  the  place,  but  received  from  the 
prince  of  Wales  a  pension  of  £100  a  year.  He 
now  produced  successively  his  dramas  "Aga 
memnon  "  (1738),  which  narrowly  escaped  being 
damned  on  the  first  night,  and  "Edward  and 
Eleanora,"  the  representation  of  which  was 
prohibited  under  the  operation  of  the  act  for 
licensing  dramatic  performances ;  the  masque 
of  "Alfred,"  written  in  conjunction  with  Mal 
let,  which  contains  the  celebrated  song  and 
chorus,  "  Rule  Britannia,"  set  to  music  by  Dr. 
Arne  ;  and  "  Tancred  and  Sigismunda,"  per 
formed  with  success  at  Drury  Lane  in  1745. 
About  this  time  he  was  appointed  surveyor 
general  of  the  Leeward  islands,  the  duties  of 
which  were  discharged  by  a  deputy,  while  the 
clear  emoluments  amounted  to  £300  a  year ; 
and  the  latter  part  of  his  life  was  passed  in  an 
elegant  retreat  at  Kew  Lane.  In  1748  appeared 
"  The  Castle  of  Indolence,"  on  which  he  had 
labored  for  many  years.  His  posthumous  play 
of  "Coriolanus"  was  performed  at  Covent 
Garden.  Thomson  was  a  man  of  gross  appear 
ance  and  exceedingly  indolent  disposition.  The 
latest  edition  of  his  complete  works  is  in  two 
volumes  (London,  1870). 

THOMSON  I.  James,  a  British  civil  engineer, 
born  in  Belfast  about  18.16.  He  was  educated 
in  Belfast  and  Glasgow,  where  his  father  was 
professor  of  mathematics.  He  took  the  mas 
ter's  degree  in  1840,  studied  civil  engineering 
and  mechanics,  became  a  pupil  in  the  Horseley 
iron  works,  near  Tipton,  South  Staffordshire, 
entered  the  service  of  William  Fairbairn,  and 
afterward  settled  in  Belfast  as  a  civil  engineer. 
In  1857  he  was  appointed  professor  of  civil 
engineering  in  Queen's  college,  Belfast,  and  in 
1872  professor  of  engineering  and  mechanics 
in  the  university  of  Glasgow.  Prof.  Thomson 
has  been  prominently  employed  as  a  consult- 
VOL.  xv. — 46 


ing  engineer  for  water  supply,  irrigation,  and 
other  agricultural  engineering.  He  invented 
the  vortex  turbine,  and  the  jet  pump  and  in 
termittent  reservoir,  for  draining  swamp  lands. 
His  investigations  of  the  lowering  by  pressure 
of  the  freezing  temperature  of  water  suggested 
the  perfect  solution  of  the  problem  of  glaciers. 
About  40  papers  by  him  on  physics,  mathema 
tics,  and  mechanics  have  been  published  in  the 
"  Cambridge  and  Dublin  Mathematical  Jour 
nal,"  the  "Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal," 
the  "Transactions"  of  the  royal  societies  of 
London  and  Edinburgh,  the  "Proceedings"  of 
the  British  association,  and  the  "Transactions" 
of  the  institution  of  engineers  of  Scotland.  II* 
Sir  William,  a  British  mathematician,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Belfast  in  June,  1824. 
He  studied  in  Glasgow  university,  and  after 
ward  at  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in 
1845,  and  became  a  fellow  of  St.  Peter's.  In 
1846  he  was  made  professor  of  natural  philo 
sophy  in  Glasgow  university,  wThich  post  he 
still  holds  (1876).  For  seven  years  he  was 
editor  of  the  "Cambridge  and  Dublin  Mathe 
matical  Journal,"  among  his  contributions  to 
which  was  one  on  "  Distribution  of  Electricity 
on  Spherical  Conductors"  (1848).  In  1855  he 
delivered  the  Bakerian  lecture  on  "Electro- 
dynamic  Properties  of  Metals."  He  has  con 
structed  several  beautiful  instruments  for  the 
study  of  electrical  phenomena,  and  is  at  pres 
ent  engaged  in  perfecting  a  tide-calculating 
machine,  lie  invented  the  mirror  galvano 
meter  and  syphon  recorder,  for  ocean  tele 
graphy,  which,  owing  to  their  extreme  deli 
cacy,  can  be  worked  by  very  low  battery  pow 
er.  He  has  made  important  contributions  to 
the  science  of  magnetism,  and  investigated  the 
laws  of  heat.  (See  HEAT.)  He  was  knighted 
in  1866.  Among  his  published  papers  are 
"Thermal  Effects  of  Fluids  in  Motion,"  "The 
Mathematical  Theory  of  Elasticity,"  and  "The 
Rigidity  of  the  Earth."  A  volume  of  his  pa 
pers  on  electrostatics  and  magnetism  appeared 
in  1872. 

THOMSON,  Thomas,  a  British  chemist,  born  at 
Crieff,  Perthshire,  April  12,  1773,  died  at  Kil- 
mun,  Argyleshire,  July  2,  1852.  He  was  edu 
cated  at  the  university  of  St.  Andrews  and  at 
Edinburgh,  and  in  1796  became  a  contributor 
to  the  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  his  chemi 
cal  articles  in  which  formed  the  basis  of  his 
"System  of  Chemistry"  (4  vols.  8vo,  1802). 
He  was  one  of  the  first  to  suggest  the  use  of 
chemical  symbols,  and  among  the  first  to  eluci 
date  the  atomic  theory  of  Dalton.  In  1810  he 
published  the  "Elements  of  Chemistry"  (8vo); 
in  1812,  the  "History  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London  "  (4to) ;  and  in  1813,  "  Travels  in  Swe 
den,"  which  country  he  had  visited  in  the  pre 
vious  year.  In  1813  he  went  to  London  and 
commenced  the  "  Annals  of  Philosophy,"  which 
he  edited  till  1822.  In  1817  he  was  chosen 
lecturer  at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  in 
1818  'was  made  professor  of  chemistry.  His 
other  works  are :  "  An  Attempt  to  Establish 


720 


THOMSON 


THORAX 


the  First  Principles  of  Chemistry  by  Experi 
ment"  (2  vols.,  1825) ;  "  The  History  of  Chem 
istry"  (2  vols.,  1830-'31);  "Outlines  of  Min 
eralogy  and  Geology "  (2  vols.,  1836) ;  and 
"Brewing  and  Distillation"  (1849). — His  son 
THOMAS,  superintendent  of  the  East  India  com 
pany's  botanic  gardens  at  Calcutta,  has  pub 
lished  an  account  of  his  travels  in  the  western 
Himalaya  and  Thibet  (8vo,  1852). 

THOMSON,  William,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Whitehaven,  Feb.  11,  1819.  lie  was 
educated  at  Queen's  college,  Oxford,  of  which 
he  was  successively  fellow,  tutor,  and  pro 
vost.  He  was  ordained  in  1842,  became  select 
preacher  at  Oxford  in  1846,  Bampton  lecturer 
in  1853,  rector  of  All  Souls,  Marylebone,  in 
1855,  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1858,  bishop 
of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  in  1861,  and  arch 
bishop  of  York  in  1863.  lie  has  published 
"The  Atoning  Work  of  Christ"  (London, 
1853);  "Outline  of  the  Necessary  Laws  of 
Thought,"  a  text  book  in  several  English  and 
American  colleges  (1842  ;  9th  ed.,  1868);  "  Life 
in  the  Light  of  God's  Word  "  (186V)  ;  "  Limits 
of  Philosophical  Inquiry"  (1868);  and  ser 
mons,  pastoral  letters,  and  lectures. 

TilOlt,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  first 
born  of  Odin  and  Frigga,  the  bravest  and  bold 
est  of  all  the  gods.  He  directed  the  winds  and 
the  seasons;  agriculture  and  the  family  rela 
tions  were  under  his  special  care ;  and,  unlike 
Odin,  he  was  opposed  to  war  among  men.  In 
the  Eddas  he  appears  as  the  champion  of  gods 
and  men,  destroying  monsters  and  giants  with 
his  bolts  of  thunder.  A  terrible  hammer  was 
hurled  at  his  victim,  and  after  the  blow  was 
dealt  the  weapon  returned  to  his  hand.  His 
waist  was  bound  with  a  girdle  which  forever 
renewed  the  strength  he  spent  in  battle.  Thor 
has  been  compared  with  Hercules,  Jupiter,  and 
the  old  Saxon  deity  Irmin.  The  fifth  day  of 
the  week  has  from  him  received  its  name, 
Thursday. 

THORAX  (Gr.  %>a£),  the  chest,  or  upper  part 
of  the  trunk  of  the  body,  situated  between  the 
neck  and  the  abdomen.  The  osseous  frame 
work  of  the  thorax  consists  of  the  12  dorsal 
vertebra  behind,  the  sternum  or  breast  bone 
in  front,  and  the  ribs  upon  each  side.  The 
spaces  between  the  ribs  are  occupied  by  the 
intercostal  muscles,  external  and  internal/  The 
floor  or  inferior  wall  of  the  thorax  is  consti 
tuted  by  the  diaphragm,  a  vaulted  muscular 
sheet,  with  a  central  tendinous  expansion,  the 
convexity  of  which  looks  upward  toward  the 
chest,  while  its  concavity  looks  downward  to 
ward  the  abdomen.  The  general  form  of  the 
thorax  is  conical,  with  a  broad  base  below, 
and  presenting  at  its  upper  extremity  a  com 
paratively  narrow  and  nearly  circular  open 
ing,  bounded  on  each  side  by  the  curved  bor 
ders  of  the  first  pair  of  ribs,  through  which  the 
trachea,  oesophagus,  nerves,  and  blood  vessels 
pass  from  the  neck  into  the  chest,  or  vice  rersa. 
The  framework  of  the  chest  thus  constituted 
has  a  considerable  degree  of  elasticity,  owing 


to  the  curved  form  of  the  ribs  themselves,  and 
to  the  fact  that  they  are  articulated  with  the 
sternum  by  elastic  cartilages  of  variable  length, 
oblique  in  position.  Owing  to  the  mobility  of 
the  ribs  at  their  vertebral  articulations,  they 
are  capable  of  being  rotated  outward  and  ele 
vated  by  the  action  of  the  intercostal  muscles, 
and  of  thus  expanding  the  cavity  of  the  chest 
laterally.  The  expansion  also  takes  place  at 
the  same  time  in  an  antero-posterior  direc 
tion,  since  the  sternum  itself  is  elevated  by 
the  movement  of  the  ribs  and  carried  further 
away  from  the  spinal  column ;  in  this  way  is 
produced  the  alternate  rising  and  falling  of  the 
walls  of  the  chest  during  respiration.  By  the 
contraction  of  the  diaphragm  the  central  ten 
don  of  this  muscle  is  drawn  downward  at  the 
moment  of  inspiration,  thus  also  expanding  the 
chest  vertically. — The  cavity  of  the  thorax  has 
a  general  conoidal  form,  corresponding  with 


Cavity  of  the  Thorax  in  Man,  opened  anteriorly,  showing1 
the  internal  organs,  a,  b,  c.  Upper,  middle,  and  lower 
lobes  of  the  right  lung.  (/,  e.  Upper  and  lower  lobes  of 
the  left  lung.  f.  Heart,  g.  Pulmonary  artery,  h.  Pul 
monary  vein.  i.  Aorta.  A\  Superior  vena  cava.  I.  Up 
per  surface  of  the  diaphragm,  m.  Lower  extremity  of 
the  sternum,  n.  Trachea. 

its  external  configuration.  It  is  partially  divi 
ded,  however,  into  lateral  halves  by  the  for 
ward  projection  of  the  bodies  of  the  dorsal  ver 
tebra?,  leaving  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column 
a  tolerably  deep  rounded  groove  or  furrow. 
The  principal  organs  contained  in  the  cavity 
of  the  thorax  are  the  heart,  lungs,  and  great 
blood  vessels.  The  heart  is  situated  nearly  in 
the  median  line,  with  its  point  directed  down 
ward  and  toward  the  left  side,  and  the  lower 
part  of  its  inferior  and  posterior  surface  rest 
ing  upon  the  central  tendon  of  the  diaphragm. 
The  superior  and  inferior  vena?  cava?,  the  aor 
ta,  the  pulmonary  artery,  and  the  pulmonary 
veins  are  connected  with  the  base  of  the  heart, 
mostly  about  the  level  of  the  junction  of  the 
third  costal  cartilage  with  the  sternum.  The 
lungs  are  on  each  side,  moulded  to  the  form  of 
the  cavity  in  which  they  are  contained,  and 


THOREAU 


THORN 


partly  lapping  over  the  heart  and  great  vessels 
in  an  anterior  view.  The  trachea  enters  the 
cavity  of  the  chest  behind  the  superior  vena 
cava  and  the  arch  of  the  aorta,  and  the  osso- 
phagus  is  situated  still  further  backward,  in  im 
mediate  contact  with  the  spinal  column.  The 
phrenic  nerve  passes  down  on  each  side,  be 
tween  the  subclavian  artery  and  vein,  in  front 
of  the  root  of  the  lung,  between  the  pleura  and 
pericardium,  to  be  distributed  to  the  muscular 
tissue  of  the  diaphragm.  The  pneumogastric 
nerves  descend  behind  the  roots  of  the  lungs, 
where  they  give  off  their  pulmonary  branches, 
and  then  accompany  the  oesophagus  through 
an  opening  in  the  diaphragm  to  the  stomach. 
The  thoracic  portion  of  the  great  sympathetic 
nerve  is  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column,  as 
a  chain  of  ganglia,  each  ganglion  resting  upon 
the  head  of  a  rib,  and  connected  by  nervous 
filaments  with  those  above  and  below. 

THOREAU,  Henry  David,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Concord,  Mass.,  July  12,  1817,  died 
there,  May  6,  1862.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
college  in  1837,  and  after  teaching  school  for 
a  short  time  became  a  land  surveyor.  In  this 
pursuit  he  worked  no  more  than  was  neces 
sary  to  gain  the  means  for  his  simple  wants, 
and  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  reading,  wri 
ting,  pedestrian  excursions,  and  study.  Em 
erson  says  of  him :  "  Few  lives  contain  so 
many  renunciations.  He  was  bred  to  no  pro 
fession;  he  never  married;  he  lived  alone;  he 
never  went  to  church ;  he  never  voted ;  he 
refused  to  pay  a  tax  to  the  state ;  he  ate  no 
flesh,  he  drank  no  wine ;  he  never  knew  the 
use  of  tobacco;  and,  though  a  naturalist,  he 
used  neither  trap  nor  gun."  In  1845  he  built 
a  small  frame  house  on  the  shore  of  Walden 
pond,  Concord,  and  lived  in  it  alone  for  two 
years,  working  and  studying.  He  published 
"A  Week  on  the  Concord  and  Merrimack 
Rivers"  (Boston,  1849),  and  "Walden,  or  Life 
in  the  Woods"  (1854).  After  his  death  were 
published  "Excursions  in  Field  and  Forest," 
with  a  biographical  sketch  by  R.  W.  Emerson 
(1863);  "  The  Maine  Woods  "  <1864)  ;  "Cape 
Cod "(1865);  "Letters  to  Various  Persons," 
with  nine  poems  (1865) ;  and  "  A  Yankee  in 
Canada,"  with  anti-slavery  and  reform  papers 
(1866).— See  "  Thoreau,  the  Poet- Naturalist," 
by  William  Ellcry  Channing  (Boston,  1873). 

THORIDI,  or  Tliorimim,  a  rare  metal  discov 
ered  in  1828  by  Berzelius  in  a  black  mineral 
called  thorite,  found  in  a  syenitic  rock  in  Nor 
way.  It  is  obtained  by  reducing  the  chloride 
with  potassium  or  sodium.  It  is  a  gray  me 
tallic  powder  having  much  resemblance  to  zir 
conium,  and  acquires  a  metallic  lustre  by  pres 
sure.  Its  specific  gravity  is  7'6  to  7*8 ;  symbol, 
Th.  It  takes  fire  when  heated  considerably  be 
low  redness,  and  burns  with  great  brilliancy, 
forming  thorina,  ThO2,  a  white  substance  of 
sp.  gr.  9-402.  Thorinic  chloride,  ThCla,  is  pre 
pared  by  passing  dry  chlorine  over  a  heated 
mixture  of  thorina  and  charcoal.  It  crystal 
lizes  in  rectangular  four-sided  tables,  which 


are  deliquescent  and  very  soluble  in  water. 
Thorinic  sulphate,  with  potassic  sulphate,  forms 
thorinic  potassic  sulphate,  KaSO^ThSO^IIaO, 
which  is  soluble  in  water,  but  is  precipitated 
by  a  saturated  solution  of  potassic  sulphate. 
Thorinic  sulphate  is  characterized  by  being 
precipitated  by  boiling  its  solution,  which  re- 
dissolves  on  cooling.  Oxalic  acid  gives  with 
salts  of  thorium  a  white  insoluble  oxalate  of. 
the  metal. 

THORN,  a  name  used  in  combination  for 
various  spinescent  plants,  but  by  itself  re 
stricted  to  species  of  the  genus  cratcegus,  of 
the  rose  family.  The  genus  belongs  to  that 
division  of  the  family  (tribe  pomeai)  which 
includes  pyrm,  the  apple,  pear,  &c.,  and  dif 
fers  from  this  chiefly  in  the  structure  of  the 
fruit.  About  65  species  are  described  (which 
is  probably  many  more  than  really  exist), 
found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America, 
and  a  single  one  in  the  Andes  of  Columbia ; 
they  are  shrubs,  or  sometimes  small  trees, 
and  often  armed  with  thorns,  which  are  abor 
tive  or  suppressed  branches.  The  leaves  are 
alternate,  simple,  often  lobed,  and  in  some 
species  evergreen ;  the  abundant  flowers,  usu 
ally  in  terminal  clusters,  though  much  smaller, 
closely  resemble  those  of  the  apple  in  struc 
ture,  are  generally  white,  sometimes  rose-col 
ored,  and  fragrant ;  styles  one  to  five ;  the 
usually  red  and  sometimes  edible  fruit  is  a 
drupe  rather  than  a  pome  ;  the  carpels,  instead 
of  being  parchment-like  as  in  the  apple,  form 
ing  when  ripe  a  hard,  bony,  one-  to  five-celled 
stone,  or  one  to  five  distinct,  bony,  one-seeded 
stones.  There  are  about  a  dozen  species  of 
thorn  in  the  Atlantic  states,  three  or  four  of 
which  are  peculiarly  southern,  and  two  natu 
ralized  ;  a  few  of  the  native  species  extend 
across  the  continent,  and  a  small  number  are 
peculiar  to  the  far  west.  In  their  wild  state, 
as  well  as  in  cultivation,  the  species  are  much 
disposed  to  vary. — One  of  the  most  noticeable 
and  finest  of  the  native  species  is  the  cockspur 
thorn  (cratagus  cms- ff  alii),  which  extends  from 
Canada  to  Florida  and  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
When  well  developed  it  is  a  small  tree,  10  to 
20  ft.  high,  with  numerous  nearly  horizontal 
branches  forming  a  round  head ;  the  sharp 
and  slender  thorns  are  2  to  4  in.  long,  and 
often  show  their  branch-like  nature  by  bearing 
leaves  when  young;  the  obovate  leaves  taper 
to  a  wedge-shaped  base,  are  serrate  toward 
the  apex,  very  thick,  smooth,  dark  green,  and 
shining  above,  li  to  2  in.  long;  the  flowers, 
produced  on  spurs  shorter  than  the  thorns,  are 
succeeded  by  bright  red,  nearly  globular  fruit, 
about  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  pro 
duces  in  the  wild  state  varieties  differing  much 
in  their  foliage,  and  its  synonymes  are  numer 
ous;  there  are  also  some  garden  varieties,  one 
of  them  remarkably  dwarf.  It  was  introduced 
into  England  nearly  200  years  ago,  and  is  there 
valued  as  an  ornamental  shrub  or  small  tree ; 
experiments  have  been  made  with  it  here  as 
a  hedge  plant,  to  which  use  it  is  perhaps  better 


722 


THORN 


adapted  than  any  other  native  thornrbut  it  has 
the  disadvantages  common  to  plants  of  this 
genus  mentioned  under  HEDGE.  The  hard 
close  wood  of  this  and  other  species  takes  a 


Cockspur  Thorn  (Crataegus  crus-galli). 

fine  polish,  and  serves  for  handles  to  hammers 
and  other  tools,  but  on  account  of  its  small 
size  its  use  is  limited.  Among  the  most  con 
spicuous  of  the  native  species  is  the  Washington 
thorn  (G.  cordatd),  which  grows  from  Virginia 
southward,  but  has  been  somewhat  cultivated 
as  a  hedge  plant  further  north;  it  grows  10 
to  20  ft.  high,  and  is  very  spiny  ;  its  broad 
leaves,  sometimes  slightly  heart-shaped  at 
base,  are  often  three-lobed ;  the  fruit,  the  size 
of  peas,  is  bright  red.  The  scarlet-fruited 
thorn  (C.  coccinea),  with  smooth,  thin,  round 
ish-ovate  leaves,  and  coral-red  but  scarcely  edi 
ble  fruit,  is  very  common.  So  also'is  the  pear 
or  black  thorn  (C.  tomentosci},  which  has  thick- 
ish  ovate  or  obovate,  sharply  toothed  leaves, 
downy  when  young,  very  large  fragrant  flow 
ers,  and  globular  or  pear-shaped  fruit  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  across,  scarlet  or  orange, 
and  edible,  having  often  a  pleasant  flavor ;  there 
are  several  varieties  of  this,  one  of  which  has 
its  fruit  dotted  with  white.  The  parsley-leaved 
thorn  {G.  apiifolia),  distinguished  by  its  much 
cut  leaves,  is  found  from  Virginia  southward. 
The  summer  haw  (C.  astivalis)  of  South  Caro 
lina,  and  growing  southward  and  westward,  is 
a  small  tree  found  on  the  margins  of  the  pine- 
barren  ponds  ;  it  has  wedge-obovate,  thick 
leaves,  and  globose,  large,  red  fruit,  which 
ripens  in  early  summer,  and,  being  quite  juicy 
with  a  pleasant  acid  flavor,  is  much  esteemed 
for  making  tarts  and  jellies.  The  remaining 
native  species  are  only  of  interest  to  the  bota 
nist. — Among  exotic  thorns,  the  best  known 
is  the  hawthorn  (C.  oxyacantlia\  also  called 
white  thorn,  and  in  England  May  or  May  tree, 
and  also  quickset,  from  its  being  set  to  form  a 
quick  or  living  fence  or  hedge.  "The  term  haw 
is  applied  to  the  fruit  of  this  and  other  thorns ; 


but  being  from  the  A.  S.  Jiaga,  a  fence  or  hedge, 
hawthorn  really  means  a  hedge  thorn,  and  the 
origin  of  the  name  points  to  this  use  of  it  in 
very  early  times.  The  species  is  found  through 
out  Europe,  Siberia,  and  central  Asia ;  and  as 
it  was  early  introduced  into  this  country,  it  has 
become  more  or  less  naturalized  in  the  older 
states.  Its  smooth  leaves  are  wedge-shaped  at 
the  base  and  cut-lobed  and  toothed  above;  its 
abundant  flowers  appear  in  May,  and  are  fol 
lowed  by  ovoid,  coral-red,  rather  small  fruit. 
The  varieties  are  numerous,  the  catalogues  con 
taining  30  or  more,  which  differ  from  the  nor 
mal  form  in  the  shape  of  the  tree,  some  being 
very  pendulous,  in  the  character  of  the  leaves, 
and  in  the  form  and  color  of  the  flowers ;  the 
bloom,  usually  white,  varies  from  blush  through 
pink  and  rose  color  up  to  a  recently  introduced 
scarlet,  and  there  are  double  as  well  as  single 
flowers  of  the  white  and  various  shades,  so  that 
a  collection  of  the  forms  of  this  species  alone 
would  present  a  great  variety.  The  Glaston- 
bury  thorn,  near  the  abbey  of  that  name  in 
England,  is  a  variety  of  hawthorn  flowering 
twice  a  year ;  it  blooms  at  the  usual  time,  and 
also  bears  a  crop  of  very  early  flowers,  which 
open  about  Christmas.  In  England  the  haw 
thorn  is  the  almost  universal  hedge  plant,  it 
being  as  well  adapted  to  that  climate  as  it  is 
unfitted  to  ours  ;  the  early  attempts  at  hedging 
in  this  country  were,  in  imitation  of  the  home 
practice,  made  with  this  plant ;  and  the  general 


Hawthorn  (Crataegus  oxyacantha). 

failure  with  it  brought  all  hedging  into  disre 
pute.  (See  HEDGE.)  The  evergreen  or  pyra- 
canth  thorn  (G.  pyracantTia),  from  the  south 
of  Europe,  was  distributed  several  years  ago 
as  a  desirable  hedge  plant ;  it  has  shining,  ever 
green,  mostly  oblong  leaves,  about  an  inch  long, 
with  small  clusters  of  flowers  and  brilliant  red 
fruit ;  it  has  become  naturalized  near  Wash 
ington  and  in  some  other  localities;  in  a  cli 
mate  not  more  severe  than  that  of  Virginia 
it  makes  an  excellent  hedge.  An  accidental 
variety  with  white  or  yellowish  fruit  is  (as  is 
sometimes  the  case  with  varieties)  more  robust 


THOEN 


THORNWELL 


723 


than  the  type ;  this  has  proved  perfectly  hardy 
near  New  York  in  the  most  severe  winters, 
and  promises  to  be  a  valuable  hedge  plant. — 
The  pyracanth  thorn  is  readily  multiplied  from 
cuttings,  but  the  hawthorn  and  our  native  spe 
cies  are  mostly  raised  from  seeds,  which  are 
very  slow  in  germinating ;  the  fruit  is  placed 
in  what  is  called  the  "  rot  heap,"  where  mixed 
with  earth  it  is  exposed  to  the  weather  for  a 
year  before  sowing.  Thorns  from  the  seed 
are  used  as  stocks  upon  which  to  graft  the 
double  and  other  desirable  varieties,  and  some 
of  our  vigorous  native  species  have  been  used 
as  stocks  for  the  pear ;  but  there  is  no  advan 
tage  in  using  these  stocks,  and  unless  the  graft 
ing  is  done  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  the 
pear  is  apt  to  break  away  from  the  thorn. 

THORN,  a  town  of  the  kingdom  and  the 
province  of  Prussia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  52  m.  S.  TV.  of  Marienwerder ;  pop. 
in  1871,  16,619.  It  has  three  Protestant  and 
three  Catholic  churches,  famous  manufacto 
ries  of  gingerbread,  and  an  important  trade 
in  corn  and  lumber.  It  is  the  birthplace  of 
Copernicus,  of  whom  there  is  a  statue  in  the 
market  place  and  a  monument  in  the  Catholic 
St.  John's  church.  It  is  strongly  fortified. — 
Thorn  was  founded  about  1230  by  the  Teutonic 
knights.  It  joined  the  Ilanse  league,  and  in 
1454  placed  itself  under  the  protection  of  Po 
land,  to  which  it  was  confirmed  by  the  peace 
with  the  order  concluded  there  in  1466.  In 
1724  a  riot  between  the  students  of  the  Protes 
tant  gymnasium  and  those  of  the  Jesuit  school 
led  to  a  bloody  persecution  of  the  Protestant 
citizens.  Thorn  has  repeatedly  been  besieged. 

THORN  APPLE.     See  DATURA. 

THORNBIRY,  George  Walter,  an  English  author, 
born  in  London  in  1828.  In  1845  he  published 
a  series  of  topographical  and  antiquarian  papers 
in  the  "Bristol  Journal."  After  1858  the 
name  George  is  omitted  from  his  title  pages. 
He  has  published  "Lays  and  Legends,  or  Bal 
lads  of  the  New  World"  (London,  1851); 
"Monarchs  of  the  Main,  or  Adventures  of  the 
Buccaneers  "  (1855) ;  "  Shakespeare's  England," 
and  "Art  and  Nature  at  Home  and  Abroad" 
(1856);  "Legend  of  the  Wandering  Jew," 
and  "  Songs  of  the  Cavaliers  and  Roundheads  " 
(1857);  "Every  Man  his  Own  Trumpeter,"  a 
novel  founded  on  Montluc's  memoirs  (1858) ; 
"Life  in  Spain,  Past  and  Present"  (1859); 
"  Turkish  Life  and  Character  "  (1860)  ;  "  Brit 
ish  Artists  from  Hogarth  to  Turner  "  (2  vols. 
8vo,  1860);  "Ice-Bound,"  "Cross  Country," 
and  "Life  of  J.  M.  TV.  Turner,  R.  A."  (1861); 
"True  as  Steel"  (1863);  "Wildfire"  (1864); 
"Haunted  London,"  and  "Tales  for  the  Ma 
rines  "  (1865) ;  "  Greatheart,  a  Cornish  Novel " 
(1866) ;  "  Two  Centuries  of  Song,"  a  collection 
of  vers  de  societe  (1867) ;  "The  Vicar's  Court 
ship,"  and  "Old  Stories  Retold"  (1869);  "A 
Tour  round  England"  (1870);  "Old  and  New 
London"  (2  vols.,  1873-'4);  and  "Historical 
and  Legendary  Ballads  and  Songs,"  a  collec 
tion  of  his  previously  published  poems  (1876). 


THORNH1LL,  Sir  James,  an  English  painter, 
born  in  Weymonth  in  1676,  died  there,  May  4, 
1734.  He  settled  in  London,  and  during  the 
last  30  years  of  his  life  was  employed  on  im 
portant  works,  including  the  eight  pictures  in 
chiaroscuro  illustrating  the  history  of  St.  Paul 
on  the  inner  dome  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  and 
the  decorations  at  Kensington  palace,  Blen 
heim,  and  Greenwich  hospital.  In  1724  he 
opened  an  academy  for  drawing  at  his  house. 
Hogarth  was  his  pupil  and  son-in-law.  He 
was  knighted  by  George  I.,  and  represented 
Weymouth  in  parliament. 

THORNTON,  Bonnell,  an  English  author,  born 
in  London  in  1724,  died  May  9,  1768.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  in  conjunction  with 
George  Colman  the  elder  began  a  periodical, 
"The  Connoisseur,"  which  lasted  from  Jan 
uary,  1754,  to  September,  1756.  With  Col- 
man  also  he  was  one  of  the  original  proprie 
tors  of  "  the  St.  James's  Chronicle,"  In  1762 
he  published  "An  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day, 
adapted  to  the  antient  British  Music,  viz.,  the 
Salt-box,  the  Jews-harp,  the  Marrow-bones 
and  Cleavers,  the  Hum-strum  or  Hurdy-gurdy, 
&c.,  with  an  Introduction  giving  an  Account 
of  those  truly  British  Instruments  "  (4£o,  Lon 
don)  ;  the  ode  was  set  to  music  by  Dr.  Bur- 
ney,  and  performed  on  the  instruments  named 
with  great  success.  In  conjunction  with  Col 
man  and  Richard  Warner  he  published  "The 
Comedies  of  Plaiitus,  translated  into  familiar 
Blank  Verse"  (2  vols.,  1767),  of  which  he 
translated  "Amphitryon,"  "  The  Braggart  Cap 
tain,"  "  The  Treasure,"  "  The  Miser,"  and  "The 
Shipwreck."  In  1768  he  published  "  The  Bat 
tle  of  the  Wigs,  an  additional  Canto  to  Dr. 
Garth's  Poem  of  the  Dispensary"  (4to). 

THORNTON,  Matthew,  a  signer  of  the  Dec 
laration  of  Independence,  born  in  Ireland  in 
1714,  died  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  June  24, 
1803.  His  father  emigrated  to  America  about 
1717.  The  son  was  educated  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  studied  medicine,  and  commenced  prac 
tice  at  Londonderry,  N.  II.  In  1745,  as  a  sur 
geon,  he  joined  a  New  Hampshire  division  of 
500  men  in  the  expedition  against  Louisburg. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  revolutionary  war  Dr. 
Thornton  was  a  colonel  in  the  militia.  When 
a  provincial  convention  was  called,  he  was 
chosen  its  president ;  but  he  was  immediately 
appointed  to  represent  New  Hampshire  in  the 
congress,  and  was  permitted  to  sign  the  Dec 
laration  of  Independence  after  taking  his  seat 
in  September,  1776.  Subsequently  he  was 
chief  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in 
New  Hampshire,  and  later  a  judge  of  the  su 
perior  court.  lie  removed  from  Londonderry 
to  Exeter,  and  finally  fixed  his  residence  at 
Merrimack,  where  he  purchased  a  large  estate. 

THORNWELL,  James  Henley,  an  American  cler 
gyman,  born  in  Marlborough  district,  S.  C.,  in 
1811,  died  in  Charlotte,  N.  C.,  Aug.  1,  1862. 
He  graduated  at  the  South  Carolina  college  in 
1829,  studied  theology,  and  commenced  preach 
ing  as  a  Presbyterian  minister  to  the  Waxhaw 


THORNYCROFT 


THORWALDSEN 


church.  In  1830  he  was  elected  professor  of 
logic  and  belles-lettres  in  the  South  Carolina 
college,  and  in  1838  became  pastor  of  the 
Presbyterian  church  in  Columbia.  In  1840 
he  accepted  the  professorship  of  the  eviden 
ces  of  Christianity  and  the  chaplaincy  of  the 
college,  and  in  May,  1852,  took  charge  of  the 
Glebe  street  church,  Charleston.  In  Decem 
ber, 
lege, 
sorshi^ 

nary  at  Columbia.  He  published  "Arguments 
of  Romanists  Discussed  and  Refuted"  (New- 
York,  1845);  "Discourses  on  Truth"  (1854); 
"On  the  Rights  and  Duties  of  Masters,"  and 
"The  State  of  the  Country"  (1861);  and  nu 
merous  controversial  articles  in  the  "  South 
ern  Presbyterian  Review,"  defending  slavery 
and  secession.  His  collected  works  have  been 
edited  by  the  Rev.  John  13.  Adger  (2  vols. 
8vo,  Richmond,  1874). 

THORMCROFT,  Mary  (FRANCIS),  an  English 
sculptress,  born  at  Thornham,  Norfolk,  in 
1814.  She  was  a  pupil  of  her  father,  John 
Francis  (1780-1861),  who  attained  great  emi 
nence  in  London  as  a  portrait  sculptor,  and 
executed  busts  of  Queen  Victoria,  Prince  Al 
bert,  Wellington,  and  many  of  the  statesmen 
of  his  time.  In  1840  she  married  Mr.  Thorny- 
croft,  also  a  pupil  of  her  father,  and  in  1842 
accompanied  him  to  Rome,  where  she  received 
instructions  from  Thorwaldsen  and  Gibson. 
After  her  return  in  1843  she  was  employed  to 
execute  statues  of  four  of  the  royal  children 
in  the  character  of  the  four  seasons.  Her 
works  include  "The  Flower  Girl,"  "Sappho," 
"Sleeping  Child,"  and  "Girl  Skipping." 

THOROUGH  BASS,  the  art  by  which  harmony 
is  superadded  to  any  proposed  bass,  such  har 
monies  being  indicated  by  figures  placed  un 
der  the  bass  notes.  The  term  is  also  used  like 
counterpoint  as  synonymous  with  the  science 
of  harmony.  (See  Music,  vol.  xii.,  p.  81.) 

THOROUGH  WORT.     See  BOXESET. 

THORPE,  Benjamin,  an  English  philologist, 
born  about  1808,  died  at  Chiswick,  July  18, 
1870.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
Anglo-Saxon,  translated  the  Anglo-Saxon  gram 
mar  of  Rask,  superintended  a  series  of  editions 
of  Anglo-Saxon  works,  including  the  metrical 
paraphrase  of  the  Bible  by  Caedmon  (1832), 
and  published  A nalecta  Anglo- Saxonica  (1834) ; 
"The  Anglo-Saxon  Version  of  the  Story  of 
Apollonius"  (1834);  Libri  Psalmorum  Versio 
Antiqua  Latina,  cum  Paraplirasi  Anglo-Sax- 
onica  (1835) ;  the  great  collection  entitled  "  An 
cient  Laws  and  Institutes  of  England,  with  a 
Compendious  Glossary,"  &c.  (1840);  Codex 
Exoniejuis  (1842);  "  Northern  Mythology  "  (3 
vols.,  1851-'3),  a  critical  collection  of  the  le 
gends  of  Scandinavia  and  northern  Germany; 
"The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle"  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1861) ;  and  Diplomaticum  Anglicum  j*Em  Sax- 
onici,  a  collection  of  English  charters  (1865). 

THORWALDSEN,  Bcrtel,  a  Danish  sculptor,  born 
at  sea  between  Iceland  and  Denmark,  Nov. 


19,  1770,  died  in  Copenhagen,  March  24,  1844. 
He  was  the  son  of  an  Icelander,  who  was  a  wood 
carver,  and  was  christened  Bartholomaeus,  but 
was  called  by  the  diminutive  Bertel,  which  the 
Italians  turned  into  Alberto.  At  the  age  of  11 
he  entered  the  free  school  of  the  academy  of 
arts  in  Copenhagen.  At  17  he  gained  the  sil 
ver  medal  of  the  academy ;  at  20  the  small 
gold  medal  for  his  "Heliodorus  driven  from 
the  Temple;"  and  in  1793  the  grand  prize, 
which  entitled  him  to  a  small  stipend  for 
studying  abroad.  For  several  years  after  his 
arrival  in  Rome  (March  8,  1797),  his  progress, 
owing  to  illness  and  his  own  diffidence,  re 
ceived  no  adequate  recognition.  He  was  pre 
paring  in  1803  to  return  to  Denmark,  when 
his  model  of  "  Jason  bearing  the  Golden 
Fleece  "  attracted  the  notice  of  Thomas  Hope, 
who  offered  him  a  liberal  sum  for  the  execu 
tion  of  the  statue  in  marble,  which  reached 
England  only  in  1824.  His  earliest  efforts 
reflected  the  idealism  of  classic  art,  and  his 
Mars,  Mercury,  Ganymede,  the  Graces,  Ve 
nus,  Cupid  and  Psyche,  Hector  and  Priam, 
and  "  Dance  of  the  Muses  on  Mount  Heli 
con  "  are  among  the  best  modern  imitations 
of  the  antique.  A  more  important  work  was 
the  magnificent  bass  relief  of  the  "  Trium 
phal  Entry  of  Alexander  into  Babylon,"  the 
plaster  cast  of  which  was  completed  in  1812 
by  order  of  Napoleon,  for  the  Quirinal.  Two 
copies  in  marble  are  in  existence,  one  of  which 
is  in  the  palace  of  Christiansborg,  Copenha 
gen.  As  Thorwaldsen  gained  in  confidence 
and  executive  power,  he  rose  above  the  mere 
imitation  of  Greek  sculpture,  and  devoted  him 
self  to  original  works.  In  1819  he  made  a 
brief  visit  to  Copenhagen.  His  progress  thither 
through  Italy  and  Germany  was  one  continuous 
ovation,  and  on  arriving  at  his  native  city  he 
was  escorted  in  triumph  to  apartments  pre 
pared  for  him  in  the  royal  palace  of  Charlot- 
tenborg.  Returning  to  Rome  in  1 820,  he  be 
gan  the  series  of  religious  works  which  stamp 
him  as  one  of  the  regenerators  of  sculpture. 
Among  these  was  his  colossal  group  of  "  Christ 
and  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  now  in  the  cathedral 
church  of  Copenhagen.  In  the  same  church 
are  his  statues  of  the  four  great  "prophets  and 
many  fine  bass  reliefs,  and  the  exterior  is 
adorned  by  his  frieze  of  "  Christ  bearing  the 
Cross,"  and  by  a  group  in  alto  rilievo  repre 
senting  the  "Preaching  of  St.  John,"  which 
fills  the  pediment.  He  also  executed  seated 
statues  of  Galileo,  of  Copernicus,  in  Warsaw, 
and  of  Byron,  in  Trinity  college  library,  Cam 
bridge  ;  a  monument  to  Pius  VII. ;  and  a  vast 
number  of  other  works.  His  largest  single 
work  is  the  colossal  lion  near  Lucerne,  Switz 
erland,  commemorating  the  Swiss  guards  who 
fell  in  defending  the  Tuileries,  Aug.  10,  1792; 
and  among  his  statues  in  bronze  are  those  of 
Schiller  at  Stuttgart  and  Gutenberg  at  Mentz. 
In  1838  he  returned  to  Copenhagen  in  a  frigate 
furnished  him  by  the  government,  and  was 
lodged  in  the  royal  palace.  He  died  suddenly 


TIIOU 


THRACE 


725 


of  disease  of  the  heart,  just  after  he  had  taken 
his  seat  in  the  theatre.  He  was  engaged  until 
within  a  few  hours  of  his  death  upon  a  bust  of 
Luther,  which  was  left  unfinished.  He  was  a 
man  of  much  modesty,  generosity,  and  amia 
bility.  As  a  sculptor  of  bass  relief  he  sur 
passed  any  of  his  contemporaries ;  and  some 
of  his  smaller  works  in  this  department,  as 
the  "Day"  and  "Night,11  modelled  in  1815  at 
a  single  sitting,  display  a  fertile  vein  of  poetic 
imagination  and  executive  refinement.  In  other 
works  of  the  class  he  neglected  the  execution 
for  the  purpose  of  attaining  vigor  and  strength. 
His  entire  collection  of  works  of  art,  and  the 
bulk  of  his  large  personal  property,  were  be 
queathed  to  the  city  of  Copenhagen  for  estab 
lishing  and  supporting  the  celebrated  museum 
containing  his  mausoleum  and  marble  or  plas 
ter  copies  of  all  his  works,  of  which  Hoist 
published  120  lithographs  in  his  Musee  Thor- 
valdsen  (Copenhagen,  1851).  Eugene  Plon 
established  in  1874  a  Thorwaldsen  museum  at 
the  Louvre. — See  Thieler's  various  works  on 
Thorwaldsen,  including  his  life  collated  from 
his  autobiography  (German,  Leipsic,  1852-'6; 
English  translation  by  the  Rev.  M.  R.  Barnard, 
London,  1865),  and  Eugene  Plon's  Thorvald- 
sen,  sa  vie  et  son  ceuvre  (Paris,  1867;  English 
translation  by  Mrs.  Cashel  Hoey,  London,  1874, 
and  by  Miss  I.  M.  Luyster,  Boston,  1874). 

THOU,  Jacqnes  Angnste  de  (Lat.  THUANUS),  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  8,  1553, 
died  May  7,  1617.  He  was  the  son  of  a  first 
president  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  studied 
law  at  home  and  in  Italy,  and  was  early  en 
gaged  in  diplomatic  and  judicial  employments. 
In  1588  he  was  one  of  the  deputies  to  the  states 
general  at  Blois.  He  aided  in  effecting  a  rec 
onciliation  between  Henry  III.  and  Henry  of 
Navarre,  and  went  to  Germany  and  Italy  to 
procure  men  and  money  for  them.  Henry 
IV.  appointed  him  grand  master  of  the  royal 
library,  and  in  1594  president  d  mortier  of 
the  parliament  of  Paris.  He  was  one  of 
the  framers  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  sup 
ported  the  rights  of  the  Gallican  church  by 
preventing  the  adoption  of  several  decrees  of 
the  council  of  Trent.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
IV.  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  directors  of 
finance.  His  Historic  sui  Temporis  (completed 
from  his  materials  by  Pere  Dupuy  and  Nicolas 
Rigault  in  a  7th  ed.,  1620)  embraces  the  period 
.from  1543  to  1607,  in  138  books.  The  only 
complete  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  S. 
Buckley  and  T.  Carte  (7  vols.  fol.,  London,  j 
1733),  including  besides  the  above  his  auto 
biography,  letters,  and  various  essays,  with 
an  appendix  by  Rigault  continuing  the  history 
to  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  A  French  transla 
tion  appeared  in  1734,  in  16  vols.  4to,  and  a 
new  edition  of  his  autobiography  in  French, 
by  Masson,  in  1838.  De  Thou  also  left  some 
Latin  poems :  Ilieracosophion,  sire  de  Re  Ac- 
cipitraria  Lil>ri  III.  (4to,  1584) ;  Poemata  Sa 
cra  (12mo,  1599) ;  and  Posteritati,  &c.  (12mo, 
1678).— See '"  Life  of  Thuanus,  with  some  Ac 


count  of  his  Writings,"  by  the  Rev.  John  Col- 
linson  (London,  1807),  and  Discours  sur  la  me 
et  les  outrages  de  J.  A.  de  Thou,  by  Philarete 
Chasles  (Paris,  1824). — His  son,  FRANCOIS  Au- 
GUSTE,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  royal  library, 
was  a  friend  of  Cinq-Mars,  and  was  executed 
with  him,  Sept,  12,  1642. 

THOliRS.     See  Du  PETIT-TIIOUAES. 

THRACE,  in  ancient  geography,  originally 
that  part  of  modern  Turkey  in  Europe  lying 
between  the  Danube,  the  Black  sea,  the  sea  of 
Marmora,  the  Grecian  archipelago,  the  Struma, 
and  a  line,  not  well  defined,  connecting  that 
river  with  the  Danube.  In  later  times  that 
part  of  Thrace  which  lay  between  the  rivers 
Strymon  (now  Struma)  and  Nestus  (Kara-su) 
was  annexed  to  Macedonia  by  Philip,  and  the 
country  N.  of  the  Hsemus  (Balkan)  was  made 
by  the  Romans  a  separate  province  under  the 
name  of  Mo?sia.  Thrace,  in  the  narrowest 
sense,  was  bounded  N.  by  the  Ilaemus,  E.  by 
the  Euxine,  S.  E.  and  S.  by  the  Thracian  Bos 
porus,  the  Propontis,  the  Hellespont,  and  the 
yEgean  sea,  and  ~\V.  by  the  Nestus.  Two  olf- 
sboots  of  the  Hsemus,  the  Rhodope  (Despoto 
Dagh),  E.  of  the  Ne.stus,  and  a  parallel  range 
near  the  Euxine,  traversed  it  in  a  S.  E.  di 
rection.  It  was  watered,  besides  the  Nestus, 
by  the  Hebrus  (Maritza)  and  its  affluents  the 
Artiscus  (Tundja),  Agrianes  (Erkeneh),  and 
others.  The  principal  towns  were  Apollonia 
and  Salmydessus  on  the  Euxine;  Byzantium 
(Constantinople)  on  the  Bosporus;  Selymbria 
and  Perinthus  or  Heraclea  (Erekli)  on  the  Pro- 
pontis;  Callipolis  (Gallipoli)  and  Sestos  on  the 
Hellespont,  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  (pen 
insula  of  Gallipoli);  Lysimachia,  yEnos,  Me- 
sembria,  Maronea,  and  Abdera,  on  the  ^Ege- 
an;  and  Philippopolis,  Hadrianopolis  (Adria- 
nople),  and  Trajanopolis,  on  the  Hebrus.  The 
towns  on  the  coast  were  all  Greek  settlements. 
The  district  between  the  Strymon  and  Nestus, 
called  Macedonia  Adjecta,  contained  Neapolis, 
Philippi,  and  Amphipolis.  In  the  times  of  He 
rodotus  and  Thucydides,  Thrace,  in  the  wider 
sense,  was  peopled  by  numerous  tribes,  prob 
ably  Goths  and  Scythians,  as  Geta?,  Treres, 
Odrysae,  Triballi,  Daci,  and  Mcesi.  At  an  early 
period  they  seem  to  have  greatly  influenced 
the  culture  of  the  Greeks,  especially  their 
mythology  and  religious  rites.  They  are  de 
scribed  as  powerful,  warlike,  and  cruel.  They 
worshipped  deities  identified  with  Mars,  Bac 
chus,  and  Diana,  and  had  an  oracle  of 'Bacchus 
on  a  lofty  summit  of  Rhodope.  Orpheus, 
Linus,  Musseus,  and  Eumolpus  are  said  to  have 
been  Thracians.  We  find  fragments  of  the 
Thracian  race  also  in  parts  of  Asia  Minor  and 
central  Greece. — The  Thracians  are  said  to 
have  been  conquered  by  the  Teucrians  and 
Mysians.  They  were  subdued  by  the  Persians 
under  Darius,  but  recovered  their  freedom 
after  the  reverses  of  Xerxes.  Their  most  pow 
erful  native  rulers  were  Sitalces,  king  of  the 
Odrysse,  who  fell  in  battle  against  the  Tribnlli 
in  424  B.  C.,  and  his  nephew  Seuthes,  after 


726 


THRALE 


THRESHING  MACHINE 


whose  death  the  Thracian  kingdom  was  split 
up  in  parts.  Philip  of  Macedon  conquered  the 
greater  part  of  it,  and  after  the  death  of  Alex 
ander  it  was  ruled  by  Lysimachus.  It  was 
subsequently  annexed  to  Macedonia,  and  final 
ly,  with  the  latter,  to  the  Roman  dominions, 
though  it  long  continued  to  be  governed  by 
native  chiefs.  After  the  division  of  the  Roman 
empire  it  shared  the  fate  of  the  eastern  part. 
Its  main  parts  now  form  the  vilayet  of  Edirneh 
(Adrianople).  (See  ROUMELIA.) 

TIIRALE.     See  PIOZZI. 

THRASHER.     See  THRUSH. 

THRASTBULUS,  an  Athenian  general,  attached 
to  the  democratic  party,  died  about  the  close 
of  390  B.  0.  In  411  he  was  in  command  of 
an  Athenian  galley  in  the  fleet  at  Samos,  and 
joined  the  opponents  of  the  oligarchical  gov 
ernment  of  the  400.  lie  was  soon  after  made 
a  general  by  an  assembly  in  the  camp,  and 
procured  the  pardon  and  recall  of  Alcibiades. 
At  the  battle  of  Cynossema  he  commanded  the 
right  wing,  and  secured  the  victory  by  a  sud 
den  attack  upon  the  Peloponnesians.  In  407, 
with  a  fleet  of  30  ships,  he  reduced  most  of 
the  revolted  cities  on  the  coast  of  Thrace  to 
submission,  and  about  the  same  time  was  with 
Alcibiades  elected  one  of  the  ne\v  generals. 
Banished  on  the  establishment  of  the  thirty 
tyrants,  he  seized  with  the  aid  of  some  The- 
bans  the  fortress  of  Phyle,  and  with  1,000 
men  occupied  Pirasus.  From  this  place  he 
carried  on  a  brisk  warfare  against  the  thirty, 
and  the  ten  who  succeeded  them,  and  finally 
delivered  Athens  and  restored  the  democratic 
government  (403).  In  395  he  led  an  army  to 
the  assistance  of  the  Thebans,  then  menaced 
by  Sparta,  and  in  390  was  sent  with  40  ships 
to  aid  the  Rhodians  against  Teleutias,  restored 
the  Athenian  interest  in  Byzantium,  secured 
several  new  alliances,  and  reduced  Methymna 
and  other  towns  in  Lesbos.  Afterward  sail 
ing  south,  he  anchored  in  the  Euryniedon, 
near  Aspendus  in  Cilicia,  when  the  inhabi 
tants,  exasperated  by  some  act  of  his  soldiers, 
killed  him  in  the  night. 

THRASYMENUS,  or  Trasinienras,  Lake.  See  PE- 
KTJGIA,  and  HANNIBAL. 

THREAD  WORM.  See  EXTOZOA,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
670. 

THREATENING  LETTERS,  sent  to  persons  for 
the  purpose  of  extorting  money,  have  been 
said  to  constitute  a  misdemeanor  or  criminal 
offence  at  common  law.  Blackstone  says  that 
threatening  by  letter  (even  without  demand) 
to  kill  any  of  the  king's  subjects  or  to  fire  their 
houses,  &c.,  was  made  high  treason  by  a  statute 
of  Henry  VIII. ;  and  though  this  is  no  Ignger 
the  law,  the  offence  is  punishable  severely  un 
der  existing  statutes.  In  many  of  the  United 
States  there  are  statutory  provisions,  punishing 
with  great  severity  an  attempt  to  extort  money 
by  means  of  a  threatening  letter.  It  may  be 
said  generally  that  a  threat,  to  be  indictable, 
must  be  such  as  might  naturally  overcome  a 
man  of  ordinary  firmness  and  sagacity;  and 


the  money  demanded  under  the  threat  must  be 
money  to  which  the  sender  of  the  letter  has 
no  right.  In  England,  it  would  seem  to  be  an 
offence  at  law  to  post  up,  on  a  placard  or  oth 
erwise,  a  threatening  notice. 

THREE  RIVERS  (Fr.  Troia  Rivieres),  a  city 
and  port  of  entry  of  the  province  of  Quebec, 
Canada,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  river  St.  Law 
rence,  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Maurice,  02  m. 
S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Quebec  and  80  m.  N.  E. 
of  Montreal;  pop.  in  1801,  6,058;  in  1871, 
7,570.  It  is  connected  by  ferry  with  a  branch 
of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  chief  trade  is 
in  lumber,  which  is  shipped  in  large  quantities 
to  South  America,  the  West  Indies,  England, 
and  the  United  States.  The  value  of  imports 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  was  $82,- 
097;  of  exports,  $159,451.  An  additional  ele 
ment  of  prosperity  is  the  manufacture  of  iron 
wares,  for  which  the  St.  Maurice  forges,  3  m. 
distant,  are  noted.  The  city  contains  two 
branch  banks,  a  college,  an  English  academy, 
an  Ursuline  convent  and  school,  several  other 
schools,  a  tri-weekly  and  a  semi-weekly  news 
paper  (both  French),  a  Roman  Catholic  cathe 
dral  and  parish  church,  and  Episcopal,  Presby 
terian,  and  Wesleyan  Methodist  churches.  The 
streets  are  lighted  with  gas. — Three  Rivers 
was  founded  in  1018.  With  the  parish  of  the 
same  name  it  forms  an  electoral  district  for 
parliamentary  purposes,  having  an  area  of  17£ 
sq.  m.  and  8,414  inhabitants  in  1871. 

THRESHER.     See  SIIAEK,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  829. 

THRESHING  HIACHINE,  a  machine  for  thresh 
ing  and  separating  grain  from  the  straw.  The 
threshing  floor  of  the  ancients  was  a  flat  sur 
face  of  ground  covered  with  clay  rolled  smooth 
and  hard.  Sheaves  of  grain  were  spread  evenly 
on  this  floor,  and  cattle  driven  over  it  until 
the  grain  was  beaten  out  by  the  constant  tramp 
ing  upon  it.  The  Egyptians  usually  muzzled 
the  ox  while  threshing,  and  the  Greeks  are 
said  by  ./Elian  to  have  had  the  filthy  practice 
of  besmearing  the  mouths  of  animals  with 
dung  to  prevent  their  eating  the  grain.  The 
flail,  which  is  yet  in  common  use  l)j  small 
farmers,  is  a  very  ancient  invention.  Planks 
or  timbers  stuck  over  with  pieces  of  flint  or 
hard  wooden  pegs  were  used  to  some  ex 
tent,  but  answered  no  good  purpose.  Michael 
Menzies  of  Scotland  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  inventor  of  a  machine  for  threshing, 
which  was  merely  an  adaptation  of  suitable 
mechanism  to  drive  a  large  number  of  flails  by 
water  power.  Though  unsuccessful  in  prac 
tice,  this  machine  attracted  considerable  atten- 
.tiori.  In  1758  a  Stirlingshire  farmer  named 
Leckie  invented  a  rotary  machine  which  con 
sisted  of  a  set  of  cross  arms  attached  to  a  hori 
zontal  shaft,  and  the  whole  enclosed  in  a  cylin 
drical  case.  It  proved  tolerably  efficient  in 
threshing  oats,  but  was  not  adapted  to  wheat, 
as  it  knocked  off  the  entire  head  from  the 
straw  without  separating  the  kernels.  Mr. 
Leckie  having  demonstrated  the  superiority  of 


THRESHING  MACHINE 


THRUSH 


Y27 


a  rotary  motion  for  this  purpose,  it  was  an 
easy  matter  to  remedy  the  defects  of  his  ma 
chine  and  perfect  the  invention.  In  1786  An 
drew  Meikle,  a  Scotchman,  made  an  improve 
ment  on  Leckie's  machine  by  substituting  a 
drum  or  cylinder  with  beaters  attached  to  the 
circumference.  He  also  applied  rollers,  con 
nected  by  suitable  mechanism  to  the  driving 
gear,  for  feeding  in  the  straw.  When  operated, 
the  drum  was  set  in  rapid  motion  by  water  or 
other  power;  the  sheaves  of  grain,  unbound 
and  placed  between  the  rollers,  were  fed  in; 
and  the  beaters,  revolving  with  great  velocity 
on  the  periphery  of  the  drum,  beat  out  the 
grain  from  the  heads  and  partially  separated 
it  from  the  straw.  A  patent  was  procured  in 
Great  Britain  in  1788,  when  Mr.  Meikle  con 
structed  the  first  working  machine,  and  added 
many  new  improvements,  among  which  was 
the  attachment  of  a  fan  mill,  by  which  the 
grain  was  separated  and  cleaned  from  both 
straw  and  chaff.  Though  an  invention  of  vast 
importance,  saving  annually  millions  of  dol 
lars'  in  manual  labor,  and  immensely  increas 
ing  the  product  of  grain  throughout  the  civil 
ized  world,  the  simplicity  of  the  threshing 
machine  and  the  perfection  of  Meikle's  inven 
tions  left  little  room  for  great  modern  improve 
ments.  Meikle's,  with  some  modifications,  was 
the  first  form  of  drum  machine  used  in  the  Uni 
ted  States;  but  although  the  beater  drum  is 
still  used  in  Great  Britain,  it  has  long  been  re 
placed  here  by  the  spiked  drum,  which  runs  at 
a  higher  speed.  This  form  of  machine  consists 
principally  of  a  concave  bed  made  of  heavy 
plank  lined  with  iron  spikes  arranged  spirally, 
into  which  the  drum,  also  armed  with  spirally 
disposed  spikes,  revolves.  Such  machines  are 
capable  of  threshing  300  bushels  of  oats  and 
over  100  of  wheat  in  10  hours.  Most  modern 
threshing  machines  have  grain  separaters  at 
tached,  by  which  the  grain  is  winnowed  by  a 
revolving  fan,  and  also  elevators  which  are 
long  endless  aprons  moved  on  rollers,  by  means 
of  which  the  straw  is  taken  up  into  a  mow  or 
on  to  a  stack.  Numerous  machines  of  this 
kind  are  employed  in  the  United  States,  es- 


Geiser's  Threshing  Machine. 


pecially  in  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  region. 
In  many  places  where  the  farms  are  not  large, 
it  is  the  practice  to  employ  threshers  who 
move  their  machines,  which  are  on  wheels 
like  those  of  a  wagon,  from  place  to  place. 


One  of  these  machines,  patented  by  Peter 
Geiser,  is  represented  in  the  engraving.  M 
is  the  feeding  board,  and  I  the  toothed  drum, 
which  throws  the  straw  and  threshed  grain  on 
to  an  inclined  plane  between  I  and  B.  Be 
tween  B  and  0  there  is  a  rack,  through  which 
the  grain  falls,  while  the  straw  is  moved  for 
ward  on  to  the  elevator  N  by  means  of  a 
reciprocating  rake.  The  grain  falls  back  on 
an  inclined  plane  to  E,  thence  down  over  the 
fluted  rollers  E  and  F,  where,  receiving  the  air 
blast  from  the  revolving  fan  II,  the  chaff  is 
blown  away,  the  grain  passing  down  into  re 
ceptacles  below.  Lighter  grains  and  seeds  of 
weeds  are  blown  further,  beyond  a  screen,  and 
are  carried  along  with  some  good  grain  by  an 
elevator,  back  to  the  thresher  at  L,  by  which 
means  all  the  good  grain  is  saved. 

THROCKMORTON,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Texas, 
drained  by  the  Brazos  river  and  its  affluents ; 
area,  900  sq.  m. ;  returned  as  having  no  popu 
lation  in  1870.  The  surface  is  mostly  broken 
and  hilly,  suited  to  grazing.  In  the  south, 
near  the  Clear  fork  of  the  Brazos,  is  some 
good  farming  land. 

.  THRO€MORTOi\,  Si r  Nicholas,  an  En gli sh  state  s- 
man,  born  in  London  about  1513,  died  there, 
Feb.  12, 1571.  He  was  page  to  the  duke  of  Rich 
mond  till  1536,  was  afterward  sewer  to  Henry 
VIII.,  and  headed  a  troop  at  the  siege  of  Bou 
logne.  Distinguished  in  the  Scottish  campaign 
under  Somerset,  he  was  knighted,  received  val 
uable  manors,  and  sat  in  parliament  as  mem 
ber  for  Northampton.  He  was  present  at  the 
death  of  Edward  VI.  in  1553,  and,  though  a 
Protestant  and  aware  of  the  movement  in 
favor  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  favored  the  accession 
of  Mary.  He  was  arrested  in  1554  as  an 
accomplice  in  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt's  rebellion, 
conducted  his  own  defence,  and  was  acquitted, 
but  remanded  to  the  tower  on  the  ground  that 
the  verdict  was  contrary  to  law.  He  was  re 
leased  in  1555,  lived  for  a  time  in  France,  and 
in  1556  privately  visited  the  princess  Elizabeth 
at  Hatfield,  after  whose  accession  he  was 
made  successively  chief  butler  of  England  and 
chamberlain  of  the  exchequer.  As  ambassador 
to  France  from  1559  to  1563,  he  favored  the 
policy  of  Cecil,  and  intrigued  to  foment  the 
civil  religious  war.  He  was  imprisoned  in 
1569  for  favoring  a  marriage  between  Mary 
queen  of  Scots  and  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  and 
never  regained  Elizabeth's  confidence. 

THROMBOSIS,  See  BEAIX,  DISEASES  or  THE, 
vol.  iii.,  p.  198. 

THRUSH,  the  common  name  of  a  very  large 
family  of  dentirostral  birds,  which  contains 
some"  of  the  finest  songsters  in  various  parts 
of  the  world.  The  bill  is  of  moderate  length, 
rather  stout,  slightly  convex  and  keeled  above, 
with  sharp  and  notched  tip  ;  at  the  base  of  the 
upper  mandible  on  each  side  of  the  gape  is  a 
row  of  bristles  much  smaller  than  in  the  fly 
catchers ;  nostrils  at  the  base  of  bill,  partly 
protected  by  a  membranous  scale ;  wings  toler- 
i  ably  long,  broad,  usually  rounded  at  the  end, 


728 


THEUSH 


with  the  first  quill  very  small;  legs  rather 
short  and  stout ;  tarsi  compressed,  covered  in 
front  by  a  single  scale  in  the  typical  genus 
turdus  (Linn.);  tail  moderate.  The  food  con 
sists  of  insects,  worms,  berries,  and  fruits,  and 
sometimes  mollusks ;  they  move  on  the  ground 
by  hopping  on  both  feet  at  once. — More  than 
100  species  of  the  genus  turdus  are  described, 
having  the  characters  given  above;  they  are 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  are  more 
or  less  migratory  and  shy ;  the  nest  is  made  of 
coarse  grasses  and  mosses,  usually  lined  with 
mud  and  soft  plants,  and  is  placed  on  bushes 
or  trees ;  the  eggs  are  five  or  six  ;  the  flesh  is 
delicate.  Several  species  have  been  already 
noticed  under  BLACKBIRD,  FIELDFARE,  and 
BOBIX.  Among  the  American  species  is  the 
wood  thrush  (T.  mustelinus,  Gmel.),  8  in.  long 
and  13i  in.  in  alar  extent;  the  form  is  stout, 
the  tail  nearly  even,  and  the  third  and  fourth 
quills  the  longest ;  the  general  color  is  rufous 
brown  above,  brightest  on  the  "head,  and  oliva 
ceous  on  the  tail ;  pure  white  below,  with 
numerous  blackish  spots  on  breast  and  sides ; 


bird,  and  is  heard  as  early  as  February,  before 
the  appearance  of  the  leaves,  and  even  during 
storms,  whence  its  name  of  storm  cock ;  it  is 


Wood  Thrush  (Turdus  mustelinus). 

legs  yellow ;  bill  brown,  yellowish  at  base.  It 
is  found  in  the  eastern  United  States  to  the 
Missouri  river,  and  south  to  Guatemala.  The 
notes  are  few,  but  powerful,  clear,  and  mellow, 
rising  and  falling  in  gentle  cadences  ;  they  are 
especially  pleasing  at  sunset ;  the  food  consists 
of  berries  and  small  fruits,  and  insects ;  the 
flight  is  elevated.  The  eggs  are  uniform  light 
blue ;  the  young  are  easily  raised  from  the  egg, 
and  they  sing  well  in  captivity.  Several  other 
species  are  described. — Of  the  European  species, 
the  largest  is  the  missel  thrush  (T.  Tiscivorus, 
Linn.),  11  in.  long;  it  is  light  grayish  brown 
above,  the  fore  part  of  the  head  grayish  and 
the  rump  shaded  with  ochrey  yellow ;  secon 
dary  coverts  and  tail  feathers  tipped  with  gray 
ish  white ;  a  cream-colored  band  from  bill 
over  eyes;  below  yellowish  white,  each  feath 
er  tipped  with  a  black  spot,  largest  and  trans 
versely  oblong  on  breast,  smaller  and  triangular 
on  neck.  It  frequents  woods  and  copses,  in 
small  straggling  flocks,  and  is  shy  and  vigilant; 
it  feeds  chiefly  on  berries,  especially  those  of 
the  mistletoe  (whence  its  common  name).  The 
song  of  the  male  resembles  that  of  the  black- 


Song  Thrush  or  Mavis  (Turdus  rausicus). 

very  bold  in  spring.  The  eggs  are  four  or  five, 
li  by  f  in.,  flesh-colored  with  irregular  scat 
tered  spots  of  brownish  red ;  two  broods  are 
generally  raised  in  a  season  ;  it  has  been  seen 
to  carry  off  small  birds  to  its  nest  to  feed  its 
young ;  the  flesh  is  good.  The  song  thrush, 
throstle,  or  mavis  (T.  musicus,  Linn.)  is  9  in. 
long,  yellowish  brown  above,  tinged  with  red 
on  the  head;  secondary  coverts  tipped  with- 
reddish  yellow  ;  fore  part  of  neck  and  breast 
yellowish,  each  feather  terminated  by  a  trian 
gular  brownish  black  spot ;  lower  wing  coverts 
reddish  yellow.  It  frequents  lightly  wooded 
regions  and  gardens,  in  the  latter  destroying 
snails,  which  it  obtains  by  breaking  the  shell 
against  a  stone ;  it  is  one  of  the  flnest  of  Euro 
pean  songsters,  singing  from  early  spring  to 
autumn,  in  the  morning  and  evening,  from  the 


Brown  Thrasher  (Harporhynchus  rufus). 

top  of  a  bush  or  tree.  Its  flesh,  especially  in 
the  beginning  of  winter  when  the  food  consists 
of  snails  and  worms,  is  very  fat  and  juicy. — 


THUANUS 

The  brown  thrush  or  thrasher  is  placed  by 
Baird  in  the  subfamily  mimincB  (with  the  cat 
bird  and  mocking  bird),  and  genus  harporhyn- 
chus  (Cab.).  This  bird  (//.  nvfus,  Cab.,  or  T. 
ru/us,  Linn.)  is  11 J  in.  long  and  13  in.  in  alar 
extent ;  brownish  red  above ;  below  pale  rufous 
white,  thickly  streaked  with  dark  brown,  and 
tinged  anteriorly  with  reddish;  two  white 
bands  on  the  wings ;  inner  surface  of  wings 
and  inner  edge  of  primaries  cinnamon;  tail 
rufous.  It  is  found  over  eastern  North  Amer 
ica  to  the  Missouri,  and  to  the  high  central 
plains ;  it  is  a  constant  resident  in  the  southern 
states,  and  is  almost  as  numerous  as  the  robin ; 
it  migrates  by  day,  singly,  with  a  low  and 
heavy  flight.  The  song  is  prolonged,  loud, 
varied,  and  melodious.  The  eggs  are  four  to 
six,  dull  pale  buff,  with  numerous  brown  dots ; 
two  broods  are  raised  annually  in  the  southern 
states ;  it  breeds  well  in  aviaries,  and  the  young 
are  raised  like  mocking  birds,  singing  well  and 
very  active  in  confinement.  It  is  a  bold  and 
powerful  bird,  chasing  cats,  dogs,  and  foxes, 
not  afraid  of  hawks  and  snakes,  and  savagely 
fighting  with  its  rivals  in  breeding  time  ;  both 
sexes  incubate ;  the  food  consists  of  insects, 
berries,  and  fruits  of  all  kinds.  THe  water 
thrush  (seiurus  Noveboracensis,  Nutt. ;  T.  aqua- 
ticus,  AVils.)  is  placed  by  the  most  recent  or 
nithologists  in  the  family  sylmcolidce  or  war 
blers  ;  it  is  6J  in.  long  and  9f  in.  in  alar  extent ; 
olive  brown  above  with  a  green  shade ;  beneath 
pale  sulphur  yellow,  brightest  on  the  abdomen ; 
the  other  parts  thickly  streaked  with  olivace 
ous  brown,  and  blackish  on  the  breast.  It  is 
found  throughout  the  eastern  United  States  to 
the  Missouri  and  south  to  Central  America. 

THUANUS.     See  THOU,  JACQUES  AUGUSTS  DE. 

THUCYDIDES,  a  Greek  historian,  born  in  Ath 
ens  probably  about  471  B.  C.,  died  about  400. 
He  was  the  son  of  Olorus,  and  was  probably 
connected  with  the  family  of  Cimon.  He  tells 
us  that  he  owned  gold  mines  in  Thrace,  oppo 
site  Thasos.  In  424  B.  C.  he  was  the  com 
mander  .of  an  Athenian  squadron  of  seven 
ships,  and  charged  with  the  general  authority 
on  the  coast  of  Thrace ;  but  as  he  failed  to  ar 
rive  in  time  to  prevent  the  surrender  of  the 
important  city  of  Amphipolis  to  the  Spartan 
general  Brasidas,  he  was  condemned  to  exile, 
which  continued  20  years.  He  spent  much  of 
this  time  in  Thrace ;  but  he  must  also  have 
visited  various  parts  of  Greece,  and  it  is  cer 
tain  from  his  own  writings  that  he  frequent 
ly  visited  the  states  under  Lacedaemonian  rule. 
He  returned  to  Athens  about  the  time  the  city 
was  freed  by  Thrasybulus.  The  accounts  of 
his  death  are  uncertain.  According  to  Pau- 
sanias,  he  was  assassinated  after  his  return; 
according  to  Plutarch,  he  was  said  to  have  been 
killed  in  Thrace,  though  his  remains  were  car 
ried  to  his  native  city.  The  work  by  which 
Thucydides  is  known  is  the  history  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  a  work  equally  distinguished 
by  truthfulness,  historical  insight,  excellence 
of  narration,  and  masterly  Arrangement  of 


THUGS 


Y29 


parts.  The  first  edition  was  published  by  Al 
dus  at  Venice  in  1502.  Of  the  numerous  later 
editions,  the  best  are  those  of  J.  Bekker  (3 

I  vols.,  Berlin,  1821),  Haack  (2  vols.  8vo,  Leip 
sic,  1820),  Poppo  (10  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1821- 

I  '38),  Arnold  (3  vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1830-'35), 
and  Stahl's  revised  edition  of  Poppo  (Leipsic, 

}  1843-'75).  There  have  been  English  versions 
by  Nicolls  (London,  1550),  Hobbes,  W.  Smith 
(1753),  Bloomfield  (1829;,  Dale  (1850),  and 
liichard  Crawley  (1874). 

THUGS  (Hindi,  thugna,  to  deceive),  a  sect  of 
assassins  in  India,  now  exterminated  by  the 
British  government.  They  roamed  about  the 
country  in  bands  of  from  30  to  300,  and 
strangled  to  death  such  persons  as  they  could 
decoy  into  their  company.  Their  atrocious 
practices  were  not  followed  so  much  from  im 
pulses  of  plunder  or  malice  as  from  religious 
motives.  They  were  worshippers  of  the  god 
dess  Kali,  who  presided  over  impure  love, 
sensual  indulgence,  and  death.  The  members 
of  the  sect  belonged  to  different  Hindoo  castes, 
and  each  had  its  functions.  The  bands  were 
under  a  junadar  or  sirdar,  who  was  the  lead 
er,  and  a  guru  or  teacher.  Its  members  were 
classified  into  spies,  who  were  learners  ;  stran- 
glers ;  entrappers,  who  were  sometimes  wo 
men  ;  and  grave  diggers.  They  usually  assumed 
the  dress  of  merchants  or  pilgrims,  and  often 
craved  the  protection  of  those  whom  they  in 
tended  to  destroy.  Their  usual  instrument  of 
destruction  was  the  handkerchief,  with  which 
by  a  dexterous  movement  they  strangled  their 
victims.  The  spies  having  informed  the  band 
of  the  route,  habits,  and  circumstances  of  their 
intended  victims,  the  members  travelled  in 
such  lines  as  to  be  near  one  another,  and  the 
entrappers  by  artful  management  attracted 
them  to  a  spot  remote  from  dwellings,  where 
the  stranglers  executed  their  office  ;  and  hav 
ing  stripped  them  of  whatever  they  possessed, 
the  grave  diggers  buried  them,  with  such  pre 
cautions  as  generally  to  prevent  discovery. 
The  plunder  was  divided,  one  third  to  the 
widows  and  orphans  of  the  sect,  one  third  to 
the  goddess  Kali,  and  the  remainder  to  the 
partners  in  the  assassination.  After  a  murder 
the  Thugs  who  had  committed  it  united  in  a  sort 
of  sacrament,  eating  consecrated  sugar.  Their 
deities  were  carefully  consulted  before  going 
on  their  expeditious,  and  unless  the  omens 
were  favorable  the  Thug  would  not  go.  Nei 
ther  women  nor  old.  men  were  victims.  Eu 
ropeans  were  never  killed,  as  there  would  have 
been  more  danger  of  detection.  There  were 
also  bands  of  Mohammedan  Thugs,  of  the  sect 
of  Mooltanees,  and  it  is  possible  that  at  first 
the  system  of  thuggee  originated  with  Moham 
medan  banditti,  though  it  afterward  became 
more  a  Hindoo  than  a  Mohammedan  practice, 
and  the  words  used  are  of  Sanskrit  origin. 
Thugs  were  found  in  all  parts  of  India.  At 
tempts  were  made  to  exterminate  these  bands 
of  murderers  in  several  of  the  native  states, 
even  prior  to  the  present  century ;  but  their 


Y30 


THULE 


THURINGIA 


connection  as  a  wide-spread  religious  frater 
nity  remained  unknown  till  1829,  during  the 
administration  of  Lord  William  Bentinck,  who 
appointed  Oapt.  (afterward  Sir  William)  Slee- 
man  to  break  up  the  organization.  This  was 
successfully  accomplished  by  the  arrest  of  every 
known  Thug  or  relative  of  a  Thug  in  India ; 
3,266  such  persons  were  apprehended  prior 
to  1837.  They  were  colonized  at  Jubbulpore 
into  a  trade  settlement,  where  technical  in 
struction  was  afforded  them  and  their  children. 
Their  descendants  are  still  under  government 
.supervision  there,  and  the  practice  of  thuggee 
has  become  extinct. — In  1836  the  government 
published,  for  judicial  purposes,  "  Ramaseeana, 
or  a  Vocabulary  of  the  peculiar  Language  used 
by  the  Thugs,"  by  Oapt.  Sleeman.  See  also 
"The  Confessions  of  a  Thug,"  by  Meadows 
Taylor  (London,  1858). 

THULE,  the  name  reported  by  the  ancient 
navigator  Pytheas,  about  the  time  of  Alexan 
der  the  Great,  as  that  of  the  northernmost 
region  of  Europe.  Strabo  says  that  he  gives 
no  clue  as  to  whether  it  is  an  island,  or  wheth 
er  it  is  inhabited;  and  it  is  therefore  prob 
able  that  Pytheas  did  not  visit  Thule  himself. 
Iceland  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  land 
he  referred  to,  as  he  says  it  was  six  days  from 
the  Orcades  (Orkney  islands) ;  yet  there  are 
other  reasons  which  favor  the  view  that  Main 
land,  the  largest  of  the  Shetland  group,  or  Jut 
land,  or  Norway,  is  meant. 

THIL\.  I.  A  walled  town  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Bern,  on  the  Aar,  about  1  in. 
from  Lake  Thun,  and  16  m.  S.  E.  of  Bern; 
pop.  about  4,700.  Among  the  public  build 
ings  are  the  old  Kyburg  castle,  the  cathedral, 
the  federal  military  academy,  and  the  modern 
Gothic  castle  of  Schadau.  It  is  a  summer  re 
sort  of  tourists  to  the  Bernese  Alps.  II.  A 
lake,  10  m.  long,  2  m.  wide,  and  1,896  ft.  above 
the  sea.  It  connects  at  the  S.  E.  end  with 
Lake  Brienz  by  the  Aar,  which  again  emerges 
from  the  N.  AV.  end  of  Lake  Thun,  and  the 
water  of  the  Kander  is  carried  into  the  lake 
through  an  artificial  channel  formed  in  1714. 
The  shores  near  the  town  of  Thun  are  cov 
ered  with  fine  villas  and  gardens.  Near  the  S. 
W.  shore  are  the  two  mountains  Niesen  and 
Stockhorri.  A  small  steamer  plies  regularly. 

THINBERG,  Carl  Peter,  a  Swedish  ^botanist, 
born  in  Jonkoping,  Nov.  11,  1743,  died  in  Up- 
sal,  Aug.  8,  1828.  He  studied  under  Linnasus 
at  Upsal,  became  surgeon  in  a  Dutch  ship  in 
1771,  passed  three  winters  at  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  between  1773  and  1779  resided 
principally  in  Java  and  Japan.  He  returned 
to  Sweden  in  1779,  and  was  appointed  in  1784 
professor  in  the  chair  formerly  occupied  by 
Linnteus,  which  he  retained  until  his  death. 
His  works  include  Flora  Japonica,  &c.  (Leip- 
sic,  1784) ;  a  general  account  of  his  travels  un 
der  the  title  of  Resa  uti  Europa,  Africa,  Asia 
(4vols.,  Upsal.  1788-'91),  which  was  translated 
into  German,  English,  and  French ;  Prodromus 
Plantarum  Capensium  (1794-1800)  ;  Icones 


Plantarum  Japonicarum  (1794-1805);  Flora 
Capensis  (1807-'13);  and  nearly  100  academi 
cal  dissertations. 

THUNDER.     See  LIGIITXIXG. 

THURGAU,  a  N.  E.  canton  of  Switzerland, 
bounded  N.  and  N.  E.  by  the  Rhine  and  the 
lake  of  Constance,  separating  it  from  Schaff- 
hausen,  Baden,  Wtirtemberg,  and  Bavaria,  S. 
E.  and  S.  by  the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  and  W.  by 
Zurich  ;  area,  382  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  93,300, 
nearly  all  Germans,  of  whom  23,454  were  Ro 
man  Catholics.  The  surface  is  comparatively 
level,  but  numerous  hills  traverse  the  country 
in  different  directions,  the  height  of  which 
nowhere  exceeds  1,000  ft.  above  the  lake  of 
Constance.  The  principal  river  is  the  Thur, 
which  flows  N.  W.  and  W.  through  Thurgau 
and  Zurich  to  the  Rhine.  The  climate  in  the 
southwest  is  severe,  but  elsewhere  temperate. 
The  soil  is  not  very  productive.  Fruit  is  ex 
tensively  grown,  and  good  wine  is  produced. 
About  one  fifth  of  the  surface  is  covered  with 
forest.  Linen  and  cotton  goods,  ribbons,  lace, 
hosiery,  and  canvas  are  manufactured.  Nu 
merous  schools  are  established  throughout  the 
canton.  The  only  language  spoken  is  the  Ger 
man.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  coun 
cil  (kleiner  RutJi)  of  seven,  who  hold  office  for 
six  years.  The  grand  council  or  legislature 
consists  of  one  member  for  every  220  citizens. 
It  is  presided  over  by  two  Landammanns,  cho 
sen  annually,  and  sends  five  members  to  the 
national. council.  Capital,  Frauenfeld. 

THIRINGIA  (Ger.  Thiiringeri),  a  central  region 
of  Germany,  between  the  Hartz  mountains  on 
the  north  and  the  Thuringian  Forest  on  the 
south,  the  river  Saale  on  the  east  and  the  Werra 
on  the  west,  the  principal  parts  belonging  to 
the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  to  Saxe-Co- 
burg-Gotha,  Weimar-Eisenach,  Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen,  and  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. 
The  Thuringians  were  allies  of  Attila  in  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century.  Their  country 
was  afterward  subdued  by  the  Franks  and 
Saxons.  The  Franks  ruled  it  for  some  cen 
turies  through  dukes  and  margraves.  Under 
the  Saxon  emperors  several  Thuringian  counts 
or  landgraves  obtained  a  kind  of  semi-indepen 
dence.  Louis  the  Jumper,  son  of  Louis  the 
Bearded,  warred  against  the  emperor  Henry 
IV.  in  the  latter  part  of  the  llth  century,  and 
several  of  his  successors  added  to  the  posses 
sions  of  the  house.  One  of  them,  Hermann 
(1190-1216),  is  chiefly  known  as  a  patron  of 
minnesingers.  A  long  war  of  Thuringian  suc 
cession  was  waged  about  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century,  the  termination  of  which  left 
the  principal  parts  of  the  country  in  the  pos 
session  of  the  margrave  Henry  of  Meissen. 
Thuringia  was  now  ruled  by  the  Saxon  house 
of  Wettin,  until,  after  various  changes,  the 
Saxon  dominions  were  divided  in  1485  be 
tween  Ernest  and  Albert,  the  sons  of  Fred 
erick  the  Mild,  when  Thuringia  fell  to  the  Er 
nestine  line.  (See  SAXOXY.) — The  Thuringian 
Forest  (Ger.  ThuringerwaldJ,  which  bounds 


THURLOE 


THYLACIKE 


731 


it  S.  W.  and  S.,  is  a  narrow  and  wooded  moun 
tain  range,  rising  in  some  parts  upward  of 
3,000  ft.,,  and  extending  nearly  TO  m.,  not  in 
cluding  numerous  northern  offshoots  toward 
the  Hartz.  In  the  southeast  it  approaches  the 
Fichtelgebirge,  and  in  the  southwest  the  Rhon, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  valley  of  the 
Upper  TVerra.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  en 
gaged  in  mining,  grazing,  and  manufactures. 
The  territory  covered  or  traversed  by  the 
Tlmringian  Forest  is  included  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Saxony,  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 
Meiningen-Hildburghausen,  Saxe-Coburg-Go- 
tha,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  Altenburg,  and 
the  Reuss  principalities,  all  of  which  territories 
are  called  Tlmringian  in  the  wider  sense. 

THIRLOE,  John,  an  English  statesman,  born 
at  Abbots  Roding,  Essex,  in  1616,  died  in 
London,  Feb.  21,  1668.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1047,  and  in  1652  became  secretary  to 
the  council  of  state,  and  in  1653  secretary  to 
the  protector.  In  1657  he  was  made  a  privy 
councillor,  and  in  1658  governor  of  the  Charter 
house  and  chancellor  of  Glasgow  university. 
"While  continuing  to  hold  office  under  Rich 
ard  Cromwell  he  was  accused  of  offering  his 
services  to  promote  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.,  and  was  imprisoned  in  May  and  June,  1660. 
After  his  release  he  took  no  part  in  public  af 
fairs.  His  collection  of  state  papers,  with  a 
number  of  private  papers  and  letters,  was  ed 
ited,  with  a  life  of  Thurloe,  by  Thomas  Birch, 
D.  D.  (7  vols.  fol.,  London,  1742.) 

THURLOW,  Edward,  lord,  an  English  states 
man,  born  at  Little  Ashfield,  near  Stowmar- 
ket,  Suffolk,  in  1732,  died  in  Brighton,  Sept, 
12,  1806.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1754,  entered  upon  a  lu 
crative  practice,  and  was  appointed  king's 
counsel  in  1761.  In  1768  he  was  elected  to 
parliament,  in  1770  was  appointed  solicitor 
general,  in  1771  attorney  general,  and  in  1778, 
as  a  reward  for  his  zealous  advocacy  of  the 
government  policy  respecting  America,  he  was 
made  lord  chancellor  in  Lord  North's  ministry, 
and  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Thurlow. 
By  command  of  the  king  he  retained  the  office 
of  lord'  chancellor  in  the  Rockingham  and 
Shelburne  administrations,  notwithstanding  he 
was  politically  opposed  to  his  coadjutors,  and 
lost  no  opportunity  to  defeat  their  leading 
measures.  This  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  Fox ; 
and  in  the  coalition  ministry  which  succeed 
ed,  it  was  stipulated  that  Thurlow  should  not 
hold  a  seat.  He  still  remained  in  confidential 
relations  with  the  king,  and  on  the  accession 
of  Pitt  to  power,  in  December,  1783,  received 
again  the  great  seal,  which  he  held  for  more 
than  eight  years.  He  opposed  certain  mea 
sures  of  the  cabinet,  which  led  to  his  removal 
at  the  request  of  Pitt,  whom  he  always  dis 
liked,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  king.  He 
was  overbearing  and  passionate,  a  dictator  ra 
ther  than  a  debater  in  parliament,  but  an  im 
pressive  and  eloquent  speaker. — His  nephew 
and  heir,  EDWAED  HOVELL-THUELOW,  second 


lord  (1781-1829),  published  "Ariadne,  a  Poem 
in  three  Parts1'  (1814),  "Carmen  Britanni- 
cum"  (1814),  and  several  volumes  of  miscel 
laneous  poems,  including  translations  from 
Anacreon  and  Horace. 

THIRN  MD  TAXIS.  See  POST,  vol.  xiii.,  p. 
748. 

THURSDAY,  the  fifth  day  of  the  week,  the 
dies  Jovis  of  the  Roman  calendar,  and  sacred 
in  the  northern  mythology  to  the  thunderer 
Thor,  from  whom  it  is  named.  In  German  it 
is  called  Donnerstay  (thunder  day,  originally 
Thunderer's  day). 

THIRSTON,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Washington 
territory,  bounded  1ST.  E.  by  the  Kisqually 
river,  and  W.  by  the  Coast  range ;  area,  672 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,246.  Much  of  the  sur 
face  is  mountainous,  but  there  are  several  rich 
valleys.  An  arm  of  Puget  sound  extends  into 
the  N".  E.  part,  and  it  is  drained  by  the  Des 
Chutes  river  and  other  streams.  The  Pacific 
division  of  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad  pass 
es  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  10,602' bushels  of  wheat,  1,778  of  rye, 
17,515  of  oats,  18,375  of  potatoes,  16,511  Ibs. 
of  wool,  40,425  of  butter,  and  3,013  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  788  horses,  1,134  milch 
cows,  1,973  other  cattle,  4,192  sheep,  and  788 
swine ;  2  flour  mills,  1  tannery,  1  currying  es 
tablishment,  and  3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Olym- 
pia,  which  is  also  the  capital  of  the  territory. 

THYESTES.     See  ATEEUS. 

THYLACINE,  or  Pouched  Wolf,  a  marsupial  ani 
mal  of  the  dasyurine  family,  and  genus  tJiy- 
lacinus  (Temminck)  or  peracyon  (Gray),  pecu 
liar  to  Tasmania ;  both  of  the  generic  names 
indicate  the  possession  of  the  pouch.  In  this 
genus  the  dentition  is  :  incisors  £,  the  outer 
slightly  the  largest ;  canines  \1\,  large,  simply 
conical,  the  upper  separated  from  the  incisors 
by  a  deep  concavity  in  which  the  apex  of  the 


•'.- 


Dog-beaded  Thylacine  (Thylacinus  IlarrissiiX 

lower  is  received  when  the  jaws  are  closed, 
in  this  differing  from  carnivora  proper,  in 
which  the  lower  canines  pass  outside  of  the 
upper  jaw ;  premolars  fi-f,  separated  from 
each  other  ;  molars  fz|,  with  a  large  central 
cusp,  and  two  smaller,  one  in  front  and  the 
other  behind  it.  The  humerus  has  the  inner 
condyle  perforated,  the  hind  feet  have  no  in- 


732 


THYME 


THYMUS  GLAND 


ner  toe,  and  the  marsupial  bones  are  absent, 
represented  only  by  fibro-cartilage ;  the  fe 
male  has  a  distinct  pouch,  with  four  mamma). 
Only  one  species  is  described,  the  dog-headed 
thylacine  (T.  [P.]  Ilarrissii,  Temrn.),  about 
the  size  of  a  young  wolf,  or  3f  ft.  long,  with 
a  tail  20  in.  additional,  and  a  height  at  the 
shoulders  of  about  22  in.  ;  the  head  is  dog- 
shaped,  with  narrow  and  elongated  muzzle ; 
ears  short,  pointed,  very  broad  at  the  base, 
and  well  covered  with  hair  on  both  surfaces ; 
eyes  full  and  black,  with  a  nictitating  mem 
brane  ;  long  black  bristles  on  the  upper  lip, 
and  a  few  on  the  cheeks  and  above  the  eyes ; 
the  claws  stout,  short,  and  brown,  the  bottoms 
of  the  feet  with  large,  very  rough  pads.  The 
fur  is  short  and  close,  waved  and  slightly 
woolly ;  the  general  color  is  grayish  brown, 
paler  below,  with  12  to  14  transverse  black 
bands  on  the  back,  longest  and  widest  poste 
riorly ;  pale  around  eyes,  and  edge  of  upper 
lip  white ;  tail  with  short  fur,  with  longer 
hairs  at  under  side  of  npex ;  rusty  red  about 
the  pouch  ;  the  legs  are  shorter  in  proportion 
than  in  the  wolf,  and  the  gait  is  semi-planti 
grade.  It  is  wild  and  shy,  inhabiting  the  cav 
erns  and  dismal  glens  of  mountainous  districts ; 
inactive  during  the  daytime,  probably  from 
imperfect  vision,  it  preys  at  night  upon  the 
smaller  marsupials;  it  is  sometimes  so  large  as 
to  be  a  match  for  several  dogs,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  formidable  of  Australasian  quadru 
peds  ;  it  is  rare  except  in  the  most  inaccessible 
regions.  Among  the  fossil  remains  of  the  caves 
of  Wellington  valley.  New  South  Wales,  Prof. 
Owen  has  described  parts  of  lower  jaws  of 
what  he  calls  T.  spelceus,  differing  from  exist 
ing  ones  in  their  greater  depth.  In  the  secon 
dary  schists  of  Stonesfield  has  been  discovered 
the  genus  thylacotJierium  (Owen),  known  by 
the  lower  jaw,  which  has  six  incisors,  two 
moderate  canines,  six  false  and  six  true  tri- 
cuspid  molars ;  the  T.  Prevostii  (Ouv.)  was 
about  the  size  of  a  rat.  An  allied  genus  from 
the  same  strata  is  phascalotherium  (Broderip), 
somewhat  larger. 

THYME,  low  undershrubs  or  perennial  herbs, 
of  the  genus  thy  mm  (Gr.  dvpog,  from  dveiv,  to 
burn  perfume,  it  having  been  used  as  incense), 
of  the  labiate  or  mint  family.  The  wild  or 
creeping  thyme  of  northern  Europe  (T.  serpyl- 
lum)  is  sparingly  naturalized  in  the  older  states 
in  old  fields,  and  in  some  cases  as  a  weed  upon 
lawns ;  it  is  much  branched  and  prostrate, 
forming  low  dense  tufts  a  foot  in  diameter  ;  its 
very  small  ovate  leaves  are  fringed  at  the  base 
witli  a  few  long  hairs,  and  its  purplish  flow 
ers  are  crowded  in  whorls  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches.  This  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  an 
aromatic  herb,  but  not  so  much  so  as  the  garden 
thyme  (T.  vulgaris),  from  southern  Europe, 
which  differs  from  the  preceding  in  having  a 
more  erect  and  bushy  habit,  paler  leaves,  and 
flowers  in  shorter  clusters  ;  there  are  varieties 
of  this,  both  the  broad-leaved  and  narrow- 
leaved  being  known  in  kitchen  gardens,  and 


the  variegated  or  golden  thyme,  which  haa 
each  leaf  distinctly  marked  with  yellow,  is  a 
pleasing  ornamental  plant.  Lemon  thyme, 


Wild  Thyme  (Thymus  serpyllum). 

much  esteemed  by  some  for  its  peculiar  flavor, 
is  7!  citriodorus.  The  thyme  in  general  use  is 
T.  vulgaris,  the  foliage  of  which  is  highly  aro 
matic  and  much  used  for  flavoring  stuffing 
and  other  cooking  ;  its  properties  are  due  to  an 
essential  oil,  the  oil  of  thyme,  which  is  used  as 
an  external  stimulant,  in  liniments,  especially 
in  veterinary  medicine;  it  contains  a  liquid 
and  a  solid  oil  or  camphor,  which  may  be  sepa 
rated  by  fractional  distillation. 

THYMUS  GLAND  (Gr.  #iy/of),  a  double  vascular 
or  ductless  gland,  situated,  in  the  human  sub 
ject,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  anterior  medias- 


Transverse  Section  of  an  injected  Lobule  of  the  Thymus  of 
a  Child,  magnified  30  diameters,  a.  Membrane  of  the 
lobule,  b.  Membrane  of  the  gland  follicles,  c.  Cavity 
of  the  lobule  from  which  the  larger  vessels  branch  out 
into  the  corpuscles,  on  the  surface  of  which  they  ter 
minate,  occasionally  forming  loops. 


THYROID   GLAND 


TIARA 


733 


tinum,  extending  in  childhood  from  the  thyroid 
gland  to  the  anterior  surface  of  the  pericardium, 
but  becoming  atrophied  after  the  age  of  pu 
berty.  It  is  divided  into  two  lateral  portions, 
right  and  left,  which  are  in  reality  distinct 
from  each  other,  being  connected  only  by  are- 
olar  tissue.  Each  lateral  portion  is  gland-like 
in  structure,  being  divided  into  a  number  of 
lobules,  from  a  sixth  to  a  third  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  irregularly  rounded  and  flattened. 
In  its  interior  is  a  central  cavity,  having  the 
form  in  some  cases,  according  to  Kolliker,  of 
a  cylindrical  canal,  communicating  with  that 
of  the  separate  lobules,  and  containing  a  gray 
ish  white  or  milky-looking  fluid,  of  a  slightly 
acid  reaction.  Each  lobule  is  invested  on  its 
exterior  by  a  thin,  nearly  homogeneous  mem 
brane,  which  sends  partitions  a  short  distance 
into  its  substance,  dividing  it  in  this  way  ex 
ternally  into  rounded  masses  or  gland  folli 
cles,  each  about  -V  °f  an  incn  in  diameter, 
giving  the  outer  surface  of  the  lobule  a  gran 
ular  appearance.  The  solid  substance  of  the 
lobule  consists  of  a  soft  homogeneous  material, 
containing  nucleated  cells  and  an  abundance 
of  free  nuclei,  and  penetrated  throughout  by 
capillary  blood  vessels,  which  radiate  from  the 
wall  of  the  central  cavity  and  terminate  in  vas 
cular  loops  toward  its  external  portion.  Its 
central  cavity  has  no  excretory  duct,  and  its 
secreted  product,  if  such  there  be,  must  be 
taken  up  and  carried  away  by  the  veins  or  the 
lymphatics.  The  thymus  gland  is  highly  de 
veloped  during  the  latter  part  of  intra-uterine 
life,  and  at  the  time  of  birth,  in  man.  weighs 
rather  more  than  half  an  ounce.  It  continues 
to  enlarge  until  the  age  of  two  years,  at  which 
time  its  growth  ceases.  It  begins  to  diminish 
about  the  10th  year,  but  is  still  usually  per 
ceptible,  and  sometimes  well  developed,  at  the 
age  of  20.  By  the  40th  year  it  has  entirely 
disappeared.  It  is  about  the  same  in  the  an 
thropoid  apes  as  in  man,  and  is  remarkably 
developed  and  may  be  well  studied  in  the 
calf,  in  which,  and  in  the  lamb,  it  is  called  the 
sweetbread,  and  is  a  delicate  article  of  food; 
it  exists  in  mammals,  birds,  and  most  reptiles, 
but  not  in  the  larvae  of  batrachians,  the  peren- 
nibranchiate  amphibians,  or  fishes. — The  pre- 
cjse  function  of  the  thymus  gland  is  unknown. 
It  undoubtedly  serves,  like  the  other  ductless 
glands,  to  accomplish  some  change  in  the  blood 
circulating  through  its  tissue,  which  is  essential 
to  the  proper  nourishment  of  the  body  during 
intra-uterine  life,  infancy,  and  childhood. 

THYROID  GLAND  (Gr.  6vpe6<;,  a  shield,  and 
eZdof,  form),  one  of  the  vascular  or  ductless 
glands,  situated  on  the  anterior  and  lower  part 
of  the  larynx,  in  front  of  the  upper  rings  of 
the  trachea ;  so  called  from  its  being  situated 
in  front  of  the  thyroid  or  shield-like  cartilage 
of  the  larynx.  It  is  composed  of  two  elon 
gated  ovoid  lobes,  flattened  from  before  back 
ward,  united  or  separate,  but  generally  con 
nected  by  a  transverse  portion ;  it  is  covered 
by  the  muscles  of  the  front  of  the  neck.  The 


tissue  is  tolerably  firm,  brownish  and  yellow 
ish  red,  formed  of  lobes  and  lobules,  consist 
ing  essentially  of  an  aggregation  of  closed 
gland  follicles  imbedded  in  condensed  areolar 
tissue ;  these  contain  a  small  amount  of  a  fatty 
albuminous  fluid,  and  do  not  communicate  with 
any  common  reservoir ;  among  the  follicles  are 
nucleated  corpuscles  or  epithelial  cells ;  it  re 
ceives  four  arteries  from  the  subclavians  and 
the  carotids,  nerves  from  the  pneumogastric 
and  the  sympathetic,  and  lymphatics  communi 
cating  with  the  glands  of  the  neck.  The  vas 
cular  supply  is  great,  and  forms  a  very  minute 
capillary  plexus on  the  membrane  of  the  folli 
cles  ;  like  other  ductless  glands  (see  THYMUS 
GLAND),  it  is  relatively  larger  in  intra-uterine 
existence  and  in  infancy  than  in  after  life.  Its 
products  are  probably  discharged  into  the  ve 
nous  blood,  and  serve  for  the  elaboration  of 
the  circulating  fluid.  It  is  usually  larger  in  fe 
males  than  in  males;  it  is  found  in  all  mam 
mals,  birds,  and  reptiles,  probably  in  the  batra 
chians,  and  perhaps  also  in  fishes.  The  organ 
may  be  inflamed,  with  suppuration,  and  vari 
ously  enlarged.  In  the  adult  it  is  sometimes  ab 
normally  enlarged,  forming  the  disease  known 
as  goitre  or  bronchocele,  which  is  itself  often 
an  accompaniment  of  cretinism.  (See  GOITEE.) 

TIAGIMAIO,  or  Tialmanaco.     See  TITICACA. 

TIARA  (Gr.),  a  species  of  high  hat  anciently 
worn  by  many  eastern  nations.  Those  of  kings 
and  priests  were  encircled  by  a  sort  of  crown, 
whence  the  term  tiara  has  been  applied  to  the 
triple  crown  worn  by  the  popes,  which  in  turn 


FIG.  1.— Persian  Tiara.         FIG.  2.— Assyrian  Tiara. 

bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  Persian 
royal  tiaras  and  to  those  of  the  Assyrian  kings, 
represented  on  the  slabs  at  Nineveh.  It  is  un 
certain  when  the  popes  assumed  the  tiara.  It 
was  called  regnuin,  or  emblem  of  royalty,  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  mitre.  Pope  Innocent 
III.,  in  his  sermon  on  St.  Syl 
vester,  says  that  the  bishop  of 
Rome  uses  the  mitre  every 
where  and  at  all  times,  because 
his  episcopal  jurisdiction  is 
universal,  whereas  he  only  uses 
the  recjnum  or  tiara  occasion 
ally  and  in  his  own  dominions. 
The  papal  tiara  was  at  first  a 
conical  cap,  topped  with  a  small 
round  ball,  and  wreathed  about  the.  forehead 
with  a  crown  of  gold.  It  retained  this  shape 


FIG.  8.— Tiara  of 
the  Pope. 


TIBALDI 


TIBERIUS 


till  Boniface  VIII.  (1294-1303)  added  to  it  a 
second  crown,  and  Urban  V.  (1362-'70)  added 
a  third.  It  kept  to  its  first  sharply  pointed 
form  till  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century, 
when  it  assumed  an  oval  shape,  swelling  out 
somewhat  broad  at  top. 

TIBALDI,  Pellegrino,  otherwise  called  Pelle- 
grino  Pellegrini,  an  Italian  artist,  born  in  Bo 
logna  in  1527,  died  in  Milan  about  1598.  At 
20  years  of  age  he  visited  Rome,  where  he 
studied  the  works  of  Michel  Angelo,  and  was 
employed  by  Cardinal  Poggio  to  decorate  his 
palace  in  Bologna.  In  1586  he  was  invited  by 
Philip  II.  to  Spain,  and  during  a  residence 
there  of  nine  years  executed*  frescoes  in  the 
Escurial,  besides  many  pictures.  lie  was  also 
an  architect;  his  best  architectural  designs 
were  the  modern  facade  attached  to  the  cathe 
dral  of  Milan,  and  the  Casa  Professa,  or  house 
of  the  Jesuits,  in  Genoa. 

TIBBOOS.     See  TTJAKIKS. 

TIBER  (It.  Tevere;  anc.  Tiber  is),  a  river  of 
Italy,  rising  in  the  Tuscan  Apennines,  5  m. 
N.  of  Pieve  San  Stefano,  and  thence  flowing 
generally  S.  S.  E.  and  S.  S.  W.,  through  the 
provinces  of  Arezzo  and  Perugia  and  between 
the  latter  and  Viterbo,  to  Fiano,  where  it 
turns  S.  "W.,  and  passing  through  the  prov-' 
ince  and  city  of  Rome  discharges  into  the  Med 
iterranean  near  Ostia  by  two  mouths,  which 
enclose  the  Insula  Sacra  of  the  ancients.  Its 
length  is  about  230  m.,  and  its  width  at  Rome 
and  below  from  300  to  500  ft.  Its  principal 
affluents  are  the  Ohiascio,  the  Nera  (anc.  Nar), 
and  the  Tcverone  (Anio)  from  the  left,  and 
the  Paglia  from  the'  right.  In  the  upper  part 
of  its  course,  between  To'di  and  the  Passo  del 
Forello,  it  is  obstructed  by  rapids  and  passes 
for  some  miles  through  a  narrow  gorge.  It 
is  navigable  for  vessels  of  130  to  200  tons  to 
Rome,  18  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  for  boats  to 
the  confluence  of  the  Nera,  about  90  m.  Rome 
and  Perugia  are  the  principal  cities  in  its  basin. 
From  Perugia,  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Ohiascio,  to  its  debouchure,  its  waters  have  a 
yellowish  tinge,  the  result  of  the  yellow  clay 
through  which  it  passes.  An  appropriation 
was  granted  at  the  end  of  1875  by  the  Ital 
ian  government  for  the  preliminary  measures 
relating  to  the  improvement  of  the  course  of 
the  Tiber.  Various  plans  are  proposed  for 
that  purpose,  including  one  of  vast  scope  ad 
vocated  by  Garibaldi. 

TIBERIAS.     See  GEXXESARET. 

TIBERIUS,  an  emperor  of  Rome,  born  Nov. 
16,  42  B.  C.,  died  March  16,  A.  D.  37.  His 
full  name  was  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero  Ofesar. 
He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Claudius  Tiberius 
Nero  and  Livia  Drnsilla.  His  father  divorced 
his  wife  in  order  that  she  might  be  married 
to  Augustus ;  and  when  he  died,  in  33  B.  C., 
his  funeral  oration  was  pronounced  before 
the  rostra  by  his  son,  then  only  nine  years 
old.  Tiberius  was  educated  by  the  emperor 
with  princely  care.  In  29  he  accompanied  Au 
gustus  in  his  triumplal  entry  into  Rome,  and 


subsequently  married  Vipsania  Agrippina,  by 
whom  he  had  a  son  named  Drusus;  but  in  11 
he  was  compelled  by  the  policy  of  Augustus  to 
divorce  her,  much  against  his  will,  and  marry 
the  beautiful  but  dissolute  Julia,  daughter  of 
the  emperor.  In  spite  of  her  licentiousness  he 
seems  to  have  lived  peaceably  with  her  for  a 
year,  and  had  by  her  one  child  which  did  not 
live ;  and  after  that  event  the  feelings  of  dis 
like  between  them  gradually  increased  until 
they  led  to  a  virtual  separation.  As  military 
tribune  Tiberius  made  his  first  campaign  in 
the  Cantabrian  war.  In  20  he  went  to  Asia 
Minor,  restored  Tigranes  to  the  throne  of  Ar 
menia,  and  compelled  the  Parthians  to  give  up 
the  eagles  taken  from  Crassus ;  in  15  he  and 
his  brother  Drusus  carried  on  a  war  against 
the  Alpine  nations  of  Rhretia,  and  the  exploits 
of  the  two  were  celebrated  by  Horace.  In 
13  Tiberius  became  consul  with  P.  Quintilius 
Varus;  in  11  conducted  the  war  against  the 
revolted  Dalmatians  and  the  Pannonians;  and 
in  9,  when  Drusus  was  fatally  injured  in  Ger 
many,  he  hastened  from  Pavia  to  the  place 
where  his  brother  was  dying,  and  after-  his 
death  conveyed  the  body  to  Rome,  walking  all 
the  way  before  it  on  foot,  and  on  arriving  in 
that  city  pronounced  over  it  a  funeral  ora 
tion  in  the  forum.  He  returned  to  Germa 
ny,  gained  several  victories,  and  crossed  tho 
Rhine ;  but  in  7  he  went  back  to  Rome,  cele 
brated  his  second  triumph,  and  was  made  con 
sul  a  second  time.  In  6  he  obtained  tribuni- 
tian  power  for  five  years,  but  suddenly  formed 
the  resolution  of  retiring  to  Rhodes.  Accord 
ing  to  Tacitus,  this  was  to  get  away  from  the 
licentiousness  of  his  wife ;  but  other  authori 
ties  say  it  was  on  account  of  the  jealousy  be 
tween  himself  and  the  grandsons  of  Augustus. 
At  Rhodes  he  resided  eight  years,  living  in  a 
very  simple  style.  While  he  was  absent  his 
wife  was  banished  (2  B.  C.)  to  the  island  of 
Pandataria,  and  at  the  expiration  of  his  tribu- 
nitian  power  Tiberius  asked  leave  to  return  to 
Rome ;  but  permission  was  not  granted  till 
A.  D.  2,  and  then  only  on  condition  that  he 
would  take  no  part  in  public  affairs.  Tho 
death  of  tho  two  older  grandsons  of  Augustus 
virtually  left  Tiberius  the  succession  to  the 
throne,  and  in  A.  D.  4  he  was  adopted  by  Au 
gustus.  From  this  time  to  the  death  of  the 
emperor  he  was  constantly  employed  in  mili 
tary  operations.  He  conquered  all  Illyricum, 
gained  great  victories  over  the  Germans  and 
the  Dalmatians,  and  in  12  celebrated  his  fourth 
triumph.  His  military  successes  were  all-im 
portant,  as  the  loss  of  Varus  and  his  legions 
in  Germany  had  placed  the  empire  in  danger. 
In  14  he  started  for  Illyricum  to  conduct  the 
war  in  that  quarter,  when  he  was  recalled  by 
the  death  of  Augustus  to  ascend  the  throne. 
One  of  the  first  acts  of  his  reign  was  to  put  to 
death  Agrippa  Postumus,  the  only  surviving 
grandson  of  Augustus,  alleging  that  the  ex 
ecution  was  in  accordance  with  the  wishes 
of  the  late  emperor.  The  first  years  of  his 


TIBERIUS 


TICHBORKE   TRIAL 


735 


reign  were  marked  by  prudence  and  modera 
tion.  He  rejected  all  flattery  from  the  senate, 
placed  in  office  the  most  worthy  persons,  and 
made  efforts  to  relieve  the  scarcity  of  bread 
constantly  recurring  in  Rome.  Meanwhile  a 
mutiny  of  the  legions  in  Pannonia  was  only 
quelled  by  the  energy  of  Drusus,  the  emperor's 
son,  and  the  terror  inspired  by  a  solar  eclipse. 
Under  the  influence  of  Sejanus,  who  had  be 
come  his  favorite,  the  natural  severity  of  his 
temper  began  soon  to  degenerate  into  cruelty. 
The  election  of  magistrates  was  taken  from 
the  popular  assembly  and  transferred  to  the 
senate,  which  sat  simply  to  register  the  de 
crees  of  the  emperor.  The  charges  of  laesa 
majestas,  by  which  all  persons  suspected  of 
impugning  by  word  or  deed  the  majesty  of 
the  emperor  were  tried,  were  prosecuted  with 
great  rigor.  A  secret  organization  of  dela- 
tores,  or  spies,  was  formed,  and  their  infer 
nal  machinations  exposed  the  life,  the  for 
tune,  and  the  honor  of  every  Roman  citizen 
to  hourly  danger.  After  the  death  of  Ger- 
manicus  (see  GEKMANICUS)  the  emperor  sur 
rendered  himself  more  and  more  to  the  influ 
ence  of  Sejanus.  By  his  advice  the  praetorian 
cohorts,  stationed  hitherto  in  various  parts  of 
the  city,  were  assembled  in  one  camp,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Rome.  At  the  same  time  the 
power  of  the  empire  was  thoroughly  main 
tained  in  the  provinces,  and  two  revolts  in  21, 
one  on  the  Moselle  headed  by  Julius  Florus, 
and  the  other  among  the  zEdui  headed  by  Ju 
lius  Sacrovir,  were  put  down  and  their  leaders 
forced  to  slay  themselves  to  escape  from  the 
imperial  troops.  In  23  Sejanus  caused  the 
death  of  Drusus  by  poison.  Whether  Tibe 
rius  felt  any  sorrow  or  not,  he  certainly  mani 
fested  none ;  and  when  the  people  of  Troas 
sent  him  a  message  of  condolence,  he  sneeringly 
sent  back  an  answer  of  condolence  on  the  death 
of  their  fellow  citizen  Hector.  In  20  the  empe 
ror  finally  departed  from  Rome.  He  first  went 
to  Campania,  and  there  issued  an  edict  com 
manding  the  people  not  to  molest  his  retire 
ment,  and  in  the  following  year  went  to  the 
island  of  Caprete  (Capri).  The  early  part  of 
his  reign  had  been  marked  by  a  strict  regard 
for  external  decency,  and  a  stringent  law  had 
been  passed  against  courtesans ;  but  his  last 
years  were  spent  in  the  most  infamous  plea 
sures.  Caprea3  became  the  haunt  of  disgusting 
debauchery,  especially  after  the  death  of  Livia 
Drusilla  in  29,  who  had  always  exercised  much 
influence  over  her  son.  In  30  he  banished 
Agrippina,  the  widow  of  Germanicus,  and  af 
terward  caused  the  assassination  of  two  of  her 
sons.  Henceforth  Sejanus  had  the  full  con 
trol  of  affairs  of  state.  The  employment  of 
delator  es  gave  him  abundant  means  of  getting 
rid  of  obnoxious  individuals  on  false  charges. 
Tiberius,  who  had  been  suspecting  for  some 
time  the  plots  of  his  minister,  managed  to 
get  rid  of  Sejanus  in  31,  and  the  favorite  and 
all  his  family  were  destroyed.  In  the  mean 
time  the  emperor  became,  in  the  words  of 
VOL.  xv. — 47 


Pliny,  "the  most  wretched  of  men."  In  the 
remarkable  letter  sent  to  the  senate,  which 
Tacitus  has  preserved,  he  begins  with  a  frank 
avowal  of  his  misery.  "What  to  write  to 
you,"  he  says,  "  or  how  to  write,  I  know 
not ;  and  what  not  to  write  at  this  time,  may 
all  the  gods  and  goddesses  torment  me  more 
than  I  daily  feel  that  I  am  suffering,  if  I  do 
know."  About  this  time  he  went  once  more 
to  Campania,  and  occasionally  came  as  near 
Rome  as  his  gardens  on  the  Vatican.  But  his 
privacy  was  never  disturbed ;  soldiers  were 
placed  so  as  to  prevent  any  one  from  coming 
near  him.  He  had  been  remarkable  for  beauty 
and  majesty  of  person,  but  dissipation  had  cov 
ered  his  face  with  ugly  blotches,  and  his  body 
was  bent  nearly  double.  At  Astura  he  was 
attacked  by  illness,  and  he  reached  Misenum  to 
die  in  the  villa  of  Lucullus.  According  to  Taci 
tus,  it  was  left  to  fate  to  determine  his  suc 
cessor.  On  March  16  he  had  a  fainting  fit,  and 
as  he  was  thought  dead,  Caius  Caligula,  the 
son  of  Germanicus,  was  saluted  as  his  suc 
cessor  ;  but  the  emperor  suddenly  recovering, 
a  quantity  of  clothes  was  thrown  over  him 
and  he  was  left  alone.  There  is  another  ac- 
!  count  of  his  death.  The  people  hailed  the 
j  event  with  delight,  and  the  cry  of  "Tiberius 
to  the  Tiber"  was  heard  constantly  in  the 
streets  of  Rome.  lie  however  had  a  public 
burial.  The  chief  authorities  for  his  life  are 
Suetonius,  Dion  Cassius,  and  above  all  Taci 
tus.  He  wrote  a  commentary  of  his  own  life, 
Greek  poems,  an  ode  on  the  death  of  L.  Ca?sar, 
and  several  epistles  and  orations,  either  to  the 
senate  or  on  occasion  of  funerals.  The  cruci 
fixion  of  Christ  took  place  during  his  reign. — 
See  Tiberius1  Leben,  Hegierung  und  Character, 
by  Adolf  Stahr  (Berlin,  1874). 

TIBET.     See  THIBET. 

TIBULLUS,  Albius,  a  Roman  poet,  of  the  time 
of  Augustus.  He  was  of  an  equestrian  fam 
ily,  and  lived  on  his  ancestral  estate  at  Pedum 
near  Rome.  Ho  went  to  Aquitania  in  31  B. 
C.  with  his  patron  Messala,  and  when  the  lat 
ter  had  pacified  that  part  of  Gaul  and  set  out 
to  take  command  in  the  East,  Tibullus  accom 
panied  him,  but  falling  sick  returned  to  Rome, 
and  died  young.  Four  books  of  elegies  are 
attributed  to  him,  but  only  the  first  two  are 
undoubtedly  his.  Tibullus  was  a  warm  friend 
of  Horace,  who  addressed  two  poems  to  him. 
The  first  edition  of  his  works  was  printed, 
along  with  Catullus,  Propertius,  and  the  Silm 
of  Statins,  at  Venice  in  1472.  Two  of  the 
best  late  editions  are  those  of  Rossbach  (Leip- 
sic,  1866)  and  Mtiller  (Leipsic,  1873).  The  ele 
gies  of  Tibullus  have  been  translated  into  Eng 
lish  verse  by  Dr.  Grainger  (1752),  and  a  prose 
translation  forms  a  volume  of  Bonn's  "  Classi 
cal  Library"  (London,  1854). — See  Seiler,  De 
Tibulli  Elegia  (Halle,  1872). 

TIBUR.     SeeTivoLi. 

TIC  DOULOUREUX.     See  I^ETJKALGIA. 

TICHBORNE  TRIAL,  the  most  celebrated  con 
spiracy  case,  and  the  first  in  which  the  inipos- 


736 


TICHBORNE  TEIAL 


TICINO 


tor  assumed  identity  with  a  known  person,  in 
English  legal  records.  Koger  Charles  Tich- 
borne,  born  Jan.  5,  1829,  was,  after  his  father, 
heir  to  the  title  and  great  estates  of  his  uncle, 
Sir  Edward,  who  added  the  name  Doughty  to 
Tichborne.  After  an  education  in  France  and 
at  the  Roman  Catholic  college  of  Stonyhurst, 
Roger  entered  the  army  in  1849.  In  1852  he 
offered  himself  to  his  cousin  Kate,  daughter  of 
Sir  Edward ;  but  her  parents  opposed  the  mar 
riage,  upon  which  he  resigned  his  commission 
and  went  to  sea.  He  arrived  at  Valparaiso 
June  19,  1853,  and  on  April  20,  1854,  sailed 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro  for  New  York  in  the  ship 
Bella,  which  was  lost  at  sea.  Sir  Edward  died 
March  5,  1853,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  broth 
er  James,  Roger's  father,  who  died  June  11, 
1862.  In  the  presumed  loss  at  sea  of  Roger, 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  second  son  Alfred, 
who  died  Feb.  22,  I860,  and  was  succeeded  by 
a  posthumous  sou,  born  May  28,  I860.  In 
1865  Lady  Tichborne,  widow  of  Sir  James, 
began  to  advertise  in  English  and  Australian 
newspapers  for  her  son  Roger,  whom  she 
believed  to  be  alive.  In  1866  a  butcher  in 
"VVagga  Wagga,  Australia,  supposed  to  be  Ar 
thur  Orton,  but  then  calling  himself  Thomas 
Castro,  asserted  that  he  was  Roger  Charles 
Tichborne,  and  had  been  saved  from  the  wreck 
of  the  Bella.  After  some  correspondence  with 
Lady  Tichborne,  he  sailed  for  London,  arrived 
there  Dec.  25,  and  in  January,  1867,  went  to 
Paris,  where  Lady  Tichborne  accepted  him  as 
her  son  and  supplied  him  with  money.  Nearly 
every  other  member  of  the  family  repudiated 
him  as  an  impostor;  but  he  found  many  adhe 
rents  who  assumed  to  recognize  him  as  the  long 
lost  Roger,  and  went  about  England  collecting 
witnesses  and  gathering  information  concern 
ing  the  family,  the  estates,  and  incidents  in 
Roger's  life.  In  March,  1867,  he  filed  a  bill  in 
chancery  to  restrain  the  trustees  of  the  estates 
from  setting  up  certain  outstanding  terms  as 
an  answer  to  any  action  he  might  bring  to 
recover  the  property.  The  commencement  of 
the  action  was  delayed  nearly  four  years  by  the 
sending  of  commissions  to  South  America  and 
Australia,  and  by  other  causes.  In  the  mean 
time  Lady  Tichborne  died,  March  12,  1868. 
The  case  had  excited  extraordinary  attention. 
Public  opinion  was  divided,  though  so  many 
believed  in  the  claimant  that  he  was  able  to 
raise  considerable  money  by  the  sale  of  bonds 
payable  upon  his  coming  into  possession  of  the 
property.  On  May  11,  1871,  the  trial  for  the 
recovery  of  the  Tichborne  estates  in  Hampshire 
and  Dorsetshire,  valued  at  £24,000  a  year,  was 
begun  in  the  court  of  common  pleas.  With 
two  adjournments,  it  continued  103  days,  till 
March  6,  1872,  when  the  jury  interposed,  de 
claring  themselves  satisfied  that  the  claimant 
was  not  Roger  Charles  Tichborne,  and  he  was 
nonsuited.  He  was  immediately  ordered  into 
custody  to  be  tried  for  perjury,  but  was  sub 
sequently  released  on  bail.  The  trial  for  per 
jury  of  Thomas  Castro,  otherwise  Arthur  Or 


ton  (as  the  indictment  ran),  was  commenced 
in  the  court  of  queen's  bench  on  April  23, 
1873,  and  continued  188  days  to  Feb.  28,  1874, 
when  he  was  found  guilty  and  was  sentenced 
to  14  years'  penal  servitude.  He  was  sent 
to  Millbank,  and  subsequently  transferred  to 
Dartmoor  prison.  The  principal  points  in  the 
two  cases  which  led  to  the  claimant's  convic 
tion  were  these:  After  assuming  to  be  Tich 
borne,  the  claimant,  though  hard  pushed  for 
money,  did  not  avail  himself  of  balances  and 
credits  which  Roger  had  with  two  Australian 
bankers.  On  arriving  in  London  he  immedi 
ately  sought  for  the  relatives  of  Arthur  Or 
ton,  and  subsequently  sent  to  one  of  the  Or- 
ton  sisters  photographs  of  himself,  wife,  and 
child  as  those  of  Arthur  Orton  and  family. 
He  was  entirely  ignorant  of  incidents  connect 
ed  with  Roger's  residence  in  France,  and  knew 
no  French,  which  Roger  spoke  better  than  he 
did  English.  The  handwritings  of  the  two 
were  wholly  unlike.  Roger  was  well  educa 
ted,  while  the  claimant  was  grossly  illiterate. 
The  physical  differences  between  the  two  were 
even  more  marked.  Roger  was  thin ;  his  hair 
was  straight ;  his  ears  adhered  to  the  sides  of 
his  head.  The  claimant  was  enormously  fat ; 
he  was  an  inch  taller  than  Roger;  his  head 
was  larger ;  his  hair  was  inclined  to  curl ;  his 
ears  were  dependent  and  free,  with  large  lobes ; 
and  it  was  clearly  proved  that  one  of  Roger's 
arms  was  tattooed  with  his  initials,  while  no 
such  marks  could  be  found  on  the  claimant. 
The  career  of  the  claimant  was  also  closely 
traced  from  the  time  when  he  left  England  to 
the  time  when  he  assumed  to  be  Roger.  The 
expense  of  the  trials  compelled  the  trustees  to 
mortgage  the  Tichborne  estates. — See  "  Charge 
of  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  in  the  Case  of  The 
Queen  i\  Castro"  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1875). 
TI€INO  (Fr.  and  Ger.  Tessin),  a  S.  canton  of 
Switzerland  bordering  on  Valais,  Uri,  Grisons, 
and  Italy;  area,  1,095  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
119,619,  nearly  all  Roman  Catholics.  The  sur 
face  is  mountainous,  but  the  N.  part  is  more 
elevated  than  the  S.,  that  frontier  being  formed 
by  lofty  summits  of  the  Alps,  including  the 
central  mass  of  the  St.  Gothard  range ;  and  a 
considerable  portion  of  it  belongs  to  the  glacier 
region.  The  face  of  the  country  has  a  general 
slope  toward  the  south,  and  lofty  mountain 
ridges  traverse  it  in  that  and  a  S.  E.  direction. 
With  the  exception  of  a  small  part  of  the  north, 
the  drainage  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Po. 
The  principal  river  is  the  Ticino  (anc.  Ticinus), 
which,  rising  in  Mt.  St.  Gothard  and  receiving 
numerous  tributaries,  flows  through  Lago  Mag- 
giore,  a  small  portion  of  which  is  within  the 
boundary  of  the  canton,  to  the  Po  near  Pavia. 
There  are  several  other  lakes,  including  Lugano, 
Muzzano,  and  Origlio.  In  the  elevated  parts  of 
the  canton  the  chief  business  is  cattle  rearing 
and  butter  and  cheese  making.  In  the  south 
there  are  on  the  lower  slopes  chestnut  forests, 
and  in  the  valleys  vineyards,  corn  fields,  and 
plantations  of  figs,  almonds,  oranges,  citrons, 


TICK 


TICONDEROGA 


737 


mulberries,  and  pomegranates.  Game  is  abun 
dant  in  the  forests,  and  the  streams  and  lakes  are 
well  stocked  with  fish.  The  manufactures  are 
of  no  importance.  The  inhabitants  belong  to 
the  Italian  race,  and  speak  that  language.  Only 
one  village,  Bosco,  situated  near  the  frontier 
of  Valais,  speaks  German. — Ticino  was  con 
quered  from  Italy  by  the  Swiss  in  1512,  and, 
under  the  name  of  the  Italian  bailiwicks,  was 
governed  by  deputies  till  1815,  when  it  was 
admitted  as  a  member  of  the  Swiss  confedera 
tion.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  council 
chosen  by  all  citizens  who  have  attained  the 
age  of  20  years.  The  property  qualification 
of  voters  was  abolished  in  1863.  The  grand 
council  meets  alternately  at  Lugano,  Locarno, 
and  Bellinzona.  The  canton  sends  six  members 
to  the  national  council.  The  railway  from  Bel 
linzona  to  Locarno  was  opened  Dec.  20,  1874. 

TICK,  the  common  name  of  several  families 
of  small  arachnids  infesting  the  skin  of  man 
and  the  lower  animals.  In  addition  to  what 
has  been  given  under  EPIZOA  and  MITE,  it  may 
be  stated  that,  from  the  young  tick  having 
only  three  pairs  of  legs  instead  of  the  four 
pairs  of  the  adult  spider  and  mites,  some  have 
maintained  that  the  arachnids  form  an  order 
of  the  class  of  insects,  and  not  an  independent 
class.  The  legs  also  in  the  young  are  very 
long  and  the  head  separate  from  the  thorax, 
as  in  the  insect.  (See  "  American  Naturalist," 
vol.  iii.,  1869,  pp.  364-373.) 

TICRELL,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Bridekirk,  Cumberland,  in  1686,  died  in  Bath, 
April  23,  1740.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's 
college,  Oxford,  and  in  1710  was  chosen  fel 
low.  He  was  a  friend  of  Addison.  During 
the  negotiations  for  peace  with  France,  Tickell 
published  a  poem  entitled  "  The  Prospect  of 
Peace,"  which  went  through  several  editions. 
On  the  arrival  of  King  George  I.  he  wrote 
"  The  Royal  Progress,"  printed  in  the  "  Spec 
tator."  His  translation  of  the  first  book  of 
the  Iliad  was  brought  out  in  opposition  to  that 
of  Pope.  Addison  declared  it  the  best  version 
ever  made,  and  it  was  suspected  that  he  him 
self  was  the  translator. .  Besides  some  minor 
poems,  Tickell  published  a  "  Letter  to  Avi 
gnon,"  written  during  the  dispute  on  the  Han 
overian  succession,  and  an  elegy  on  Addison, 
which  was  extravagantly  praised  by  Johnson. 
Addison  had  employed  Tickell  in  public  affairs, 
and  when  in  1717  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state,  he  made  him  his  under  secretary.  In 
1725  Tickell  became  secretary  to  the  lords  jus 
tices  of  Ireland,  in  which  office  he  died. 

TICRNOR,  George,  an  American  author,  born 
in  Boston,  Aug.  1,  1791,  died  there,  Jan.  26, 
1871.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in 
1807,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
Boston  bar  in  1813,  but  never  practised.  From 
1815  to  1820  he  resided  in  Europe,  and  on  his 
return  became  professor  of  the  French  and 
Spanish  languages,  literature,  and  belles-lettres 
in  Harvard  college.  He  resigned  in  1835,  and 
spent  three  years  in  Europe.  In  1849  appeared 


his  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature "  (3  vols. 
8vo,  New  York ;  4th  ed.,  edited  by  G.  S.  Hillard, 

3  vols.,  Boston,  1871),  which  was  translated 
into  Spanish,  German,  and  French  (in  part), 
and  was  accepted  as   an  authority  in   Spain 
itself.     Mr.  Ticknor  was  one  of  the  association 
of  writers  by  whom  the  "  Monthly  Antholo 
gy  "  was  conducted.      His  latest  publication 
was  the  life  of  his  friend  W.  H.  Prescott  (Bos 
ton,  1864).— See  "Life  of  George  Ticknor," 
by  George  S.  Hillard  (Boston,  1876). 

TICOftDEROGA,  a  town  of  Essex  co.,  New 
York,  enclosing  the  outlet  of  Lake  George,  88 
m.  N.  by  E.  of  Albany;  pop.  in  1870,  2,590; 
in  1875,  3,401.  It  is  at  the  junction  of  the 
Addison  railroad,  a  branch  of  the  Central  Ver 
mont,  with  the  Champlain  division  of  the  Del 
aware  and  Hudson  canal  company's  lines,  and 
is  the  S.  terminus  of  the  Lake  Champlain  com 
pany's  steamers.  The  portion  of  the  town  ly 
ing  between  Lakes  George  and  Champlain  is  a 
lofty  promontory,  the  terminus  of  a  mountain 
ridge ;  Mt.  Defiance  at  the  extremity  of  the 
promontory  is  750  ft.  above  the  surface  of 
Lake  Champlain.  The  outlet  of  Lake  George, 

4  m.  in  length,  has  a  fall  in  2  m.  of  220  ft. ;  and 
as  the  water  never  apparently  varies  in  quan 
tity,  and  is  remarkably  pure,  it  forms  a  very 
valuable  water  power.     There  is   a  vein   of 
excellent  graphite  in  the  town,  and  about  25 
tons  of  black  lead  are  produced  monthly  by 
the  "American  Graphite  Company,"  the  only 
one  in  the  United    States.     There    are    also 
extensive   deposits   of   good  iron  ore,  which 
is  mined  by   the   "Iron   Company."     Large 
quantities  of  lumber   are  manufactured,   and 
there  are  an  extensive  sash  and  door  factory, 
two  founderies,  two  woollen  mills,  and  a  cot 
ton  factory  of  20,000  spindles.     The  town  has 
15  schools,  a  weekly  newspaper,  and  Baptist, 
Congregational,  Episcopal,  Methodist,  and  Ro 
man   Catholic    churches.      Nearly  the   entire 
business  portion  was  destroyed  by  fire,  March 
81,   1875;    it  is  now  being  rebuilt  with  fine 
brick  blocks. — The   town  is  particularly  re 
markable  for  the  prominent  place  its  fortifi 
cations  have  held  in  American  history.     Early 
in  1755  the  French,  who  had  already  occupied 
and  fortified  Crown  Point,  and  caused  a  care 
ful  survey  of  Lake  Champlain  to  be  made,  ad 
vanced  to  Ticonderoga  and  commenced  a  forti 
fication  there,  which  entirely  commanded  the 
passage  of   the  lake.     This  fort  they  named 
Carillon  (chime  of  bells),  in   allusion   to   the 
music  of  the  waterfalls  near  it.     It  was  after 
ward  known  as  Fort  Ticonderoga.     Sir  Wil 
liam  Johnson  was  the  commander  of  an  Eng 
lish  and  colonial  army  the  same  year  intended 
for  the  reduction  of  this  fortress  and  Crown 
Point;  but  learning  that  the  French  had  re- 
enforced  it  largely,  he  contented  himself,  after 
defeating  Dieskau  at  Lake  George,  with  forti 
fying  Fort  William  Henry  at  the  S.  end  of  that 
lake.     In  1757  Montcalm  assembled  a  force 
of  9,000  men  at  Fort  Carillon,  and  ascending 
Lake  George  attacked  and  reduced  Fort  Wil- 


738 


TIDES 


liam  Henry,  Aug.  3.  In  the  summer  of  1758 
Gen.  Abercrombie  took  the  command  of  an 
expedition  for  the  reduction  of  Fort  Carillon, 
crossed  Lake  George  with  15,000  men,  and  on 
July  8  attempted  to  take  the  fort  by  storm, 
but  was  'repulsed  with  a  loss  of  2,000  men. 
In  1T59  Gen.  Amherst  at  the  head  of  12,000 
men  invested  Ticonderoga,  and  the  French, 
not  having  a  sufficient  force  to  hold  it,  dis 
mantled  and  abandoned  it,  July  30  ;  and  soon 
after  Crown  Point  was  also  abandoned.  The 
English  government  then  greatly  enlarged  and 
strengthened  the  two  fortresses.  The  fort 
and  field  works  of  Ticonderoga  extended  over 
an  area  of  several  miles.  After  the  cession 
of  Canada  in  1763,  the  fort  was  allowed  to 
fall  into  partial  decay,  and  was  held  by  a 
small  force.  Upon  the  receipt  of  the  news 
of  the  battle  of  Lexington,  Col.  Ethan  Allen 
surprised  the  fort,  May  10,  1775,  and  cap 
tured  the  garrison  of  50  men  and  the  artil 
lery  and  munitions  of  war  in  the  fort.  (See 
ALLEX,  ETHAN.)  The  centennial  of  this  event 
was  celebrated  in  the  town  on  May  10,  1875. 
In  1776,  after  an  engagement  between  the 
British  and  Americans,  the  latter  were  com 
pelled  to  take  refuge  under  the  guns  of  Fort 
Ticonderoga.-  On  June  30, 1777,  Burgoyne  in 
vested  the  fort,  and  on  July  4  erected  a  bat 
tery  on  Sugarloaf  hill  (now  Mt.  Defiance), 
which  completely  commanded  it  and  com 
pelled  the  garrison  to  evacuate  it  the  next 
night,  sending  their  stores  and  munitions  to 
Skenesborough  (now  Whitehall),  and  escaping 
themselves  into  Vermont.  In  September  of 
the  same  year  Gen.  Lincoln  made  an  attack 
upon  the  works,  took  Mts.  Hope  and  Defiance, 
released  100  American  prisoners,  and  took  293 
of  the  enemy,  an  armed  sloop,  several  gun 
boats,  and  more  than  200  bateaux,  but  did  not 
capture  the  fort.  After  the  surrender  of  Bur 
goyne  the  fort  was  dismantled,  and  the  garri 
son  retreated  down  Lake  Champlain;  some  of 
them  were  captured  by  Capt.  Ebenezer  Allen. 
In  1780  Gen.  Haldeman  with  a  company  of 
British  soldiers  advanced  to  Ticonderoga  and 
occupied  it  for  some  time  ;  and  from  this  point 
Major  Carleton  made  a  diversion  against  Forts 
Anne  and  George,  in  favor  of  Sir  John  John 
son.  After  the  war  the  fort  fell  into  ruins ; 
portions  of  the  walls  are  still  standing. — There 
is  a  history  of  Ticonderoga  by  the  Kev.  Joseph 
Cook  (Keeseville,  N.  Y.,  1858). 

TIDES,  the  alternate  rising  and  falling  of  the 
waters  of  the  ocean,  which  is  to  be  observed 
on  all  its  coasts  and  estuaries.  The  rising  is 
designated  as  the  flood,  and  the  highest  eleva 
tion  as  high  water;  the  falling  is  called  the 
ebb,  and  the  lowest  depression  low  water. 
The  duration  of  high  and  low  water  without 
apparent  change  of  level  is  known  as  the 
stand,  and  the  cessation  of  the  ebb  and  flood 
streams  or  tidal  currents  is  called  slack  water. 
The  tides  of  each  day  occur  somewhat  later 
than  those  jof  the  preceding  day,  the  average 
retardation  from  day  to  day  being  about  50 


minutes.  The  times  of  occurrence  of  high 
water  bear  a  very  close  relation  to  the  appear 
ance  of  the  moon  in  certain  positions.  Thus 
at  New  York  high  water  occurs  when  the 
moon  is  about  E.  S.  E. ;  at  New  Castle,  on 
Delaware  river,  when  the  moon  is  nearly  S. ; 
at  Baltimore  when  it  is  rising  or  setting. 
These  are  rude  statements,  but  they  are  suffi 
ciently  accurate  for  many  purposes,  and  they 
show  at  once  the  close  connection  between  the 
time  of  high  water  and  the  time  of  the  moon's 
passage  over  the  meridian.  In  fact,  so  com 
pletely  is  this  recognized,  that,  in  order  to  give 
the  time  of  high  water  upon  any  day,  it  is  usu 
ally  thought  sufficient  to  state  the  time  of  high 
water  on  the  days  of  new  moon  and  full  moon 
(or  "full  and  change  ")  when  the  moon  passes 
the  meridian  at  12  o'clock  nearly.  This  time 
is  called  the  establishment  of  the  port.  Then 
to  find  (roughly)  the  time  of  high  water  on 
any  other  day,  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  the 
establishment  to  the  time  of  the  moon's  me 
ridian  passage  on  that  day.  There  will  also 
be  another  high  water  on  the  same  day,  pre-* 
ceding  or  following  that  so  found  by  12h. 
26m.  nearly.  On  closer  examination  it  will 
be  found  that  the  interval  between  the  time 
of  the  moon's  passage  over  the  meridian  and 
the  time  of  high  water  varies  sensibly  with  the 
moon's  age.  At  new  moon,  full  moon,  first 
quarter,  and  third  quarter  (or  rather  on  the 
day  following  each  of  these  phases),  the  inter 
val  between  the  time  of  the  moon's  passage 
and  the  time  of  high  water  is  nearly  the  same ; 
but  from  new  moon  to  first  quarter,  and  from 
full  moon  to  third  quarter,  the  high  water  oc 
curs  earlier  than  would  be  inferred  by  using 
that  same  interval;  and  from  first  quarter  to 
full  moon,  and  from  third  quarter  to  new 
moon,  it  occurs  later  than  the  same  interval 
would  give  it.  The  height  at  high  water  and 
the  depression  at  low  water  are  not  always 
the  same.  On  the  days  following  new  moon 
and  full  moon,  high  water  is  higher  and  low 
water  lower  than  at  any  other  time;  these  are 
called  spring  tides.  On  the  days  following  the 
first  and  third  quarters,  high  water  is  lower 
and  low  water  higher  than  at  any  other  time ; 
these  are  called  neap  tides.  Thus  at  New  York 
the  rise  and  fall  (that  is,  the  difference  in  ele 
vation  between  high  water  and  low  water)  is 
about  5|-  ft.  at  spring  tides,  and  3^-  ft.  at  neap 
tides.  At  Boston  this  variation  is  from  111  to 
8^  ft.  There  is  a  sensible  difference  in  height 
between  two  successive  high  waters  or  low 
waters,  one  occurring  before  noon,  the  other 
after  noon,  and  these  differences  are  most  per 
ceptible  when  the  moon  is  at  her  greatest  de 
clination  N.  or  S.,  and  disappear  when  she  is 
near  the  equator.  There  are  other  variations 
of  height  depending  on  other  circumstances. 
In  a  single  tide  the  interval  from  high  water 
to  low  water  is  greater  than  that  from  low 
water  to  high  water ;  the  difference  between 
these  intervals  is  sensibly  greater  at  spring 
tides  than  at  neap  tides.  The  tidal  current  in 


TIDES 


739 


the  bay  runs  upward  for  some  time  after  high 
water,  and  after  changing  its  direction  con 
tinues  to  run  downward  for  some  time  after 
low  water,  when  it  again  changes  its  direction, 
and  runs  upward.  If  we  further  examine  the 
state  of  the  tide  in  different  parts  of  the  same 
river,  or  in  a  bay  of  great  length  as  compared 
with  its  breadth,  as  for  instance  Chesapeake 
bay,  we  shall  find  that  near  the  mouth  there 
is  very  little  difference  between  the  interval 
from  high  to  low  water  and  that  from  low  to 
high  water ;  also  that  the  current  runs  up  the 
channel  for  a  long  time  (sometimes  approach 
ing  to  three  hours)  after  high  water,  and  runs 
down  the  channel  for  as  long  a  time  after  low 
water.  In  going  up  the  bay  we  find  that  the 
high  water  occurs  later  and  later,  but  the 
velocity  with  which  the  high  water  travels  is 
so  great  as  entirely  to  preclude  the  idea  of  ex 
plaining  the  tide  by  supposing  the  same  mass 
of  water  to  have  been  moved  all  the  way  up 
the  bay.  Thus,  high  water  is  13  hours  in 
travelling  from  Cape  Henry  to  the  head  of 
•Chesapeake  bay,  190  m.,  moving  with  an  av 
erage  velocity  of  15  m.  an  hour,  while  the 
greatest  observed  current  is  less  than  one 
mile  an  hour.  High  water  takes  place  simul 
taneously  near  the  head  and  the  mouth  of 
the  bay,  while  it  is  low  water  at  the  same 
time  near  the  middle.  The  interval  from 
low  water  to  high  water  diminishes  as  we 
go  up  the  bay,  as  also  the  difference  be 
tween  the  stand  and  slack  water.  At  the  en 
trance  of  the  bay  the  ebb  current  begins  three 
hours  after  the  high  water  stand ;  in  the  vicin 
ity  of  Annapolis  it  is  but  one  hour,  and  at  the 
head  of  the  bay  there  is  only  half  an  hour 
between  the  high  water  stand  and  the  com 
mencement  of  the  ebb  current. — Herodotus 
speaks  of  the  tides  in  the  Red  sea.  Plutarch 
says  that  Pytheas  of  Massilia,  who  had  ob 
served  them  in  Britain,  ascribed  them  to  the 
moon.  Caesar,  in  his  account  of  the  invasion 
of  Britain,  refers  to  the  nature  of  spring  tides 
as  well  understood  in  connection  with  the 
moon's  age.  Pliny  explains  the  phenomena  at 
some  length,  and  ascribes  them  to  the  sun  and 
moon  dragging  the  waters  along  with  them. 
Kepler  in  accounting  for  the  tides  was  evi 
dently  aware  of  the  principle  of  gravitation, 
but  not  of  the  law.  Newton  laid  hold  of  this 
class  of  phenomena  as  the  most  incontestable 
proof  of  universal  gravitation,  and  showed 
that  according  to  its  law  just  such  periodic 
fluctuations  in  the  fluid  covering  of  the  earth 
must  take  place  as  are  actually  exhibited  by  the 
tides  of  the  ocean.  If  we  conceive  the  earth 
to  be  wholly  or  in  a  great  degree  covered  with 
water,  and  subject  to  the  attraction  of  the  sun, 
the  force  of  which  is  inversely  as  the  square 
of  the  distance,  it  will  be  obvious  that  while 
the  whole  earth  Avill  fall  toward  the  sun  with 
a  velocity  proportioned  to  the  aggregate  attrac 
tion  upon  its  solid  portions  (which  is  the  same 
as  if  all  the  matter  were  collected  at  its  centre), 
the  water  nearest  to  the  sun,  being  accelerated 


by  a  greater  force,  and  being  fluid,  will  ap 
proach  the  sun  more  rapidly  than  the  solid 
core.  It  will  thus  run  from  all  sides  into  a 
protuberance  beyond  the  form  of  equilibrium 
of  the  earth's  attraction  and  rotation,  until  the 
pressure  of  the  elevated  mass  equals  the  differ 
ence  in  the  attraction  of  the  sun.  Moreover, 
a  similar  protuberance  will  be  formed  on  the 
side  opposite  to  the  sun,  since  the  particles  of 
water,  being  solicited  by  a  less  force  than  the 
solid  core,  will  fall  more  slowly  toward  the 
sun,  and  as  it  were  remain  behind.  Nor  does 
the  fact  that,  on  the  average,  the  earth  does 
not  lessen  its  distance  from  the  sun,  in  the  least 
invalidate  the  force  of  this  reasoning  ;  for  the 
deviations  from  the  tangential  motion  of  the 
earth  in  its  orbit  are  precisely  those  which  the 
earth  would  move  through  if  falling  toward 
the  sun  unaffected  by  any  other  impulse.  The 
same  considerations  hold  good  in  regard  to  the 
attraction  of  the  moon  upon  the  earth  and  the 
waters  surrounding  it ;  for  although  we  are  in 
the  habit  of  considering  the  moon  as  simply 
revolving  about  the  earth,  it  must  be  remem 
bered  that  the  attraction  is  mutual,  that  both 
bodies  describe  orbits  about  their  common  cen 
tre  of  gravity,  and  that  while  the  moon  obeys 
the  attractive  force  of  the  earth,  the  latter  equal 
ly  follows  that  of  the  former,  by  which  it  is  at 
every  instant  of  time  drawn  from  the  path 
which  it  would  pursue  if  that  influence  did  not 
exist,  by  an  amount  precisely  equal  to  the  fall 
corresponding  to  the  moon's  attractive  force. 
As  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  elevation 
of  the  water  in  the  regions  nearest  to  and  most 
remote  from  the  attracting  body,  there  must 
be  a  corresponding  depression  below  the  mean 
level  of  the  sea  at  points  distant  90°  from  the 
vertices  of  the  protuberances,  or  at  the  sides 
of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the  sun  or  moon.  If 
the  latter  bodies  maintained  a  constant  posi 
tion  with  respect  to  the  earth,  the  effect  would 
therefore  be  to  produce  a  distortion  of  figure 
in  the  ocean  surface  (assumed  to  cover  the 
whole  earth)  having  the  form  of  a  slightly 
elongated  ellipsoid,  the  two  vertices  of  which 
would  be,  the  one  precisely  under,  the  other 
precisely  opposite  to  the  points  at  which  the 
disturbing  body  i£  vertical.  But  this  is  not  the 
case ;  for  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  and  the 
motion  of  earth  and  moon  in  their  orbits,  the 
direction  of  the  disturbing  forces  is_ constantly 
changing  with  respect  to  any  point  on  the 
earth's  surface.  New  points  arrive  at  every 
instant  under  the  zenith  and  nadir  of  either 
luminary,  and  thus  waves  are  produced  which 
follow  them  round  the  globe.  The  highest 
points  of  these  waves  will  remain  far  behind 
the  verticals  of  the  disturbing  bodies,  because 
the  inertia  and  friction  of  the  water  prevent 
the  instantaneous  change  of  form  required, 
and  because,  although  the  elevating  force  is 
greatest  under  the  vertical,  it  continues  to  act 
in  the  same  direction  for  some  hours  after  the 
passage  of  the  luminary,  with  but  little  dimin 
ished  force.  This  retardation,  which  would  be 


710 


TIDES 


sensible  under  the  simple  supposition  of  an  un 
interrupted  ocean  covering  the  earth's  surface, 
becomes  very  considerable  under  the  actual  cir 
cumstances  of  the  case. — The  depth  of  the  sea 
varies  so  much,  and  the  form  of  its  basin,  taken 
as  a  whole,  is  so  interrupted  by  the  land,  that 
it  may  be  doubted  whether,  were  the  action 
of  the  sun  and  moon  at  once  suspended,  their 
tide  waves  would  perform  even  a  single  revo 
lution  with  any  sort  of  regularity.  Hence  it 
follows  that  the  tides  for  the  time  being  may 
be  considered  as  almost  completely  command 
ed  by  the  then  actual  positions  and  proximities 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  the  free  oscillations  of 
the  sea  in  its  bed  being  quite  subordinate  to  the 
forced  wave  generating  them.  Inconsequence 
(as  is  always  the  case  in  forced  oscillations), 
every  periodicity  in  the  action  of  the  forcing 
cause  is  propagated  in  the  oscillations,  and  re 
cords  itself  in  the  recorded  height  of  the  tide 
on  every  point  of  the  coast,  but  at  each  point 
at  a  greater  or  less  interval  from  the  culmina 
tion  of  the  sun  or  moon,  according  to  its  local 
position  and  the  more  or  less  circuitous  course 
taken  by  the  tide  wave  to  reach  it,  which  spe 
cial  observation  can  alone  determine.  This 
interval  is  called  the  establishment  of  the 
place.  The  close  relation  which  the  times  of 
high  water  bear  to  the  times  of  the  moon's 
passage  shows  that  the  moon's  influence  in 
raising  the  tides  must  be  much  greater  than  the 
sun's.  In  fact,  while  the  whole  attraction  of 
the  sun  upon  the  earth  far  exceeds  that  of  the 
moon,  yet,  owing  to  the  greater  proximity  of 
the  latter,  the  difference  between  its  attraction 
at  the  centre  of  the  earth  and  at  the  nearest  or 
most  remote  points  of  its  surface,  which  pro 
duces  the  tides,  is  about  2£  times  as  great  as 
the  difference  of  the  sun's  attraction  at  the 
same  points. — There  will  be  two  complete  lunar 
tides  in  every  lunar  day  of  24h.  52m.,  and  also 
two  complete  solar  tides  in  every  mean  solar 
day.  These  are  known  as  the  semi-diurnal 
tides,  and  constitute  the  principal  fluctuations 
of  the  sea  level.  When  the  sun  and  moon  are 
in  conjunction  or  opposition,  at  the  time  of 
new  or  full  moon,  the  effects  of  both  combine 
to  produce  the  spring  tides,  when  high  water 
is  higher  and  low  water  is  lower  than  at  mean 
tides  by  the  amount  of  the  solar  tide.  At 
quadratures  the  high  water  of  the  sun  will 
combine  with  the  low  water  of  the  moon  to 
produce  a  less  fall,  and  the  low  water  of  the 
sun  with  the  high  water  of  the  moon  to  pro 
duce  a  less  rise,  than  at  mean  tides ;  and  we 
have  the  neap  tides,  the  range  of  which  is  less 
than  the  mean  range  by  the  amount  of  the 
solar  tide.  Thus,  at  New  York,  the  rise  and 
fall  at  syzygies  is  5'4  ft.,  at  quadrature  3'4  ft., 
the  former  being  the  sum,  the  latter  the  differ 
ence  of  the  lunar  and  solar  tides ;  whence  we 
obtain  for  the  effect  of  the  moon  4'4  ft.,  and 
for  that  of  the  sun  1  ft.,  or  a  ratio  of  44  to 
10.  This  proportion  does  not  prove  to  be  the 
same  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  even  varies 
considerably  in  places  not  far  distant  from  each 


other.  At  Boston  the  heights  are  11 '3  and  8 -5 
ft.  respectively,  giving  a  proportion  of  7  to  1. 
On  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  it 
averages  about  5  to  1,  while  on  the  E.  side  of 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  on  the  coasts  of  France  and 
England,  it  is  in  many  parts  3  to  1.  These 
differences  are  to  bo  ascribed  to  the  fact  that 
the  shore  and  harbor  tides  which  we  observe 
have  in  every  instance  acquired  a  greater  mag 
nitude  than  the  ocean  tides,  and  have  been 
modified  in  form  by  the  varying  slope  of  the 
bottom  and  configuration  of  the  shores.  A 
simple  comparison  of  the  range  of  spring  and 
neap  tides  will  not  serve,  therefore,  as  a  cor 
rect  measure  of  the  relative  effect  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  and  hence  for  a  determination  of 
the  mass  of  the  moon,  which  can  only  be  de 
rived  from  those  data  by  a  profound  mathe 
matical  analysis. — The  next  variation  of  the 
tides  to  be  considered  is  that  dependent  on  the 
moon's  declination.  Were  the  moon  constant 
ly  in  the  plane  of  the  equator,  the  highest 
points  of  the  tide  waves  would  also  be  in  that 
plane,  and  would  consequently  produce  a  series 
of  equal  tides  at  any  place  either  N.  or  S.  of 
the  equator.  But  it  is  evident  that  when  she 
ascends  to  the  north,  the  vertex  of  the  tide 
wave  will  tend  to  follow  her,  giving  the  high 
est  point  of  one  tide  in  the  northern,  and  the 
highest  point  of  the  opposite  tide  in  the  south 
ern  hemisphere.  Consequently,  when  the  moon 
has  a  northern  declination,  the  tide  at  any 
place  in  the  northern  hemisphere  caused  by  her 
upper  transit  will  bo  higher  than  that  caused 
by  the  lower  transit.  This  variation  in  the 
heights  has  a  period  of  one  lunar  day,  and  is 
called  the  diurnal  inequality ;  it  roaches  its 
maximum  when  the  moon  is  at  its  greatest 
northern  or  southern  declination,  and  disap 
pears  when  it  is  on  the  equator,  and  conse 
quently  has  a  half-monthly  period.  The  va 
riations  of  height  from  this  cause  produce  a 
corresponding  inequality  in  the  times  of  high 
water.  The  sun's  declination  affects  the  tides 
in  a  similar  manner,  but  the  amount  of  the 
disturbance  is  very  small,  and  its  period  ex 
tends  over  half  a  year.  Yet  in  long  series  of 
observations  its  effect  is  well  marked,  both  in 
height  and  time.  The  diurnal  inequality  de 
pending  on  the  moon's  declination  is  on  the 
other  hand  quite  sensible,  and  in  many  places 
constitutes  a  prominent  or  even  the  chief  fea 
ture  of  the  tides,  as  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
North  America  and  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  to 
the  peculiarities  of  which  we  shall  recur  here 
after.  If  the  tides  arrive  at  the  same  place 
by  two  different  channels,  and  one  of  them 
is  retarded  behind  the  other  by  six  hours,  in 
consequence  of  travelling  a  longer  route  or  in 
shallower  water,  the  semi-diurnal  tides  will  be 
destroyed  by  an  interference  of  the  waves,  that 
is,  by  the  high  water  of  one  being  superim 
posed  on  the  low  water  of  the  other ;  the  di 
urnal  inequality,  however,  will  not  be  de 
stroyed,  but  merely  modified  in  height  and 
time,  leaving  a  single  tide  in  the  lunar  day 


TIDES 


outstanding,  which  is  always  very  small  in 
amount.  A  further  cause  of  variation  in  the 
height  of  the  tides  is  the  variation  of  the  dis 
tances  of  the  sun  and  inoon,  by  reason  of  the 
ellipticity  of  their  orbits.  The  efficacy  of  a 
heavenly  body  in  raising  tides  is  shown  by 
theory  to  be  inversely  proportional  to  the  cube 
of  the  distance.  Hence  the  efficacy  of  the  sun 
will  fluctuate  between  the  extremes  19  and  21, 
taking  20  for  its  mean  value,  and  that  of  the 
moon  between  43  and  59.  Taking  into  account 
this  cause  of  difference,  the  highest  spring  tide 
will  be  to  the  lowest  neap  as  59  +  21  to  43—19, 
or  as  80  to  24,  or  10  to  3  ;  leaving  out  of  con 
sideration  the  local  circumstances  of  access  and 
depth,  which  greatly  modify  these  proportions. 
In  the  North  Atlantic  the  highest  tides  are 
observed  a  day  and  a  half  or  two  days  after 
the  syzygies.  At  New  York,  the  high  water 
which  we  observe  about  8  o'clock  in  the  even 
ing  on  the  days  of  full  or  change  are  those 
due  to  the  meridian  transit  of  the  moon  (and 
sun)  on  the  preceding  day,  and  the  highest 
tide  will  not  occur  until  the  evening  of  the 
following  day.  At  Boston  this  delay,  which 
is  called  the  retard,  or  age  of  the  tide,  is  near 
ly  36  hours.  It  is  the  same  at  Brest,  and  the 
tide  wave  occupies  10  hours  in  travelling  from 
Brest  up  the  English  channel  and  Thames  to 
London,  making  the  age  of  the  tide  at  the 
latter  place  46  hours.  This  delay,  which  even 
at  the  cape  of  Good  Hope  amounts  to  14  hours, 
is  still  the  subject  of  investigation,  and  is 
probably  mainly  due  to  friction.  The  inter 
val  between  the  moon's  passage  over  the  me 
ridian  of  a  place  and  the  time  of  high  water, 
which  we  have  referred  to  as  the  establish 
ment  of  the  port,  is  also  called  the  luni-tidal 
interval.  This  interval  is  constant  for  each 
place  so  far  as  the  lunar  tide  wave  is  con 
cerned  ;  but  as  the  actual  high  water  depends 
upon  the  combination  of  the  lunar  and  solar 
tides,  it  is  subject  to  a  variation  which  is 
known  as  the  half-monthly  inequality  in  time. 
On  the  day  after  the  spring  tides  the  top  of 
the  solar  tide  wave  will  be  nearly  an  hour  in 
advance  of  that  of  the  lunar  tide  wave,  and  the 
two  waves  will  combine  to  make  high  water 
earlier  than  the  moon's  alone  would  bring  it ; 
hence  the  luni-tidal  interval  is  shorter.  It 
will  continue  to  shorten  until  the  moon's 
transit  is  later  by  three  hours  than  when  the 
tide  is  greatest ;  it  then  increases  again,  passes 
its  mean  value  when  the  moon  has  fallen  be 
hind  six  hours,  attains  its  maximum  when  it 
is  nine  hours  later,  and  again  decreases  until 
at  the  next  spring  tides  it  reaches  its  .mean 
value.  The  mean  of  all  the  luni-tidal  inter 
vals  for  half  a  month  at  a  port  is  called  its 
mean  or  corrected  establishment,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  vulgar  establishment,  which  is  the 
luni-tidal  interval  at  full  and  change.  The 
former  is  now  generally  used  for  finding  the 
time  of  high  water  on  any  given  day,  and 
tables  are  constructed  from  observations  at 
the  principal  ports  for  finding  the  correction 


for  semi-monthly  inequality  due  to  the  moon's 
age.  Thus  for  Xew  York  the  corrected  es 
tablishment  or  mean  luni-tidal  interval  is  8h. 
13m.,  and  its  least  and  greatest  values  are  Yh. 
52  m.  and  8h.  35m.  On  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
the  United  States  the  range  of  this  inequality 
is  about  three  fourths  of  an  hour;  on  the 
coasts  of  France  and  Great  Britain  it  often 
exceeds  an  hour  and  a  half.  This  difference 
of  the  half-monthly  inequality  in  time  at  dif 
ferent  places  is  analogous  to  the  variation  in 
the  proportion  of  spring  and  neap  tides  above 
noticed,  and  is  due  to  the  same  causes. — The 
motion  of  the  water  in  the  tide  wave  is  to 
tally  unlike  that  in  an  ordinary  surface  wave, 
such  as  the  wind  produces.  When  a  narrow 
wave  of  the  latter  kind,  or  a  succession  of  such 
waves  of  equal  breadths  and  heights,  is  formed 
in  deep  water,  a  light  floating  body,  as  a  cork, 
revolves  either  in  a  vertical  circle  or  an  ellipse 
not  very  different  from  one,  having  the  longer 
axis  vertical.  But  in  the  tide  wave  the  move 
ment  of  each  particle  may  be  regarded  as  per 
formed  in  an  excessively  elongated  ellipse,  the 
shorter  axis  of  which  is  vertical.  The  breadth 
of  the  tide  wave  from  crest  to  crest,  supposing 
all  the  earth  covered,  would  be  half  the  earth's 
circumference,  or  12,500  miles,  in  comparison 
with  which  the  depth  of  the  sea  is  insignifi 
cant ;  and  the  slightest  consideration  suffices 
to  show  that,  as  all  the  water  which  goes  to 
form  the  elevated  portion  must  be  brought 
from  that  depressed,  this  can  only  take  place 
by  a  lateral  approach  of  the  vertical  sections 
of  the  sea  when  the  water  is  rising,  and  their 
recess  from  each  other  when  falling  (i.  e.,  over 
a  quadrant  of  the  globe  in  either  case,  which 
is  only  another  way  of  expressing  an  alterna 
ting  backward  and  forward  horizontal  current 
at  any  given  place),  with  this  peculiarity,  that 
these  currents  (the  flow  and  ebb  current)  run 
most  rapidly  at  the  moments  of  high  and  low 
water ;  the  instants  of  most  rapid  rise  and  fall 
being  those  of  slack  water  or  no  current  one 
way  or  the  other.  In  fact,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  surface  must  be  rising  most  rapidly  when 
the  water  is  setting  in  equally  both  ways  to, 
and  sinking  most  rapidly  when  setting  out 
equally  both  ways  from  the  place  ;  in  neither 
of  which  cases  can  there  be  any  current  at 
the  place.  The  tide  wave  differs  also  from  a 
wind  wave  in  another  very  remarkable  point. 
It  affects  the  whole  depth  of  the  ocean  equal 
ly,  from  the  bottom  to  the  surface,  while  the 
wind  waves,  even  in  the  most  violent  storms, 
agitate  it  to  a  very  trifling  depth ;  for  the  force 
which  acts  to  produce  the  former  is  exerted 
equally  in  every  portion  of  the  vertical  ex 
tent  of  the  water,  while  those  producing  the 
latter  are  strictly  confined  to  the  surface.  A 
tide  wave  of  4  ft.  in  total  height  (between 
high  and  low  water),  which  is  that  of  the  tide 
at  the  atolls  of  the  Indian  ocean,  advancing 
over  a  sea  30,000  ft.  deep,  implies  in  each  par 
ticle  an  alternate  advance  and  recess  of  2,800 
ft.  in  its  total  extent ;  but  this  movement,  being 


742 


TIDES 


spread  over  six  hours  either  way,  is  nowhere 
very  rapid.  ,  Where  a  bay  or  indentation  of 
the  coast  presents  its  opening  favorably  to  the 
tide  wave,  and  decreases  in  width  from  the 
entrance  toward  its  head,  the  tides  rise  higher 
and  higher  from  the  mouth  upward.  This  is 
due  to  the  concentration  of  the  wave  by  the 
approach  of  the  shores,  and  to  the  gradual 
shoaling  of  the  bottom  by  which  a  portion 
of  the  horizontal  motion  is  transferred  into 
vertical  motion,  the  velocity  of  the  wave  being 
at  the  same  time  retarded.  This  effect  is  stri 
kingly  illustrated  by  a  generalization  of  the 
heights  of  the  tides  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
the  United  States,  developed  from  the  tidal  ob 
servations  made  in  connection  with  the  United 
States  coast  survey.  That  coast  presents  in 
its  general  outline  three  large  bays  :  the  great 
southern,  from  Cape  Florida  to  Cape  Hatteras ; 
the  great  middle,  from  Cape  Ilatteras  to  Sias- 
conset,  Nantucket ;  and  the  great  eastern,  from 
Siasconset  to  Cape  Sable.  Referring  to  the 
tide  table  given  below,  we  find  at  Cape  Florida 
a  mean  height  of  1*5  ft.,  and  as  we  follow  the 
coast  to  the  northward  a  gradually  increasing 
height,  reaching  7  ft.  at  Savannah  entrance, 
then  decreasing  again,  with  an  exception  easily 
explained,  to  Cape  Ilatteras,  where  it  is  2  ft. 
In  the  middle  bay,  following  the  stations  on 
the  coast,  and  omitting  those  on  the  bays  and 
sounds,  we  have  a  less  regular  increase  to  4- 8 
ft.  at  Sandy  Hook,  and  a  decrease  to  2 '7  ft.  at 
Menemsha  bight  on  Nantucket  island.  The 
configuration  of  the  eastern  bay  is  less  regular, 
and  the  correspondence  of  heights  requires 
closer  examination.  The  recess  of  Massachu 
setts  bay  is  Avell  marked  by  the  increase  in 
height,  reaching  10  ft.  at  Boston  and  Ply 
mouth  ;  but  the  most  striking  effect  of  the 
convergence  of  shores  and  shoaling  is  exhibit 
ed  in  the  bay  of  Fundy.  On  a  line  across  its 
mouth,  at  the  Kennebec  river  as  at  Cape  Sable, 
the  mean  height  of  tide  is  8  ft.,  while  at  St. 
John's,  N".  B.,  it  rises  19  ft.,  and  at  Sackville 
in  Cumberland  basin,  at  the  head  of  the  bay, 
36  ft.,  attaining  to  50  ft.  and  more  at  spring 
tides.  When  the  wave  leaves  the  open  sea,  its 
front  slope  and  its  rear  slope  are  equal  in  length 
and  similar  in  form.  But  as  it  advances  into 
a  narrow  channel,  bay,  or  river,  its  front  slope 
becomes  short  and  steep,  and  its  rear  slope  be 
comes  long  and  gentle.  Hence  arise  the  cir 
cumstances  noticed  in  the  early  part  of  this 
article,  and  illustrated  by  reference  to  the 
Chesapeake  bay.  At  the  station  near  the  sea 
the  time  occupied  by  the  rise  is  equal  to  that 
occupied  by  the  descent ;  but  at  a  station  more 
removed  from  the  sea  the  rise  occupies  a 
shorter  time  than  the  descent.  When  the  tide 
is  very  large  compared  with  the  depth  of  water, 
this  inequality  becomes  very  great;  thus  in 
the  Severn  river,  at  Newnham,  above  Bristol 
(England),  the  whole  rise  of  18  ft.  takes  place 
in  an  hour  and  a  half,  while  the  fall  occupies 
10  hours.  As  the  wave  advances  over  a  shoal 
ing  bottom,  a  portion  of  the  horizontal  motion 


is  transformed  into  vertical  motion,  by  which 
the  height  of  the  wave  is  increased,  the  most 
rapid  current  approaches  the  greatest  rise,  and 
the  interval  between  the  stand  and  slack  water 
is  diminished.  This  exaggeration  of  the  height 
and  current  is  particularly  remarkable  when 
ever  the  front  of  the  advancing  tide  wave 
stretches  across  the  mouth  of  an  estuary  with 
contracting  borders,  and  extensive  flats  border 
ing  the  channel  near  low-water  level ;  then  it 
produces  a  bore,  or  sudden  and  violent  wave 
of  great  height,  which  rushes  forward  with 
such  impetuosity  as  to  sweep  everything  be 
fore  it.  Such  is  the  case  at  the  head  of  the 
bay  of  Fundy ;  likewise  in  the  Hoogly  river, 
in  the  bay  of  Bengal ;  in  the  Dordogne,  where 
it  empties  into  the  Garonne,  on  the  coast  of 
France ;  and  in  the  Severn  river,  where  at 
spring  tides  a  bore  of  9  ft.  in  height  rushes  up 
stream.  In  the  river  Amazon,  at  the  equinoxes 
(when  the  equatorial  tide  is  at  its  maximum), 
during  three  consecutive  days  bores  of  12  or 
15  ft.  high  rush  up  the  river  with  each  high 
water ;  so  that  along  the  course  of  the  stream, 
up  which  for  200  m.  from  its  mouth  no  fewer 
than  eight  tide  waves  are  simultaneously  ad 
vancing,  as  many  as  five  bores  are. sometimes 
at  once  in  progress. — It  is  easily  seen  that  in 
the  smaller  seas,  which  have  little  or  no  com 
munication  with  the  ocean,  as  the  Mediter 
ranean,  Black,  and  Caspian  seas,  and  the  North 
American  lakes,  the  tides  must  be  insensible, 
as  the  attraction  of  the  moon  is  at  all  times 
very  nearly  the  same  for  all  parts  of  them. 
Xear  the  W.  end  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  at 
Malaga,  a  small  tide  is  observable,  propagated 
from  the  Atlantic  ocean  through  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar.  Tides  are  also  observable  at  Venice, 
but  the  observations  have  not  been  discussed 
so  as  to  determine  whether  they  arise  from  a 
small  tide  wave  proper  to  the  Mediterranean, 
magnified  by  travelling  up  the  Adriatic  sea, 
although  insensible  at  its  mouth,  or  whether 
they  are  variations  due  to  the  winds.  Fluctu 
ations  of  the  sea  level  resembling  those  of  the 
tides,  and  causing  irregularities  in  the  latter, 
are  often  produced  by  the  winds,  which  in 
many  places  have  a  certain  periodicity  in  their 
direction  and  force,  as  the  land  and  sea  breezes 
in  the  tropics.  They  come  under  considera 
tion  here  only  as  complicating  the  study  of  the 
tidal  phenomena. — The  existing  theories,  while 
they  suffice  for  the  explanation  of  the  observed 
facts,  are  inadequate  to  the  prediction  of  the 
phenomena  at  places  where  they  have  not  been 
observed.  This  arises  not  from  any  defect  in 
the  principles  upon  which  the  theory  is  based, 
but  from  the  difficulty  of  investigating  mathe 
matically  the  motion  of  fluids,  under  all  the 
various  circumstances  in  which  the  waters  of 
the  sea  and  of  rivers  are  found,  and  from  our 
ignorance  of  the  configuration  of  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  The  equatorial  sea  being  broken 
up  into  three  great  basins,  and  open  water 
existing  only  to  the  southward  of  the  threo 
great  continents,  the  tides  are  complicated  in 


TIDES 


743 


a  singular  way.  In  each  of  these  basins  the 
equatorial  tide  has  to  take  a  fresh  start  from 
the  eastern  side  with  every  fresh  upper  and 
lower  transit  of  the  moon  and  sun,  and  is  de 
stroyed  or  confused  by  reflection  on  the  west 
ern  coast  before  the  creation  of  a  new  wave ; 
while  in  the  open  part  of  the  southern  ocean 
the  tide  wave  circulates  unimpeded,  and  spreads 
into  the  three  oceans  up  which  it  runs  as  a 
free  wave,  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.,  overtaking  in 
its  progress  and  compounding  with  the  partial 
equatorial  tides  or  forced  waves  proper  to 
either  ocean.  On  approaching  the  shore,  the 
waves  are  elevated  and  retarded  by  the  slope 
of  the  bottom,  and  deflected  or  crowded  to 
gether  according  to  the  varied  configurations 
of  the  coasts.  It  is  owing  to  these  complica 
tions,  together  with  our  ignorance  of  the  laws 
of  friction  among  the  particles  of  water,  and 
between  the  water  and  the  bottom,  that  our 
theories  fail  to  inform  us  of  the  magnitude 
and  time  of  the  tides  at  any  given  place.  But 
they  determine  the  periodicity  of  their  phases, 
and  the  relative  part  which  each  disturbing 
force  bears  to  the  whole,  by  which  we  are 
enabled,  by  the  analysis  of  a  sufficient  series  of 
exact  observations  at  any  place,  to  predict  the 
phases  of  the  tides  at  the  same  place  for  any 
future  time,  the  knowledge  of  which  is  of  im 
mense  importance  to  navigation.  It  is  only 
since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  that 
the  science  of  the  tides  has  made  any  consid 
erable  progress  in  this  direction.  The  theo 
retical  investigations  of  Laplace,  in  the  Meca- 
nique  celeste,  and  his  discussions  of  the  tidal 
observations  at  Brest,  opened  the  way.  Lub- 
bock  and  Prof.  Whewell  contributed  large 
ly  by  the  elaborate  discussions  of  large  collec 
tions  of  tidal  observations,  published  in  the 
u  Philosophical  Transactions "  of  the  royal 
society;  and  Prof.  Airy,  in  his  essay  on  "Tides 
and  Waves  "  in  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Metropol 
itans, n  has  greatly  extended  our  theoretical 
conceptions  of  the  subject.  More  recently  still 
important  investigations  have  been  published 
by  Prof.  W.  Thomson  and  Mr.  TV.  Ferrel.— The 
tides  on  the  coasts  of  the  United  States  have 
been  specially  investigated  by  the  late  Prof. 
Bache  as  superintendent  of  the  American  coast 
survey.  In  connection  with  that  work  he  organ 
ized  an  extensive  system  of  exact  observations, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  complicated 
laws  which  govern  the  tides.  It  will  be  readily 
understood  that  in  order  to  separate  the  effects 
of  the  different  causes  which  modify  the  phe 
nomena,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  observe  merely 
the  heights  and  times  of  high  and  low  water,  but 
that  a  continuous  record  of  the  tides  is  neces 
sary,  as  the  inequalities  are  constantly  shifting 
their  place  and  magnitude.  For  this  purpose 
a  self -registering  tide  gauge  is  used,  by  which 
a  continuous  curve  representing  the  successive 
changes  in  the  height  of  water  is  traced  on 
paper  moved  by  clockwork,  by  a  pencil  acted 
on  by  the  rising  and  falling  of  a  float  in  a  ver 
tical  box,  to  which  the  tide  has  free  access. 


The  time  scale  is  such  that  every  hour  is  rep 
resented  by  one  inch,  and  is  pricked  into  the 
paper  by  points  on  the  cylinder  which  moves 
the  paper  forward.  A  continuous  sheet,  suffi 
cient  for  the  record  of  a  whole  month,  is  put 
on  the  tide  gauge  at  one  time.  A  complete 
description  of  this  instrument  will  be  found  in 
the  coast  survey  report  for  1853.  Prof.  Bache 
gave  in  his  annual  reports  on  the  progress  of 
the  coast  survey,  from  1851  forward,  a  series  of 
papers  on  the  tides,  detailing  the  processes  of 
discussion,  and  giving  the  results  as  they  were 
from  time  to  time  developed.  In  these  are  con 
sidered  the  apparent  anomalies  in  the  tides  in 
the  gulf  of  Mexico,  exhibiting  at  some  places 
only  one  tide  in  24  hours ;  the  large  inequali 
ties  in  the  tides  on  the  Pacific  coast ;  the  gen 
eral  progress  of  the  tide  wave  along  our  coasts 
and  in  the  bays  and  rivers ;  the  influence  of 
the  winds  in  particular  localities;  and  the 
action  of  tidal  currents  on  the  bars  and  chan 
nels  of  our  harbors.  These  labors,  which  are 
still  in  progress,  have  resulted  already  in  the 
annual  publication  of  "  Tide  Tables,"  giving  in 
advance  the  times  and  heights  of  high  and  low 
water  at  all  the  principal  ports  of  the  United 
States,  for  every  day  in  the  year.  An  elabo 
rate  discussion  of  the  tides  observed  at  Boston 
and  New  York  during  19  years,  a  full  lunar 
cycle,  has  been  made  by  Mr.  "William  Ferrel 
of  the  coast  survey,  and  has  resulted  in  repre 
senting  the  actual  tides  with  unlooked-for  pre 
cision,  yielding  moreover  a  value  for  the  mass 
of  the  moon  closety  approaching  that  obtained 
by  astronomical  methods.— The  tides  on  the 
coast  of  the  United  States,  on  the  Atlantic, 
gulf  of  Mexico,  and  Pacific,  are  of  three  differ 
ent  classes.  Those  of  the  Atlantic  are  of  the 
most  ordinary  type,  ebbing  and  flowing  twice 
in  24  hours,  and  having  but  small  differences  in 
height  between  the  two  successive  high  or  low 
waters,  one  occurring  before  noon,  the  other 
after  noon.  Those  of  the  Pacific  coast  also  ebb 
and  flow  twice  during  24  hours,  but  the  morn 
ing  and  afternoon  tides  differ  very  considerably 
in  height,  so  much  so  that  at  certain  periods  a 
rock  •which  has  3^  ft.  of  water  upon  it  at  low 
tide  may  be  awash  (nearly  bare)  on  the  next  suc 
ceeding  low  water.  The  intervals,  too,  between 
successive  high  and  successive  low  waters  may 
be  very  unequal.  At  San  Francisco,  for  exam 
ple,  at  a  time  when  the  moon  has  a  large  south 
ern  declination,  the  high  water  occurring  about 
12  hours  after  the  moon's  transit  may  mark  5 
ft.  on  a  tide  staff;  five  hours  afterward  low 
water  will  mark  3|-  ft.,  six  hours  after  which 
the  second  high  water  will  reach  7i  ft.,  and 
seven  hours  later  the  second  low  water  will 
fall  to  zero.  These  inequalities  depend  upon 
the  moon's  declination,  in  the  manner  which 
we  have  explained ;  they  disappear  at  the  time 
of  the  moon's  declination  being  nothing,  and 
are  greatest  about  the  time  of  its  being  great 
est.  These  tides  exhibit  the  normal  type,  while 
those  at  New  York  and  adjacent  parts  of  the 
j  Atlantic  coast  do  not  exhibit  the  diurnal  in- 


744 


TIDES 


equalit}r.  The  explanation  of  this  feature  is 
probably  to  be  found  in  the  supposition  that 
the  tide  wave  which  advances  up  into  the  At 
lantic  ocean  from  the  continuous  tide  in  the 
Southern  ocean,  arrives  on  our  shores  24  hours 
later  than  the  direct  tide  wave  which  crosses 
the  Atlantic  from  E.  to  W.  In  this  way  the 
diurnal  inequality  will  be  eliminated  by  the 
superposition  of  the  two  tides,  the  greater  high 
water  of  the  former  coinciding  with  the  lesser 
of  the  latter,  and  vice  versa,  leaving  the  semi 
diurnal  tides  of  equal  height.  The  tide  at 
Galveston,  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  furnishes  a 
case  of  the  elimination  of  the  semi-diurnal  tide, 
leaving  only  the  diurnal  inequality.  It  is  to 
be  presumed  in  this  instance  that  the  tides 
reaching  Galveston  through  the  straits  of  Flor 
ida  and  through  the  passage  between  Cuba  and 
Yucatan  differ  by  six  hours  in  their  periods, 
causing  the  low  water  of  one  to  coincide  with 
the  high  water  of  the  other,  thus  sensibly  de 
stroying  the  semi-diurnal  tides,  except  in  so  far 
as  they  are  unequal.  This  leaves  a  small  tide 
outstanding,  having  substantially  the  form  of 
the  diurnal  inequality,  and  producing  the  ap 
pearance  of  the  "single  day  tide,"  or  one  high 
and  one  low  water  in  every  24  hours.  This 
residual  fluctuation  is  well  marked  at  times 
when  the  moon's  declination  is  considerable 
on  either  side  of  the  equator,  but  disappears 
almost  entirely  when  the  moon  is  near  the 
equator,  since  at  such  times  the  diurnal  in 
equality  disappears.  Tides  of  this  class  have 
always  a  small  range  ;  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico 
they  rarely  exceed  2|  ft.,  and  the  average  rise 
and  fall  is  but  1^  ft.  The  tide  gauges  being  in 
continuous  operation,  all  other  fluctuations  of 
the  ocean  level,  besides  that  produced  by  the 
tides,  are  likewise  registered.  The  tide  curves 
of  the  western  coast  are  frequently  found  in 
dented  by  fluctuations  arising  from  earthquakes. 
A  remarkable  instance  of  this  kind  was  fur 
nished  by  the  earthquake  that  destroyed  the 
city  of  Shimoda,  Japan,  in  December,  1854. 
The  time  required  for  the  transmission  of  the  sea 
waves  from  Shimoda  to  San  Francisco  was  12h. 
36m.  The  distance  being  4,500  m.,  the  trans 
mission  of  the  wave  was  at  an  average  rate  of 
360  in.  an  hour.  The  theory  of  wave  motion 
teaches  us  that  this  velocity  will  be  attained  by 
a  free-moving  wave  in  a  depth  of  1,440  fath 
oms,  which  may  be  taken  as  the  average  depth 
of  the  Pacific  between  Japan  and  California. 
The  crests  of  the  waves  occurred  at  intervals  of 
about  23  minutes,  corresponding  to  a  length 
from  crest  to  crest  of  150  in.  The  height  when 
the  waves  arrived  at  San  Francisco  was  about  18 
in.  from  hollow  to  crest.  The  great  earthquake 
in  Peru  in  August,  1868,  was  likewise  recorded 
on  the  tide  gauges  at  San  Diego,  San  Francisco, 
and  Astoria.  The  fluctuation  of  the  ocean  in 
this  instance  was  very  sensible  to  casual  obser 
vation,  and  was  noted  in  Australia,  at  the 
Sandwich  islands,  and  at  Kodiak,  Alaska.  The 
data  obtained  from  these  observations,  com 
bined  with  the  result  before  mentioned,  indi 


cate  that  the  average  depth  of  the  Pacific  ocean 
is  about  1,800  fathoms.  Such  waves,  origina 
ting  with  an  impulse  at  one  definite  point,  and 
propagated  freely  through  the  ocean  in  every 
direction  with  a  velocity  depending  upon  the 
square  root  of  the  depth  of  the  sea,  serve  as 
good  illustrations  of  the  manner  in  which  tides 
are  propagated  as  free  waves  through  sounds, 
bays,  and  rivers.  The  rate  of  motion  for  differ 
ent  depths  is  as  follows:  at  10  ft,,  12*2  m.  an 
hour ;  60  ft,,  30  m. ;  100  ft.,  3S'7  m. ;  1,000  ft., 
122-3  m. ;  6,000  ft.,  299'5  m. 

TIDE    TABLE    FOR   THE    UNITED    STATES.* 


PORTS. 

Mean 
luni- 
tidal  in 
terval. 

Rise 
and  fall, 
spriug 
tides. 

Rise 
and  fall, 
neap 
tides. 

Eastport   Me        ....              .     ... 

h.    m. 
11     8 

feet. 
20'6 

feet. 
15-4 

Hanniwell's  Pt.,  Kennebec  river,  Me. 
Portland,  Me  

11  15 

11  25 

9-3 

9'9 

7M) 
7'6 

Portsmouth    "N".  II 

11  23 

9-9 

7-2 

Newburyport,  Mass  
Rockport,            "    
Salem,                   '•    

11  22 
10  57 
11  13 

9-1 
10'2 
10'6 

6'6 

7'1 
7'6 

Boston  light,        iv      

11  12 
11  27 

10-9 
11-8 

8-1 
8'5 

Plymouth,            "      
Wellfleet              u 

11  19 
11    5 

11-4 

13-2 

9-0 
9-2 

Provincetown,     "      
Monomov             "    .  . 

11  22 
11  58 

10-8 
5-3 

7-7 
2'6 

Nantucket,           "      

12  24 

8-6 

2'6 

Hvannis                lt 

12  22 

8'9 

1-8 

12  1C 

2'  5 

1'G 

Ilolmes's  Hole     '"    

11  43 

I'S 

1'3 

8    4 

2'8 

1"8 

Wood's  Hole,  N.  side,  Mass  
Wood's  Hole,  S.  side,      '     
Menemsha  Bijrht,            '      

7  59 
8  34 

7  45 

4-7 
2-0 
3-9 

3-1 
1-2 

1-8 

Quick's  Hole,  N.  side,     '     
Quick's  Hole,  B.  side,      k     
Cuttvhunk,                       '     
Kett'le  Cove                      ' 

7  31 
7  36 
7  40 

7  43 

4-3 

3-8 
4-2 
5M) 

2-9 
2-3 
2'9 
8'7 

Bird  island  light,             '      
New  Bedford  entrance,  ' 

7  59 

7  57 

5-3 
4'6 

3-5 

2'8 

Newport   K   I 

7  45 

4-6 

3'1 

Point  Judith,  K.I  
Block  island       "      

7  32 
7  36 

3-7 
3-5 

2-6 

2'0 

Montauk  Point,  L.  I.,  N.  Y  
Sandv  Hook                     '•    . 

8  20 
7  29 

56 

1-8 

4M) 

New  York,                      "    
Dobbs  Fern-,  Hudson  river,  N.  Y.  . 
Tarrytown,                                     "    .  . 
Verplanck's  Point,       "              "    .  . 
West  Point.                                   "    .  . 
Pousrhkeepsie,               "              "    .  . 
Tivoli,                           "              "    .. 
Stuvvesant,                    ^              "    .. 
Castleton,                     '•             "    .. 
Greenbush                     "              "    .  . 
Watch  Hill  R  I 

8  13 
9  19 
9  57 
10    8 
11    2 
12  34 
13  50 
15  49 
16  55 
17  48 
9    0 

5-4 
4-4 
4-0 

3-8 
3-2 

4-6 
4-4 
3-0 
2-5 
3-1 

3-4 
2-7 
2-7 
2-5 
2-0 
2'4 
3-2 
3-0 
2-3 
1-9 
2-4 

Stonington,  Conn  
Little  Gull  island.  N.  Y  
New  London,  Conn  

9    7 
9  88 
9  28 

3-2 
2-9 
3-1 

2-2 
2-3 
2-1 

New  Haven,       "     

11  16 
11  11 

6-2 

8-0 

5-2 
4-7 

Ovster  Bav  LINY 

11     7 

9-2 

5-4 

11  13 

8-9 

6'4 

New  Kochelle  NY                

11  22 

8-6 

6'6 

Throws  Neck        '• 

11  20 

9-2 

(M 

Cold  Sprinp-  inlet,  N.  J  

7  32 
8  19 

5-4 
6-0 

3-6 
4-3 

8    0 

4-5 

3'0 

Hurbee's,  Cape  May,  N.  J  

8  33 
0    4 

6-2 
7-0 

3-9 
5-1 

Mahon's  river  Del  

9  52 

6-9 

5-0 

New  Castle,        "  ... 
Philidelphia   Pa 

11  53 
13  44 

6-9 

6-S 

6-6 
5-1 

Old  Point  Comfort,  Va  

8  17 

8-0 

2-0 

*  The  mean  interval  in  column  2  has  been  increased  by  12h. 
2fim.  (half  a  mean  lunar  day)  for  some  of  the  ports  in  Hudson 
river,  Delaware  river,  and  Chesapeake  bay,  so  as  to  show  the 
succession  of  times  from  the  mouth. 


TIDES 


745 


PORTS. 

Mean 

luui- 
tidal  in 
terval. 

Rise 
and  fall, 
spring 
tides. 

Rise 
and  fall, 
neap 
tides. 

PLACES. 

Time  of 
H.  W.  at 

full  «nd 
change. 

Range 
at 

spring 
tides. 

Range 
at 
neap 
tides. 

Point  Lookout  Md 

h.     ra. 
12  58 
17    4 
18    8 
18  59 
20  10 
14  37 
16  54 
12  58 
7    4 
7  26 
7  26 
7  19 
9    6 
7  56 
7  16 
7  26 
7    8 
7  20 
8  13 
7  33 
7  43 
7  53 
7  28 
8  21 
8  84 
8  23 
8  40 
9  30 
9  66 
11  21 
13  15 
13  38 

9  38 
9  39 
9  25 
10    8 
10  22 
10  37 
12    6 
13  40 
14  10 
12  36 
11  17 
12    2 
11  26 
12  42 
12  33 
3  49 
4  46 
4  50 

feet. 
1-9 

i-o 

1-8 

1-5 
3-4 
3-0 
3-4 
1-9 
2-2 
3-3 
5-0 
5-5 
3-1 
4-7 
5-7 
6-0 
7-4 
8-0 
7-6 
7-8 
8'2 
6-7 
5'5 
4-9 
1-8 
2-2 
2-0 
1-5 
1-5 
1-8 
3-2 
2-9 

5-0 
4-7 
5-1 
4-S 
4-3 
4-4 
4-3 
5-2 
5-1 
7'3 
4-7 
5-5 
6-8 
7-4 
7-4 
5-5 
11-1 
0-6 

feet. 
0-7 
0-8 
0-8 
0-9 
2-6 
2-5 
2-3 
1-3 
1-8 
2-2 
3-4 
3-8 
2-2 
2-7 
3-7 
4-1 
4-4 
5-9 
5-5 
5-4 
5-4 
5-3 
8-7 
3-6 
1-2 
1-3 
0-6 
0-9 
0-6 
1-0 
1-6 
1-4 

2-3 

2-2 
-2-8 
2-4 
2-5 
2-8 
2-8 
4-1 
3-7 
4-9 
2-7 
8-5 
3-7 
4-6 
4-8 
4-0 
7-2 
4-8 

EAST   COAST   OF   ATLANTIC   OCEAN. 

Scillv  isles,  St.  Agnes,  England  
Bristol  (King  road),            "        ' 
Liverpool, 
Glasgow,  Scotland  

h.   m. 
4  30 
6  65 
11  23 
1  25 
9    0 
1    0 
2  17 
6  29 
9  15 
11  40 
1  57 
4    0 
4  58 
11  12 
4  35 
12  25 
6  80 
11  83 
12    0 
4  30 

3  50 
9  30 
3    0 

i"o 

11    0 

i'ii 

9    0 

feet. 
16 
44 
26 
9 
10 
12 

20J 
6 
K* 
19* 
9 
12J 
12-14 

5? 

4 

¥ 

6* 

8 
40 
4 
8-10 
IT* 
H 
1* 
4 
It 
2 
9 
23 
50 
6 
IS 
7 
8 
11 

12 

""G 

19 

12-17 
4 
2 
3* 
lOf 
10 
2 
8 
15 
6± 

? 

1 

2 

36-42 
9 

5 
4 
11 
15-22 

u» 

feet. 
8 
22 
14* 
6 
5 
8 
9 

ll* 

l\ 

H 

7-9 

11 
3 

f 

'is' 

2 
'"* 

"i" 
17 

24 
2 

8 

"4J 

"l 
5 
"5" 

"si 

5-io' 

C| 

Annapolis,             "  
Bodkin  liirht         '• 

Baltimore,             "  

James  river  (City  Point),  Va  
Richmond,                            u   
Tappahannock,                     "    

Stromness,      '•       
Aberdeen,        "       
Leith,               "       
Hull,  England  
Yarmouth  roads,  England  
Margate,                     "        
London  docks,           "        

Hatteras  inlet  N.  C 

Beaufort,             "     
Bald  Head,          "                

Srnithville,           "     

"U  ilmington,       "     
Georgetown  entrance,  S.  C  
Bull's  island  bay,             "    

Cork  (Penrose  quay),  Ireland  
Dublin  bar,                        "      
Galway,                             "      

St.  Helena  sound,            "    
Fort  Pulaski,  Ga  

Ostend,  Belgium  
Texel  (outside  shoals),  Holland  

Savannah,        "  
Doboy  lighthouse  Ga 

Helgoland,  Elbe  entrance  
Loffoden  islands.  Norway  
Keret's  point,  gulf  of  Archangel  

WEST  COAST   OF  ATLANTIC   OCEAN. 

Cape  Horn  islands,  South  America. 
Santa  Cruz  river,          " 
Kio  Janeiro, 
Cape  St.  Koque, 
Maranham, 
Cartagena, 

St.  Simon's,              "  

Fort  Clinch,  Fla 

St.  John's  river  Fla 

St.  Augustine,'      "    

Cape  Florida,        "    
Indian  Key            " 

Sand  Kev,             "    

Key  West,            "    
Tortugas,               "    

Tampa  bay  (Egmont  Key),  Fla  
Cedar  Keys  (Depot  Key),      "    
St.  Mark's,                              "   

•WESTERN  COAST. 

Bermudas,  dockyard  

Cape  Sable,  Nova  Scotia  
St.  John's,  New  Brunswick  

8  30 
11  23 
11  48 
749 
6  38 
7  30 
11    0 
11  50 

4  15- 

12  3U 
2    0 
4    0 
11  40 
1     0 
8  18 
7  34 
10    0 
9  45 
10    0 
10    0 
12    0 
6  28 
8  88 
1  20 
noon 
4    0 

8  30 
4  40 
9  32 
5  47 
7    0 
3  23 
3  15 
9  40 

Sackville,       "             "         
Halifax  harbor,  Nova  Scotia  
Quebec,  Canada  

Cuyler's  harbor,  Cal  

Monterey,            "  

St.  John's,  Newfoundland  

South  Farallone,  "  
San  Francisco,      "  
Mare  island,          "  

Van  Rensselaer  bay,  Greenland  

INDIAN   OCEAN   AND   WEST   COAST 
OF  PACIFIC. 

Kavenswood,        "  

Bodega                  "  

Bab-el-Maudeb,  Bed  sea  
Suez  bay,  head  of  gulf,  Ked  sea  
Surat,  Hindostan  
Bombay,  dockyard.  Iliudostan  
Maldives,  Adou  atoll  

Humboldt  bay      "                     

Port  Ortbrd  Oregon 

Astoria,                "       
Nee-ah  harbor,  Washington  territory 
Port  Townshend,        " 
Steilacoom, 
Semi-ah-moo  bay,       " 

Madras  road,  Hindostan  
Western  entrance  to  Hoogly  river. 
Singapore  new  harbor  

TIDE   TABLE    FOR   SOME    OF   THE    PRINCIPAL   PORTS    AN'D 
HEADLANDS    OF    THE    WORLD, 

Giving  the  vulgar  establishment  or  time  of  high  water  at  full 
and  change,  and  the  rise  and  fall  or  whole  range  at  spring 
and  neap  tides,  except  for  the  United  States. 

Canton  river  (entrance),  China  
Yangtse-kiang  (entrance),  China.  .  . 
Nagasaki  bay,  Japan  
Sydney,  Australia  

Tahiti  or  Otaheite  island  
Honolulu,  Sandwich  islands  

EAST   COAST   OF   PACIFIC    OCEAN. 

Cape  Virgin,  strait  of  Magellan  
Cape  Horn  

PLACES. 

Time  of 
H.  W.  at 
full  and 
change. 

Range 
at 

spring 

tides. 

Range 
at 
neap 
tides. 

EAST   COAST  OF  ATLANTIC   OCEAN. 

Simon's  bay,  Cape  of  Good  Hope... 
St  Helena  island                          ..    • 

h.   m. 
2  44 
3  11 
4  30 
7  55 
7  45 
2    6 
2  20 
11  45 
3    0 
6  50 
3  47 
G    5 
7  49 
9  51 
11  49 
11  12 
11  41 
5  37 

feet. 

r 

5 
8 
5 
3f 

81 
15 

14 
19 
35 
17 
22 
19* 
ISi 

m 

16* 

feet. 

2* 

H 

"ii 

'ii* 

8* 
14 

11* 
Hi 
U 
7* 

\  alparaiso,  Chili  
Callao  bay  Peru      

Guayaquil,  Ecuador  

St  Paul  de  Loanda,  Africa  

Port  la  Union,  gulf  of  Fouscca  
Mazatlan,  Mexico  ,  

Sierra  Leone,                 "     

Ceuta,  straits  of  Gibraltar  
Gibraltar  old  mole 

A  study  of  the  preceding  tables,  with  the  aid 
of  a  map,  will  develop  many  interesting  facts 
with  regard  to  the   propagation  of  the  tide 
wave  and  the  effect  of  the  configuration  of  the 
coasts  on  the  time  and  height  of  the  tides. 
It  will  be  seen,  for  example,  that  high  water 
occurs  nearly  at  the  same  time  at  the  head 
lands  of  the  great  middle  and  eastern  bays  of 

Cape  Finisterre,  Portugal. 

Bordeaux  France    .            

Brest 

St  Malo 

Cherbourg,             
Havre,                    

Calais 

Dover,  England  

Portsmouth  dockyard,  England  
Plymouth  breakwater,       "       

746 


TIDES 


the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States — at 
Cape  Hatteras,  Nantucket  island,  and  Cape 
Sable — making  an  allowance  for  the  difference 
in  local  time.  If  by  a  line  on  the  map  we  con 
nect  these  points  at  which  high  water  occurs 
simultaneously,  we  may  regard  that  line  as 
representing  the  crest  of  a  tide  wave  advan 
cing  upon  the  coast.  We  shall  find  high  water 
to  occur  later  and  later  as  we  go  up  into  the 
bays  and  rivers ;  and  by  following  up  the  pro 
gress  of  the  waves,  we  may  be  enabled  to  draw 
lines  representing  the  time  of  high  water  or 
the  top  of  the  wave  for  each  successive  hour. 
Such  lines  are  called  co-tidal  lines,  and  have 
been  traced  for  the  coasts  of  the  United  States 
by  Prof.  Bache,  for  which  we  again  refer  to 
the  coast  survey  reports.  A  chart  of  co-tidal 
lines  for  the  British  isles,  by  Prof.  Whewell, 
will  be  found  in  Keith  Johnston's  "Physical 
Atlas,"  as  well  as  a  chart  of  co-tidal  lines  for 
the  whole  globe ;  but  the  latter  must  be  looked 
upon  as  a  rather  adventurous  generalization,  in 
the  absence  of  any  positive  knowledge  of  the 
tides  in  mid-ocean.  The  tides  about  the  Brit 
ish  isles  present  a  very  interesting  study.  The 
advancing  high  water  passes  up  the  English 
channel,  occupying  six  hours  from  the  Scilly 
isles  to  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  where  it  is 
met  and  reenforced  by  the  high  water  12  hours 
older,  which  has  travelled  around  the  isles 
to  the  northward  and  down  the  North  sea. 
There  is  a  point  in  the  latter,  about  midway 
between  Yarmouth  and  the  Texel,  where  the 
co-tidal  line  of  nine  hours  of  the  latter  tide 
wave  intersects  that  of  three  hours  of  the  for 
mer,  causing  the  interference  of  low  water  of 
the  one  with  high  water  of  the  other  tide,  in 
consequence  of  which  no  change  takes  place 
in  the  sea  level,  as  has  been  ascertained  by 
actual  observations  over  a  shoal  spot  in  that 
locality.  A  remarkable  case  of  the  meeting  of 
two  tides,  which  will  be  more  particularly  no 
ticed  below,  occurs  near  Throg's  Neck  at  the 
W.  end  of  Long  Island  sound. — The  agency  of 
tidal  currents  in  producing  changes  in  the  en 
trances  of  bays  and  harbors  is  a  subject  of  the 
first  importance  to  commerce  and  navigation, 
which  has  received  full  attention  in  the  prose 
cution  of  the  American  coast  survey.  As  on 
the  average  the  same  amount  of  water  moves 
inward  and  outward  with  the  flood  and  ebb 
tides,  we  might  readily  suppose  that  the  same 
amount  of  material  is  transported  either  way, 
and  that  no  important  change  would  take  place 
in  the  configuration  of  the  bottom.  But  the 
operation  of  the  flood  stream  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  ebb  stream.  We  have  as  a 
general  feature  an  interior  basin  of  some  ex 
tent  communicating  with  the  sea  by  a  com 
paratively  narrow  passage.  The  flood  stream, 
therefore,  running  with  considerable  velocity 
through  this  channel,  will  as  it  enters  the  basin 
spread  out  and  become  slow,  depositing  the 
sand  and  mud  it  is  charged  with,  and  making 
extensive  flats  or  shoals  opposite  the  entrance. 
The  ebb  stream  runs  slowly  over  the  flats  from 


all  directions  toward  the  opening^  without  re 
moving  much  of  the  deposit,  and  gradually 
concentrates  in  definite  narrow  channels,  which 
it  scoops  out,  and  the  depth  of  which  will  de 
pend  in  a  great  degree  on  the  proportion  of 
the  area  of  the  basin  to  the  outlet,  or,  in  other 
terms,  on  the  difference  of  level  which  will  be 
reached  during  the  ebb  between  the  basin  and 
the  ocean,  which  determines  the  greatest  ve 
locity  and  transporting  power  reached  by  the 
ebb  stream.  On  the  bars  of  most  of  the  sand- 
barred  harbors  on  our  southern  coast,  the  place 
and  direction  of  the  channel  are  frequently 
changed  during  violent  storms,  when  the  di 
rection  of  the  waves  happens  to  be  oblique  to 
that  of  the  channel ;  or  when  the  sea  runs 
directly  upon  the  channel,  the  depth  of  water 
may  be  considerably  diminished  for  the  time 
being,  by  the  sand  rolled  up  by  the  waves. 
But  in  all  these  cases  it  is  found  that  the  nor 
mal  depth  is  speedily  restored  by  the  scour 
of  the  ebb  tide,  which  depends  upon  the  un 
changed  factors  of  area  and  form  of  basin, 
height  of  tide,  and  character  of  the  material 
forming  the  bar.  To  illustrate  the  important 
subject  of  tidal  currents,  we  will  examine  the 
hydraulic  system  of  New  York  harbor.  Con 
sidering  first  the  progress  of  the  tide  wave 
through  Long  Island  sound  from  the  eastward 
to  its  meeting  with  that  entering  New  York 
bay  at  Sandy  Hook,  we  see  that  about  7£  hours 
after  the  transit  of  the  moon  high  water  has 
advanced  just  within  Block  island  with  an 
elevation  of  2  ft.,  and  at  the  same  time  has 
just  passed  Sandy  Hook  with  an  elevation  of 

4  J  ft.     Traversing  the  sound  westward  with  in 
creasing  heights,  it  reaches  Sand's  Point  three 
hours  later  with  a  height  of  7'7  ft.     The  ob 
served  time  of  transmission  from  the  Race  to 
Sand's  Point  is  2h.  1m.,  and  the  time  com 
puted  from  the  depths  according  to  the  law 
developed  by  Airy  is  2h.  14m. ;  a  very  good 
approximation  when  we  consider  the  irregu 
larities  in  the  configuration  of  the  sound,  which 
could  not  be  taken  into  account.     Advancing 
still  further,  the  height  somewhat  declines  in 
consequence  of  the  changes  of  direction  in  the 
channel  and  its  shallowness.     At  Hell  Gate 
this  tide  wave  is  met  by  that  which  had  en 
tered  at  Sandy  Hook,  and  advanced  more  slow 
ly  owing  to  the  narrowness  and  intricacies  of 
the  channel,  especially  in  the  East  river.    These 
two  tides  which  meet  and  overlap  each  other 
at  Hell  Gate,  differing  in  times  and  heights, 
cause  contrasts  of  water  elevations  between 
the  sound  and  harbor  which  call  into  existence 
the  violent  currents  that  traverse  the  East  river. 
The  conditions  of  the  tidal  circulation  through 
Hell  Gate  are  such  that  if  there  were  a  par 
tition  across  it,  the  water  would  sometimes 
stand  nearly  5  ft.  higher,  and  at  other  times 

5  ft.  lower  on  the  one  side  than  on  the  other. 
In  the  actual  case  of  the  superposition  or  com 
pounding  of  the  two  tides,  the  difference  of 
level  existing  at  any  time  is  of  course  much 
less,  but  the  difference  of  one  foot  is  often 


TIDES 


TIECK 


observed  within  the  space  of  100  ft.  in  the 
most  contracted  portion  of  Hell  Gate  off  Hal- 
lett's  Point.  The  entrance  from  Long  Island 
sound  is  a  natural  depression  or  arm  of  the 
sea  which  is  not  changed  by  the  forces  now 
in  operation.  The  tidal  currents  which  flow 
through  it  do  not  change  the  channel,  but  are 
obliged  to  follow  it  in  its  tortuous  course. 
The  Sandy  Hook  entrance,  on  the  contrary,  is 
characterized  by  a  cordon  of  sands  extending 
from  Sandy  Hook  to  Coney  island,  intersected 
by  channels,  which  are  maintained  against  the 
action  of  the  sea,  which  tends  to  fill  them  up, 
by  the  scour  of  the  ebb  tide  from  the  tidal 
basin  of  New  York  harbor.  The  advance  of 
Sandy  Hook  upon  the  main  ship  channel  is 
among  the  notable  and  important  instances  of 
the  effect  of  tidal  currents ;  within  a  century 
it  has  increased  a  mile  and  a  quarter.  In  the 
place  where  the  beacon  on  the  end  of  the  Hook 
now  stands  there  was  40  ft.  of  water  15  years 
before  it  was  built.  The  cause  of  this  growth 
is  a  remarkable  northwardly  current  along 
both  shores  of  the  Hook,  running  both  during 
the  flood  and  the  ebb  tides  with  varying  rates, 
and  resulting  from  those  tides  directly  and  in 
directly.  The  best  water  over  the  bar  is  about 
2  m.  E.  of  Sandy  Hook  light,  in  a  direct  line 
with  the  Swash  channel;  the  greatest  depth 
over  it  is  22  ft.  at  mean  low  water,  and  the 
same  depth  can  now  be  carried  through,  the 
Swash  channel,  which  formerly  was  3  ft.  shal 
lower,  but  has  deepened  since  the  cross  sec 
tion  between  the  Hook  and  Flynn's  knoll  has 
been  diminished  by  one  third  its  area  by  the 
growth  of  the  Hook.  This  relative  change  in 
the  capacity  of  the  channels  has  not  affected 
the  depth  on  the  outer  bar,  which,  according  to 
the  principles  above  laid  down,  is  dependent 
mainly  upon  the  area  of  the  tidal  basin  within. 
The  depth  of  22  ft.  at -mean  low  water,  which 
is  now  maintained  at  the  entrance,  through 
the  sands  constantly  thrown  up  by  the  waves 
of  the  sea,  may  be  considered  as  depending 
upon  the  follpwing  elements :  1,  the  large  basin 
between  Sandy  Hook  and  Staten  island,  inclu 
ding  Raritan  bay,  which  furnishes  more  than 
one  half  of  the  whole  ebb  scour;  2,  what  is 
called  the  Upper  bay,  including  the  Jersey  flats 
and  Newark  bay ;  3,  the  North  river,  perhaps 
as  far  as  Dobbs  Ferry,  maintaining  the  head 
of  the  ebb  current,  although  not  directly  taking 
part  in  the  outflow;  and  4,  a  portion  of  the 
sound  tide,  which  flows  in  through  Hell  Gate. 
The  proportion  of  the  first  three  divisions  in 
producing  the  depth  of  channel  may  be  approx 
imately  estimated  by  a  comparison  of  the  areas 
and  distances  from  the  bar.  In  order  to  main 
tain  the  depth  which  we  now  have,  it  is  im 
portant  that  the  area  of  the  tidal  basin  should 
not  be  encroached  upon.  In  proportion  as 
that  is  diminished  the  depth  of  the  channels 
will  decrease.  The  flats,  just  bare  at  low  wa 
ter,  but  covered  at  high  tide,  form  as  impor 
tant  a  part  as  any  other  portion,  for  it  is  ob 
vious  that  it  is  only  the  volume  of  water  con 


tained  between  the  planes  of  low  and  high 
water,  the  "tide  prism,"  that  does  the  work 
in  scouring  the  channels.  The  water  on  the 
flats  is  especially  useful  by  retarding  the  out 
flow,  thus  allowing  a  greater  difference  of  level 
to  be  reached  between  the  basin  and  the  ocean. 
The  part  which  the  fourth  division  in  our  clas 
sification  of  the  basin  of  New  York,  that  of 
the  East  river  and  Hell  Gate  passage,  plays  in 
the  outflow  of  the  ebb  tide  through  the  Sandy 
Hook  channels,  depends  less  upon  the  area  in 
volved  than  upon  the  difference  in  point  of 
time  and  height  of  tide  in  Hell  Gate  already 
adverted  to.  The  westerly  current,  usually 
called  the  ebb  stream  since  it  falls  in  with  the 
ebb  stream  of  New  York  harbor,  taking  place 
when  the  sound  tide  is  highest,  starts  from  a 
level  3|-  ft.  higher  than  the  easterly,  and  thus  a 
much  larger  amount  of  water  flows  out  through 
the  Sandy  Hook  channels  than  through  the 
narrows  at  Throg's  Neck.  It  is  apparent,  then, 
that  this  portion  of  the  ebb  stream,  reenfor- 
cing  the  ebb  stream  of  the  harbor  proper  at 
the  most  favorable  times,  performs  a  most 
important  part  in  maintaining  the  channels 
through  the  Sandy  Hook  bar. 

TIECK.  I.  Ludwig,  a  German  author,  born 
in  Berlin,  May  31,  1773,  died  there,  April  28, 
1853.  He  completed  his  studies  at  Halle,  and 
became  known  in  1795  as  a  writer  of  fantastic 
novels.  His  antagonism  to  the  literary  ten 
dencies  of  the  time  was  displayed  in  Peter  Le- 
brecht  (2  vols.,  1795-'6),  and  in  Peter  Lelrccnfs 
Vollcsmarclien  (3  vols.,  1797),  several  of  which, 
as  Der  gestiefelte  Eater  ("Puss  in  Boots"), 
Blaulart  ("  Bluebeard"),  and  Lelen  und  Tod 
des  Heinen  Rothlcappchen  ("Life  and  Death 
of  Little  Red  Riding  Hood"),  combine  the 
simplicity  of  the  old  legends  with  grotesque 
satire  upon  modern  subjects.  The  classicists 
were  the  particular  objects  of  his  brilliant  rail 
lery,  especially  in  his  Herzensergiessungen  eines 
~kunstliel>enden  Klosterbrudcrs  (1797),  written 
in  conjunction  with  Wackenroder,  and  Franz 
SternbalcVs  Wanderungen  (2  vols.,  1798),  and 
in  his  comedies  Die  verkehrte  Welt  ("  The 
Topsy-turvy  World")  and  Prinz  ZerMno,  oder 
die  Seise  nach  dem  guten  Geschmack  ("  Travels 
after  Good  Taste").  The  Lelen  und  Tod  der 
Genoveva  (1800)  is  esteemed  his  finest  drama. 
Meantime  he  had  married  at  Hamburg  a  niece 
of  the  composer  Reichardt,  had  become  asso 
ciated  with  the  Schlegels,  Novalis,  and  Steffens 
at  Jena,  and  with  Herder  at  Weimar,  and  pre 
pared  an  admirable  translation  of  "Don  Quix 
ote"  (4  vols.,  Berlin,  1799-1801).  He  pub 
lished  at  Dresden  in  1802,  with  A.  W.  von  Schle- 
gel,  the  Musenalmanach.  After  examining  at 
Rome  the  manuscripts  of  German  medieval 
literature,  he  returned  in  1806  to  Munich,  and 
for  several  years  he  was  disabled  by  the  gout. 
In  1817  he  visited  England  to  complete  his 
studies  of  Shakespeare  and  the  Elizabethan  age. 
In  1819  he  settled  at  Dresden.  In  1820  he  was 
invited  by  the  king  of  Prussia  to  Berlin,  where, 
as  in  Dresden,  he  exerted  great  influence  on  the 


748 


TIEDEMANN 


TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO 


drama,  and  the  "Antigone"  of  Sophocles  was 
performed  under  his  auspices.  His  works  in 
clude  Minnelieder  aus  dem  schwabiscfien  Zeital- 
ter  (1803) ;  UlricJis  von  Lichtenstein  Frauen- 
dienst  (1815) ;  the  celebrated  novels  Dichterle- 
ben,  Der  Tod  des  Dichters,  and  the  unfinished 
Aufruhr  in  den  Oevennen  (1826) ;  Shakspeare' s 
Vorschule,  a  translation  of  plays  which  he  re 
garded  as  early  works  of  Shakespeare,  and 
Dmmaturgische  Blatter  (2  vols.,  1826).  He 
also  supervised  his  daughter  Dorothea's  and 
aunt  Baudessin's  continuation  of  Schlegel's 
translation  of  Shakespeare,  and  edited  various 
poems.  The  latest  edition  of  his  poems  is  in 
3  vols.  (1841),  and  of  his  novels  in  12  vols. 
(1853).  Nearly  complete  editions  of  his  works 
include  20  vols.  (1828-'42).  Carlyle  translated 
several  of  his  tales  in  vol.  i.  of  his  "  Specimens 
of  German  Romance ;"  a  second  edition  of  those 
tales,  in  another  English  version,  appeared  at 
London  in  1860.  Tieck's  biographer  Kopke 
edited  his  posthumous  writings  (2  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1855).— See  Friesen's  Ludwig  Tieck  (2  vols., 
Vienna,  1871).  II.  Christian  Friedrich,  a  German 
sculptor,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Ber 
lin,  Aug.  14,  1776,  died  there,  May  14,  1851. 
He  studied  under  Schadow  and  in  Paris  under 
David,  and  was  employed  at  Weimar  from  1801 
to  1805,  and  subsequently  in  Italy  till  1819, 
when  he  became  a  member  of  the  academy  at 
Berlin,  cooperating  with  Schenkel  and  Ranch 
in  improving  the  art  of  sculpture.  His  works 
include  many  busts  in  the  Walhalla,  executed 
at  Carrara  by  order  of  the  crown  prince  and 
future  king  Louis  of  Bavaria ;  those  of  Goethe 
and  other  poets  at  Weimar ;  the  statue  of 
Necker  for  Mine,  de  StaOl ;  decorations  of  the 
royal  theatre  at  Berlin  and  other  public  build 
ings  ;  and  the  statue  of  his  brother  at  Dresden. 
TIEDEMAM,  I.  Dietrich,  a  German  philoso 
pher,  born  at  Bremervorde,  Hanover,  April  3, 
1748,  died  in  Marburg,  Sept.  24,  1803.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  and  taught  ancient  lan 
guages  at  Cassel  from  1776  to  1786,  when  he 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Marburg. 
He  combined  the  principles  of  Locke  and  Leib 
nitz.  His  IfntersucTiungen  liber  den  Menschen 
(3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1777-'9S),  Theatet  (Frank 
fort,  1794),  IdealistiscJie  Briefe  (Marburg, 
1798),  and  JTandbuch  der  Psychologic  (edited 
by  Wachler,  Leipsic,  1804),  are  interesting  on 
account  of  their  investigations  in  psychology 
and  on  the  subject  of  cognition.  But  his  fame 
rests  on  his  history  of  philosophy  from  Thales 
to  Wolf  in  his  Geist  der  speculativen  Philosophie 
(6  vols.,  Marburg,  1791-'7).  II.  Friedrich,  a 
German  physiologist,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Cassel,  Aug.  23,  1781,  died  in  Munich, 
Jan.  22,  1861.  He  graduated  in  medicine  at 
Marburg  in  1804,  and  was  professor  of  anatomy 
and  zoology  at  Landshut  from  1806  to  1816, 
and  afterward  at  Heidelberg  till  1849.  His  nu 
merous  works  include  Zoologie  (3  vols.,  Lands- 
hut,  1808-'10)  ;  Anatomie  dca  FiscJiJierzens 
(1809) ;  Anatomie  und  BildungsgescJiiclite  des 
Gehirns  (Nuremberg,  1816) ;  and  Die  Physio- 


ie  des  Menschen  (Darmstadt,  vols.  i.  and  iM., 
1880-'36). 

TIEDGE,  Christoph  August,  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Gardelegen,  Prussia,  Dec.  14,  1752, 
died  in  Dresden,  March  8,  1841.  He  studied 
at  Halle,  and  led  a  precarious  life  as  a  clerk 
in  the  civil  service  and  as  a  private  tutor  and 
secretary  till  1805,  when  he  accompanied  the 
countess  Elisa  von  der  Recke  in  her  travels. 
Subsequently  he  resided  with  her  at  Dresden 
and  Berlin ;  and  at  her  death  in  1833  she  di 
rected  her  establishment  to  be  kept  up  for  him 
without  change.  His  most  celebrated  poem  is 
Urania,  on  the  immortality  of  the  soul  (Halle, 
1801 ;  18th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1862).  He  also  pub 
lished  Elegien  und  vermischte  GedicJite  (Halle, 
1803  ;  2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  1814).  His  complete 
works  are  in  10  vols.  (Leipsic,  1841).  Falken- 
stein  published  Tiedge's  Leben  und  poetischer 
Nachlass  (4  vols.,  Leipsic,  1841),  and  Eberhard 
Blicke  in  Tiedge's  und  in  Elisa^s  Leben  (Ber 
lin,  1844).  The  Tiedge  charitable  literary  in 
stitute  at  Dresden,  originally  founded  for  local 
purposes,  has  since  1860  extended  its  opera 
tions  all  over  Germany. 

TIENTSIN,  Teentsin,  or  Tiensing,  a  town  of  Chi 
na,  in  the  province  of  Chihli,  on  level  ground 
at  the  junction  of  the  Pei-ho  with  the  grand 
canal,  about  65  m.  S.  E.  of  Peking;  pop.  dif 
ferently  estimated  from  400,000  to  930,000. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  about  4  m.  in  cir 
cuit,  and  entered  by  four  gates.  The  princi 
pal  streets  lead  from  these  gates  to  the  centre 
of  the  town,  and  are  broad  and  well  paved. 
The  houses  are  of  unburned  brick  or  mud, 
and  have  a  mean  appearance,  though  some 
of  them  are  commodious  and  well  furnished. 
The  river  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  and 
large  suburbs  extend  for  a  considerable  dis 
tance  along  both  banks.  Tientsin  derives  its 
importance  from  being,  the  terminus  of  the 
grand  canal  and  the  port  of  Peking,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  formerly  a  place  of  great 
wealth  and  extensive  trade  ;  but  since  the 
banks  of  the  canal  were  broken  by  the  in 
undation  of  the  Iloang-ho  the  trade  has  de 
clined  greatly.  Treaties  were  concluded  here 
in  1858  between  the  Chinese  government  and 
the  plenipotentiaries  of  England,  France,  Rus 
sia,  and  the  United  States,  by  which  it  became 
one  of  the  13  ports  open  to  foreign  commerce. 
In  1873  the  imports  amounted  to  $27,602,314; 
exports,  $12,240,602. 

TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO  (Sp.,  "Land  of  Fire"),  a 
group  of  islands  off  the  S.  extremity  of  South 
America,  between  lat.  52°  40'  and  56°  S.,  and 
Ion.  63°  40'  and  75°  W.  It  is  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  the  straits  of  Magellan,  and 
has  the  Pacific  ocean  on  the  west  and  the  At 
lantic  on  the  east,  while  the  E.  and  W.  limits 
of  these  seas  are  supposed  to  meet  at  Cape 
Horn,  its  S.  extremity.  The  group  comprises 
numerous  small  islands,  of  which  Cape  Horn 
is  the  most  remarkable  ;  the  large  island  Tier- 
ra  del  Fuego  proper,  of  very  irregular  shape 
and  nearly  300  m.  long  E.  and  W. ;  the  isl- 


TIEES  ETAT 


TIFLIS 


T49 


ands  of  Navarin  and  Hoste  to  the  south,  sep 
arated  from  the  last  named  by  the  Beagle 
channel;  and  Dawson,  Clarence,  and  Desola 
tion  islands  to  the  west.  All  these  islands 
are  deeply  indented.  They  are  mountainous, 
and  many  of  the  peaks  are  more  than  5,000 
ft.  high,  while  the  highest,  Mt.  Sarmiento,  is 
about  6,900  ft.  The  limit  of  perpetual  snow 
is  about  4,000  ft.  The  soil  is  generally  a 
swampy  peat,  and  to  the  height  of  1,500  ft.  is 
covered  with  forests  of  beech.  The  geologi 
cal  formation  is  principally  clay  slate,  green 
stone,  and  granite.  The  climate  is  one  of  the 
worst  in  the  world ;  storms,  sudden  gusts  of 
wind,  rain,  snow,  and  mist  constantly  suc 
ceed  each  other.  The  gigantic  seaweed  ma- 
crocystis  pyrifera,  is  common  on  the  coasts 
and  in  the  straits,  and  affords  shelter  for  in 
numerable  shell  fish,  without  which  the  natives 
would  find  it  extremely  difficult  to  subsist. 
Deer,  guanacos,  foxes,  sea  otters,  mice,  bats, 
and  a  few  other  animals  are  found,  and  birds, 
particularly  sea  fowl, 

are  numerous.  The  na-  ;-::._—— ^---^^ff 
tives  are  of  the  same 
race  as  the  Patagoni- 
ans,  but  smaller,  and 
those  of  the  S.  E.  por 
tion  of  the  group  are 
short,  ill  made,  and  ill 
looking.  Their  cloth 
ing  consists  entirely  of 
guanaco  or  seal  skin. 
Their  huts,  generally 
built  close  to  the  shore 
in  some  sheltered  spot, 
are  conical,  made  of 
branches  or  small  trees 
stuck  in  the  earth,  7  or 
8  ft.  in  diameter  and  4 
or  5  ft.  in  height,  with 
a  small  hole  for  a  door. 
— Tierra  del  Fuego  was 

discovered  by  Magalhaens  in  1520,  and  re 
ceived  its  name  from  the  numerous  fires  seen 
during  the  night  along  the  shore.  (See  MA 
GELLAN,  STRAITS  OF.) 

TIERS  ETAT.     See  STATES  GENERAL. 

TIFFIN,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Seneca 
co.,  Ohio,  on  the  Sandusky  river,  77  m.  N".  by 
W.  of  Columbus;  pop.  in  1870,  5^148.  It  is 
an  important  railroad  centre,  four  lines  inter 
secting  here,  viz. :  the  Cincinnati,  Sandusky, 
and  Cleveland;  Toledo,  Tiffin,  and  Eastern; 
Mansfield,  Coldwater,  and  Lake  Michigan ;  and 
Baltimore,  Pittsburgh,  and  Chicago.  There 
are  important  manufactories,  including  one  of 
agricultural  implements,  one  of  woollens,  one 
of  steam  engines,  &c.,  two  of  shoes,  two  of 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  one  of  wagon  hounds, 
one  of  furniture,  one  of  stoves,  and  one  of 
carriages.  The  city  contains  a  national  bank, 
a  savings  bank,  five  public  schools,  one  daily 
and  four  weekly  (one  German)  newspapers, 
and  11  churches.  It  is  the  seat  of  Heidelberg 
college  and  theological  seminary,  founded  by 


the  German  Eeformed  church  in  1850.  The 
college  has  classical  and  scientific  courses.  In 
1874-'5  there  were  10  instructors  (2  theologi 
cal)  and  221  students  (13  theological,  102  col 
legiate,  and  106  preparatory) ;  the  libraries 
contained  5,000  volumes. 

TIFLIS.  I.  A  government  of  Asiatic  Russia, 
|  in  Transcaucasia,  comprising  the  central  part 
of  the  former  kingdom  of  Georgia;  area, 
15,614  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1871,  606,584.  (See 
GEORGIA.)  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  govern 
ment,  and  formerly  of  Georgia,  on  the  river 
Kur,  1,100  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  Black 
sea,  in  lat.  41°  41'  K,  Ion.  44°  50'  E. ;  pop. 
estimated  at  60,000,  composed  of  Russians, 
Georgians,  Armenians,  Persians,  Jews,  Ger 
mans,  and  French.  It  occupies  a  long  stretch 
of  uneven  ground  on  both  sides  of  the  Kur, 
and  is  almost  surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre 
of  brown  barren  hills.  It  is  a  mixture  of  Asi 
atic  and  European  architecture.  The  modern 
quarter  is  laid  out  in  broad  streets  and  open 


Tiflis. 

squares,  and  contains  the  grand-ducal  palace, 
the  theatre,  public  buildings,  and  residences 
of  the  authorities.  The  old  part  of  the  town 
has  narrow  unpaved  lanes  and  alleys,  mud 
or  sun-baked  brick  houses  with  flat  roofs  and 
few  windows,  and  vaulted  bazaars,  and  in  it  is 
concentrated  all  the  life  and  business  of  Tiflis. 
The  town  is  the  headquarters  of  an  army  of 
150,000  men,  employed  in  frontier  duty,  in 
surveillance  of  the  tribes,  and  to  a  great  extent 
in  making  roads.  Tiflis  is  celebrated  for  its 
warm  baths.  The  mineral  springs  are  chiefly 
at  the  S.  end  of  the  city,  and  the  temperature 
of  the  hottest  is  115°  and  that  of  the  coldest 
75°.  These  waters  are  said  to  be  very  benefi 
cial  in  cutaneous  disorders  and  rheumatic  com 
plaints.  The  climate  is  exceedingly  hot,  and 
bilious  diseases  prevail.  The  manufactures 
consist  of  carpets,  shawls,  &c. ;  and  a  consid 
erable  trade  is  carried  on  with  Persia.  A  rail 
way,  following  the  upper  course  of  the  Kur 
and  the  lower  of  the  Rion  or  Phasis,  con 
nects  Tiflis  with  Poti  on  the  Black  sea. — Tiflis 


750 


TIGER 


TIGER   CAT 


was  founded  in  the  5th  century  by  a  monarch 
named  Vakhtang,  who  conquered  the  territory 
lying  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  and 
was  the  capital  of  the  nominally  independent 
kingdom  of  Georgia,  though  devastated  by 
Genghis  Khan,  and  frequently  in  the  posses 
sion  of  the  Turks  or  Persians.  Aga  Moham 
med  Khan,  shah  of  Persia,  destroyed  it  in 
1795,  and  reduced  a  large  portion  of  the  inhab 
itants  to  slavery.  The  last  king  of  Georgia 
ceded  it  to  Russia  in  1801,  since  which  its 
population  has  more  than  doubled.  An  insur 
rection  broke  out  on  June  27,  1805,  but  was 
soon  suppressed. 

TIGER  (felis  tigris,  Linn.),  one  of  the  largest, 
strongest,  and  most  active  of  the  cat  family, 
peculiar  to  Asia.  It  is  usually  about  8  ft.  long 
and  between  3  and  4  ft. , high,  but  occasion 
ally  is  considerably  larger ;  the  ground  color 
is  bright  orange  yellow,  the  face,  throat,  and 
under  parts  nearly  white,  and  all  elegantly 
striped  with  transverse  black  bands  and  bars  ; 


it  is  less  high  but  longer  and  more  slender  than 
the  lion,  with  rounder  head  and  more  cat-like 
form  ;  the  colors  are  brightest  in  the  adult 
male,  the  young  being  grayish  with  obscure 
dusky  bands;  it  has  no  mane.  It  lies  in  am 
bush  at  early  dawn  by  the  sides  of  springs  and 
rivers  for  animals  as  they  come  to  drink  ;  it  is 
able  to  leap  a  great  distance  upon  its  prey,  car 
rying  off  a  buffalo  with  apparent  ease,  a  pow 
erful  man  being  as  nothing  in  its  jaws;  its 
motions  are  exceedingly  supple  and  graceful ; 
it  passes  the  day  for  the  most  part  in  a  shady 
covert,  gorged  and  sleepy  from  the  morning 
meal.  Its  north  and  south  geographical  range 
is  extensive,  from  northern  China  to  the  Ma 
lay  peninsula,  but  it  is  most  abundant  in  the 
vast  jungles  lining  the  banks  of  the  great  riv 
ers  of  Ilindostan.  In  many  parts  of  Bengal 
it  is  the  terror  and  scourge  of  villages,  prowl 
ing  around  the  outskirts,  and  attacking  cattle 
in  the  fold  and  on  the  road,  though  the  na 
tives  protect  them  in  part  by  noisy  drums  by 
day  and  torches  by  night-;  men  and  women 
frequently  fall  victims.  The  English  rifle  has 


nearly  cleared  the  thickly  settled  districts  of 
these  animals,  against  which  the  native  traps 
and  weapons  (spears  and  poisoned  arrows)  are 
comparatively  powerless.  The  tiger  makes  no 
noise  comparable  to  the  roar  of  "the  lion,  but 
rather  a  loud  grunting  sound.  It  may  be 
tamed  when  taken  young,  but  its  temper  can 
not  be  depended  on;  it  breeds  in  captivity, 
though  less  frequently  than  the  lion  ;  hybrids 
between  the  Asiatic  lion  and  tigress  have  been 
born  in  menageries,  but  have  not  reached  ma 
turity  ;  their  color  is  brighter  and  the  bands 
better  marked  than  in  young  lions  or  tigers  of 
unmixed  race.  Pliny  says  the  first  tiger  known 
in  Rome  was  a  tame  one  belonging  to  the 
emperor  Augustus. — See  Capt.  Shakespear's 
"  Wild  Sports  of  India  "  (London  and  Boston, 
1860),  and  "  The  Royal  Tiger  of  Bengal,  his 
Life  and  Death,1'  by  J.  Fayrer,  M.  D.  (London, 
1875). — The  so-called  American  tiger  is  the 
jaguar  (F.  onca,  Linn.). 

TIGER  BEETLE.     See  BEETLE. 

TIGER  CAT,  a  name  commonly  applied  to 
several  small  species  of  felince,  in  America, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  especially  to  those  orna 
mented  by  bands  and  bars.  Among  the  Amer 
ican  species,  the  ocelot  has  been  described 
under  that  title,  and  under  the  same  the  mar- 
gay  (felis  tigrina,  Linn.).  The  F.  eyra 
(Desm.)  is  called  tiger  cat ;  it  is  about  the  size 
of  the  house  cat,  but  with  longer  neck,  body, 
and  tail;  it  is  uniform  brownish  red,  with 
under  jaw  and  nose  spot  white,  paler  below ; 
like  the  ocelot,  it  comes  from  Guiana  and  as 
far  north  as  Mexico  and  Texas.  The  F.  yagua- 
rundi  (Desm.)  is  larger,  with  a  much  longer 
body;  it  is  grizzled  brownish  gray  without 
spots ;  hairs  ringed  and  tipped  with  black  ;  the 
young  more  rufous;  it  extends  from  Paraguay 
to  Texas.  Both  of  these  cats  frequent  woods 
and  thickets,  feeding  on  small  mammals  and 
birds,  and  are  excellent  climbers.  The  chati 
(F.  mitis)  of  South  America  is  also  sometimes 
called  tiger  cat.  (See  CHATI.)— There  are  sev 
eral  tiger  cats  in  Asia,  of  which  the  largest 
and  handsomest  is  the  rimau-dahan  (F.  macro- 


Eimau-daban  (Felis  niacrocelis). 

cells,  Temm.).  It  is  about  3  ft.  long,  with  a 
tail  of  2£  ft.  more,  and  16  in.  high  at  the 
shoulders ;  the  head  comparatively  small,  ears 


TIGEK  FLOWER 


TIGEfi 


751 


short  and  rounded,  body  cylindrical,  limbs  very 
robust,  tail  very  full  and  long,  and  fur  thick 
and  soft;  it  is  ashy  or  brownish  gray,  with 
irregular  spots  and  bands  of  velvety  blackness 
arranged  longitudinally  and  unbroken  along 
the  back  ;  border  of  mouth  black,  and  feet 
gray.  It  is  a  native  of  Sumatra,  and  lives 
much  on  trees,  hence  called  tree  tiger ;  the 
food  consists  of  birds  and  the  smaller  deer ;  it 
is  not  very  common,  and  not  dangerous. — The 
animal  commonly  called  tiger  cat  by  the  fur 
riers  has  been  described  under  SEEVAL.  Other 
tiger  cats  are  F.  minutct  and  F.  Diardi,  bath 
inhabiting  the  islands  of  the  Malay  archipela 
go,  and  F.  Nepalensis,  inhabiting  the  Himalaya 
mountains. 

TIGER  FLOWER,  a  species  of  tigridia,  both 
names  referring  (from  Lat.  tigris,  a  tiger)  to 
the  spotted  flowers.  It  is  a  Mexican  genus 
of  bulb-bearing  plants,  belonging  to  the  iris 
family;  the  long 
sword-like  leaves 
are  much  plaited, 
and  the  stems, 
about  2  ft.  high, 
produce  a  succes 
sion  of  large  and 
very  showy  but 
ephemeral  flow 
ers.  The  flowers, 
5  or  6  in.  across, 
have  three  very 
large  outer  divi 
sions  with  a  con 
cave  base,  and  to 
gether  form  a 
cup ;  the  three  in 
ner  divisions  are 
smaller  and  fid 
dle-shaped.  The 
species  in  cultiva 
tion  are  T.  pa- 
vonia,  having  rich 
scarlet  flowers  variegated  with  -bright  yellow 
and  spotted  with  black,  and  T.  concliiflora, 
orange  and  yellow  with  black  spots;  there  are 
garden  varieties  of  both,  differing  in  the  depth 
of  color  and  markings.  Their  cultivation  is 
very  simple ;  the  bulbs  are  planted  in  any  good 
garden  soil  after  cold  rains  are  over,  and  taken 
up  at  the  first  frosts,  dried,  and  kept  until 
spring  where  mice  cannot  destroy  them. 
TIGER  MOTH.  See  MOTH. 
TIGHE,  Mary  (BLACKFOED),  an  Irish  author 
ess,  born  in  Dublin  in  1773,  died  at  Woodstock, 
Kilkenny  co.,  March  24,  1810.  She  married 
in  1793  her  cousin,  Henry  Tighe,  of  county 
Wicklow,  a  member  of  the  Irish  parliament, 
and  in  1805  printed  for  private  circulation  her 
"Psyche,"  a  poem  founded  on  the  story  of 
Cupid  and  Psyche  as  related  in  the  "  Golden 
Ass  "  of  Apuleius.  It  reached  a  fifth  edition 
in  1816.  She  died  of  consumption  after  sev 
eral  years  of  suffering.  In  1811  appeared  a 
complete  edition  of  her  poetical  works,  con 
taining  many  devotional  pieces. 
VOL.  xv.— 48 


Tiger  Flower  (Tigridia  pavonia). 


TIGLATH-PILESER.     See  ASSYRIA. 

TIGRAXES  THE  GREAT,  a  king  of  Armenia, 
ascended  the  throne  about  96  B.  C.,  died  about 
55.  He  was  a  descendant  of  Artaces,  the  re 
puted  founder  of  the  Armenian  monarchy,  and 
by  wars  during  the  early  part  of  his  reign  united 
all  Armenia  under  his  rule,  and  conquered  in 
addition  several  provinces.  He  also  acquired 
by  his  war  with  Parthia  two  important  prov 
inces,  which  comprised  the  whole  of  northern 
Mesopotamia  and  the  tract  east  of  the  Middle 
Tigris,  including  Assyria  proper  and  Arbelitis ; 
and  by  some  unknown  means  he  obtained  pos 
session  also  of  Media  Atropatene.  In  83  he 
was  invited  into  Syria  by  the  inhabitants,  who 
were  wearied  with  the  continual  strife  between 
the  princes  of  the  house  of  the  Seleucidse,  and 
he  established  himself  as  king  over  Cilicia, 
Syria,  and  most  of  Phoenicia,  residing  at  Nisi- 
bis.  About  80  he  made  the  strongly  fortified 
city  of  Tigranocerta,  between  the  Tigris  and 
Lake  Van,  his  capital.  His  support  of  Mithri- 
dates  of  Pontus,  his  father-in-law,  involved 
him  in  a  war  with  the  Romans.  Lucullus 
gained  several  victories  over  them,  and  cap 
tured  Tigranocerta.  Pompey,  his  successor, 
made  an  alliance  with  Phraates  III.  of  Par 
thia,  who  engaged  Tigranes  in  war  on  his 
own  frontier,  while  Pompey  marched  into 
Pontus.  The  occasion  for  it  was  offered  by 
the  eldest  son  of  Tigranes,  of  the  same  name, 
who  had  engaged  in  a  conspiracy  against  the 
life  of  his  father,  and  being  discovered  had 
fled  to  Phraates,  who  readily  embraced  his 
cause  and  marched  an  army  into  Armenia. 
Tigranes  fled,  Artaxata  was  invested,  and  the 
Parthian  monarch  withdrew,  leaving  the  young 
Tigranes  as  many  troops  as  he  thought  neces 
sary  to  press  the  siege  to  a  successful  issue. 
When  Phraates  was  gone,  Tigranes  returned, 
defeated  his  son,  and  drove  him  out  of  hie 
kingdom.  But  soon  afterward  he  was  forced 
to  submit  to  Pompey,  who  in  the  mean  time 
had  defeated  Mithridates  also.  (See  MITHEI- 
DATES.)  Tigranes  went  to  the  camp  of  Pom 
pey,  and  placed  himself  as  a  suppliant  at  the 
feet  of  that  general.  Pompey  would  not  ac 
cept  the  diadem  which  he  offered  him,  and 
treated  him  in  a  friendly  manner,  placing  him 
on  the  throne  of  Armenia  proper.  At  first 
Pompey  destined  the  province  of  Gordyene 
for  the  younger  Tigranes,  but  that  prince  of 
fending  him,  he  made  it  over  to  Ariobarzanes 
of  Cappadocia.  As  the  province  gave  rise  to 
disputes  between  Tigranes  and  Phraates,  Pom 
pey  sent  Afranius  to  drive  the  Parthians  out 
of  it,  and  gave  it  to  the  Armenians.  In  64 
Tigranes  was  again  at  war  with  the  king  of 
Parthia,  but  the  differences  between  them 
were  composed  by  the  intervention  of  Pom 
pey.  After  this  he  disappears  almost  entirely 
from  history.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Artavasdes  or  Ardavast. 

TIGRE,  a  state  of  Abyssinia,  between  lat.  12° 
and  16°  K,  and  Ion.  37°  25'  and  40°  E.  It  is 
an  elevated  plain,  which  forms  the  basis  of 


752 


TIGRIS 


TILE 


several  mountain  ranges  and  lofty  groups,  and 
is  drained  in  the  north  by  the  Mareb  and  in 
the  south  by  the  Tacazze.  The  plateau  itself 
varies  from  3,500  to  9,000  ft.  in  elevation,  and 
is  deeply  indented  by  the  ravines  which  form 
the  beds  of  the  principal  rivers.  The  Tacazze 
is  second  only  to  the  Bahr  el-Azrek  in  size 
among  the  rivers  of  Abyssinia.  Tigr6  is  di 
vided  into  many  petty  chieftaincies  or  districts ; 
the  principal  towns  are  Antalo,  formerly  the 
capital,  Axum,  and  Adowa,  the  present  capital. 
Adowa,  the  largest  town,  is  the  entrepot  of 
trade  on  the  great  caravan  route  between  Mas- 
sowah  and  Gondar,  and  has  considerable  man 
ufactures. — Tigre  was  for  many  years  an  inde 
pendent  kingdom,  but  in  1855  was  conquered 
by  Theodore,  king  of  Abyssinia,  who  made  it 
a  province  of  his  empire.  (See  ABYSSINIA.) 

TIGRIS,  the  second  river  of  western  Asia, 
rises  in  N.  "W.  Kurdistan,  S.  of  Goljik  Like, 
flows  S.  S.  E.  to  Diarbekir,  thence  S.  E.  to 
Mosul,  and  thence  S.  by  E.  to  its  junction 
with  the  Euphrates  at  Korna,  where  the  two 
form  the  Shat  el-Arab.  At  its  source  it  is 
less  than  10  m.  from  the  Murad  or  E.  branch 
of  the  Euphrates;  at  Mosul  it  is  about  100  m. 
distant  from  the  sister  stream ;  near  Bagdad  it 
is  within  20  m.  of  it,  but  near  Serut  the  dis 
tance  has  increased  to  100  m.  Its  total  course 
is  estimated  at  1,150  m.,  and  its  widtli  from 
Mosul  to  Bagdad,  a  distance  of  about  220  m. 
in  a  straight  line,  averages  200  yards  ;  its 
current  in  March  flows  4£  m.  an  hour.  The 
greatest  height  is  attained  in  the  latter  part 
of  May,  and  it  resumes  its  usual  level  by  the 
middle  of  June.  It  is  navigable  in  the  flood 
time  between  Diarbekir  and  Mosul  for  rafts; 
below  Mosul  it  is  navigable  for  steamers  at  all 
seasons.  The  Tigris  is  swifter  and  in  the  lat 
ter  part  of  its  course  deeper  than  the  Euphra 
tes,  and  its  volume  is  generally  greater.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  the  quantity  of  water  dis 
charged  every  second  by  the  Tigris  at  Bagdad 
is  164,103  cubic  feet.  In  its  upper  course  it 
receives  from  the  mountains  W.  of  Lake  Van 
the  Bitlis-tchai  or  Eastern  Tigris,  which  sur 
passes  it  in  volume  of  water.  From  the  Za- 
gros  mountains  it  receives  streamlets  which 
often  swell  into  large  rivers.  The  principal 
of  these  are  the  Upper  Zab,  the  Lower  Zab, 
the  Adhem,  and  the  Diyalah.  The  western 
affluents  are  insignificant.  The  course  of  the 
branch  streams  constantly  varies,  and  some 
of  the  tributaries  are  left  dry  within  a  few 
years  of  the  time  that  they  have  been  naviga 
ble.  While  the  low  banks  of  the  Euphrates 
often  cause  that  river  to  leave  its  channel, 
the^  Tigris,  which  runs  in  a  deep  bed,  seldom 
varies.  (See  EUPHRATES.) — In  antiquity  the 
Tigris  was  the  great  river  of  Assyria,  and  the 
eastern  boundary  of  Mesopotamia,  and  on  its 
banks  flourished  the  cities  of  Nineveh,  Seleucia, 
and  Ctesiphon.  The  name  Trigis  is  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  the  old  Persian  tigra,  ar 
row  ;  its  Aramaic  name  was  Digla  or  Diglath, 
and  the  Hebrew  Iliddekel. 


TILBURG,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  North  Brabant,  on  the  Ley,  14  m. 
E.  S.  E.  of  Breda;  pop.  in  1873,  24,345.  It 
has  a  Protestant  and  several  Catholic  church 
es,  and  a  royal  castle.  The  king  owns  most  of 
the  real  estate.  It  is  the  principal  seat  of  the 
Dutch  manufactories  of  wool. 

TILDEN,  Samuel  Jones,  an  American  lawyer, 
born  in  New  Lebanon,  Columbia  co.,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  9,  1814.  He  entered  Yale  college  in  1833, 
but  completed  his  course  at  the  university  of 
New  York,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  state  constitutional  con 
vention  of  1846,  and  also  of  assembly,  and  did 
much  to  shape  the  canal  policy  of  the  state.  In 
1855  he  was  defeated  as  democratic  candi 
date  for  the  office  of  attorney  general  of  the 
state.  In  1866  he  was  chosen  chairman  of  the 
state  democratic  committee,  and  in  1867  was 
a  member  of  the  constitutional  convention.  In 
1869-' 70  he  was  active  in  the  organization  of 
the  bar  association.  In  1870-'71  he  was  promi 
nent  in  detecting  important  frauds  in  the  gov 
ernment  of  New  York  city,  and  in  1872  was  a 
member  of  assembly.  In  November,  1874,  he 
was  elected  governor  of  New  York  by  50,317 
majority.  He  has  been  counsel  in  many  im 
portant  cases,  prominent  among  which  are  the 
Flagg  contested  election  for  the  comptroller- 
ship  of  New  York  city  in  1&55  ;  the  Burdell 
heirs  against  Mrs.  Cunningham  in  1857 ;  the 
Cumberland  coal  case  in  1858  ;  and  the  Dela 
ware  and  Hudson  canal  company  against  the 
Pennsylvania  coal  company  in  1863. 

TILE,  a  plate  of  baked  clay,  flat,  curved,  or 
hollow,  used  for  covering  the  floors,  roofs,  or 
walls  of  buildings,  and  for  drains  and  other 
purposes.  The  Assyrians  employed  them  as 
tablets,  writing  upon  them  with  a  style  before 
baking  them.  (See  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS.) 
The  Egyptians  used  tiles  for  the  same  pur 
pose,  but  wrote  upon  them  with  ink.  They 
also  used  tiles  for  roofing,  usually  in  the  form 
of  part  of  a  cylinder,  one  row  being  laid  with 
the  concave  side  and  the  next  with  the  convex 
side  upward,  the  edge  being  received  in  the 
concavity  of  its  fellow.  The  Greeks  used  large 
flat  roofing  tiles,  sometimes  having  flanges,  with 
semi-cylindrical  ones  laid  over  their  lines  of 
junction.  The  flat  tiles  were  sometimes  stamped 
with  brief  inscriptions,  and  the  others  were 
ornamented  with  painted  devices.  They  also 
used  tiles  in  the  construction  of  tombs  and 
the  flues  of  baths,  and  for  drains.  The  Ro 
mans  used  them  still  more  generally,  and  their 
name  tegulm  (from  tegere,  to  cover)  came  to 
be  applied  to  bricks,  which  were  much  more 
used  than  tiles.  The  real  distinction  between 
them  is  the  greater  fineness  of  the  tile.  The 
roofing  tiles  were,  like  those  of  the  Greeks, 
large  and  flat,  having  flanges  rising  a  little 
more  than  two  inches  above  the  surface,  the 
junction  of  the  flanges  being  covered  by  the 
arched  tile  or  imbrex.  It  was  customary  to 
stamp  the  tiles  with  inscriptions  designating 
the  pottery,  the  manufacturer,  the  name  of 


TILE 


TILLANDSIA 


753 


the  estate  which  supplied  the  clay,  the  name  of 
the  reigning  emperor  or  of  the  consulship,  and 
other  matters.  Thus  they  have  often  served 
as  records  of  important  historical  events.  The 
tiles  used  by  the  Romans  for  covering  interior 
walls  were  large  thin  squares  of  terra  cotta,  gen 
erally  ornamented  on  one  side  with  incised  de 
vices.  The  tessellated  pavements  were  formed 
of  small  cubical  tiles  called  tesseUce  (the  dimin 
utive  of  tessera,  from  the  Gr.  r£ocape£,  four, 
having  reference  to  their  form).  Some  of 
these  tessellcB  were  not  more  than  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  square,  and  they  were  laid  to  form 
mosaics.  The  Romans,  like  the  more  ancient 
nations,  made  use  of  large  flat  tiles  in  the  con 
struction  of  their  graves,  and  also  for  grave 
stones  with  inscriptions. — At  the  international 
exhibition  at  Vienna  in  1873  there  was  a  rich 
assemblage  of  decorative  tiles  of  several  coun 
tries,  many  of  the  specimens  being  from  Great 
Britain,  where  the  art  is  now  practised  in  great 
perfection.  Among  the  latter  were  Roman 
tiles  and  tessellm  from  mosaic  pavements  re 
cently  excavated  at  Chichester.  There  were 
also  glazed  decorated  tiles  (see  ENCAUSTIC)  from 
Egypt  and  Assyria,  and  Saracenic  tiles  from 
Spain ;  also  antique  tiles  from  India  and  from 
the  mosques  of  Samarcand  of  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries.  In  the  Indian  tiles,  brought 
by  Dr.  Leitner  from  Lahore,  and  taken  from 
old  monuments,  the  colors  retained  their  ori 
ginal  vividness.  The  manufacture  in  Great 
Britain  dates  from  mediaeval  times,  doubtless 
due  to  imitation  of  the  Roman  pottery,  and 
may  be  divided  into  two  periods.  The  most 
ancient  tiles  were  probably  made  between  1290 
and  1380,  and  those  of  the  second  period  du 
ring  the  prevalence  of  the  perpendicular  style 
of  building.  Numerous  kilns  have  been  found 
in  the  Malvern  hills,  and  it  is  supposed  that 
Tewkesbury  abbey  and  Worcester  and  Glou 
cester  cathedrals  were  furnished  by  them  with 
tiles.  The  manufacture  is  said  to  have  con 
tinued  in  Worcestershire  to  about  1040.  Some 
of  the  earliest  specimens  of  tiles  in  the  British 
museum  are  from  the  ruined  churches  in  Nor 
folk.  The  designs  upon  the  tiles  at  that  time 
were  chiefly  sacred  symbols  and  inscriptions, 
heraldic  devices,  and  monograms.  The  ma 
terial  is  ordinary  coarse  red  clay,  the  designs 
being  formed  of  a  lighter-colored  clay  con 
tained  in  incisions  in  the  body,  and  afterward 
covered  with  a  glazing. — The  manufacture  of 
tiles  in  Holland  commenced  at  a  very  early 
period,  and  in  the  18th  century  large  quanti 
ties  were  exported  to  England  for  fireplaces. 
They  were  also  brought  to  America  in  the 
17th  and  18th  centuries  for  fireplaces,  hearths, 
and  roofs.  Many  of  them  were  highly  orna 
mented  with  various  designs.  The  discovery 
of  transferring  designs  by  printing  from  pa 
per  to  earthenware  about  1752  created  numer 
ous  imitations  in  England,  and  the  demand  in 
that  country  was  in  a  great  measure  supplied 
by  home-printed  tiles. — What  are  called  dry 
tiles  are  made  in  Great  Britain  by  Prosser's 


method.  The  material  is  dried  and  reduced  to 
powder  in  a  mill,  when  it  is  placed  on  slabs 
of  plaster  of  Paris  slightly  moistened.  It  is 
then  passed  through  fine  sieves  and  subjected 
to  intense  pressure  in  steel  boxes,  from  which 
the  tiles  are  taken  to  a  hot  room  and  dried 
for  a  week  or  two  and  then  ornamented, 
glazed,  and  fired.  Drain  tiles  may  be  made 
of  ordinary  brick  clay  by  various  simple  ma 
chines,  moved  either  by  power  or  hand,  usu 
ally  the  latter,  as  the  process  is  very  simple. 
They  are  all  made  upon  the  principle  of  forc 
ing  the  prepared  clay  through  a  cylindrical  or 
semi-cylindrical  tube  over  a  mandrel.  Some 
of  them  work  the  material  after  it  has  been 
passed  through  a  pug  mill,  while  others  con 
sist  of  a  pug  mill  and  tile  machine  combined. 
The  uncombined  machines  cost  from  $100  to 
$200,  and  are  capable  of  turning  out  by  man 
power  from  200  to  300  two-inch  tiles  per 
hour,  or  with  one  horse  about  5,000  large  tiles 
per  day.  The  subsoil  where  drainage  is  de 
sirable  often  contains  clay  of  a  suitable  quality 
for  their  manufacture,  and  the  machines  are 
then  taken  out  upon  or  near  the  fields  to  be 
drained.  (See  DRAINAGE,  and  "Farm  Drain 
age,"  by  Henry  F.  French,  New  York,  1865.) 

TILLAMOOR,  a  N.  TV.  county  of  Oregon,  bor 
dering  on  the  Pacific  ocean,  bounded  E.  by 
the  Coast  mountains,  and  watered  by  several 
streams;  area,  1,400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  408. 
Tillamook  bay  affords  a  good  harbor.  The 
coast  and  rivers  abound  in  fish.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  gigantic 
forests  of  spruce;  there  are  some  small  and 
fertile  valleys  and  hills  that  afford  pasturage. 
Coal  and  iron  are  found.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  2,899  bushels  of  wheat, 
2,719  of  oats,  9,340  of  potatoes,  29,340  Ibs.  of 
butter,  and  764  tons  of  hay.  The  value  of  live 
stock  was  $24,285.  Capital,  Tillamook. 

TILLA3VDSIA,  a  genus  of  endogenous  plants 
of  the  BromeliacecB  or  pineapple  family,  the 
characters  of  which  are  given  under  PINEAP 
PLE.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  Prof.  Tillands, 
a  Swedish  botanist.  The  species  are  numer 
ous  in  tropical  and  extra-tropical  America, 
and  are  mostly  epiphytes,  with  their  foliage 
covered  with  scurfy  scales ;  some  South  Amer 
ican  species  have  very  handsome  white,  blue, 
pink,  or  purple  flowers,  and  are  cultivated  as 
stove  plants,  either  on  blocks  of  wood,  in  the 
manner  of  some  orchids,  or  in  baskets  or  pots 
of  moss.  There  are  eight  species  in  the  Uni 
ted  States,  most  of  which  are  confined  to 
Florida,  and  from  growing  upon  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  trees  they  are  popularly  called 
air  plants.  The  largest  Florida  species  is  T. 
utriculata,  with  a  large  tuft  of  leaves  about  2 
ft.  long,  which  are  narrow  and  recurved  at  the 
apex,  but  are  much  dilated  and  concave  at  the 
base  to  form  a  cup  which  contains  a  considera 
ble  quantity  of  water.  (See  PITCHER  PLANTS.) 
Other  species  have  this  peculiarity,  there  being 
one  in  Brazil,  the  water  held  in  the  cups  of 
which  is  the  only  locality  for  an  aquatic  spe- 


754: 


TILLANDSIA 


TILLOTSON 


cies  of  utricularia  or  bladderwort.  The  flow 
ers  of  T.  utriculata  are  pale  blue,  on  much 
branched  stems  longer  than  the  leaves.  Oth 
ers  have  very  narrow  leaves,  and  are  only  a 
few  inches  high.  The  most  important  species, 
unlike  the  rest,  has  slender,  thread-like,  pen 
dent  stems ;  this  is  T.  usneoides,  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  in  manner  of  growth  to  usnea, 
a  genus  of  long  pendulous  lichens,  and  is  pop 
ularly  known  as  long  moss,  and  also  as  black 
or  Spanish  moss;  its  northern  limit  is  the 
Dismal  swamp  in  Virginia,  and  it  is  found  all 
through  the  southern  states  to  Texas,  and  in 
South  America  to  Chili,  as  well  as  in  the  West 
Indies.  Its  much  branching  stems,  2  ft.  or 
more  long,  bear  recurved  leaves  2  to  3  in.  long, 
which  are  scarcely  broader  than  the  stems,  and 
like  those  are  greenish  gray ;  each  internode 
or  space  in  the  stem  between  two  leaves  is 
twisted  to  form  a  loose  spiral  of  about  two 


Long  or  Spanish  Moss  (Tillandsia  usneoidos). 

turns;  the  flowers,  produced  at  the  ends  of 
short  branches,  are  about  a  fourth  of  an  inch 
across,  and  have  three  bright  yellowish  green 
petals ;  the  pod,  about  an  inch  long,  contains 
numerous  slender  seeds,  with  a  long  hairy  tuft. 
This  epiphyte,  draping  the  trees  and  swing 
ing  in  the  wind,  frequently  forms  a  character 
istic  feature  of  the  southern  landscape,  though 
where  very  abundant  its  effect,  on  account  of 
its  sombre  color,  is  not  altogether  pleasing; 
recently  considerable  quantities  in  »the  living 
state  have  been  sold  in  northern  cities  for 
the  decoration  of  rooms  ;  it  will  flourish  in  an 
ordinary  greenhouse  if  hung  up  in  any  con 
venient  place.  The  central  portion,  or  the 
woody  part  of  the  stem,  is  scarcely  larger  than 
a  horse  hair,  which  it  much  resembles  also  in 
toughness  and  elasticity;  it  is  dark  brown  or 
black  even  in  the  fresh  plant.  This  material 
is  used  where  it  grows  for  various  purposes, 
and  is  an  article  of  commerce.  The  rude 
method  of  preparing  the  moss  is  to  place  it 
in  shallow  water  until  the  outer  covering  be 
comes  loosened ;  after  it  is  thoroughly  dried, 


it  is  beaten  until  nothing  is  left  but  the  horse 
hair-like  central  portion;  of  late  years  the  pro 
cess  has  been  much  facilitated  by  the  use  of 
steam ;  the  moss  is  placed  in  large  tight  vats, 
steamed,  and  dried,  and  afterward  beaten  by 
machinery,  the  product  being  superior  to  that 
prepared  in  the  slow  way.  In  the  southern 
states  it  is  twisted  into  ropes,  and  woven  into 
horse  collars,  saddle  blankets,  and  mats  of  va 
rious  kinds,  and  is  a  common  filling  for  beds ; 
northern  upholsterers  use  it  by  itself  or  with 
hair  for  stufling  chairs,  sofas,  and  mattresses. 

TILLEMOxM,  Louis  Sebastieii  le  JVaiii  de,  a  French 
historian,  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  30,  1037,  died 
Jan.  10, 1698.  He  was  educated  at  Port  Royal, 
and  at  the  episcopal  seminary  of  Beauvais,  be 
came  a  subdeacon  in  1672,  and  a  priest  in  1676. 
In  1677  he  went  to  reside  with  the  recluses  at 
Port  Royal;  and  in  1679  he  retired  to  his  estate 
of  Tillemont,  between  Vincennes  and  Mont- 
reuil.  His  principal  works  are  :  Memoires  pour 
senir  a  Vhistoire  ecclesiastique  des  six  pre 
miers  siccles  (16  vols.  4to,  1693-1712),  and  His- 
toire  des  empereurs  et  des  autres  princes  qui 
ont  regne  durant  les  six  premiers  siecles  de 
Veglise  (6  vols.  4to,  1690-1738).  His  Vie  de 
St.  Louis  was  first  published  by  the  French 
historical  society  (6  vols.  8vo,  "1S47-'51). 

TILLODiWTIA,  a  new  order  of  eocene  mam 
mals,  described  by  Prof.  O.  C.  Marsh  in  1875, 
apparently  combining  characters  of  the  planti 
grade  carnivora,  ungulates,  and  rodents.  The 
typical  genus  tillotlierium  in  its  skeleton  comes 
nearest  to  the  bears,  but  has  a  dentition  partly 
ungulate  and  partly  rodent. 

TILLOTSON,  Jolm,  an  English  prelate,  born  at 
Sowerby,  near  Halifax,  in  1630,  died  in  Lon 
don,  Nov.  22,  1694.  His  father  was  a  strict 
Calvinist.  At  an  early  age-  Tillotson  became 
a  student  at  Cambridge,  where  he  was  made  a 
fellow  in  1651,  and  remained  till  1657,  when 
he  became  tutor  in  the  family  of  Prideaux, 
Cromwell's  attorney  general.  Chillingworth's 
writings  having  converted  him  from  Puritan 
ism,  at  30  years  of  age  he  took  orders  in  the 
English  church,  and  was  successively  curate  of 
Cheshunt,  rector  of  Keddington,  and  preacher 
at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  London.  He  opposed  the 
proclamation  of  Charles  II.  for  liberty  of  con 
science,  which  made  him  unpopular  at  court, 
preached  earnestly  against  popery,  and  advo 
cated  the  exclusion  of  the  duke  of  York.  He 
was  the  leading  member  of  the  commission  of 
20  divines  appointed  in  1689  to  examine  and 
revise  the  liturgy.  On  the  accession  of  Wil 
liam  III.  he  became  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  and  in 
1691  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  His  marriage 
with  a  niece  of  Cromwell  brought  him  into  inti 
mate  connection  with  Wilkins,  bishop  of  Ches 
ter,  whose  posthumous  works  he  edited.  His 
life  was  written  by  Dr.  Thomas  Birch  (8vo, 
London,  1752).  He  published  "The  Rule  of 
Faith  "  (1666)  and  several  volumes  of  sermons. 
For  the  copyright  of  his  manuscript  sermons 
his  widow  received  2,500  guineas;  and  many 
collective  editions  afterward  appeared  in  14 


TILLY 


TIMBUCTOO 


T55 


and  12  vols.  8vo.  His  complete  works  were 
published  in  1707-'12,  in  3  vols.  fol.  (10  vols. 
8vo,  1820).  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was 
translated  into  French  by  Barbeyrac,  and  six 
volumes  into  German  by  Mosheim. 

TILLY,  Johaim  Tserclaes,  count,  a  German  sol 
dier,  born  in  the  castle  of  Tilly,  Brabant,  in  Feb 
ruary,  1559,  died  in  Ingolstadt,  April  20  (O.  S.), 
1632.  He  was  educated  at  a  college  of  Jesuits, 
first  served  in  the  Spanish  army  in  the  Nether 
lands,  and  in  Hungary  distinguished  himself 
against  the  Turks.  In  1010  Duke  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria  appointed  him  field  marshal.  On 
the  opening  of  the  thirty  years'  war  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the  Cath 
olic  league,  and  contributed  to  the  victory  of 
Prague,  Nov.  8,  1620;  in  1621  he  drove  Count 
Mansfeld,  the  stanchest  supporter  of  the  Prot 
estant  cause,  from  Bohemia  and  the  Upper 
Palatinate;  in  1622  defeated  the  margrave  of 
Baden  at  Wimpfen  on  the  Neckar,  and  Chris 
tian  of  Brunswick  at  Hochst ;  and  in  1623 
routed  the  latter  once  more  at  Stadtloo.  When 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  joined  the  German 
Protestants,  he  signally  defeated  him  at  Lutter 
in  August,  1626.  lie  next  besieged  Nordheim, 
which  he  took  after  a  hard  struggle,  crossed 
the  Elbe,  and  cooperated  with  Wallenstein  in 
conquering  the  continental  part  of  Denmark. 
In  1630  he  succeeded  Wallenstein  as  chief  com 
mander  of  the  imperial  armies.  On  May  10, 
1631,  he  carried  Magdeburg  by  storm,  and  al 
lowed  his  soldiers  to  burn  most  of  the  town 
and  massacre  about  25,000  persons.  But  in 
the  same  year  (Sept.  7)  he  was  utterly  defeated 
by  Gustavus  Adolplms  at  Breitenfeld,  near 
Leipsic,  and  vainly  tried  to  recover  his  pres 
tige.  He  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  engage 
ment  with  Gustavus  at  the  river  Lech  near 
Rain,  April  5,  1632.  He  declined  the  title  of 
count  of  the  empire  and  the  principality  of 
Kalenberg,  was  a  devoted  Catholic,  and  boasted 
of  his  temperance  and  chastity. — See  Klopp's 
Tilly  im  dreissigjahrigen  Kriege  (2  vols.,  Stutt 
gart,  1861). 

TILSIT,  a  town  of  the  kingdom  and  province 
of  Prussia,  at  the  junction  of  the  Tilse  and  the 
Niemen  (Memel),  which  is  here  spanned  by  a 
long  bridge,  60  m.  N.  E.  of  Konigsberg ;  pop. 
in  1871,  20,236.  The  town  proper  consists  of 
two  long  streets,  and  has  many  fine  new  build 
ings,  manufactories  of  paper,  machinery,  iron, 
sugar,  and  leather,  and  an  active  trade  in  grain. 
After  Napoleon's  victory  at  Friedland,  he  met 
here  for  the  first  time  the  emperor  Alexander 
(June  25,  1807)  on  a  raft  in  the  middle  of  the 
Niemen,  and  the  Tilsit  treaty  of  peace,  by 
which  Prussia  lost  half  her  possessions,  was 
concluded  early  in  July.  (See  BOXAPAETE, 
vol.  iii.,  p.  42.) 

TILTON,  Theodore,  an  American  author,  born 
in  New  York,  Oct.  2, 1835.  He  studied  at  the 
New  York  free  academy,  and  in  1856  became 
a  writer  for  the  "Independent,"  of  which  he 
was  editor  for  many  years.  In  1871  he  be 
came  editor  of  the  Brooklyn  "  Union,"  and  in 


1872  founded  the  "Golden  Age,"  which  he  ed 
ited  till- 1874.  In  that  year  he  sued  the  Rev. 
Henry  Ward  Beecher  on  a  charge  of  seducing 
his  wife,  but  the  trial,  lasting  six  months,  result 
ed  in  a  disagreement  of  the  jury.  He  is  also  a 
public  lecturer,  and  has  published  "The  Ameri 
can  Board  and  Slavery"  (I860);  a  "Memorial 
of  Mrs.  Browning,"  prefixed  to  an  edition  of 
her  last  poems  (1862);  "The  Fly"  (1865); 
"Golden-Haired  Gertrude"  (1865);"  "The  Two 
Hungry  Kittens  "  (1865) ;  "  The  King's  Ring  " 
(1866);  "The  True  Church"  (1807);  "The 
Sexton's  Tale,  and  Other  Poems  "  (1867)  ; 
"  Sanctum  Sanctorum,  or  Proof-Sheets  from 
an  Editor's  Table  "  (1 871) ;  "  Tempest-Tossed," 
a  novel  (1875);  and  several  pamphlets,  inclu 
ding  a  life  of  Victoria  0.  Woodhull. 

TIMBER.     See  AVooD. 

TIMES,  John,  an  English  author,  born  in 
London,  Aug.  17,  1801,  died  there  in  March, 
1875.  In  1821  he  became  amanuensis  to  Sir 
Richard  Phillips,  publisher  of  the  "Monthly 
Magazine,"  to  which  he  contributed  "A  Pic 
turesque  Promenade  round  Dorking  "  in  1822. 
In  1825-'6  he  published  anonymously  a  selec 
tion  of  ethical  passages,  under  the  title  "  Lacon 
ics."  From  1827  to  1838  he  was  editor  of  the 
"Mirror,"  one  of  the  earliest  popular  low- 
priced  weeklies.  He  edited  the  "  Literary 
World  "  in  1839-'40,  and  was  one  of  the  edi 
tors  of  the  "Illustrated  London  News"  from 
1842  to  1858.  He  compiled  "  The  Arcana  of 
Science  and  Art"  (11  vols.,  1828-'38);  "Knowl 
edge  for  the  People"  (4  vols.,  1831-'2) ;  "  Year 
Book  of  Facts  in  Science  and  Art  "  (31  vols., 
1839-'69) ;  and  "  The  Illustrated  Year  Book  " 
(2  vols.,  1850-'51).  Among  his  other  publica 
tions  are  :  "  Things  not  generally  Known  "  (7 
vols.,  1856-'67);  "School  Days  of  Eminent 
Men  "  (1858)  ;  "  Stories  of  Inventors  "  (1859)  ; 
"  Lives  of  Wits  and  Humorists  "  (2  vols.,  1862)  ; 
"English  Eccentrics  and  Eccentricities"  (2 
vols.,  1866)  ;  "Nooks  and  Corners  of  English 
Life"  (1866);  "  Wonderful  Inventions"  (1867)  ; 
"Notable  Things  of  our  Own  Time"  (1868); 
"Ancestral  Stories  and  Traditions"  (1869); 
"Abbeys,  Castles,  and  Ancient  Halls  of  Eng 
land  and  Wales  "  (2  vols.,  1870) ;  "  Notabilia" 
(1872) ;  and  numerous  other  works. 

TIMBUCTOO,  a  town  of  central  Africa,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Sahara,  about  9  m.  from  the 
river  Niger,  about  lat.  17°  40'  N.,  Ion.  3°  W. ; 
pop.  about  13,000,  greatly  increased  during  the 
season  of  trade,  from  November  to  January. 
It  ia  nearly  triangular  and  about  3  m.  in  cir 
cuit.  It  was  formerly  surrounded  by  a  clay 
wall,  but  this  was  destroyed  in  1826.  The 
houses  are  closely  packed  together,  and  mostly 
built  of  clay  and  stone  ;  some  of  them  are  two 
stories  high,  and  show  considerable  taste  in 
their  decoration.  The  port  of  Timbuctoo  is 
at  Kabara  on  the  Niger,  which  has  a  vast  arti 
ficial  basin,  but  is  accessible  for  only  four  or 
five  months  in  the  year,  the  stream  at  other 
times  being  too  shallow  for  navigation.  The 
most  valuable  traffic  is  by  caravans,  for  which 


756 


TIMOLEON 


TIMOR 


Timbuctoo  is  the  central  station  of  northern 
Africa.  Gold  dust  is  the  great  article  of  trade, 
but  many  native  products  and  foreign  manufac 
tures  are  also  found  here.  The  merchants  of 
Timbuctoo  are  generally  only  agents  of  those  at 
Mogadore,  Morocco,  Fez,  and  other  places  in 
northern  Africa ;  and  this,  with  the  incessant 
conflicts  of  race  and  religion,  prevents  the  ac 
cumulation  of  wealth.  The  inhabitants  are  a 
mixed  population  of  indigenous  negroes,  Tua- 
riks,  Bambarras,  Mandingos,  Arabs,  and  Foo- 
lahs,  the  governing  race.  The  city  dates  from 
the  12th  century,  but  it  was  long  known  in  Eu 
rope  only  by  reports  of  native  travellers,  until 
it  was  first  reached  by  Major  Laing  in  1826, 
and  furtively  visited  by  Caillie  in  1828.  In 
18o3-'4  Dr.  Barth  resided  there  nearly  a  year. 
TOIOLEON,  a  Corinthian  general,  liberator 
of  Syracuse,  born  about  395  B.  0.,  died  in  337. 
He  was  early  noted  for  his  patriotism  and  cour 
age,  and  in  his  hatred  of  tyranny  he  brought 
about  the  assassination  of  his  brother  Timo- 
phanes,  who  had  usurped  power  in  Corinth. 
Seized  by  remorse,  he  lived  for  nearly  20  years 
in  utter  seclusion.  In  344  he  took  command 
of  an  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Corinthians 
in  aid  of  the  Syracusans.  After  gaining  a  vic 
tory  over  Ilicetas,  tyrant  of  Leontini,  who 
had  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Carthaginians 
against  Dionysius  the  Younger,  he  obtained 
the  support  of  several  Sicilian  cities.  lie 
marched  to  Syracuse,  and  took  possession  of 
the  island  of  Ortygia,  surrendered  to  him  by 
Dionysius,  who  sailed  for  Corinth.  Timoleon 
retired  to  Adranum,  while  Neon,  in  command 
of  Ortygia,  attacked  the  blockading  force  of 
the  Carthaginians.  These  soon  began  to  dis 
trust  Ilicetas,  and  suddenly  sailed  away  with 
their  whole  fleet  and  all  their  troops.  Timo 
leon  came  at  the  head  of  4,000  men,  and 
took  the  portion  of  Syracuse  held  by  Hicetas 
without  the  loss  of  a  single  man.  He  gave 
the  inhabitants  a  democratic  constitution,  or 
dered  the  fortifications  to  be  demolished,  and 
erected  courts  of  justice  on  their  site.  In  a 
short  time  more  than  60,000  immigrants  and 
exiles  repeopled  the  deserted  town.  But  in 
339  the  Carthaginians  landed  at  Lilybsoum  an 
army  of  80,000  men  led  by  llasdrubal  and  II  a- 
milcar.  The  inhabitants  were  panic-struck, 
and  with  difficulty  Timoleon  collected  12,000 
men  and  set  out  for  the  western  portion  of 
the  island,  where  he  attacked  the  enemy  just 
as  they  were  crossing  the  Cremissus,  and,  aided 
by  a  storm,  completely  routed  them.  He  soon 
after  overthrew  Ilicetas  and  Mamercus,  tyrant 
of  Catana,  and  proceeded  in  his  work  of  de 
throning  tyrants  until  none  was  left  through 
out  Grecian  Sicily.  Timoleon  declined  the  su 
preme  power,  and  withdrew  again  from  public 
life,  residing  with  his  family  in  Syracuse,  in  a 
house  voted  to  him  by  the  inhabitants.  Toward 
the  close  of  his  life  he  became  totally  blind. 
When  he  died,  the  Syracusan  people  voted  to 
honor  him  for  all  future  time  with  festival 
matches  in  music,  races,  and  gymnastics.  His 


life  was  written  by  Cornelius  Nepos  and  Plu 
tarch. 

TOION,  called  THE  MISANTHROPE,  an  Athe 
nian  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  5th 
century  B.  C.  In  consequence  of  disappoint 
ments  in  friends,  he  secluded  himself,  and  ad 
mitted  no  one  to  his  society  except  Alcibiades. 
He  is  said  to  have  died  from  a  broken  limb 
which  he  refused  to  have  set.  He  is  the  sub 
ject  of  Shakespeare's  "  Timon  of  Athens." 

TIMOR,  an  island  of  the  Indian  archipelago, 
between  Flores  and  Timor-Laut,  extending  N. 
E.  and  S.  "W.  nearly  300  m.,  with  a  general 
breadth  of  about  50  m. ;  area,  about  11,500 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  200,000.  It  lies  between 
I  lat.  9°  30'  and  11°  40'  K,  and  Ion.  123°  20'  and 
I  127°  10'  E.  The  native  chiefs  on  the  W.  and 
S.  coasts  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the 
Dutch,  who  have  their  principal  settlement 
at  Kupang  or  Coepang;  while  those  in  the  E. 
and  N.  parts  pay  tribute  to  the  Portuguese, 
who  have  established  themselves  at  Dilli.  The 
coasts  are  but  slightly  indented,  but  the  harbors 
of  Kupang  and  Dilli  are  safe  and  commodious. 
The  shores  are  lined  in  many  places  by  rocks 
and  sand  banks;  and  several  islets  intervene 
between  Timor  and  the  island  of  Flores  to  the 
west  and  Timor-Laut  to  the  east,  which  are  re 
spectively  distant  about  100  and  250  in.  The 
island  is  traversed  throughout  its  length  by  a 
mountain  chain,  which  attains  a  height  in  the 
north  of  about  6,000  ft.  There  are  no  active 
volcanoes,  nor  are  there  any  igneous  rocks  of 
recent  origin ;  but  Timor  peak,  near  the  centre 
of  the  island,  is  a  volcanic  cone  which  has  been 
quiescent  since  1638.  Numerous  offsets  extend 
from  the  main  range  to  the  coasts  on  both 
sides,  so  that  the  surface  is  almost  entirely  oc 
cupied  by  mountains  separated  by  narrow  val 
leys,  though  there  are  considerable  tracts  of 
level  ground.  The  rivers  are  short  mountain 
torrents ;  many  of  them  become  dry  in  sum 
mer,  and  the  water  is  unwholesome.  The 
mountains  are  generally  bare  and  rocky,  and 
there  are  no  forests  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
word.  The  indigenous  vegetation  is  described 
by  Wallace  as  poor  and  monotonous.  It  consists 
largely  of  eucalypti,  acacias,  and  sandal  wood, 
with  grass  scanty  on  the  uplands,  and  coarse  but 
luxuriant  in  the  moister  districts.  Rice  grows 
abundantly  in  the  lowlands,  and  wheat  and 
coffee  thrive  on  the  higher  slopes  and  plains. 
Gold,  copper,  and  iron  have  been  found  in 
small  quantities.  The  animals  on  the  N.  W. 
side  of  the  central  range  of  mountains  resemble 
those  on  the  western  islands  of  the  archipelago, 
but  those  on  the  opposite  side  are  strongly 
allied  to  the  fauna  of  Australia,  which  is  about 
360  in.  distant.  Besides  15  species  of  bats, 
but  seven  mammals  are  met  with  in  Timor; 
these  are  the  common  Indo-Malayan  monkey, 
a  civet  cat,  a  tiger  cat,  a  species  of  deer,  a  wild 
pig,  a  shrew  mouse,  and  an  opossum.  There 
are  118  species  of  birds.  The  common  do 
mestic  animals  of  Europe  have  all  been  in 
troduced.  Fish  are  plentiful  on  the  coasts ; 


TIMOTIIEUS 


TIMOTHY  GEASS 


757 


pearl  oysters  are  found  in  some  places,  and  a 
kind  of  coral  much  prized  by  the  Japanese  is 
procured  on  the  reefs.  The  people  are  of  low 
stature,  with  very  dark  complexions  and  bushy 
hair,  and  resemble  the  Papuan  type  of  man 
kind.  The  women  weave  cloth,  and  the  only 
manufactures  which  the  men  engage  in  are  the 
construction  of  canoes,  and  ornaments  for  their 
horses.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on, 
principally  from  Kupang,  and  is  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  the  Chinese. — Timor  was  visited  by 
Dampier  in  1699.  The  region  about  Dilli  has 
been  occupied  by  the  Portuguese  about  300 
years,  but  the  settlement  is  miserably  governed, 
poorly  cultivated,  and  without  roads.  The 
Dutch  colony  is  little  better.  The  natives 
throughout  the  island  are  peaceably  disposed 
toward  Europeans,  but  belligerent  among  them 
selves,  and  practically  independent. 

TDIOTHEUS,  an  Athenian  general,  died  in 
Ohalcis  in  354  B.  C.  He  was  the  son  of  the 
general  Conon  and  a  pupil  of  Isocrates.  lie 
was  made  a  general  in  378,  and  in  375  de 
feated  a  Spartan  fleet  near  Alyzia.  In  con 
sequence  of  his  failure  to  come  promptly  to 
the  relief  of  Corey ra,  thereby  endangering  the 
loss  of  the  island,  he  had  to  lay  down  his  gen 
eralship  and  answer  the  charges  brought  against 
him.  Though  acquitted,  he  went  in  372  to 
Asia,  and  entered  the  service  of  the  king  of 
Persia;  but  he  returned  to  Athens  and  was 
sent  on  an  expedition  in  support  of  Ariobar- 
zanes,  satrap  of  Phrygia.  Seizing  a  favora 
ble  opportunity,  he  took  possession  of  Samos 
for  the  Athenians,  and  secured  for  them  a  par 
tial  control  of  the  Hellespont  and  the  occupa 
tion  of  a  large  surrounding  territory.  Timo- 
theus  was  then  appointed  to  a  command  inclu 
ding  Macedonia,  Thrace,  and  the  Chersonese. 
^Vith  the  aid  of  Macedonia  he  reduced  Torone, 
Potidasa,  Pydna,  Methone,  and  various  other 
cities  belonging  to  the  Olynthian  confederacy, 
but  was  unsuccessful  intheattack  upon  Amphip- 
olis.  In  363-362  he  proceeded  against  Cotys, 
king  of  Thrace,  and  to  the  defence  of  the  Athe 
nian  possessions  in  the  Chersonese,  in  which 
he  is  said  to  have  been  successful ;  but  for 
some  reason  not  now  known  he  retired  from 
his  command.  In  358  the  cities  of  Eubcea  sent 
messages  to  Athens  entreating  aid  against  the 
Thebans,  who  had  despatched  a  large  force 
into  the  island.  Through  the  energy  of  Timo- 
theus,  within  five  days  an  Athenian  fleet  and 
army  under  his  command  were  in  Euboca,  and 
in  the  course  of  30  days  the  Thebans  were 
forced  to  evacuate  the  island  under  capitula 
tion.  In  356,  the  second  year  of  the  social 
war,  Chares,  Iphicrates  and  his  son  Menestheus, 
and  Timotheus  were  appointed  to  the  joint 
command  of  an  Athenian  fleet.  In  354  Chares 
accused  his  colleagues  of  having  been  the  direct 
cause  of  his  defeat  at  Chios,  and  Timotheus  and 
Iphicrates  were  recalled  and  accused  of  treason. 
Iphicrates  was  acquitted,  but  Timotheus  was 
found  guilty  and  fined  100  talents.  He  retired 
to  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  where  lie  died  in  the  same 


year.  His  son  Conon  was  permitted  to  com 
promise  the  fine  by  paying  10  talents  for  re 
pairing  the  walls  of  the  city. 

TIMOTHY  (Gr.  T«/<50eof,  "he  who  honors 
God  "),  a  disciple  of  Paul,  and  his  companion 
in  travel  and  in  preaching.  He  was  a  native 
of  Derbe  or  Lystra  in  Lycaonia,  and  the  son 
of  a  Greek  and  a  Jewess.  To  prevent  the 
cavils  of  the  Jews,  Paul  circumcised  him.  He 
was  set  apart  to  the  office  of  the  ministry  by 
the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  Paul  and  the 
presbytery.  He  journeyed  through  Macedonia 
and  Achaia,  and  was  afterward  sent  by  Paul  to 
Ephesus,  whence  he  accompanied  the  apostle 
to  Jerusalem,  and  probably  to  Rome.  In  the 
epistles  of  Paul  written  during  his  captivity 
at  Home,  Timothy  is  mentioned  as  being  with 
the  apostle.  Tradition  says  that  Timothy  was 
the  first  bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  was  martyred 
under  Domitian. 

TIMOTHY,  Epistles  to,  two  canonical  books  of 
the  New  Testament,  addressed,  according  to 
ecclesiastical  tradition,  by  the  apostle  Paul  to 
his  disciple  Timothy.  They  are  mentioned  by 
Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Ori- 
gen.  Schleiermacher  attacked  the  authenti 
city  of  the  first  epistle,  and  after  him  the  au 
thenticity  of  either  the  first  or  both  epistles 
has  been  doubted  by  Baur,  Reuterdahl  (arch 
bishop  of  Upsal),  Meyer,  De  Wette,  Ewald,  and 
others ;  against  whom  it  has  been  defended  by 
Thiersch,  Wieseler,  Reuss,  Huther,  Bleek,  and 
others.  The  defenders  of  their  authenticity 
are  not  agreed  as  to  the  times  when  the  epis 
tles  were  written.  Most  of  them  suppose  the 
first  to  have  been  written  about  the  year  65. 
The  second,  according  to  the  same  writers,  was 
written  during  the  captivity  of  Paul  at  Rome, 
and  while  he  was  in  expectation  of  martyrdom. 
It  gives  instructions  on  Christian  steadfast 
ness  and  fidelity  (ch.  i.) ;  exhorts  Timothy  to 
constancy  (ch.  ii.) ;  warns  him  against  false 
teachers,  invites  him  to  come  to  Rome,  and 
gives  information  of  many  of  the  companions 
of  Paul  (ch.  iii.  and  iv.).  The  two  epistles  to 
Timothy,  together  with  the  one  to  Titus,  are 
comprised  under  the  name  pastoral  epistles. 
Among  the  recent  commentaries  on  them  are 
those  of  AViesinger  (1850),  Ellicott  (London, 
3d  ed.,  1864),  Huther  (3d  ed.,  1866),  and  Oster- 
zee  in  Lange's  Bibelwerl\:  (2d  ed.,  1864;  Eng 
lish  translation  by  Washburne  and  Harwood, 
New  York,  1868). 

TIMOTHY  GRASS,  an  agricultural  grass 
(pJileum  pratense),  which  takes  this  name 
from  Timothy  Hansen,  who  cultivated  it  ex 
tensively  in  Maryland,  and  brought  it  into  no 
tice.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  called 
Herd's  grass,  a  name  which  leads  to  confusion, 
as  the  red-top  (agrostis  vulgaris)  is  called 
Herd's  grass  in  Pennsylvania  and  some  other 
states ;  in  England  it  is  known  as  cat's-tail.  The 
genus  phleum  has  its  one-flowered  spikelets  in 
dense  spikes ;  its  structure  is  illustrated  un 
der  GE ASSES.  A  native  species,  P.  alpinum,  is 
found  on  the  higher  mountains,  but  P.  pra- 


758 


TIMOUK 


Timothy  Grass  (Plileum 
pratense). 


tense  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  from 
Europe,  where  it  is  found  from  the  Mediter 
ranean  to  the  arctic  re 
gions.  It  was  first  cul 
tivated  for  hay  in  this 
country,  and  the  seeds 
were  taken  to  England  as 
a  novelty  about  100  years 
ago ;  but  it  is  much  less 
esteemed  there  than  with 
us.  Timothy  is  a  peren 
nial,  with  a  rather  coarse 
stem,  which  in  dry  soils 
thickens  at  the  base  and 
becomes  bulbous  ;  its  av 
erage  height  is  2  to  3  ft., 
but  it  sometimes  grows 
to  5  or  even  7  ft.  It 
forms  the  great  bulk  of 
the  hay  crop  of  the  coun 
try,  and  is  sown  to  the 
neglect  of  other  grasses 
which  are  much  better 
suited  to  some  soils.  An 
alysis  shows,  in  100  parts 
of  timothy  hay,  9'7  of  al 
buminoids,  48-8  of  carbohydrates,  3  of  fat,  and 
22-7  of  crude  fibre. 

TIMOUR,  or  Tamerlane  (a  corruption  of  Ti- 
mour  Lenk,  i.  e.,  Timour  the  Lame),  an  Asiatic 
conqueror,  born  at  Sebz,  a  suburb  of  Kesh, 
about  40  in.  S.  E.  of  Samarcand,  April  9, 1336, 
died  at  Otrar  on  the  Jaxartes,  Feb.  18,  1405. 
He  was  the  son  of  the  chief  of  the  Turkish 
tribe  of  Berks,  which  inhabited  Kesh,  and 
claimed  to  be  on  his  mother's  side  a  direct 
descendant  of  Genghis  Khan.  In  1361  he  be 
came  chief  of  his  tribe,  and  supported  the 
cause  of  Hussein,  khan  of  northern  Khorasan ; 
and  after  driving  out  the  Calmucks  of  the 
khan  of  Kashgar  he  married  Hussein's  sister. 
With  him  he  had"  frequent  contentions,  and  af 
ter  the  death  of  his  wife  in  1365  a  war  broke 
out  between  them,  which  ended  in  the  defeat 
and  death  of  Hussein,  and  the  taking  of  Balkh, 
his  capital,  in  1369,  after  a  siege  of  three  years. 
Soon  after  a  general  Mongol  assembly  was 
held,  and  Timour  was  proclaimed  khan  of  Jaga- 
tai  (Transoxiana),  Samarcand  being  chosen  as 
his  residence.  He  now  aspired  to  the  domin 
ion  of  all  the  countries  once  under  the  power 
of  Genghis  Khan,  and  attacked  the  neighbor 
ing  princes  in  detail.  The  khan  of  the  Getes, 
ruling  the  country  between  the  Jaxartes  and 
the  Irtish,  was  forced  to  render  homage,  and  in 
1379  the  khan  of  Khiva  was  conquered.  He 
then  undertook  the  reduction  of  Khorasan 
(1380),  and  received  the  submission  of  a  part 
of  it,  but  was  met  with  a  fierce  resistance  by 
Gaiyath  ed  Din  Pir  Ali,  whose  capital  was 
Herat.  His  efforts  were  all  in  vain,  and  the 
taking  of  his  capital  by  storm  led  to  the  con 
quest  of  the  remainder  of  the  country.  All 
Khorasan  was  now  in  Timour's  power ;  but  the 
town  of  Sebsewar  revolted  and  was  stormed, 
and  thousands  of  its  inhabitants  were  subjected 


to  a  cruel  death.  Timour  now  aspired  to  the 
conquest  of  the  world.  All  Persia  was  soon 
in  his  power ;  the  country  between  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates,  from  the  sources  to  the 
mouths  of  those  rivers,  submitted  to  his  au 
thority  ;  and  the  Christian  princes  of  Georgia 
also  became  his  tributaries.  An  invasion  of 
Timour's  territory  by  Tokhtamish,  whom  he 
himself  had  established  in  the  Mongol  empire 
of  the  north,  led  to  the  conquest  of  Kiptchak. 
The  pursuit  of  his  enemy  having  led  the  con 
queror  of  the  East  into  the  provinces  of  Ptus- 
sia,  he  threatened  Moscow,  marched  to  the 
south,  and  sacked  and  burned  Azov,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Don.  In  1398  he  crossed  the  In 
dus  at  the  passage  of  Attok,  and,  after  a  long 
march,  in  which  he  massacred  100,000  cap 
tives,  stood  before  Delhi,  which  soon  capitu 
lated.  He  penetrated  still  further  into  the 
country,  but  was  recalled  by  the  news  of  in 
surrections  in  Georgia  and  adjoining  parts,  and 
of  the  designs  of  Bajazet,  sultan  of  Turkey.  His 
first  care  was  to  crush  the  rebellion  in  Georgia, 
and  as  the  Mongol  and  Ottoman  conquests  now 
bordered  upon  one  another,  a  collision  was 
soon  rendered  certain.  Timour  overran  Syria, 
then  a  dependency  of  Egypt,  and  then  stormed 
the  revolted  city  of  Bagdad,  July  9,  1401, 
leaving  in  the  public  places  of  the  town  a 
pile  of  90,000  slaughtered  human  beings.  At 
last  the  two  great  armies  of  the  sultan  and 
the  Mongol  conqueror  met  on,  July  20,  1402, 
on  the  plains  of  Angora,  and  the  former  was 
totally  defeated  and  captured.  (See  BAJAZET.) 
Timour's  dominions  now  covered  all  Asia  from 
the  Irtish  and  Volga  to  the  Persian  gulf,  and 
from  the  Ganges  to  Damascus  and  the  archi 
pelago.  He  made  Solyman,  a  son  of  Bajazet, 
ruler  of  European  Turkey,  and  his  brother 
Musa  of  Turkey  in  Asia.  The  sultan  of  Egypt 
also  became  his  vassal.  He  now  retired  to 
Samarcand  (July,  1404),  and  spent  two  months 
in  festivities,  but  did  not  long  remain  idle. 
He  had  planned  an  invasion  of  China,  from 
which  the  house  of  Genghis  had  recently  been 
expelled,  and  previous  to  his  return  from  his 
Ottoman  conquests  had  sent  an  army  beyond 
the  Jaxartes  to  prepare  the  way  for  his  own 
advance.  At  the  head  of  200,000  veteran 
troops  he  began  his  march,  crossed  the  Jax 
artes  on  the  ice,  and  had  gone  300  miles  from 
his  capital  when  he  died.  His  army  was  dis 
banded,  and  the  invasion  of  China  was  given 
up.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  35  years,  all  of 
which  was  spent  in  military  operations,  and 
left  36  sons  and  grandsons  and  17  grand 
daughters.  A  large  proportion  of  his  con 
quests,  especially  in  the  northern  and  western 
parts  of  Asia,  were  lost  immediately  by  his 
successors.  The  glory  of  his  race  was  revived 
in  his  descendant  Baber,  the  conqueror  of  In 
dia. — The  great  authority  for  the  life  of  Tam 
erlane  is  the  Persian  history  of  Sheref  ed-Din 
Ali,  to  whom  the  journals  of  his  secretaries 
were  intrusted,  and  whose  work  has  been 
translated  into  French  by  Petis  de  la  Croix, 


TIMROD 


TIN 


759 


under  the  title  of  Ilistoire  de  Timur-Bec,  con- 
nu  sous  le  nom  du  grand  Tamerlan  (4  vols. 
12mo,  Paris,  1722).  The  writings  attributed 
to  Timour  liave  been  preserved  in  Persian,  and 
are  of  questionable  authenticity.  The  work 
on  the  "Institutions"  of  his  government,  with 
an  English  translation  and  a  valuable  index, 
was-  published  at  Oxford  in  1783  (4to)  by  Ma 
jor  Davy  and  White,  the  professor  of  Arabic, 
and  has  also  been  translated  from  the  Persian 
into  French  by  Langles.  The  autobiographical 
"Commentaries"  of  Timour  have  been  trans 
lated  from  a  manuscript  of  Major  Davy  by 
Major  Stewart,  and  published  by  the  oriental 
translation  committee  of  London.  These  only 
contain  his  life  from  his  birth  to  his  41st  year, 
no  version  having  as  yet  appeared  of  the  re 
maining  portions.  See  also  the  translation  of 
the  narrative  of  Clavijo,  envoy  of  Henry  III. 
of  Castile  to  Timour,  by  C.  R.  Markham  (Ilak- 
luyt  society,  1860),  and  Lamartine,  Les  grands 
homines  de  V Orient  (Paris,  1865). 

TIMROD,  Henry,  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  Dec.  8,  1829,  died  in  Colum 
bia,  Oct.  6,  1867.  He  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  Georgia,  but  took  no  degree,  and 
studied  law.  During  the  first  years  of  the  civil 
war  he  wrote  martial  lyrics,  and  early  in  1863 
joined  the  confederate  army  of  the  west  as 
correspondent  of  the  Charleston  "Mercury." 
In  January,  1864,  he  became  editor  of  the 
Columbia  "  South  Carolinian,"  which  was 
discontinued  in  February,  1865,  and  revived  in 
Charleston .  in  1866.  He  was  for  a  time  as 
sistant  secretary  to  Gov.  Orr.  He  published 
"Poems"  (Boston,  1860;  enlarged  ed.  with  a 
memoir  by  Paul  II.  Hayne,  New  York,  1873). 

TIMIQUINS,  a  tribe  of  Indians  in  Florida, 
belonging  to  the  Choctaw  family,  formerly  oc 
cupying  the  coast  above  St.  Augustine.  The 
Franciscans  established  missions  among  them 
in  1592,  and  though  these  were  checked  by 
the  massacre  of  several  of  the  missionaries  by 
the  heathen  party  in  1597,  they  were  revived 
and  continued  till  the  destruction  of  the  mis 
sions  and  mission  Indians  by  Carolina  and 
Georgia  in  the  border  Avars.  Several  works 
for  the  use  of  the  Timuquan  missions  and  a 
grammar,  chiefly  by  Father  Francis  Pareja,  a 
Mexican,  were  printed  in  the  17th  century; 
and  petitions  signed  by  the  chiefs  in  1688  show 
that  they  had  all  been  educated  to  some  ex 
tent.  Near  the  close  of  the  century  Dicken- 
son  found  the  missions  in  a  thriving  condition 
and  acting  as  post  houses  on  the  route  to  the 
English  colonies. 

TIN  (Ger.  Zinn ;  Fr.  etairi),  an  almost  sil 
very  white,  highly  lustrous,  non-elastic  metal ; 
chemical  symbol,  Sn  (Lat.  stannum,  tin) ;  equiv 
alent,  116  ;  sp.  gr.  7'29.  It  is  softer  than  gold 
and  harder  than  lead ;  malleable  at  ordinary 
temperatures  into  thin  laminas  (tin  foil) ;  so 
ductile  at  212°  F.  that  it  can  be  drawn  into 
fine,  very  flexible  wire,  which  however  breaks 
under  a  weight  of  less  than  one  ton  per  square 
inch  of  section ;  so  brittle  at  392°  F.  as  to  be 


broken  by  a  blow  or  fall ;  not  appreciably  af 
fected  in  'density  by  hammering;  fusible  at 
442°  F. ;  burns  in  air  at  high  temperature,  with 
white  light ;  volatile  at  very  high  temperature  ; 
comparatively  indifferent  to  air  or  moisture  at 
ordinary  temperatures ;  a  good  conductor  of 
heat  and  electricity.  Melted  tin  has  a  strong 
tendency  to  crystallize  on  cooling ;  and  the 
surface  of  cast  tin,  when  etched  with  dilute 
acid,  shows  its  crystalline  texture  in  figures 
analogous  to  the  tracery  of  frost  on  window 
panes  (moire  metallique).  The  free  crystals 
are  monometric,  or,  when  obtained  by  the 
electric  current,  quadratic  prisms,  showing  di 
morphism  of  the  metal.  A  bar  of  tin  crackles 
when  bent  (the  tin  cry,  cri  detain,  Zinnge- 
schrei),  and  under  rapidly  repeated  flexures  the 
bent  place  grows  hotter  than  the  hand  can 
bear.  Both  noise  and  heat  are  due  to  the 
friction  of  the  interior  crystal  faces  upon 
each  other.  The  handling  of  tin  communi 
cates  a  peculiar  odor  to  the  skin.  There  are 
three  oxides  of  tin:  the  stannous,  SnO,  stan- 
noso-stannic,  Sn203,  and  stannic,  SnO2.  A 
certain  obscure  modification  of  the  last,  the 
hydrate  of  which  is  insoluble  in  nitric  or  mu 
riatic  acid,  is  called  metastannic  oxide.  The 
stannic  and  metastannic  oxides  form  salts  with 
alkalies,  earths,  and  metallic  oxides.  Muriatic 
acid  dissolves  tin  as  stannous  chloride,  SnCl, 
which  is  used  by  dyers  and  in  laboratories  as 
a  reducing  agent,  by  virtue  of  its  strong  affin 
ity  for  oxygen  and  chlorine.  Dilute  sulphuric 
acid  scarcely  attacks  tin ;  heating  with  con 
centrated  sulphuric  acid  transforms  it  to  stan 
nous  sulphate,  setting  free  sulphurous  acid ; 
very  dilute  nitric  acid  dissolves  it  cold,  with 
out  any  escape  of  gas,  ammonia  being  formed 
simultaneously  with  the  stannous  nitrate  and 
held  as  nitrate  of  ammonia  in  the  solution. 
Concentrated  nitric  acid  attacks  tin  violently, 
forming  the  insoluble  metastannic  oxide,  which 
is  the  "putty  powder"  used  in  enamelling  and 
in  polishing  plate.  Aqua  regia  dissolves  tin 
as  stannic  chloride,  SnCl2.  Alkalies  cause 
oxidation  of  tin,  forming  stannic  acid,  which 
unites  with  the  alkaline  bases.  Thus,  tin  be 
ing  heated  in  concentrated  caustic  soda  solu 
tion,  hydrogen  is  set  free,  and  sodic  stannate 
is  formed.  This  is  extensively  used  as  a  mor 
dant,  the  basis  of  the  "tin-prepared  liquor" 
of  dyers  and  calico  printers.  Sulphuretted 
hydrogen  does  not  attack  massive  tin  at  ordi 
nary  temperatures.  There  are  three  sulphides 
of  tin,  of  which  the  stannous  or  protosulphide 
may  be  obtained  by  heating  sulphur  and  tin 
together;  the  second,  sesquisulphide,  by  heat 
ing  the  first  with  additional  sulphur  ;  and  the 
third,  bisulphide,  by  a  similar  process.  In  the 
last  case,  the  high  temperature,  which  would 
otherwise  decompose  the  bisulphide,  must  be 
kept  down  by  adding  to  the  ingredients  volatile 
substances  (mercury,  sal  ammoniac),  which  in 
escaping  will  absorb  heat.  This  sulphide,  thus 
produced,  presents  delicate  golden  or  brownish 
yellow  scales,  and  is  used  as  a  bronze  powder 


T60 


TIN 


(mosaic  gold,  the  aurum  miisivum  or  mosai- 
cum  of  the  alchemists).  A  mixture  of  stannous 
and  stannic  chloride,  added  to  gold  chloride  in 
solution,  precipitates  a  purple  powder,  sup 
posed  to  be  stannic  oxide,  colored  by  metallic 
gold  in  fine  particles,  or  a  mixture  or  combi 
nation  of  the  oxides  of  gold  and  tin.  It  is 
known  as  the  purple  of  Oassius,  and  is  used 
for  coloring  porcelain  and  glass,  with  which 
it  is  incorporated  by  fusion.  The  amalgam  of 
tin  and  its  alloys  with  lead  and  other  metals 
is  employed  in  the  arts.  (See  AMALGAM, 
BRITANNIA  METAL,  BRONZE,  MIRROR,  PEWTER, 
and  SPECULUM.) — History.  Tin  ore,  being  a 
heavy  mineral,  not  altered  by  ordinary  mete 
oric  agencies,  may  occur  in  alluvial  and  diluvial 
deposits,  like  gold  and  precious  stones ;  and 
being  also,  when  pure,  easily  reduced  by  smelt 
ing,  its  treatment  might  naturally  become 
known  to  nations  of  great  antiquity.  It  is 
often  said  that  the  Hebrews,  Egyptians,  and 
Greeks  employed  this  metal ;  but  so  far  as  the 
question  turns  upon  the  Hebrew  bedil  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  12  ;  Numb.  xxxi.  22  ;  Isa.  i.  25,  &c.)  and 
the  Greek  naaaiTepos,  which  have  been  trans 
lated  as  tin,  this  seems  doubtful.  Tin  was 
certainly  often  confounded  with  lead,  being 
called  by  the  Eomans  plumbum  candidum. 
Even  the  stannum  of  Pliny  was  not  tin ;  and 
not  until  the  4th  century  does  stannum  definite 
ly  bear  this  meaning.  (See  Kopp's  Gesclticlite 
der  Chemie.)  But  bronze  vessels  found  at 
Thebes  are  said  to  be  in  part  composed  of  tin, 
which  Wilkinson  suggests  the  Egyptians  may 
have  obtained  from  Spain  or  India  long  before 
the  Phoenicians  voyaged  in  the  Atlantic.  The 
latter  people  brought  Kaaairepog  from  the  Cas- 
siterides,  supposed  to  have  been  the  Scilly 
islands,  off  the  coast  of  Britain.  This  may 
have  been  brought  to  the  Scilly  islands  from 
Cornwall,  or  else,  it  is  presumed,  the  Phoeni 
cians  pretended  'to  visit  these  islands,  and 
gave  them  a  deceptive  name,  in  order  to 
mislead  the  Romans  and  conceal  their  real 
trade  on  the  Cornish  coast.  (See  "Transac 
tions  of  the  Geological  Society  of  Cornwall," 
vols.  iii.  and  iv.)  Spain  also  is  believed  to 
have  furnished  tin  to  the  Phoenicians.  In  the 
middle  ages  Cornish  tin  was  used  for  church 
bells,  and  later  for  bronze  cannon.  The  an 
cient  Mexicans  obtained  tin  from  the  mines  of 
Tasco,  and  with  it  made  bronze  for  very  hard 
cutting  tools ;  and  they  used  small  T-shaped 
pieces  of  tin  for  money.  Cortes  had  bronze 
cannon  made  with  the  tin  of  Tasco. — Distri 
bution.  Native  metallic  tin  is  one  of  the  rarest 
of  minerals.  It  has  been  reported  from  Sibe 
ria,  Bolivia  (doubtful),  and  Pennsylvania.  (See 
Genth's  recent  volume  on  the  mineralogy  of 
that  state.)  There  is  a  native  sulphide  (stair- 
nine,  tin  pyrites),  but  the  only  ore  com 
mercially  utilized  is  the  stannic  oxide,  called 
tinstone  or  stannite,  SnO2 ;  sp.  gr.  G'94;  crys 
talline  form,  tetragonal  pyramids  ;  percentage 
of  tin,  78-38  ;  crystals  yellowish  and  translu 
cent  when  pure,  but  usually  dark  brown,  al 


most  black,  from  admixture  of  ferric  and  man 
ganic  oxide.  This  occurs  in  veins,  beds,  and 
Stockwerlce,  or  in  secondary  (alluvial  and  di 
luvial)  deposits.  In  the  former  case,  it  is 
found  in  quartzose  crystalline  rocks  (granite, 
gneiss,  porphyry,  mica  and  hornblende  schists, 
quartz-porphyry,  &c.),  associated  with  arseni 
cal  pyrites,  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  bismuth, 
zinc  blende,  wolfram,  molybdenite,  specular 
iron,  &c.,  and  with  such  earthy  minerals  as 
feldspar,  tourmaline,  chlorite,  topaz,  apatite, 
fluor  spar,  and  scheelite.  The  leading  locali 
ties  where  such  deposits  have  been  worked 
are  Cornwall  and  the  Saxon  and  Bohemian 
Erzgebirge.  Tin  veins  also  occur  in  Brittany, 
Finland,  Spain,  Mexico,  Bolivia,  and  New 
South  Wales.  The  placer  deposits  are  illus 
trated  at  the  islands  of  Banca  and"Billiton  in 
the  Malay  peninsula,  and  at'  some  other  points 
in  the  East  Indies.  The  tin  placers  of  Aus 
tralia  have  also  furnished  of  late  large  quanti 
ties  of  tin  ore ;  and  such  deposits  (stream  tin) 
occur  subordinately  in  Cornwall,  Brittany, 
Spain,  and  elsewhere.  A  remarkable  deposit 
of  tin  ore  in  a  dike  of  trachyte  is  said  to  exist 
in  Dnrango,  Mexico.  Stannite  occurs  with 
cryolite  in  Greenland.  Tin  ore  in  veins,  dikes, 
or  beds  of  dark  porphyry  is  found  in  San 
Bernardino  county,  southern  California ;  spe 
cimens  are  said  to  have  been  found  in  Idaho, 
in  the  bed  of  a  stream  ;  and  several  localities 
in  the  Appalachian  regions  are  known  to  min 
eralogists  as  furnishing  the  ore  in  occasional 
crystals  or  in  thin  veins.  Chesterfield  and 
Goshen,  Mass.,  and  Lyme  and  Jackson,  N.  II., 
are  localities  of  stannite  ;  and  tin  has  been  de 
tected  in  the  magnetic  iron  ore  of  the  highlands 
of  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  and  in  some 
of  the  auriferous  ores  of  Virginia,  The  tin- 
ore  deposits  of  Missouri,  the  object  of  a  con 
siderable  speculative  excitement  a  few  years 
ago,  seem  to  consist  in  the  replacement  to  a 
minute  extent,  in  certain  crystalline  schists, 
of  titanic  by  stannic  acid,  the  two  being  iso- 
morphous.  The  relative  importance  of  the 
chief  tin-producing  regions  is  shown  by  the 
following  estimates  of  production  in  tons  : 


REGIONS  OF  PRODUCTION. 

1S72. 

1873. 

1874. 

United  Kingdom 

0560 

9070 

10000 

Banca  

3.203 

4.355 

4.049 

Billiton. 

2.94(> 

2  SiSO 

3157 

9785 

6  0(>3 

7  149 

Australia  

150 

2,990 

5,800 

The  amount  credited  to  Great  Britain  includes 
the  tin  produced  in  that  country  from  import 
ed  Australian  ores.  The  product  of  Bolivia  or 
Upper  Pern,  known  as  Peruvian  tin,  was  esti 
mated  in  1868  by  English  authorities  at  1,500 
tons ;  but  it  is  probably  much  less  at  present, 
since  no  account  is  taken  of  it  in  the  trade 
reports.  Saxony  and  Bohemia  produce  an  in 
significant  quantity,  not  more  than  200  or  300 
tons  in  all ;  and  Spain  yields  still  less. — In  the 
tin  mines  of  Cornwall  the  ore  occurs  in  small 


\  li   \ 


TIN 


strata,  veins,  or  masses  ("  tin  floors  ") ;  in  con 
geries  of  small  veins ;  in  large  veins ;  and  dis 
seminated  in  alluvial  deposits.  The  congeries 
or  networks  of  small  veins  {Stockwerke  of  the 
Germans)  occur  in  granite  and  "elvan"  (feld- 
spathic  porphyry).  The  large  metalliferous 
veins  are  grouped  in  three  districts :  the  S.  W. 
part  of  Cornwall,  beyond  Truro;  the  neigh 
borhood  of  St.  Austell ;  and  the  neighborhood 
of  Dartmouth,  in  Devonshire.  The  first  is  the 
richest  and  best  explored.  The  tin  veins  be 
long  to  different  systems,  having  nearly  the 
same  general  course,  but  Differing  in  dip.  It 
was  formerly  thought  that  tin  occurred  in  the 
upper  portions  of  the  lodes  only,  and  the  ap 
pearance  of  copper  pyrites  in  depth  was  con 
sidered  to  be  a  sign  that  the  tin  ore  had  been 
"cut  out;"  but  more  recently  tin  ore  has  been 
found  at  great  depths  and  below  the  copper. 
Thus  the  Dolcoath  mine  was  worked  first  as  a 
tin  mine  for  a  very  long  period ;  then  as  a  cop 
per  mine  for  half  a  century ;  and  finally  again, 
at  still  greater  depth,  and  with  considerable 
profit,  as  a  tin  mine.  Alluvial  tin  ore  or  stream 
tin  deposits  occur  on  the  hillsides  and  in  the 
valleys,  and  furnished  for  centuries  the  whole 
of  the  Cornish  tin.  The  largest  works  of  this 
kind  are  around  St.  Just  and  St.  Austell.  Many 
of  the  Cornish  mines  have  been  unprofitable 
since  1872,  on  account  of  the  great  fall  in 
prices  resulting  from  the  influx  of  Australian 
ore  and  metal.  The  mines  in  the  East  Indies 
might  perhaps  have  brought  about  this  revul 
sion  still  earlier,  since  they  were  capable  of 
producing  tin  very  cheaply;  but  the  supply 
from  that  source  was  limited  at  the  will  of  the 
governmental  authorities,  so  as  to  divide  the 
market  with  Cornwall,  on  terms  which  left 
some  profit  to  the  Cornish  mines.  One  au 
thority  estimates  the  product  in  1868  at  7,200 
tons  for  Great  Britain,  and  7,500  tons  for 
southern  Asia  and  India.  According  to  a  re 
cent  writer  (Berg-  und  Huttenmannisclie  Zei- 
tung,  1875),  the  total  product  of  tin  in  the 
world  about  1870  was  something  over  11,000 
tons  annually,  of  which  6,000  tons  came  from 
Cornwall  and  4,000  tons  from  Asia.  (This  es 
timate  for  Asia  is  apparently  too  low.)  But 
since  that  time,  and  especially  since  1872,  a 
very  extraordinary  development  of  tin  mining 
in  Australia  has  revolutionized  the  market. — 
The  Australian  tin-ore  deposits  thus  far  known 
occur  in  the  region  of  the  Cordilleras,  in  Vic 
toria,  New  South  Wales,  and  Queensland.  In 
Victoria  the  older  outcropping  rocks  are  pre 
dominantly  Silurian,  and  tin,  ore  is  found  in 
small  quantity  in  alluvial  deposits,  but  hith 
erto  not  in  veins.  In  New  South  Wales  and 
Queensland  there  is  a  greater  quantity  and  va 
riety  of  exposed  rock  formations,  and  among 
them  granites,  porphyries,  and  metamorphic 
schists,  with  which  the  tin  ore  is  associated. 
In  a  portion  of  New  South  Wales  it  appears 
connected  with  more  recent  eruptive  rocks. 
The  alternations  of  rain  and  drought  in  the 
seasons  are  a  serious  inconvenience  to  alluvial 


\ 


UAL1 

>,  like  th 


OK 

761 


mining,  which  suffers  also,  like  the' placer  mi 
ning  of  gold  in  Australia  and  the  United  States, 
from  occasional  excessively  dry  years.  The 
existence  of  tin  ore  in  this  region  was  made 
known  by  the  Rev.  W.  B.  Clarke,  colonial  ge 
ologist,  in  1845 ;  in  1809  a  shepherd  brought 
to  market  a  considerable  quantity  which  he 
had  obtained  by  washing,  without  knowing  its 
value;  a  population  of  10,000  miners  was  at 
tracted  to  the  district,  and  a  feverish  specula 
tion  raged  until  near  the  end  of  1871,  followed 
by  disastrous  reaction  and  a  gradual  renewal 
of  industry  in  a  more  reasonable  way.  Up  to 
the  end  of  1871  the  production  had  been  about 
2,000  tons  of  tin.  The  present  export  in  metal 
and  in  ore  (sent  to  England  for  reduction)  is 
said  to  exceed  7,000  tons  of  tin ;  the  number 
of  workmen  is  between  2,000  and  3,000.  Veins 
are  abundant,  but  the  entire  product  is  at  pres 
ent  derived  from  alluvial  mines.  These  occur 
in  five  principal  districts,  interspersed  with 
scattered  minor  districts,  the  aggregate  area 
being  about  1,000  sq.  m.,  the  greater  part  of 
which  lies  south  of  the  boundary  between 
Queensland  and  New  South  Wales.  The  pla 
cers  usually  lie  along  present  or  former  water 
courses,  and  present  at  the  surface  granitic 
sand  and  pebbles,  with  underlying  gravel,  and 
at  the  bottom,  resting  upon  the  bed  rock,  a 
layer  of  clay,  gravel,  and  bowlders,  in  which 
occur  tin  ore,  wolfram,  tourmaline,  quartz, 
and  occasionally  sapphire  and  ruby.  Some 
times  the  series  is  repeated,  giving  two  layers 
of  stanniferous  gravel,  of  which  the  lowest 
rests  upon  the  rock,  a  phenomenon  familiar 
to  placer  miners  for  gold;  and  the  methods  of 
working  are  similar  to  those  of  the  latter.  The 
total  depth  of  the  deposit  is  rarely  less  than 
4  or  more  than  20  ft.  The  labor  employed  is 
partly  Chinese;  the  average  cost  of  the  ore, 
delivered  at  the  nearest  harbor,  is  perhaps  £40 
a  ton,  though  rich  mines,  favorably  located, 
can  deliver  it  at  £30.  Some  furnaces  have  been 
erected  near  the  mines  to  smelt  the  ore ;  but 
wood,  the  only  fuel  available  there,  though 
cheap  at  present,  is  likely  to  be  rapidly  ex 
hausted.  Two  large  establishments,  at  Sydney 
and  Brisbane,  have  successfully  smelted  the 
Australian  tin  ores  with  coal  in  reverberatory 
furnaces.  The  metal,  however,  even  after  re 
fining,  contains  but  99  per  cent,  of  tin,  on  ac 
count  of  the  wolfram  invariably  present  in  the 
ore.  For  this  reason  Australian  ore  is  disliked 
by  the  smelters  of  Cornwall,  and  Australian 
tin  always  commands  a  somewhat  lower  price 
than  Banca  or  Cornish  metal.  New  and  ex 
tensive  discoveries  of  tin  ore  have  been  re 
cently  reported  in  Tasmania. — The  tin  ore  of 
the  island  of  Banca,  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
occurs  as  stream  tin  and  also  in  veins  in  gran 
ite.  The  Dutch  government  at  present  works 
the  alluvial  deposits  only.  These  consist  of  9 
to  30  ft.  in  depth  of  loam,  red  and  blue  clay, 
coarse  and  fine  sand,  and  tin  ore.  The  tin- 
bearing  layer  is  from  3  to  22  in.  thick,  in  some 
cases  even  more.  The  mines  are  worked  du- 


'62 


TIN 


ring  the  dry  season  of  eiglit  months,  the  rainy 
season  being  devoted  to  smelting  the  ore.  The 
workings  are  open  pits  and  cuts ;  and  the  ma 
terial  is  conveyed  away  to  be  washed,  water 
being  collected  by  means  of  dams  and  reser 
voirs.  After  the  washing  the  ore  is  calcined, 
leached  in  water  (to  remove  sulphates  of  iron 
and  copper),  smelted  in  shaft  furnaces  with 
charcoal,  drawn  into  a  purifying  receptacle, 
and  poled.  The  resulting  tin  is  the  best  in 
the  market.  The  government  furnishes  engi 
neers,  superintendents,  and  furnaces;  all  the 
rest  is  supplied  by  the  workmen  (Chinese), 
who  receive  about  $5  09  for  each  100  Ibs.  of 
cast  tin.  The  "  Straits "  tin  comes  from  the 
British  settlement  of  Malacca,  and  from  vari 
ous  points  on  the  Malay  peninsula  and  the 
islands  between  it  and  Java.  Drought  and 
troubles  with  the  Malays  have  temporarily  re 
duced  the  supply  from  this  source.  Its  qual 
ity  varies  according  to  the  locality  of  the 
mines  and  the  skill  of  the  metallurgical  treat 
ment  ;  but  it  is  usually  less  pure  than  Banca  tin. 
— Metallurgy  of  Tin.  The  tin  ore  found  in 
drift  or  alluvium  is  usually  purer  than  that  in 
veins,  because  the  arsenides,  sulphides,  and 
metallic  salts  are  decomposed  and  carried  away 
by  the  action  of  water.  The  veinstuff  as  mined 
is  usually  rock  or  gangue  containing  dissemi 
nated  ore  (sometimes  as  little  as  -J-  of  1  per 
cent,  of  tin),  and  requires  a  careful  preliminary 
concentration,  the  difficulty  of  which  is  en 
hanced  by  the  presence  of  heavy  minerals 
(wolfram,  bismuth,  &c.),  which  must  be  re 
moved  to  secure  a  pure  metal  as  the  result  of 
smelting.  Connected  with  the  mechanical 
concentration  there  is  usually  a  calcination,  to 
convert  heavy  sulphides  into  oxides,  which  can 
be  more  easily  washed  away.  The  apparatus 
of  concentration  comprises  launders,  piano 
tables,  buddies,  percussion  tables,  jigs,  &c. 
(See  METALLURGY.)  The  theory  of  the  reduc 
tion  of  tin  ore  is  simple.  The  stannic  oxide 
must  be  deprived  of  its  oxygen  by  contact  with 
carbon  at  high  temperature,  and  reduced  to 
metallic  form  in  fusion,  while  the  earths  and 
metallic  oxides  accompanying  it  must  be  col 
lected  in  the  slag.  In  practice  the  operation 
is  embarrassed  by  several  difficulties.  One  of 
these  arises  from  the  high  temperature  neces 
sary  for  the  reduction  of  the  stannic  oxide,  at 
which  temperature  other  metallic  oxides,  which 
should  pass  into  the  slag,  are  also  partially  re 
duced  and  enter  the  metallic  bath,  or  cause 
"salamanders"  or  "scaffolds"  by  chilling  in 
the  furnace.  Hence  the  necessity  of  removing 
lead,  bismuth,  copper,  antimony,  arsenic,  zinc, 
iron,  tungsten,  molybdenum,  &c.,  as  far  as 
practicable,  before  smelting.  There  is  also 
danger  that  the  stannic  oxide,  which  plays  the 
part  of  an  acid  toward  many  bases,  and  of  a 
base  toward  acids,  may  pass  partly  into  the 
slag  as  ferrous  or  calcic  stannate,  or  stannic 
silicate.  The  oxidability  and  volatility  of  tin 
are  also  sources  of  loss,  to  avoid  which  the 
shaft  furnace  is  so  constructed  as  to  remove 


the  metal,  once  reduced,  as  soon  as  practicable 
from  the  influence  of  the  heat  and  blast.  The 
earthy  ingredients  of  the  ore,  in  which  usually 
silica  predominates,  tend  to  form  "  stiff"  (not 
easily  fusible)  slags ;  and,  rather  than  add  fluxes 
to  counteract  this  evil,  at  the  cost  of  an  increase 
of  the  amount  of  zinc  carried  into  the  slag,  it 
is  common  to  smelt  with  little  or  no  extra  flux, 
producing  a  scarcely  fused  slag,  in  which  more 
tin  is  mechanically  caught  and  retained  than  is 
chemically  combined  with  silica  or  the  bases. 
This  slag  may  be  nemelted  or  treated  by  me 
chanical  concentration,  to  extract  the  tin  which 
it  contains,  in  tine  metallic  grains.  Wolfram, 
which  cannot  be  completely  washed  out,  either 
with  or  without  preliminary  roasting,  and 
which  if  present  jn  the  smelting  charge  goes 
partly  into  the  slag  and  partly  as  tungsten  into 
the  metallic  tin,  is  sometimes  removed  by  a 
preliminary  smelting  of  the  ore  with  sodic  car 
bonate  or  sulphate  (Glauber's  salt),  by  which  a 
soluble  tungstate  of  soda  is  formed,  which  can 
be  leached  out.  Muriatic  acid  will  leach  out 
from  roasted  tin  ore  the  chlorides  of  iron, 
copper,  and  bismuth. — The  melting  of  the  con 
centrated  and  purified  tin  ore  may  take  place 
in  a  reverberatory  or  in  a  cupola  furnace.  The 
former  is  advantageously  employed  where  coal 
is  cheap  and  good.  It  loses  less  tin  by  oxida 
tion  than  the  shaft  furnace,  in  which  the  blast 
acts  more  ,or  less  on  the  tin,  and  it  requires 
less  fuel  for  the  production  of  a  given  amount 
of  tin.  Zirkel  says  the  reverberatory  consumes 
for  each  part  of  tin  produced  If  part  of  coal 
and  loses  5  per  cent,  of  tin,  while  the  shaft 
furnace  consumes  3  parts  of  coal  and  loses  15 
per  cent,  of  tin.  But  when  the  ore  is  impure, 
the  reverberatory  furnishes  an  inferior  tin. 
The  greater  product  is  due  to  the  better  oppor 
tunity  afforded  for  the  grains  of  tin  to  settle 
from  the  slag  into  the  bath,  which  in  the  shaft 
furnace  must  be  quickly  removed  to  prevent 
oxidation  from  the  blast.  But  this  oxidizing 
blast,  on  the  other  hand,  removes  more  com 
pletely  arsenic,  bismuth,  &c.  The  principal 
ingredients  added  in  the  reverberatory  are 
reducing  agents  (carbon),  and  sometimes,  to 
counteract  predominant  silica  in  the  ore,  small 
quantities  of  slacked  lime  and  fluor  spar.  This 
furnace  is  used  in  England,  and  also  in  Aus 
tralia.  In  the  cupola  furnace,  which  is  em 
ployed  on  the  continent  of  Europe  and  in  the 
Indies,  the  additions,  aside  from  the  fuel,  are 
chiefly  stanniferous  slags  and  residues  from  the 
same  process,  which  serve  to  prevent  the  fine 
dressed  ore  from  packing  too  closely  in  the 
furnace  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  blast. 
The  cupola  furnaces  are  made  comparatively 
small  in  section,  and  contracted  near  the  tu 
yeres,  in  order  to  secure  the  necessary  tem 
perature  ;  and  to  prevent  the  reduction  of  iron 
oxides,  they  are  made  low  (in  Saxony,  1-88  to 
2-82  metres;  in  Banca,  1-26  to  2'82  metres). 
The  hearth  slopes  at  the  bottom  from  the 
rear  wall  toward  the  breast,  and  the  fused 
material,  flowing  down  this  slope,  passes  con- 


TIN 


763 


tinually  under  the  front  wall  and  into  a  re 
ceptacle  before  it,  cut  in  stone  and  lined  with 
clay  and  charcoal  powder.  Here  the  metal 
separates  and  settles,  away  from  the  influence 
of  the  blast.  Such  a  shaft  furnace  (Saxon)  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  section,  in  which 
a  is  the  rough  mason 
ry  of  granite  or  gneiss ; 
&,  the  inner  wall,  of 
granite  ;  c,  the  front 
wall ;  f,  the  hearth  ; 
<7,  the  tuyere  (with  two 
nozzles);  7^,  the  "eye," 
or  opening  in  the 
breast,  through  which 
the  molten  material 
escapes ;  *,  the  fore 
hearth,  built  with  gran 
ite,  &,  and  clay  and  pow- 


Saxon  Shaft  Furnace. 

dered  charcoal,  I ;  m,  the  tapping  duct,  ending 
in  an  opening  in  the  iron  front  plate  p;  ??,  the 
crucible  or  refining  pot.  The  arrangements 
for  removing  the  slag  from  *',  and  the  chambers 
for  saving  dust  and  fumes,  placed  above  the 
furnace,  are  not  shown  in  the  diagram.  The 
dimensions  of  the  furnace  here  shown  are,  in 
metres:  height,  2*83 ;  width  at  top  0'96,  at 
bottom,  front,  0'58,  and  rear,  0*48 ;  depth 
from  front  to  rear  wall  at  top  0*62,  at  bottom 
0-48 ;  inclination  of  hearth,  26° ;  size  of  "  eye,'; 
0-10  high  by  0'38  at  top  and  0-5  at  bottom; 
depth  of  fore  hearth  0'38,  of  crucible  0'4 ;  diam 
eter  of  each,  0'5.  The  product  of  the  shaft 
or  reverberatory  furnace  contains  more  or  less 
of  the  impurities  of  the  ore.  Of  iron  there  are 
at  least  traces  in  all  sorts  of  tin ;  0*5  per  cent, 
injures  the  silvery  color  and  lustre,  and  1  per 
cent,  diminishes  perceptibly  the  softness  and 
smoothness.  Of  copper,  1  to  1*5  per  cent, 
makes  tin  harder  and  less  malleable;  and  as 
the  proportion  is  increased,  the  metal  becomes 
more  brittle  and  suffers  a  change  in  lustre.  Of 
antimony  and  bismuth,  0'5  per.  cent.,  without 
affecting  the  lustre,  causes  a  brittle,  crystalline 
structure.  Of  lead,  1  per  cent,  injures  color 
and  lustre,  and  softens  the  tin.  Arsenic  to  the 
amount  of  0'5  per  cent,  affects  color  and  lustre ; 
over  1  per  cent,  of  it  renders  the  tin  lighter, 
and  gives  it  a  spotted,  dull,  or  darkened  ap 
pearance.  Wolfram  and  molybdenum  in  con 
siderable  proportions  diminish  rather  the  fusi 
bility  than  the  strength  or  lustre ;  zinc  renders 
the  metal  harder,  more  brittle,  and  whiter; 
sulphur  makes  it  "short;"  tin  oxide  reduces 
its  brilliancy ;  quicksilver,  contained  in  several 


varieties  of  East  Indian  tin,  renders  it  crumbly, 
and  hinders  its  union  with  other  metals.  The 
refining  of  crude  tin  is  conducted  in  England 
as  follows:  The  blocks  of  tin  are  set  on  the 
hearth  of  a  reverberatory,  and  liquated  at  low 
temperature,  by  which  process  a  purer  tin  is 
obtained  in  a  kettle,  while  an  alloy  consisting 
mainly  of  less  fusible  metals  (iron,  wolfram, 
copper,  &c.)  remains  on  the  hearth.  The  liquid 
tin  in  the  kettle  is  further  purified  by  "poling;" 
that  is,  green  wood  or  damp  coal  is  submerged 
in  it,  causing  by  the  generation  of  gases  a  vio 
lent  ebullition,  which  continually  changes  the 
surface  of  the  bath  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
promotes  the  oxidation  of  the  foreign  sub 
stances.  These  are  skimmed  off,  and  the  bath 
is  allowed  to  settle,  when  there  is  a  further 
deposit  of  heavy  metals  (iron,  copper,  &c.)  on 
the  bottom.  After  settling,  the  tin  is  drawn 
off  in  three  portions,  the  upper  layer  being  re 
fined  block  tin,  the  middle  common  tin,  and 
the  lowest  an  impure  alloy  which  is  again 
liquated.  Block  tin  is  cast  in  moulds  of  mar 
ble.  The  purest  metal  (containing  only  O'Ol 
per  cent,  of  iron)  is  called  grain  tin,  and  is 
produced  by  heating  the  best  block  tin  until  it 
is  brittle,  and  dropping  it  from  a  considerable 
height  upon  flat  stones.  The  German  process 
of  refining  consists  in  pouring  the  melted  crude 
tin  from  a  certain  height  upon  an  inclined  cast- 
iron  plate,  coated  with  loam  and  covered  with 
a  layer  of  glowing  coal  about  O25  metre  thick. 
The  less  fusible  impurities  remain  among  the 
coals,  and  the  purified  tin  flows  along  the  plate, 
to  be  collected  in  a  sump  of  cast  iron  filled 
with  coal.  The  operation  is  performed  repeat 
edly  ;  the  coals  are  subsequently  beaten,  to  re 
move  adhering  grains  of  tin,  and  the  residue  is 
returned  to  the  smelting  furnace.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  cast  tin  at  the  right  temperature. 
If  too  hot,  it  becomes  iridescent  and  "  red- 
short;"  if  too  cold,  it  assumes  a  dull  appear 
ance,  becomes  "  cold-short,"  and  loses  ductil 
ity.  The  proper  moment  for  casting  is  shown 
by  a  mirror-like  clearness  of  the  surface  of  the 
bath.  A  special  refining  of  tin  in  the  humid 
way  consists  in  dissolving  the  granulated  metal 
in  muriatic  acid,  and  precipitation  by  zinc. 
The  zinc  solution  is  subsequently  decomposed 
with  milk  cf  lime,  and  the  precipitate  manu 
factured  by  heating  into  zinc  white. — The  fol 
lowing  analyses  are  from  KeiTs  Metallhutten- 
Tcunde  (Leipsic,  1873) : 


CON 
STITU 
ENTS. 

i. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

95-6(5 
0-07 
1-93 

7. 

8. 

9. 

Sn.... 
Fe.... 
Pb.... 

Cu.... 

As 

99-901 
0-019 
0-014 
0-006 

99-999-76 
0'2    trace 

9S-C4 

trace 

0-20 
0-16 

93-50 
0-07 
2-76 

99-9 

99-594 
trace 

98-18 
trace 

0-24 

0-406 
trace 

1-60 
trace 

Sb  .  .  .  . 
Bi. 

.  .  .  .  ' 

3-76    2-34 

0-1 

1.2. 

Saxon, 
refined 

Banca.    3.  4.  English.     5,  6.  Peruvian  (Bolivian).     7. 
from  ore  treated  with  muriatic  acid.     8.  Bohemian, 
9.  Bohemian  roll  tin,  third  class. 

764 


TIN 


—  Uses  of  Tin.  Tin  foil  is  used  for  coating  the 
backs  of  mirrors,  wrapping  articles  requiring 
to  be  kept  from  the  air,  lining  boxes,  covering 
Leyden  flasks,  &c.  The  latter  uses  require  less 
copper  in  the  composition,  and  the  material  is 
sometimes  called  stanniol.  Of  the  following 
four  analyses  by  Stotzel,  the  first  two  are  of 
foil  for  large  mirrors,  the  third  for  small  mir 
rors,  and  the  fourth  for  wrappers  and  linings : 


COXSTITUEXTS. 

l. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Tin.            

97'6 

97-8 

98-47 

96  '21 

2-16 

1-23 

0-88 

0'95 

Lead  

0-04 

0-76 

0-S4 

2-41 

Iron              .                ... 

O'll 

o-io 

0'12 

0'09 

Nickel 

0'30 

Tin  foil  is  prepared  by  rolling  cast  tin  into 
plates,  and  beating  and  doubling  as  with  gold 
foil,  though  by  a  simpler  process.  (See  GOLD- 
BEATING).  Tin  foil  consisting  of  a  surface  of 
tin,  with  an  interior  of  lead  or  tin-lead  alloy, 
is  prepared  by  placing  a  plate  of  lead  or  alloy 
in  a  mould  slightly  larger,  casting  tin  around 
it,  and  rolling  and  hammering.  Tin-lined  lead 
pipe  for  plumbers'  use  is  made  by  setting  a 
core  of  block  tin  in  the  centre  of  a  mass  of 
melted  load,  so  that  the  more  fusible  tin  is 
melted,  but  does  not  mix  with  the  remainder 
of  the  bath,  and  then  proceeding  as  in  the 
ordinary  manufacture  of  lead  pipe.  (See  LEAD, 
vol.  x.,  p.  2G2.)  Tin  plating  is  performed  either 
by  covering  the  metallic  articles  to  be  plated 
with  melted  tin,  or  by  humid  processes.  The 
former  method  is  chiefly  confined  to  copper, 
iron,  and  zinc.  Copper  may  be  heated,  cleaned 
with  sal  ammoniac,  sprinkled  with  resin  to 
prevent  oxidation,  and  then  plated  by  pouring 
melted  tin  upon  it,  and  spreading  the  tin  with 
tow,  a  high  temperature  being  maintained. 
The  plating  of  sheet  iron,  to  form  so-called 
"  tin  plate"  or  sheet  tin,  for  domestic  utensils, 
&c.,  is  conducted  as  follows :  The  thin  sheets 
of  iron  are  cleaned  by  immersion  in  dilute  sul 
phuric  acid  and  subsequent  rubbing  with  sand 
and  water  and  washing,  after  which  they  are 
annealed  by  exposure  to  cherry  heat  for  12 
hours  in  cast-iron  boxes,  tightly  closed  and 
luted.  Imperfect  or  seriously  oxidized  plates 
are  rejected.  The  accepted  ones,  which  are 
purplish  from  a  thin  external  film  of  oxide,  are 
polished  by  being  passed  cold  through  rolls, 
then  subjected  to  a  second  and  less  prolonged 
annealing,  then  sorted  and  cleansed  again,  and 
finally  taken  to  the  tinning  apparatus.  After 
cleansing  they  will  quickly  rust  on  exposure 
to  air,  but  may  be  kept  indefinitely  without 
injury  if  immersed  in  pure  water.  The  tin 
ning  apparatus  comprises  a  series  of  long  rec 
tangular  pots  or  tanks,  with  a  fire  under  each. 
These  tanks  contain  the  liquid  baths  into  which 
the  plates  are  to  be  plunged.  The  operation 
comprises  a  series  of  immersions :  first  into 
melted  grease,  in  which  the  plates  are  left  till 
all  moisture  has  evaporated  ;  then  successively 
into  several  baths  of  tin,  each  of  which  is  purer 


than  the  preceding,  so  that  the  sheets  acquire 
a  coating  first  of  alloy  and  finally  of  pure  tin ; 
then  into  melted  grease  again,  in  which  the 
superfluous  tin  runs  off,  while  the  liquid  grease 
prevents  a  too  rapid  cooling  and  consequent 
cracking  of  the  surface.  As  the  tin  in  the  final 
tin  bath  becomes  fouled  by  alloyed  iron,  it  is 
removed  to  the  preceding  tin  bath,  and  from 
this  in  turn  to  the  first  bath.  After  the  final 
grease  bath  (tallow  and  palm  oil),  which  an 
neals  the  plates,  the  edging  of  tin  which  usu 
ally  forms  around  them  is  removed  by  dip 
ping  into  melted  cast  iron,  which  melts  it,  so 
that  a  quick  blow  on  the  plate  causes  it  to  drop 
off.  The  plates  are  at  last  rubbed  with  bran 
and  then  with  sheepskin  to  remove  grease  and 
dirt,  sorted,  packed  in  boxes,  and  marked  to  in 
dicate  size  and  quality.  The  sheet  iron  for  tin 
plates  is  rolled  from  the  best  charcoal  or  coke 
bar.  Terne  plates  have,  instead  of  tin,  a  coat 
ing  of  tin-lead  alloy,  containing  from  one  third 
to  two  thirds  lead.  Iron  may  be  coated  with 
zinc  first,  and  then  very  readily  tinned  by  dip 
ping  into  the  fused  metal,  since  tin  and  zinc 
unite  with  ease.  Sheet  zinc  is  tinned  in  the 
same  way,  but  should  not  be  left  in  the  bath 
so  long  as  to  become  alloyed  with  tin  beyond 
the  surface.  Lead  and  its  alloys  maybe  tinned 
in  like  manner.  The  process  above  given  for 
tinning  iron  is  not  applicable  to  cast  iron,  un 
less  it  has  been  decarbonized  on  the  surface  by 
heating  in  iron  oxide,  after  the  manner  of  the 
"annealing"  practised  in  the  manufacture  of 
malleable  castings.  The  humid  methods  of 
plating  tin  upon  various  metals  are  numerous. 
Pins,  which  are  made  of  brass  wire,  and  other 
objects  of  brass  or  copper,  are  dipped  into  an 
aqueous  solution,  containing  1  part  argal,  2 
parts  alum,  and  2  parts  salt,  in  which  tin  has 
been  dissolved,  or  to  which  stannous  chloride 
has  been  added.  In  this  liquid  they  remain 
unaffected  until  brought  into  contact  with  me 
tallic  tin,  whereby  an  electro-chemical  action 
is  caused,  and  all  the  objects  connected  directly 
or  through  one  another  with  the  metallic  tin 
are  immediately  coated  with  tin  reduced  and 
precipitated  from  the  solution.  Boiling  brass 
or  copper  objects,  in  contact  with  tin  filings, 
in  a  solution  of  stannic  oxide  in  caustic  potash, 
is  also  an  excellent  way.  Iron  objects  (nails, 
hooks  and  eyes,  &c.)  may  be  tinned,  after  suit 
able  cleansing,  in  a  bath  of  argal  and  stannous 
chloride,  with  the  addition  of  zinc  filings ;  or. 
the  bath  may  be  composed  of  equal  parts  of 
the  tin  salt  and  common  salt,  dissolved  in  water, 
or  of  1  part  tin  salt,  J  part  sal  ammoniac,  and 
1  part  common  salt,  dissolved  in  2  parts  nitric 
and  4  parts  muriatic  acid,  diluted  with  water. 
In  the  latter  liquid  most  metallic  objects  may 
be  tinned  by  sufficiently  prolonged  immersion, 
copper  or  iron  being  kept  in  contact  with  a 
zinc  Avire  during  the  process.  Zinc  is  most 
easily  tinned.  For  galvanic  tinning  a  weak 
battery  may  be  employed,  and  a  solution  of 
stannic  chloride  in  caustic  potash.  But  the 
use  of  the  battery  in  this  and  similar  opera- 


TINAMOU 


TINDAL 


765 


tions  on  a  commercial  scale  will  doubtless  be 
superseded  by  the  modern  magneto-electric 
machines,  which  furnish  the  necessary  current 
by  mechanical  instead  of  chemical  means  ;  or, 
to  speak  more  accurately,  by  the  combustion 
of  coal,  a  cheap  fuel,  instead  of  the  combustion 
of  zinc  or  other  expensive  substances. 

TINAMOU,  a  name  applied  to  the  tinamidw,  a 
family  of  gallinaceous  birds  peculiar  to  South 
America.  The  bill  is  moderate,  rather  straight, 
flattened,  the  base  covered  by  a  membrane,  and 
the  tip  suddenly  hooked ;  wings  short  and  con 
cave  ;  tail  short  or  wanting ;  tarsi  rather  long, 
scaled  in  front,  and  without  spurs ;  toes  long, 
with  stout  blunt  claws,  the  hind  one  sometimes 
wanting.  They  live  in  the  fields  on  the  bor 
ders  of  woods,  are  low  and  heavy  fliers,  but 
rapid  runners,  and  feed  on  grains,  fruits,  and 
insects ;  they  lay  about  a  dozen  eggs,  on  the 
ground  in  tufts  of  grass,  and  the  young  when 
hatched  soon  disperse  ;  when  pursued  they  en 
deavor  to  hide  in  the  bushes,  and  are  often 
caught  by  a  noose  on  the  end  of  a  stick ;  their 


Tinamou. 

flesh  is  exceedingly  good ;  they  vary  from  6  to 
18  in.  in  length,  and  are  usually  of  a  reddish  or 
gray  brown.  In  the  genus  tinamus  (Lath. ; 
crypturus,  Illig.),  the  bill  is  shorter  than  the 
head,  the  upper  mandible  the  longer,  and  the 
nostrils  in  the  middle ;  first  quill  short,  fourth 
and  fifth  longest ;  hind  toe  small  and  elevated. 
The  great  tinamou  (T.  Brasiliensis,  Lath.)  is 
about  15  in.  long,  of  a  deep  olive  color,  slightly 
and  narrowly  banded  with  black,  with  crown 
red  and  secondaries  red  and  black ;  pale  red 
dish  ash  below ;  it  is  found  in  Guiana  and  Bra 
zil,  resembling  in  size,  habits,  colors,  and  qual 
ity  of  flesh  the  partridges  of  the  old  world; 
though  gentle  and  timid,  it  is  said  not  to  be 
capable  of  domestication.  The  males  have  a 
trembling  plaintive  whistle  to  warn  of  danger 
or  attract  the  females;  they  live  in  couples 
during  breeding  time,  at  other  seasons  in  small 
flocks.  The  nest  is  made  on  the  ground  in  a 
slight  hollow,  covered  with  dry  grasses ;  they 
lay  twice  a  year ;  the  young  follow  the  parent 
as  soon  as  hatched.  Other  genera  are  rJiyn- 
cliotus  (Spix),  with  the  species  R.  rufescens 
(Wagl.)  or  rufescent  tinamou,  inhabiting  the 


borders  of  lakes  and  the  swampy  thickets  of 
Paraguay  in  small  troops ;  and  tinamotis  (Vig.), 
with  three  or  four  species,  found  in  high  des 
ert  places,  some  distance  from  fresh  water. 

TINCTURE,  a  solution  of  a  vegetable,  animal, 
or  in  some  cases  mineral  substance  in  alcohol, 
dilute  alcohol,  or  ether.  As  tinctures  present 
the  active  principles  of  many  drugs  in  a  small 
bulk,  and  are  little  liable  to  change,  they  are 
largely  used  in  medicine.  They  are  made 
by  maceration  or  displacement.  The  former 
process  consists  in  soaking  the  drug  for  a 
time  which  varies  greatly  in  different  cases. 
Displacement  or  percolation  is  largely  em 
ployed  in  the  preparation  of  fluid  extracts  as 
well  as  of  tinctures,  and  consists  in  allowing 
the  fluid  employed  to  filter  slowly  through  the 
powdered  drug,  the  lower  layer  of  fluid,  con 
taining  a  large  portion  of  the  soluble  constitu 
ents,  being  constantly  drawn  off  and  its  place 
supplied  by  fresh  strata  from  above.  This 
process  is  in  most  cases  much  more  rapid  than 
maceration.  Tincture  of  iodine  and  tincture 
of  the  chloride  of  iron  demand  no  maceration, 
as  iodine  dissolves  rapidly  in  alcohol  or  ether, 
while  the  iron  preparation  is  a  mere  mixture 
of  a  solution  with  alcohol. 

TINDAL,  Matthew,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Beer-Ferris,  Devonshire,  about  1657,  died  in 
London,  Aug.  16,  1733.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  in  1676, 
and  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  at  All  Souls, 
which  he  retained  through  life.  He  was  cre 
ated  LL.  D.  in  1685,  and  soon  after  became  a 
Roman  Catholic,  but  returned  to  the  church  of 
England  just  before  the  revolution  of  1688. 
After  the  revolution,  of  which  he  was  a  zeal 
ous  partisan,  he  became  an  advocate,  sat  as 
judge  in  the  court  of  delegates,  and  received  a 
pension  from  the  crown  of  £200.  In  1706  he 
published  "The  Rights  of  the  Christian  Church 
asserted,  against  the  Romish  and  all  other 
Priests  that  claim  an  independent  Power  over 
it,"  in  opposition  to  high  church  principles. 
This  excited  a  long  controversy,  during  which 
he  published  two  defences,  which  he  reprinted 
in  1709,  with  essays  on  obedience  and  the  law 
of  nations,  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  the 
rights  of  mankind  in  matters  of  religion.  In 
1710  he  attacked  the  party  of  Dr.  Sacheverell 
in  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  ISTew  High  Church 
turned  Old  Presbyterian;"  but  the  house  of 
commons  on  one  day  condemned  Sacheverell's 
sermons,  and  on  the  next  ordered  Tindal's 
"  Rights  of  the  Christian  Church "  and  the 
second  edition  of  his  "Defences"  to  be  burned. 
His  most  important  work  is  "  Christianity  as 
old  as  the  Creation,  or  the  Gospel  a  Republi- 
cation  of  the  Religion  of  Nature"  (1730),  in 
which  he  expressly  denies  that  Christianity 
contains  any  truth  which  the  human  reason 
might  not  have  discovered  for  itself.  Water- 
land,  James  Foster,  Conybeare,  Leland,  Chap 
man,  and  others  wrote  replies  to  it.  He  left  a 
second  volume  of  this,  only  the  preface  to 
which  has  been  published. 


TINDALE 


TIOGA 


TINDALE,  William.     See  TYXDALE. 

TINGHAI.     See  CHUSAN. 

TIME,  the  northern  branch  of  the  great 
Athabascan  family  of  American  Indians,  be 
ing  the  most  northerly  of  all  except  the  Es 
quimaux.  They  live  north  of  lat.  55°,  and 
extend  from  central  Alaska  to  Hudson  bay. 
They  embrace  several  large  divisions,  differing 
in  language:  1,  the  Ohippewyans  or  Pointed 
Skins,  called  Montagnais  by  the  French,  in 
cluding  also  the  Caribou  Eaters  and  Yellow 
Knives;  2,  the  Beaver  Indians,  on  the  west, 
the  Mauvais  Monde,  and  Sarcees ;  3,  the  Dog 
Eibs,  Slaves,  Hares,  Nahaunes,  Red  Knives, 
Sheep,  Brushwood,  and  Kooky  Mountain  In 
dians,  all  E.  of  the  Rocky  mountains ;  4,  the 
Tacully  or  Carriers,  including  the  Sicaunees  in 
British  Columbia ;  5,  the  Kutchin  Dekedhe  or 
Loucheux ;  0,  the  Kenai,  including  the  Atnas 
in  Alaska.  They  are  generally  mild,  timid,  and 
honest,  live  on  rish  or  reindeer  and  other  ani 
mals,  more  frequently  snared  than  hunted,  and 
do  not  attempt  to  cultivate  the  ground.  They 
are  tall  and  slim,  with  a  full  face,  dark  com 
plexion,  and  piercing  eyes,  and  have  more 
beard  than  other  Indians.  Their  weapons  and 
implements  are  generally  rude,  made  of  bone 
or  stone  ;  but  some  tribes  make  excellent  wa 
ter-tight  vessels  of  roots.  Their  jkanze  or 
medicine  men  have  great  influence.  The 
Chippewyans  leave  the  dead  unburied,  but  the 
Tacullies  burn  them.  The  estimates  of  their 
numbers  vary  ;  those  east  of  the  Rocky  moun 
tains  are  estimated  by  Archbishop  Tache  at 
15,000.  Catholic  and  Protestant  missions  have 
been  established  among  them  in  various  parts. 

TL\NE,  Alexandrine  Petronella  Frantma,  a  Dutch 
traveller,  born  at  the  Hague,  Oct.  17,  18o5, 
murdered  in  Fezzan,  Africa,  Aug.  1, 1809.  Her 
father  was  an  English  merchant,  her  mother 
the  baroness  Van  Steengracht-Capellen  of  Hol 
land.  She  was  rich,  travelled  in  Europe  and 
the  East,  settled  in  1801  in  Cairo,  and  in  1802 
set  out  from  Khartoom  with  a  steamboat, 
transport  vessels,  beasts  of  burden,  and  a  large 
retinue,  to  visit  the  White  Nile.  Her  state 
made  the  natives  believe  her  the  daughter  of  a 
sultan.  In  1803  she  explored  the  Bahr  el- 
Ghazal,  the  W.  arm  of  the  White  Nile,  in  com 
pany  with  Baron  von  Heuglin  and  Dr.  Steud- 
ner,  the  latter  of  whom,  together  with  Miss 
Tinne's  mother,  and  many  others,  died  from 
exposure.  The  expedition,  which  was  absent 
14  months,  determined  astronomically  the  po 
sition  of  Lake  Meshera,  one  of  the  feeders  of 
the  Ghazal.  The  flora  of  the  region  has  since 
been  illustrated  in  Kotschy's  Plantce  Tinnia- 
ncc,  partly  from  her  drawings  and  descriptions. 
In  1809  she  set  out  from  Tripoli  for  Bornoo, 
with  TO  camels  and  50  attendants,  of  whom 
the  only  Europeans  were  two  Dutch  sailors. 
From  Moorzook  she  turned  aside  to  visit  the 
country  of  the  Tuariks,  and  while  on  the  way 
to  Ghat  was  murdered  by  her  attendants. 

TIAOCERAS,  or  Titanotlierinm,  a  fossil  mam- 
inal  of  the  order  dinocerata,  discovered  by 


Prof.  O.  C.  Marsh  in  the  eocene  of  Wyoming 
territory,  in  1870.  It  was  as  large  as  an  ele 
phant,  and  had  many  characters  of  the  pro 
boscidians,  with  three  separate  pairs  of  horns, 
and  large  decurved  canines  like  the  walrus  ;  it 
also  had  characters  of  both  the  perissodactyl 
and  artiodactyl  ungulates.  These  animals  have 
been  named  eobasileus  and  loxolophodon  by 
Prof.  Cope,  and  uintatJienum  by  Prof.  Leidy. 
("American  Naturalist,"  vol.  vii.,  1873.) 

TINTORETTO,  II,  an  Italian  painter,  whose 
real  name  was  GIACOMO  ROBUSTI,  born  in  Ven 
ice  in  1512,  died  there  in  1594.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  dyer,  whence  he  received  his  popular 
name.  He  studied  for  a  short  time  under  Ti 
tian,  and  subsequently  began  a  rigorous  course 
of  self-instruction,  inscribing  over  his  studio  : 
II  disegno  di  Michel  Angela  e'l  colorito  di  Ti- 
ziano  ("  The  drawing  of  Michel  Angelo  and 
the  coloring  of  Titian  ").  He  did  not  however 
content  himself  with  following  them,  but  as 
pired  to  become  the  founder  of  a  school,  which 
should  supply  whatever  was  deficient  in  their 
styles.  lie  soon  rose  into  great  reputation 
among  the  Venetians,  and  in  his  best  period 
his  quickness  of  invention  and  the  facility 
and  rapidity  of  his  execution  were  unequalled 
perhaps  by  any  painter ;  but  his  impetuosity 
made  his  performances  remarkably  unequal. 
His  portraits  are  his  most  uniformly  excellent 
works,  and  his  landscapes  are  distinguished 
for  imaginative  suggestiveness.  But  his  repu 
tation  rests  mainly  upon  his  great  historical 
pictures  in  Venice.  His  masterpieces  are  the 
two  immense  compositions  representing  St. 
Mark  rescuing  a  tortured  slave  from  the  hands 
of  the  heathen,  and  the  "  Crucifixion,"  both 
painted  in  his  best  period.  The  doge's  palace 
is  rich  in  his  works,  and  contains,  among  other 
remarkable  pieces,  a  representation  of  para 
dise  84|  ft.  .long  and  34  ft.  high,  painted,  like 
almost  everything  he  produced,  in  oil.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  degenerated  into 
a  coarse  style,  of  which  his  "Last  Judgment" 
and  "  Worshipping  of  the  Golden  Calf,"  in  the 
church  of  Sta.  Maria  dell'  Orto,  are  examples. 
In  the  maturity  of  his  powers  he  wrought  so 
fast  and  at  so  low  a  price,  that  few  of  the  con 
temporary  painters  of  Venice  could  get  em 
ployment.  Many  of  his  works  were  bestowed 
gratuitously  upon  convents,  and  for  others  he 
got  barely  enough  to  pay  for  the  materials. 

TIOGA.  I.  A  S.  county  of  New  York,  bor 
dering  on  Pennsylvania,  and  intersected  by 
the  North  branch  of  the  Susquehanna  river 
and  by  several  railroads ;  area,  480  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1875,  31,744.  The  surface  is  very 
hilly  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  103,955  bushels  of 
wheat,  229,395  of"Indian  corn,  022,379  of  oats, 
107,074  of  buckwheat,  398,770  of  potatoes, 
79,432  Ibs.  of  wool,  1,907,707  of  butter,  and  05,- 
078  tons  of  hay.  There  were  0,402  horses, 
10,424  milch  cows,  9,393  other  cattle,  19,008 
sheep,  and  0,130  swine;  8  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  3  of  boots  and  shoes, 


TIPPAH 


TIPTON 


TGT 


17  of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  machinery, 
1  of  pianos,  1  of  printing  paper,  11  flour  mills, 
12  tanneries,  35  saw  mills,  and  9  planing  mills. 
Capital,  O \vego.  II*  A  1ST.  county  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  bordering  on  New  York  and  drained  by 
the  Tioga  river  arid  its  affluents;  area,  about 
1,100  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1870,  35,097.  The  surface 
is  hilly  and  heavily  timbered,  and  the  soil  bet 
ter  adapted  to  grazing  than  tillage.  Iron  ore 
is  found,  and  bituminous  coal  is  abundant,  of 
which  large  quantities  are  transported  to  Buf 
falo  by  the  Corning,  Cowanesque,  and  Antrim, 
and  Tioga  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  163,719  bushels  ~o£  wheat,  236,313 
of  Indian  corn,  5(54,684  of  oats,  110,263  of 
buckwheat,  282,618  of  potatoes,  89,788  Ibs.  of 
wool,  145,209  of  maple  sugar,  1,574,825  of 
butter,  65,889  of  cheese,  and  82,572  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  6,148  horses,  16,017  milch 
cows,  15,149  other  cattle,  32,729  sheep,  and 
8,331  swine  ;  3  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  28  of  carriages  and  wagons,  7  of 
cheese,  12  of  furniture,  2  of  glassware,  1  of 
woollens,  10  flour  mills,  13  tanneries,  and  46 
saw  mills.  Capital,  Wellsborougli. 

TIPPAH,  a  N.  county  of  Mississippi,  bor 
dering  on  Tennessee,  drained  by  the  Hatchie 
and  Tallahatchie  rivers  and  Tippah  creek ; 
area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  20,727, 
of  whom  5,091  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
undulating,  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  37,429  bushels  of 
wheat,  582,988  of  Indian  corn,  15,255  of  oats, 
43,125  of  sweet  potatoes,  15,457  Ibs.  of  wool, 
188,439  of  butter,  and  6,307  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  3,116  horses,  2,010  mujes  and 
asses,  13,761  cattle,  9,942  sheep,  32,629  swine, 
and  9  saw  mills.  Capital,  Ripley. 

TIPPECMOE,  a  river  of  Indiana,  which  rises 
in  a  lake  of  the  same  name  in  Kosciusko  co., 
and  flows  generally  S.  "W.  into  the  AY  abash 
river  9  m.  above  Lafayette,  Tippecanoe  co. 
Its  length  is  about  200  m.  It  is  famous  for 
the  battle  fought  on  its  banks,  Nov.  7,  1811, 
in  which  the  Americans  under  Gen.  Harrison 
defeated  the  Indians  under  Tecumseh's  brother. 

TIPPECANOE,  a  W.  county  of  Indiana,  inter 
sected  by  the  Wabash  river,  drained  by  the 
Tippecanoe  river  and  several  creeks,  and  inter 
sected  by  the  Wabash  and  Erie  canal  and  sev 
eral  railroads  ;  area,  €00  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
33,515.  The  surface  is  generally  level,  and 
the  soil  a  rich  black  loam.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  552,677  bushels  of  wheat, 
909,367  of  Indian  corn,  177,578  of  oats,  94,516 
of  potatoes,  54,286  Ibs.  of  wool,  267,971  of 
butter,  and  16,654  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
9,095  horses,  5,836  milch  cows,  12,608  other 
cattle,  16,310  sheep,  and  27,293  swine;  4 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  0  of 
boots  and  shoes,  25  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
5  of  machinery,  1  of  paper,  1  of  vegetable  oil, 
3  of  woollens,  14  flour  mills,  3  breweries,  1 
distillery,  1  planing  mill,  6  saw  mills,  and  1 
beef-packing  and  3  pork-packing  establish 
ments.  Capital,  Lafayette. 
VOL.  xv. — 49 


TIPPERARY,  a  S.  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Munster,  bordering  on  the  counties 
of  Galway,  King's,  Queen's,  Kilkenny,  Water- 
ford,  Cork,  Limerick,  and  Clare  ;  area,  1,639 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  216,210.  In  the  N.  part 
a  range  of  mountains  extends  completely  across 
from  the  Shannon  to  King's  county,  and  there 
are  several  groups  in  other  parts  of  the  county, 
the  highest  of  which  does  not  exceed  2,500  ft. 
above  the  sea.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Shannon,  which  flows  along  the  W.  boundary, 
and  the  Suir,  which  intersects  it  and  partly 
bounds  it  on  the  south.  A  portion  of  Lough 
Derg  is  in  Tipperary.  The  soil  of  the  level 
country  is  a  rich  loam  of  great  fertility.  But 
ter-  is  largely  exported.  Coal,  copper,  lead, 
and  slates  are  found.  It  is  divided  into  the 
North  and  South  ridings,  of  which  the  chief 
towns  are  Nenagh  and  Clonmel.  The  town 
of  Tipperary,  on  the  Arra,  an  affluent  of  the 
Suir,  has  a  large  trade  in  agricultural  prod 
uce  ;  pop.  in  1871,  5,638.  Carrick-on-Suir 
and  Cashel  are  also  in  the  county. 

TIPPOO  SCLTAN,  or  Tippoo  Sahib,  the  last  in 
dependent  sovereign  of  Mysore,  born  in  1749, 
killed  at  Seringapatam,  May  4,  1799.  He  was 
the  son  of  Hyder  Ali,  and  was  first  known  by 
the  appellation  of  Feth  Ali  Khan.  He  distin 
guished  himself  in  the  war  against  the  English, 
and  succeeded  his  father,  Dec.  7,  1782.  He  at 
once  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  war,  took  Bed- 
nore  and  other  cities,  and  concluded  a  peace, 
March  11,  1784,  on  advantageous  terms.  He 
then  assumed  the  titles  of  sultan  and  padishah, 
and  subdued  the  Nairs  of  Malabar,  carrying  off 
from  that  province,  it  is  said,  70,000  Christians, 
and  forcing  100,000  Hindoos  to  become  Mo 
hammedans.  Under  a  flimsy  pretext,  in  De 
cember,  1789,  he  broke  the  treaty  with  the 
English  by  invading  the  territory  of  their  ally, 
the  rajah  of  Travancore.  The  English  in  turn 
invaded  Mysore,  took  several  of  his  strong 
holds,  were  joined  by  the  Mahrattas  and  the 
subahdar  of  the  Deccan,  and,  under  Corn- 
wallis  and  Abercromby,  besieged  him  in  Sering 
apatam,  his  capital.  In  March,  1792,  Tippoo 
was  forced  to  conclude  peace,  agreeing  to  pay 
within  a  year  33,000,000  rupees,  to  give  up  to 
the  allies  nearly  half  of  his  dominions,  and  to 
deliver  two  of  his  sons  as  hostages.  The  earl 
of  Mornington  (afterward  Marquis  Wellesley), 
then  governor  general  of  India,  subsequently 
discovered  that  he  was  engaged  in  intrigues 
with  the  French  and  making  preparations  for 
war,  and  in  February,  1799,  on  his  refusal  to 
desist  from  arming  his  subjects,  gave  orders 
for  the  invasion  of  Mysore.  Gens.  Stuart  and 
Harris  defeated  the  Mysoreans  in  two  encoun 
ters,  at  Sidasir  and  Malaveli;  and  the  sultan 
himself  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Seringa 
patam,  at  the  storming  of  which  by  Gen.  Baird 
he  was  killed. 

TIPTON.  I.  A  W.  county  of  Tennessee,  bor 
dering  on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  bounded 
N.  by  the  Hatchie ;  area,  370  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870, 14,884,  of  whom  6,891  were  colored.  It 


768 


TIKABOSOHI 


TISCHENDOEF 


has  a  level  surface  and  fertile  soil.  Its  S.  E. 
corner  is  intersected  by  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  and  Great  Southern  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  30,579  bushels 
of  wheat,  446,771  of  Indian  corn,  18,681  of 
oats,  12,104  of  Irish  and  18,380  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  74,777  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  10,052  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  1,879  horses,  1,851  mules 
and  asses,  2,784  milch  cows,  4,315  other  cat 
tle,  4,675  sheep,  and  20,240  swine.  Capital, 
Covington.  II.  A  central  county  of  Indiana, 
drained  by  Cicero  creek  and  other  streams ; 
area,  280  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,953.  The 
surface  is  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  It  is  inter 
sected  by  the  Indianapolis,  Peru,  and  Chicago, 
and  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis 
railroads.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
149,822  bushels  of  wheat,  357,835  of  Indian 
corn,  21,487  of  oats,  25,413  of  potatoes,  30,648 
Ibs.  of  wool,  179,905  of  butter,  and  4,892  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  2,967  horses,  2,059  milch 
cows,  3,691  other  cattle,  10,702  sheep,  and 
11,835  swine;  1  flour  mill,  14  saw  mills,  and  1 
woollen  factory.  Capital,  Tipton. 

TIRABOSCHI/Girolamo,  an  Italian  author,  born 
in  Bergamo,  Dec.  28,  1731,  died  in  Modena, 
June  3,  1794.  lie  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit 
college  of  Monza,  became  a  Jesuit,  and  about 
1766  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  in 
the  university  of  Milan.  In  1770  he  was  made 
librarian  of  the  duke  of  Modena.  His  Storia 
della  letteratura  italiana  (13  vols.,  Modena, 
1772-'83  ;  best  ed.,  16  vols.,  Milan,  1822-'6) 
extends  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  end  of 
the  17th  century.  Tiraboschi  was  also  the 
aflthor  of  many  other  literary,  historical,  and 
biographical  works. 

TIRESIAS,  a  Greek  soothsayer,  born  in  Thebes, 
the  son  of  Eueres  and  Chariclo,  and  fabled  to 
have  lived  through  nine  generations  of  men, 
but  blind  from  his  seventh  year.  His  loss  of 
sight  was  ascribed  by  one  account  to  the  fact 
that  he  disclosed  to  mortals  what  they  should 
not  know ;  by  another,  to  his  having  seen 
Minerva  bathing,  who  blinded  him  by  sprink 
ling  water  upon  him.  In  compensation,  she 
gave  him  a  staff  by  which  he  could  guide  his 
steps  as  safely  as  by  sight,  and  ability  to  un 
derstand  the  voices  of  birds  and  thus  know 
futurity.  His  oracle  was  at  Orchomenus. 

TIR1JVS,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Greece, 
in  Argolis,  the  site  of  which  is  2  m.  N.  of 
Nauplia.  The  name  is  supposed  to  be  an  an 
cient  form  of  r'uppiz,  a  tower  or  castle.  It  was 
founded  by  Proetus,  and  said  to  have  been  sur 
rounded  with  walls  by  the  Cyclops.  These 
Avails  are  the  finest  existing  specimens  of  the 
military  architecture  of  the  heroic  age  of 
Greece.  The  ruins  at  present  occupy  the 
lowest  hill  of  several  which  rise  out  of  the 
plain,  and  the  entire  circuit  of  the  walls  en 
closing  the  citadel  is  still  preserved  to  some 
extent,  being  from  20  to  25  ft.  wide  and  350 
yards  in  circumference.  On  the  E.  side  of  the 
hill  are  two  towers,  and  the  S.  E.  part  of  the 
wall  has  a  remarkable  covered  gallery  36  ft. 


long  and  5  ft.  broad.  In  468  B.  C.  Tiryns  was 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  Argives. 

TISCHBEIN,  Johann  Heinrich  Wilhelm,  a  German 
painter,  born  at  Haina,  Feb.  15,  1751,  died  at 
Eutin,  Oldenburg,  July  26,  1829.  He  was  one 
of  a  family  of  painters,  resided  several  years 
in  Rome,  and  was  director  of  the  academy  of 
Naples  from.  1790  to  1799,  when  he  returned 
to  Germany.  He  excelled  in  drawing  animals, 
but  is  chiefly  known  by  illustrated  works,  in 
cluding  Tetes  de  differents  animaux  dessinees 
d'apres  nature  (2  vols.  fol.,  Naples,  1796)  ;  "A 
Collection  of  Ancient  Vases,  &c.,  in  the  posses 
sion  of  Sir  William  Hamilton"  (4  vols.  fol., 
Naples,  1790-1804,  with  214  plates,  engraved 
from  Tischbein's  designs) ;  and  Homer  nach 
Antiken  gezeichnet,  with  explanations  by 
Heyne  (fol.,  Gottingen,  1801-'4). 

TISCHENDORF,  Lobegott  (Latinized  /EXOTIIE- 
us)  Friedrich  Constautin  TOD,  a  German  Biblical 
palaeographer,  born  at  Lengenfeld  in  the  Voigt- 
land,  Saxony,  Jan.  18,  1815,  died  in  I^eipsic, 
Dec.  7,  1874.  From  1834  to  1838  he  studied 
philology  and  theology  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
published  two  prize  essays :  Doctrina  Pauli 
Apostoli  dc  Vi  Mortis  Christ i  sat  isf actor  ia 
(1837),  and  Disputatio  de  Christo  Pane  Vitce 
(1839),  and  a  volume  of  poems  entitled  'Mai- 
Tcnospen  (1838).  lie  was  for  a  year  and  a  half 
a  private  teacher  in  the  neighborhood  of  Leip 
sic,  at  which  time  he  wrote  Dcr  jungc  Mysti- 
~ker,  a  novel,  published  under  the  pseudonyrne 
of  Dr.  Fritz.  Devoting  himself  thereafter  to 
textual  criticism,  he  returned  to  Leipsic,  wrote 
an  essay  on  Matt.  xix.  16,  and  a  severe  criti 
cism  of  the  published  texts  of  the  New  Testa 
ment,  with  special  reference  to  the  edition  of 
Scholz,  and  in  1841  published  his  own  edition 
of  the  Greek  Testament,  embodying  the  vari 
ous  readings  of  the  textus  reccptus.  The  yeai;s 
1841-'4  were  in  great  part  spent  by  him  in 
visiting  the  various  libraries  of  Europe  for 
the  purpose  of  collating,  copying,  and  pub 
lishing  the  most  important  New  Testament 
manuscripts  in  their  possession.  In  1844, 
1853,  and  1859  he' made  journeys  through  the 
East,  visiting  numerous  libraries  and  monas 
teries  of  Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula,  and  Egypt.  He  published  accounts 
of  two  of  these  journeys,  JReise  in  den  Orient 
(Leipsic,  1845-'6),  and  Afts  dem  heiligen  Lande 
(1862).  With  the  exception  of  the  last  jour 
ney,  which  he  made  under  the  auspices  of  the 
emperor  of  Russia,  he  received  pecuniary  assis 
tance  for  his  travels  from  the  Saxon  govern 
ment.  In  1842,  while  at  Paris,  he  prepared  an 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  intended  for  the 
use  of  Catholics,  giving  the  Latin  Vulgate  and 
a  Greek  text,  rendered  as  far  as  possible  con 
formable  to  it,  in  parallel  columns.  He  pub 
lished  also  in  the  same  year  a  Greek  text  dif 
fering  very  little  from  his  earlier  Leipsic  edi 
tion.  In  1843  appeared  the  New  Testament 
portion  of  his  publication  of  the  Ephraem 
palimpsest  of  the  5th  century.  Two  years 
later,  when  the  remainder  of  this  edition  was 


TISCHENDORF 


769 


published,  he  was  made  professor  extraordi 
nary  in  Leipsic.  The  principal  result  of  his 
first  oriental  journey,  in  1844,  was  the  dis 
covery  .  of  43  leaves  of  a  Septuagint  manu 
script  of  the  4th  century,  then  called  Codex 
Fredericks  Augustanus,  but  subsequently  dis 
covered  to  form  part  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus. 
The  fragment  was  published  in  1846  in  litho 
graphed  facsimile.  The  same  year  also  ap 
peared  the  Monumenta  Sacra  Inedita,  contain 
ing  the  manuscripts  Fa,  L,  N,  Wa,  Y,  and  6*  of 
the  Gospels,  and  B  of  the  Apocalypse.  In  1847 
he  issued  a  portion  of  a  manuscript  of  the  old 
Latin  version  of  the  Gospels,  and  the  Wiener 
Jahrbucher  brought  out  serially  during  the  fol 
lowing  years  his  edition  of  the  old  Latin  Codex 
Bobbiensis.  In  1849  Tischendorf  published  a 
second  edition  of  his  Leipsic  Greek  Testament 
of  1841,  fully  revised  according  to  all  the  ma 
terial  so  far  collected,  and  in  1850  the  same 
text  with  marginal  readings  of  the  textus  recep- 
tus,  a  correct  reprint  of  the  Vatican  edition  of 
the  Septuagint  with  marginal  readings  of  the 
Ephraem  and  Alexandrine  manuscripts,  and 
the  New  Testament  according  to  the  Codex 
Amiatinus,  probably  the  oldest  manuscript  of 
the  Latin  Vulgate.  In  1851  he  obtained  the 
prize  offered  by  the  society  of  the  Hague  for 
the  defence  of  the  Christian  religion,  with  a 
dissertation  entitled  De  Evangeliorum  Apo- 
cryphorum  Origine  et  Hsu,  and  published  his 
Acta  Apostolorum  Apocrypha,  and  a  Synopsis 
Evangelica,  a  Greek  harmony  with  the  prin 
cipal  readings,  and  advocating  the  tripaschal 
theory.  In  1852  he  published  a  Grasco-Latin 
manuscript  of  the  Pauline  epistles  of  the  6th 
century;  in  1853  the  Exangelia  Apocrypha; 
and  in  1854  a  Novum  Testamentum  Triglottum, 
being  the  Greek  text  of  1849  revised,  a  criti 
cal  edition  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  Luther's 
German  translation  substantially  after  the  edi 
tion  of  1545,  but  corrected  from  other  editions 
published  in  Luther's  lifetime.  The  prolego 
mena  and  various  addenda  accompanying  this 
work  render  it  one  of  Tischendorf's  most  val 
uable  publications.  In  his  Anecdota  Sacra  et 
Profana  (1855)  he  gives  an  account  of  the 
manner  in  which  he  secured  the  numerous 
manuscripts,  describing  also  their  general  char 
acter.  The  larger  part  of  the  manuscripts 
which  he  obtained  were  deposited  in  the  li 
brary  of  the  university  of  Leipsic,  while  others 
were  sold  to  the  British  museum  and  the  Bod 
leian  library.  In  1855  he  began  a  new  collec 
tion  of  Monumenta  Sacra  Inedita,  in  nine  vol 
umes,  of  which  he  completed  seven,  and  a  sev 
enth  and  larger  critical  edition  of  his  Greek 
Testament  of  1849  (2  vols.,  1859).  In  1856 
he  added  to  his  Septuagint  of  1850  the  Codex 
Chisianus  version  of  the  book  of  Daniel.  In 
1859  he  was  made  ordinary  professor  of  the 
ology  and  Biblical  palseography,  which  chair 
was  founded  expressly  for  him.  His  third  ori 
ental  journey,  made  in  this  year,  resulted  in 
the  discovery  at  the  convent  of  St.  Catharine, 
near  Mt.  Sinai,  of  the  famous  Codex  Sinaiticus. 


(See  MANUSCRIPT.)  He  gave  the  first  account 
of  it  in  his  Notitiw  Codicis  Sinaitici  (1860),  and 
a  more  popular  one  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  Die 
Sinaibibel,  ihre  Entdeckung,  Herausgabe  und 
Erwerlung  (1871).  The  Sinaitic  manuscript 
was  printed  in  facsimile  type  (4  vols.  fol.,  St. 
Petersburg,  1862).  Tischendorf  received  from 
the  Russian  government  100  copies,  with  per 
mission  to  sell  them  at  about  $200  each.  In 
1863  was  published  an  abridged  edition  of  it, 
containing  only  the  New  Testament,  Barna 
bas,  and  a  portion  of  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas, 
and  giving  the  manuscript  line  for  line,  but  in 
ordinary  type.  Tischendorf  prepared  in  1864 
another  edition  of  his  Synopsis  Emngelica,  in 
which  he  adopted  a  large  number  of  readings 
from  the  Codex  Sinaiticus.  His  Novum  Testa 
mentum  Greece  ex  Sinaitico  Codice  (1865)  pre 
sented  also  the  variations  of  the  textus  recep- 
tus  and  Vatican  manuscript,  and  has  a  more 
elaborate  introduction  than  the  edition  of  1863, 
for  which  however  it  does  not  form  a  complete 
substitute  as  a  manual  for  critical  purposes. 
In  the  same  year  appeared  his  Wann  wurdcn 
unsere  Evangelien  verfasst?  which  met  with 
an  enormous  sale,  though  in  many  respects 
sharply  criticised  by  eminent  Biblical  palaeog 
raphers.  In  1866  Tischendorf  published  Apo 
calypses  Apocrypha?,  and  added  to  a  new  edi 
tion  of  the  treatise  on  the  date  of  the  Gospels 
a  severe  criticism  of  the  arguments  which  had 
been  brought  out  against  his  theories ;  and  in 
this  form  the  pamphlet  was  rapidly  translated 
into  nearly  all  modern  languages.  In  Appen 
dix  Codicum  celeberrimorum,  Sinaitici,  Vati- 
cani,  Alexandrini  (1867),  giving  fragments  of 
the  Codex  Sinaiticus  found  in  the  binding  of 
some  manuscripts,  and  an  edition  of  the  Alex 
andrine  epistles  of  Clement  of  Eome,  he  ex 
pressed  his  opinion  that  one  of  the  scribes  of 
the  Sinaitic  manuscript  wrote  also  the  New 
Testament  of  the  Vatican  manuscript.  The 
Noxum  Testamentum  Vaticanum,  a  corrected 
edition  of  the  one  by  Cardinal  Mai,  published 
by  Tischendorf  about  the  same  time,  was  two 
years  later  supplemented  by  him  with  an  Ap 
pendix  Nom  Testamenti  Vaticani,  which  fur 
nished  also  the  Vatican  text  of  the  Apocalypse 
and  corrected  the  errors  of  the  main  edition. 
His  subsequent  publications  are  all  signed 
Constantin  von  Tischendorf,  instead  of  Con- 
stantin  Tischendorf,  Alexander  II.  having  con 
ferred  upon  him  the  rank  of  a  hereditary 
noble.  With  the  assistance  of  B.  Harris  Cow- 
per,  he  published  in  1869,  as  the  thousandth 
volume  of  the  Tauchnitz  collection  of  Brit 
ish  authors,  the  authorized  English  version 
of  the  New  Testament,  with  readings  from 
the  Sinaitic,  Vatican,  and  Alexandrine  manu 
scripts.  In  1870  he  brought  out  a  corrected 
edition  of  the  Novum  Testamentum  Greece  ex 
Sinaitico  Codice  of  1865,  and  published  a 
pamphlet,  entitled  Responsa  ad  Calumnias 
Romanas,  in  defence  of  his  Novum  Testamen 
tum  Vaticanum.  The  next  year  appeared  a 
third  edition  of  the  Synopsis  Evangelic^  in 


TTO 


TISIIOMINGO 


TITANIUM 


which  several  of  the  readings  adopted  for  the 
second  edition  are  omitted.  In  1872  he  com 
pleted  the  important  eighth  larger  critical  edi 
tion  of  his  Greek  Testament,  which  for  fulness 
and  accuracy  excels  all  that  preceded  it.  He 
published  also  the  first  of  the  two  parts  of  an 
abridged  edition  of  this  valuable  work;  the 
second  part  was  not  completed  at  the  time  of 
his  death.  The  minor  editions  of  Tauchnitz 
and  Brockhaus  (1873)  are  corrected  by  this 
critical  edition.  In  1873  Tischendorf  com 
pleted  Theodor  Heyse's  edition  of  the  Latin 
Vulgate,  and  in  1874  he  published  in  conjunc 
tion  with  Baer  and  Delitzsch  a  Liber  Psalmo- 
rum  Hebraicus  et  Latinus  ab  Hieronymo  ex 
Hebrceo  conversus.  Shortly  before  his  death  ap 
peared  his  22d  edition  of  the  New  Testament. 

TISHOMINGO,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Mississippi, 
bordering  on  Tennessse  and  Alabama,  bounded 
N.  E.  by  the  Tennessee  river,  and  drained  by 
affluents  of  the  Tennessee  and  Tombigbee 
rivers ;  area,  about  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
7,350,  of  whom  741  were  colored.  The  sur 
face  is  hilly  and  the  soil  fertile.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Memphis  and  Charleston  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  4,319  bushels 
of  wheat,  188,836  of  Indian  corn,  18,578  of 
sweet  potatoes,  1,397  bales  of  cotton,  3,999 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  6,957  of  wool,  and  94,624  of 
butter.  There  were  1,117  horses,  2,091  milch 
cows,  7,140  other  cattle,  4,547  sheep,  and 
9,183  'swine;  1  cotton  factory,  2  planing  mills, 
and  5  saw  mills.  Capital,  luka. 

TISSAPHERNES,  a  Persian  general,  assassinated 
in  Colossi,  Phrygia,  in  395  B.  C.  In  414  Da 
rius  Nothus  appointed  him  satrap  of  Lower 
Asia,  S.  of  the  Adramyttian  bay,  in  place  of 
Pissutlmes,  then  in  revolt.  He  was  ordered 
by  the  king  to  collect  from  the  Hellenic  cities 
within  his  jurisdiction  the  tributes  in  arrears 
for  half  a  century,  and  also  to  slay  or  im 
prison  Amorges,  the  son  of  Pissuthnes,  who 
had  rebelled  and  made  an  alliance  with  the 
Athenians.  Tissaphernes  obtained  the  aid  of 
the  Spartans  through  the  influence  of  Alci- 
biades,  who  desired  to  support  the  Chians  in 
their  revolt  against  the  Athenians.  Through 
out  the  ensuing  contest,  comprising  the  closing 
scenes  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  Tissaphernes 
acted  treacherously  to  his  allies.  (See  ALCI- 
BIADES,  and  GREECE,  vol.  viii.,  p.  194.)  In 
407  Cyrus  the  Younger  was  appointed  viceroy 
of  the  maritime  region  of  Asia  Minor.  Hos 
tility  soon  sprang  up  between  him  and  Tissa 
phernes,  who  accused  him,  after  the  death  of 
Darius,  of  aspiring  to  the  throne  of  his  brother 
Artaxerxes  II.  Tissaphernes,  being  one  of  the 
four  generals  who  commanded  the  Persian 
army  at  Cunaxa,  gained  possession  of  the  per 
sons  of  the  five  generals  commanding  the  Greek 
mercenaries  of  Cyrus,  and  put  four  of  them  to 
death.  Daring  the  famous  retreat  of  the  10,000 
under  Xenophon  he  continually  harassed  them 
as  far  as  the  Carduchian  mountains.  For  his 
services  he  was  made  governor  of  the  prov 
inces  formerly  ruled  by  Cyrus,  and  as  such  he 


carried  on  war  with  the  Spartans.  Complaints 
against  him  constantly  arrived  at  the  Persian 
court,  and  Tithraustes  was  sent  to  put  him  to 
death.  Tissaphernes  was  surprised  in  the  bath 
and  slain,  and  his  head  sent  to  Artaxerxes. 

TISSOT,  Simon  Andre,  a  Swiss  physician,  born 
at  Grancy,  in  the  canton  of  Yaud,  March  20, 
1728,  died  in  Lausanne,  June  15,  1797.  He 
studied  at  Geneva  and  Montpellier,  settled  at 
Lausanne  about  1750,  acquired  great  eminence 
as  a  practitioner,  and  became  professor  in  the 
university.  In  1780  he  accepted'  the  profes 
sorship  of  clinical  medicine  at  Pavia,  and  in 
1783  returned  to  Switzerland.  His  most  im 
portant  works  are :  Historia  Epidemics  Lau- 
saniensis  Anni  1755  (Lausanne,  1758 ;  French, 
1759);  L'Onanisme  (Latin  and  French,  1760; 
latest  ed.,  revised  and  enlarged  by  M.  A.  Petit, 
Lyons,  1856) ;  Avis  au  peuple  sur  la  sante 
(1761 ;  12th  ed.,  1799)  ;  and  De  la  sante  des 
gens  de  lettres,  suivi  de  Vessai  sur  maladies  des 
gens  du  monde  (1768-'70 ;  new  ed.,  revised  by 
I3ertrand  de  Saint-Germain,  Paris,  1859).  His 
complete  works  have  been  edited  by  Halle, 
with  a  biography  and  annotations  (11  vols., 
Paris,  1809-'13). 

TITANIUM,  a  metal  first  detected  in  1789  by 
Gregor  in  titanic  iron,  and  found  by  Klap- 
roth  in  1794  in  rutile,  and  named  by  him  from 
the  Titans.  Dr.  Wollaston  in  1822  recognized 
it  in  the  form  of  minute  copper-colored  cubical 
crystals  found  in  the  slags  of  the  iron-smelting 
furnaces  at  Merthyr  Tydfil  in  South  Wales, 
and  these,  often  met  with  since  that  time  in 
iron  slags,  were  formerly  regarded  as  pure 
titanium,  but  are  now  understood  to  be  com 
pounds  of  the  metal  with  nitrogen  and  cyano 
gen.  Berzelius  was  the  first  to  separate  this 
metal  in  a  state  of  purity.  He  decomposed  a 
mixture  of  the  fluorides  of  titanium  and  potas 
sium  by  means  of  metallic  potassium,  and  ob 
tained  the  metal  in  a  grayish  powder.  M. 
Sainte-Claire  Deville  obtained  it  in  forms  re 
sembling  specular  iron  ore,  crystallized  in 
prisms  with  a  square  base.  Its  chemical  equiva 
lent  is  50 ;  symbol,  Ti.  Three  oxides  of  the 
metal  are  known,  TiO,  Ti2O3,  and  TiO2 ;  the 
last  of  which,  titanic  anhydride,  is  the  only 
one  of  interest.  It  occurs  as  a  mineral  in  three 
forms :  as  rutile  and  anatase,  which  both  crys 
tallize  in  the  dimetric  system,  though  with  dif 
ferent  angles,  and  as  brookite,  crystallizing  in 
the  trimetric  system.  Eutile  is  generally  a 
reddish  brown  mineral,  sometimes  yellowish 
or  black,  harder  than  feldspar,  and  of  specific 
gravity  4'18  to  4'25.  It  occurs  in  many  parts 
of  Europe  and  America,  the  richest  localities  in 
the  United  States  being  in  Chester  and  Lancas 
ter  cos.,  Pa.  In  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire, 
as  also  in  Brazil  and  Switzerland,  it  is  found  in 
long  needles  enclosed  in  masses  of  transparent 
quartz,  making  very  curious  and  beautiful 
specimens,  which  are  often  used  in  jewelry. 
Anatase  and  brookite  are  comparatively  rare 
minerals.  In  combination  with  oxide  of  iron, 
titanic  acid  forms  the  compound  ilmenite  or 


TITANS 


TITHES 


771 


titaniferous  iron.  (See  IRON  ORES.)  This  is 
met  with  in  large  masses  in  Maryland,  north 
ern  New  York,  and  Canada.  At  Bay  St.  Paul 
on  the  St.  Lawrence  are  beds  of  it,  from  100  to 
300  ft.  long  and  90  ft.  thick,  the  ore,  according 
to  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  containing  48'60  per  cent, 
of  titanic  acid  combined  with  37'06  of  protox 
ide  of  iron,  10*42  of  peroxide  of  iron,  and  3'60 
of  magnesia. — The  only  useful  application  of 
titanium  is  to  furnish  a  yellow  color  in  porce 
lain  painting,  and  to  give  the  proper  tint  to 
artificial  teeth.  The  American  supply  for  these 
purposes  is  derived  from  Pennsylvania.  Tessie 
da  Motay  employs  the  strong  attraction  of 
titanium  for  nitrogen  to  produce  ammonia 
directly  from  the  atmosphere.  If  a  mixture 
of  titanic  anhydride  and  charcoal,  both  in  a 
minute  state  of  division,  be  heated  to  white 
ness  and  submitted  to  a  current  of  air,  nitro 
gen  is  rapidly  absorbed,  and  carbonic  oxide 
escapes.  By  passing  steam  over  the  copper- 
colored  crystals  which  result,  ammonia  is  co 
piously  evolved,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the 
operation  may  be  made  continuous. 

TITANS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  Uranus  (Coelus)  and  Ga3a  (Terra). 
They  were  Oceanus,  Coeus,  Crius,  Hyperion, 
Japetus,  Cronus,  Theia,  Khea,  Themis,  Mnemo 
syne,  Phoebe,  and  Tethys.  According  to  the 
most  generally  received  account,  Uranus  feared 
his  offspring,  and  as  fast  as  they  were  born 
threw  them  into  Tartarus.  Ga3a  endeavored 
to  persuade  them  to  free  her  and  themselves 
from  this  oppressive  treatment.  Cronus, 
armed  with  a  sickle  made  by  his  mother,  un 
manned  his  father,  and  thus  secured  liberty 
and  power  for  himself  and  his  brothers.  Mar 
rying  his  sister  Rhea,  he  begot  three  sons  and 
three  daughters,  but,  having  been  told  that  he 
would  be  destroyed  by  one  of  his  own  children, 
swallowed  them  as  soon  as  they  were  born. 
Rhea  concealed  Zeus  (Jupiter),  the  youngest, 
in  a  cave  in  Crete,  giving  to  Cronus  instead  a 
stone  wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes.  When 
Zeus  had  grown  up,  he  was  enabled  by  strata 
gem  to  make  his  father  vomit  up  the  stone  and 
the  five  children  he  had  swallowed.  Supplied 
by  the  Cyclops  with  thunder  and  lightning,  and 
aided  by  the  Centimani,  Zeus  carried  on  a  war 
against  the  Titans  for  ten  years,  and  at  length 
triumphed.  The  Titans,  with  the  exception  of 
Oceanus,  were  confined  for  ever  in  a  subter 
ranean  dungeon,  where  they  were  guarded  by 
the  Centimani.  The  name  of  Titans  was  also 
given  to  their  descendants. 

THE,    Sir    William,    an    English    architect, 
born  in  London  in  1802,  died  in  Torquay,  April 
20,  1873.     He  studied  under  Laing,  and  early  [ 
superintended  the  restoration  of  the  church  of  j 
St.  Dunstan-in-the-East.     He  built  the  famous  | 
gothic  Irvingite  church  in  London,  and  several  [ 
fine  railway  stations  in  France  and  England.  | 
His  most  celebrated  work  is  the  royal  exchange,  I 
London.     He  was  president  of  the  institute  of  ' 
British  architects  from  1862  to  1804,  a  mem 
ber  of  parliament  for  Bath  from  1855  till  his 


death,  and  was  knighted  in  1869.  He  was  a 
high  financial  authority,  and  presided  for  some 
time  over  the  London  and  Westminster  bank 
and  the  bank  of  Egypt. 

TITHES  (Ang.  Sax.  teotha,  a  tenth),  a  tax  of 
one  tenth  of  the  increase  of  crops,  stock,  and 
avails  of  personal  industry,  formerly  and  still 
in  some  countries  levied  for  the  support  of  the 
officers  of  religion,  religious  worship,  or  the 
assistance  of  the  poor.  This  tax  seems  to  have 
been  of  patriarchal  origin  (Gen.  xiv.  20),  and 
existed  in  many  of  the  nations  of  antiquity. 
Under  the  Jewish  theocracy  the  tenth  part  of 
the  increase  of  the  property  of  the  Jews  was 
accorded  to  the  Levites,  as  a  substitute  for  the 
landed  inheritance  which  they  forfeited  by 
their  consecration  to  the  temple  worship,  and 
also  as  a  compensation  for  their  services. 
Other  tithes  were  also  prescribed  for  the  sac 
rifices  of  the  temple,  and  at  particular  periods 
for  the  poor.  The  early  Christian  church 
adopted  voluntarily  the  custom  of  consecrating 
to  religious  purposes  a  tenth  of  the  income,  it 
being  admitted  that  first  fruits  and  tithes  were 
not  of  divine  precept  in  the  new  law,  but  held 
that  the  obligation  of  supporting  the  ministers 
of  religion  is  of  divine  origin.  It  does  not 
appear  that  the  payment  of  tithes  was  ever 
enjoined  as  obligatory  by  the  Greek  or  other 
eastern  churches.  The  first  known  canonical 
enactment  made  for  that  purpose  in  the  Latin 
church  was  a  statute  of  the  second  council  of 
Tours  in  567,  and  this  collection  was  enforced 
under  pain  of  excommunication  by  the  second 
council  of  Macon  in  585.  In  France,  Char 
lemagne  established  them  by  decree  in  the  8th 
century.  In  England  the  first  law  in  relation 
to  them  is  believed  to  have  been  that  of  Offa, 
king  of  Mercia,  who  brought  the  civil  power 
to  the  aid  of  the  clergy  in  collecting  their 
tithes.  This  was  subsequently  extended  over 
the  whole  of  England  by  Ethelwulf.  In  the 
9th  century  they  were  also  made  obligatory  in 
Scotland,  and  not  long  after  in  Ireland.  At 
first  they  were  paid  to  whatever  church  the 
payer  chose,  but  the  decretal  of  Pope  Inno 
cent  III.  directed  their  payment  to  the  parsons 
of  the  respective  parishes  in  which  they  arose. 
By  the  ecclesiastical  law  tithes  were  divided 
into  three  kinds:  "pnedial,"  or  such  as  arose 
immediately  from  the  ground,  like  grain  of 
all  kinds,  fruits,  herbs,  grasses,  hops,  wood, 
&c. ;  "mixed,"  natural  products,  but  nurtured, 
and  preserved  in  part  by  the  care  of  man,  such 
as  wool,  milk,  pigs,  butter,  cheese,  &c. ;  and 
"personal,"  as  of  manual  occupations,  trades, 
fisheries,  &c.  The  first  two  kinds  were  payable 
in  gross,  but  of  the  third  class  only  the  tenth 
part  of  the  clear  gains  and  profits  was  due.  In 
France,  Charlemagne  divided  the  tithes  into 
four  parts,  one  to  maintain  the  edifice  of  the 
church,  another  to  support  the  poor,  a  third  to 
maintain  the  bishop,  and  a  fourth  the  parochial 
clergy.  By  the  original  law  in  England,  all 
lands  except  those  of  the  crown  and  of  the 
church  itself  were  tithable ;  but  at  the  refor- 


772 


TITIAN 


mation  many  of  the  forfeited  church  lands  when 
sold  were  specially  exempted,  and  some  were 
also  exempted  by  composition  and  some  by 
prescription.  These  partial  exemptions  only 
made  the  burden  more  galling  to  those  who 
were  compelled  to  pay ;  and  as  the  tithes  were 
a  tax  for  the  support  of  the  clergy  of  the  estab 
lished  church,  it  was  particularly  annoying  to 
dissenters,  and  has  been  for  two  centuries  a 
constant  subject  of  complaint.  Until  the  reign 
of  William  IV.  the  payment  of  tithes  might  be 
exacted  in  kind,  but  by  the  act  of  6  and  7  Wil 
liam  IV.,  c.  71,  and  subsequent  acts,  tithes  have 
been  converted  into  a  rent  charge  payable  in 
money,  but  varying  annually  according  to  the 
average  price  of  corn  for  the  preceding  seven 
years.  In  Ireland  they  had  been  compounded 
at  three  fourths  their  former  estimated  value 
previous  to  the  disestablishment  act  of  18G9, 
which  abolished  tithes,  and  created  a  common 
fund  for  the  support  of  the  Protestant  Episco 
pal  church  and  clergy.  In  France  tithes  were 
abolished  at  the  revolution,  and  this  example 
was  followed  afterward  by  the  other  conti 
nental  states.  In  the  Canadian  province  of 
Quebec  tithes  are  still  collected  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  clergy,  in  virtue  of  the  old  French  law 
still  in  force  there.  In  the  United  States  tithes 
are  only  exacted  by  the  Mormon  hierarchy,  and 
among  them  the  system  is  modelled  on  that  of 
the  Jewish  theocracy. 

TITIAN  (TIZIANO  VECELLIO),  an  Italian  paint 
er,  born  near  Pieve  di  Cadore,  Friuli,  in  1477, 
died  in  Venice,  Aug.  27,  1576.  He  is  said  to 
have  made  his  first  attempts  at  coloring  in 
his  early  childhood  with  juices  expressed  from 
flowers.  In  his  ninth  year  he  was  placed 
under  Sebastiano  Zuccati,  a  Venetian  painter 
and  worker  in  mosaic,  and  subsequently  stud 
ied  under  Bellini,  lie  also  came  probably 
under  the  influence  of  Albert  Diirer,  who 
visited  Venice  in  1494  and  again  in  1507,  but 
was  indebted  chiefly  to  his  intimate  friend 
and  fellow  student  Giorgione  for  the  ideas  of 
art  and  color  which  long  governed  him.  At 
Giorgi one's  death  in  1511  the  styles  of  the 
two  artists  were  so  similar  that  it  was  diffi 
cult  to  distinguish  their  productions,  and  Titian 
readily  completed  the  unfinished  works  of  his 
friend.  Perceiving  that  breadth  of  form  pro 
duced  breadth  of  color,  he  endeavored  to  see 
nature  in  a  more  ample  light,  and,  instead 
of  copying  or  imitating  her  tones,  to  general 
ize  and  elevate  them  in  accordance  with  his 
original  conceptions.  The  result  was  a  free 
and  serene  beauty  of  form  and  expression,  and 
a  representation  of  life  realizing  what  Kugler 
calls  "  the  glorification  of  earthly  existence, 
and  the  liberation  of  art  from  the  bonds  of 
ecclesiastical  dogmas."  Left  at  the  age  of  34 
without  a  rival,  Titian  entered  upon  a  career 
which  for  the  uniform  excellence  of  its  pro 
ductions,  for  celebrity  and  duration,  has  per- 
haps  no  parallel  in  the  history  of  painting. 
Commissions  from  the  wealthy  Venetian  no 
bility  afforded  him  abundant  employment.  In 


1514  he  visited  the  court  of  Duke  Alfonso  I.  of 
Ferrara,  for  whom  he  painted  the  "Arrival  of 
Bacchus  in  the  Island  of  Naxos"  and  "A  Sac 
rifice  to  the  Goddess  of  Fertility,"  which  are 
at  Madrid,  and  the  u  Bacchus  and  Ariadne,"  in 
the  British  national  gallery,  which  presents  an 
epitome  of  all  the  characteristic  beauties  of 
Titian  in  composition,  color,  and  form.  Afc 
Ferrara  he  also  painted  portraits  of  Lucrezia 
Borgia  and  of  Ariosto.  lie  was  again  at  Venice 
from  1516  to  1530,  when  he  went  to  Bologna 
to  paint  the  portraits  of  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  and  Pope  Clement  VII.,  and  to  Mantua, 
where  he  executed  for  the  duke  a  series  of  the 
twelve  Caesars.  At  65  he  retained  the  vigor 
and  freshness  of  youth,  while  tbe  magic  charm 
of  his  color  and  the  cheerful  serenity  of  his 
style  seemed  to  mellow  with  time.  In  1543-'5 
he  revisited  Bologna  and  Ferrara,  and  painted 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  for  the  third  or  fourth 
time,  and  Pope  Paul  III.  After  passing  some 
time  in  the  employment  of  the  duke  of  Ur- 
bino,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  produced 
a  masterpiece  in  his  picture  of  the  old  pope 
with  his  grandsons,  Cardinal  Farnese  and  Duke 
Ottavio  Farnese.  While  engaged  upon  a  pic 
ture  of  Jupiter  and  Danae,  he  was  visited  by 
Michel  Angelo,  who,  after  expressing  admira 
tion  for  his  coloring,  observed  that  if  he  had 
been  early  grounded  in  the  principles  of  draw 
ing,  he  would  rank  as  the  first  painter  in  the 
world.  In  1548  he  was  summoned  by  Charles 
V.  to  Augsburg,  and  received  from  him  the  title 
of  count  palatine  of  the  empire  and  a  pension. 
After  the  abdication  of  Charles  he  continued 
in  great  favor  with  his  son  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
for  whom  he  painted  important  works ;  but  his 
pension  was  thenceforth  constantly  in  arrears, 
and  he  was  frequently  obliged  to  petition  the 
Spanish  officials  for  the  sums  due  him  for 
pictures.  The  remainder  of  Titian's  life  was 
passed  principally  in  Venice.  His  "  Martyr 
dom  of  St.  Lawrence,"  in  the  Jesuits'  church 
in  Venice,  painted  when  he  was  81,  is  one  of 
his  largest  and  grandest  compositions;  and 
at  least  one  of  his  celebrated  Magdalens,  that 
in  the  Escurial,  was  executed  even  later.  At 
90  years  of  age  sorrow  rather  than  time  be 
gan  to  affect  him,  and,  notwithstanding  he 
clung  resolutely  to  his  art  for  consolation,  the 
vigor  and  beauty  of  his  style  became  impaired. 
In  his  97th  year  he  received  Henry  III.  of 
France,  who  passed  through  Venice  on  his  way 
from  Poland,  with  magnificent  hospitality; 
and  two  years  later,  while  yet  occupied  with 
his  art,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  plague.  His 
latest  work  was  a  dead  Christ  with  the  Virgin 
and  attendant  saints,  now  in  the  academy  of 
Venice.  By  a  special  exception  in  his  favor 
he  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
de'  Frari. — The  works  of  Titian  comprise  sa 
cred  and  profane  history,  mythological  sub 
jects,  portraits,  and  landscapes,  the  last  named 
being  generally  treated  in  connection  with 
other  subjects,  though  not  always  in  subor 
dination  to  them.  Many  of  the  pictures  pass- 


TITICACA 


TITLAEK 


773 


ing  under  his  name  are  not  well  authenticated. 
He  is  seen  to  the  best  advantage  in  Venice. 
Of  his  early  pictures,  which  reflect  the  style 
of  the  Bellini  modified  by  the  peculiar  ideas 
derived  from  Giorgione,  the  most  noticeable 
are  the  "  Visit  of  Mary  to  Elizabeth,"  in  the 
academy  at  Venice;  the  Vierge  au  Lapin,  in 
the  Louvre;  the  "Christ  with  the  Tribute 
Money  "  (engraved  by  Gustav  Eilers,  Berlin, 
1875),  at  Dresden;  and  particularly  the  "Res 
urrection,"  painted  in  five  compartments,  in 
the  church  of  San  Nazaro,  at  Brescia.  The 
more  developed  period  which  succeeded  the 
death  of  Giorgione  comprises  nearly  all  the 
pictures  by  which  he  is  now  known.  The  first 
in  celebrity  of  these  perhaps  is  the  "St.  Peter 
Martyr,"  in  the  church  of  Santi  Giovanni  e 
Paolo  in  Venice,  which  ranks  with  the  "  Mar 
tyrdom  of  St.  Lawrence  "  among  the  painter's 
masterpieces.  The  academy  of  Venice  con 
tains  his  "Assumption"  and  "Presentation  of 
the  Virgin,"  and  the  Manfrini  palace  in  the 
same  city  the  "Entombment  of  Christ."  In 
addition  to  these  may  be  mentioned  the  "  Last 
Supper,"  in  the  Escurial,  upon  which  he  labored 
seven  years ;  a  "  Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints," 
in  the  Uffizi  gallery;  the  "  St.  Sebastian,"  in  the 
Vatican;  the  "Christ  crowned  with  Thorns," 
in  the  Louvre ;  various  well  known  Magdalens 
in  Rome,  Florence,  the  Escurial,  and  elsewhere; 
and  numerous  Madonnas,  Holy  Families,  and 
similar  pieces  scattered  over  Europe.  LTpon 
subjects  taken  from  allegory  and  secular  his 
tory  he  executed  several  important  pictures, 
including  the  "  Victory  of  the  Venetians  over 
the  Janizaries,"  for  the  doge's  palace,  which 
were  destroyed  by  fire.  As  a  colorist  merely 
Titian  developed  the  resources  of  his  art  with 
most  success  in  naked  female  figures.  The 
most  familiar  examples  are  the  several  Venuses 
in  the  galleries  of  Florence  and  Dresden ;  the 
Danaes  at  Naples  and  Vienna ;  the  Flora  in 
the  Uffizi  gallery;  "Diana  and  her  Nymphs" 
and  "  Venus  rising  from  the  Sea,"  in  the  Staf 
ford  gallery;  "Venus  and  Adonis"  (a  dupli 
cate),  in  the  British  national  gallery ;  and  the 
so-called  V£nus  del  Pardo  in  the  Louvre.  As 
a  portrait  painter  he  is  unrivalled ;  and  Fuseli 
says  that  landscape  dates  its  origin  from  him. 
— See  Northcote's  "Life  of  Titian"  (2  vols., 
London,  1830),  and  that  by  Crowe  and  Caval- 
caselle  (1875). 

TITICACA,  a  lake  of  South  America,  p^rrtly  in 
Bolivia  and  partly  in  Peru,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Desaguadero,  more  than  12,000  ft.  above  the 
sea,.  From  recent  but  incomplete  surveys  it 
is  estimated  to  be  about  100  m.  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  35  m.  Scattered  over  its 
surface  are  many  small  islands  containing  the 
remarkable  ruins  called  Tiaguanaco.  These  in 
dicate  a  higher  order  of  art  than  any  existing 
at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,'  and  a 
higher  civilization  than  the  aboriginal  monu 
ments  at  Palenque.  According  to  the  early 
Spanish  chroniclers,  the  Peruvians  had  but  the 
vaguest  traditions  of  their  origin,  and  there 


are  striking  evidences  of  their  great  antiquity. 
Some  of  the  structures,  on  a  pyramidal  plan, 
appear  to  have  covered  several  acres,  but  the 
most  remarkable  features  still  remaining  are 
monolithic  doorways,  pillars,  and  statues  elab 
orately  sculptured  in  a  style  found  nowhere 
else.  One  of  these  doorways  is  10  ft.  high 
and  13  ft.  broad,  with  an  opening  6  ft.  4  in. 
by  3  ft.  2  in.,  the  whole  cut  from  a  single 
stone.  Its  E.  front  has  a  cornice,  in  the  mid 
dle  of  which  is  a  human  figure  crowned  with 
rays,  interspersed  with  serpents  with  crested 
heads.  On  each  side  are  three  rows  of  human 
and  other  figures,  apparently  symbolic.  The 
statues  are  much  broken,  but  their  original 
dimensions  were  colossal.  The  whole  neigh 
borhood  is  strewn  writh  vast  blocks  of  stone 
elaborately  wrought.  The  principal  ruins  are 
on  an  island  bearing  the  same  name  as  the 
lake,  close  to  the  S.  W.  shore.  On  some  of 
the  islands  are  other  monuments  of  great  ex 
tent,  but  of  true  Peruvian  type,  apparently 
the  remains  of  temples  destroyed  on  the  arri 
val  of  the  Spaniards.  (See  AYMAEAS.)  Since 
1871  two  small  steamers,  carried  in  pieces 
across  the  Andes,  have  been  launched  on  the 
lake.  A  railroad  extending  about  220  m., 
across  the  Andes  from  Arequipa  to  Puno  on 
the  "W.  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca,  was  begun  in 
1870  and  completed  Jan.  1,  1874,  at  a  cost  of 
$32,000,000.  It  opens  to  market  the  wealth 
of  the  lake  shores,  alpaca  wool,  cinchona, 
chocolate,  coffee,  and  other  products,  and  the 
silver,  copper,  and  timber  of  the  surrounding 
mountains. 

TITJEftS,  or  Titiens,  Therese,  a  German  vocal 
ist  of  Hungarian  extraction,  born  in  Hamburg 
in  1834.  She  appeared  upon  the  operatic  stage 
in  Hamburg  at  the  age  of  15,  was  engaged  for 
the  opera  in  Frankfort,  and  subsequently  en 
tered  into  an  engagement  for  three  years  with 
the  director  of  the  imperial  theatre  at  Vienna, 
during  which  she  established  her  reputation 
as  a  representative  of  the  greater  roles  of  the 
lyric  stage,  such  as  those  of  Leonora  in  Fide- 
lio,  Valentin  a  in  Les  Huguenots,  and  Donna 
Anna  in  Don  Giovanni.  At  the  close  of  this 
engagement  she  transferred  her  services  to  Her 
Majesty's  theatre,  London,  and  since  that  time 
has  lived  mostly  in  England,  taking  part  in  the 
great  musical  festivals  in  that  country,  and 
being  equally  distinguished  as  an  operatic  and 
oratorio  singer.  In  1875  she  visited  America. 

TITLARK,  the  popular  name  of  the  small 
dentirostral  birds  of  the  family  motacillidce, 
subfamily  anthince,  and  genus  antlius  (Bechst.). 
They  resemble  the  larks  in  their  markings  and 
in  the  long  hind  claw,  and  the  wagtails  in  their 
movements  and  habits  on  the  ground,  and  evi 
dently  are  intermediate  between  these  sub 
families.  In  this  genus  the  bill  is  rather 
straight  and  slender,  with  the  tip  notched ; 
wings  very  long,  the  first  three  quills  equal 
and  longest,  and  the  tertials  nearly  as  long 
as  the  primaries;  tail  moderate  and  slightly 
notched ;  tarsi  and  toes  long  and  slender,  the 


m 


TITLARK 


hind  toe  long  with  a  very  long  sharp  claw. 
The  species  are  numerous,  inhabiting  most 
parts  of  the  world  and  in  every  variety  of 
region,  some  being  migratory,  others  perma- 


American  Titlark  (Anthus  Ludovicianus). 

nent  residents.  The  nest  is  made  upon  the 
ground,  of  dry  grass  and  stalks,  lined  with  finer 
plants  and  hair ;  the  eggs  are  four  to  six.  The 
American  titlark  (A.  Ludovicianus,  Licht.)  is 
6£  in.  long  and  11  in.  in  alar  extent;  olive 
brown  above,  each  feather  darkest  in  the  mid 
dle;  beneath  yellowish  brown,  the  sides  of  the 
neck  spotted  longitudinally  with  dark  brown; 
around  eyes  and  superciliary  stripe  yellowish  ; 
central  tail  feathers  like  back,  the  others  black 
ish  brown,  the  external  one  mostly  white  and 
a  white  spot  at  the  end  of  the  second ;  prima 
ries  edged  with  whitish,  and  the  other  quills 
with  pale  brownish  ;  bill  and  feet  black.  It  is 
very  generally  distributed  over  North  Ameri 
ca,  extending  to  the  Pacific  and  to  Greenland, 
and  is  accidental  in  Europe.  The  flight  is  ex 
ceedingly  easy  and  graceful ;  it  occurs  in  flocks 
of  tens  or  hundreds  running  fast  on  the  ground. 
It  is  found  in  the  fields,  on  the  prairies,  along 
rivers,  and  on  the  sea  shore ;  the  notes  are 
clear  and  shtirp  tweets,  the  last  much  pro 
longed  ;  it  breeds  as  far  N.  as  Labrador,  both 
sexes  incubating,  and  sitting  so  closely  as  al 
most  to  allow  themselves  to  be  trodden  upon 
before  flying;  the  eggs  are  six,  -|  by  1  in., 
reddish  brown,  with  darker  dots  and  lines  at 
the  larger  end.  The  Missouri  titlark  (neoconjs 
Spraguei,  Sclater),  5'-  in.  long  and  9£  in.  in 
extent  of  wings,  in  song  and  habits  comes  the 
nearest  of  American  birds  to  the  European 
skylark. — Among  the  European  species,  the 
most  extensively  distributed  is  the  meadow 
titlark  or  pipit  (A.  pratensis,  Bechst.),  also 
called  titling ;  it  is  6|  in.  long  and  9|  in.  in 
alar  extent,  olivaceous  above,  spotted,  with 
dusky;  brownish  white  below,  tinged  ante 
riorly  with  red ;  neck,  sides,  and  fore  part  of 
breast  with  oblong  brownish  black  spots.  It 
is^of  slender  and  elegant  form,  generally  dis 
tributed  over  Europe,  a  permanent  resident  in 
Great  Britain,  and  most  abundant  in  meadows; 


TITMOUSE 

it  sings  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  end  of 
July,  and  rears  two  broods  in  a  season;  its 
notes  are  remarkably  fine,  the  bird  uttering 
them  perched,  seated,  or  flying,  in  the  last  case 
beginning  at  a  considerable  height,  hovering  a 
little  while,  and  descending  warbling  to  the 
ground.  It  is  in  the  nest  of  this  species  that 
the  cuckoo  generally  places  its  eggs. 

TITMOUSE,  the  popular  name  of  the  parince, 
a  subfamily  of  the  warblers,  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  except  South  America.  The  bill 
is  short,  strong,  rather  conical  and  straight, 
with  the  tip  entire ;  nostrils  generally  con 
cealed  by  the  frontal  plumes  ;  wings  moderate 
and  pointed,  with  the  first  three  quills  grad 
uated  ;  tail  more  or  less  long,  rounded  and 
even  ;  tarsi  long,  slender,  and  scaled  in  front ; 
inner  toe  shortest ;  claws  strong  and  curved. — 
In  the  typical  genus  parus  (Linn.)  the  bill  is 
somewhat  curved,  not  very  stout ;  the  head  is 
not  crested;  the  fourth  and  fifth  quills  are 
equal  and  longest ;  the  crown  and  throat  gen 
erally  black.  There  are  more  than  50  species 
described  in  North  America,  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  small,  sprightly,  and  bold  birds,  and 
many  of  them  with  beautiful  colors.  They 
sometimes  do  considerable  damage  in  orchards 
by  picking  open  the  buds  in  search  of  insects. 
The  nests  are  made  in  the  forks  of  bushes  and 
trees,  of  moss,  grasses,  and  wool,  lined  with 
hair  and  feathers ;  many  of  the  best  known  spe 
cies  deposit  their  eggs  in  holes  of  decayed  trees, 
left  by  the  woodpeckers  or  made  by  them 
selves;  the  eggs  are  six  to  twelve. — The  lar 
gest  of  the  well  known  American  species  is  the 
tufted  titmouse  (lophophanes  bicolor,  Bonap.), 
6^  in.  long  and  about  10  in.  in  alar  extent; 
the  crown  has  a  conspicuous  crest,  the  bill  is 
conical  with  the  upper  and  lower  outlines  con 
vex,  wings  graduated  with  the  first  quill  very 
short,  and  the  tail  moderately  long  and  rounded. 
The  color  above  is  ashy  black ;  frontal  band 
black ;  under  parts  uniform  whitish,  sides 
brownish  chestnut ;  sides  of  head  nearly  white, 
and  bill  black.  It  is  found  throughout  eastern 


Tufted  Titmouse  (Lophophanes  bicolor). 

North  America  to  the  Missouri,  appearing  in 
the  middle  states  about  May  1,  in  the  summer 
inhabiting  the  forests,  in  flocks  or  families  of 
eight  or  ten,  in  company  with  the  nuthatch 


TITMOUSE 


TITUS 


and  downy  woodpecker;  the  note  is  a  kind 
of  pleasing  whistle ;  the  eggs  are  six  or  eight, 
white  with  a  few  red  spots  at  the  larger  end, 
and  are  laid  in  holes  of  decayed  trees. — In 
the  genus  parua  (Linn.)  belongs  the  black- 
capped  titmouse  or  chickadee  (P.  atricapillus, 
Linn.).  (See  BLACKCAP.)  The  largest  of  the 
European  species  is  the  great  titmouse  or  tit 
(P.  major,  Linn.),  called  also  oxeye  and  black 
cap  in  England,  and  la  charbonniere  in  France ; 
it  is  less  than  6  in.  long,  with  the  head,  fore 
part  of  neck,  transverse  band  on  sides,  and 
longitudinal  one  on  breast  and  abdomen,  black ; 
cheeks  white,  back  yellowish  green,  and  breast 
and  sides  yellow  ;  wings  and  tail  grayish.  Its 
usual  note  is  a  loud  cheep  followed  by  a  harsh 
chatter,  in  the  spring  resembling  the  filing  of 
a  saw  and  heard  to  a  great  distance ;  it  imi 
tates  the  notes  of  other  birds,  and  in  its  habits 


Hanging  Tit  (Paroides  pendultnus). 

and  food  shows  an  alliance  to  the  jays ;  in  its 
search  for  flies  it  visits  the  cottage  tops  and 
pulls  the  straw  from  the  thatch  ;  it  is  found 
from  Norway  and  Sweden  to  the  southern 
boundaries  of  Europe.  The  blue  tit  (P.  cceru- 
leus,  Linn.)  is  4f  in.  long  and  7f  in.  in  alar  ex 
tent,  with  the  upper  part  of  the  head  light  blue 
and  encircled  with  white ;  band  round  neck, 
and  before  and  behind  eyes,  duller  blue;  cheeks 
white,  back  light  yellowish  green,  under  parts 
pale  grayish  yellow,  and  middle  of  breast  dull 
blue.  This  is  the  handsomest  and  most  fami 
liar  species  ;  in  autumn  it  quits  the  woods  and 
thickets  and  visits  the  gardens  and  orchards,  in 
cessantly  hopping  about  among  the  branches, 
pert  and  irritable ;  it  is  called  tomtit,  bluecap, 
bluebonnet,  and  billy-biter  in  various  parts  of 
England.  It  is  a  permanent  resident  in  Great 
Britain ;  it  is  very  bold  when  sitting,  hissing  j 


like  a  snake  or  angry  kitten,  and  severely  bi 
ting  the  hand  brought  near  the  nest. — The 
hanging  tit  (paroides  pendulimis,  Koch),  4£ 
in.  long,  is  reddish  gray  above,  with  wings  and 
tail  blackish,  and  lower  parts  rosy  white ;  it 
is  found  in  eastern  and  northern  Europe,  and 
constructs  very  artistically  a  nest  woven  of  the 
fibres  of  bark  and  the  cotton  of  the  seeds  of 
willows,  fastened  to  a  reed  or  thin  branch  and 
surrounded  by  closely  tangled  bushes,  which 
protect  it  from  the  wind  and  hide  it  from  view. 

THIS,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  bounded  K 
by  Sulphur  fork  of  Red  river,  S.  by  Big  Cy 
press  bayou,  and  intersected  by  White  Oak 
bayou;  area,  940  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,339, 
of  whom  2,818  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
generally  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  county 
is  well  timbered,  and  contains  iron  ore.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  382,029  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  5,632  of  oats,  48,343  of  sweet 
potatoes,  and  7,039  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  3,437  horses,  4,597  milch  cows,  10,784 
other  cattle,  3,798  sheep,  28,711  swine,  r.nd 
7  saw  mills.  Capital,  Mount  Pleasant. 

THIS  (TiiTs  FLAVIUS  SABIXUS  VESPASIA- 
xus),  a  Roman  emperor,  born  Dec.  30,  A.  D.  40, 
died  near  Reate  in  the  Sabine  country,  Sept. 
13,  81.  He  was  the  son  of  Vespasian,  and  was 
educated  in  the  imperial  household  with  Bri- 
tannicus,  the  son  of  Claudius,  who  was  poi 
soned  by  Nero.  While  still  young  he  served 
as  military  tribune  in  Britain  and  Germany, 
and  subsequently  became  qnrcstor.  During  the 
Jewish  war  he  commanded  a  legion  under  his 
father,  and  captured  Tarichooa,  Gainala,  and 
other  places.  AYhen  Vespasian,  proclaimed 
emperor  by  his  army,  went  to  Rome,  he  left 
Titus  to  end  the  Jewish  war,  which  he  accom 
plished  in  September,  70,  by  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  massacre  and  dispersion  of 
its  inhabitants.  Subsequently  he  returned  to 
Rome  by  the  order  of  his  father,  carrying  with 
him  Berenice,  the  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa, 
with  whom  he  had  fallen  in  love  (see  BERE 
NICE),  and  by  his  prompt  obedience  proved 
that  the  rumors  which  charged  him  with  aim 
ing  at  the  throne  were  unfounded.  For  their 
common  success  in  the  Jewish  war  he  had  with 
his  father  the  honor  of  a  triumph,  and  the  arch 
of  Titus  then  erected  is  still  standing.  (See 
ROME,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  412.)  During  the  remain 
ing  years  of  the  reign  of  Vespasian  he  was 
employed  in  discharging  the  highest  functions 
of  state.  He  drew  up  the  imperial  edicts,  and 
was  permitted  to  write  letters  in  the  emperor's 
name.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  79,  and  soon 
dispelled  the  impression,  produced  by  some 
features  of  his  earlier  conduct,  that  he  would 
be  another  Nero.  The  people  called  him  amor 
et  delicice  generis  Tiumani,  and  Suetonius  re 
cords  that  he  exclaimed,  Amici,  diem  perdidi, 
whenever  a  day  passed  without  his  being  able 
to  do  a  service  to  a  friend  or  petitioner.  His 
reign  was  marked  by  a  succession  of  terrible 
calamities,  the  injuries  inflicted  by  which  he 
made  earnest  efforts  to  repair.  In  79  the 


TITUS 


TLAXCALA 


towns  of  Herculaneum,  Stabile,  and  Pompeii 
were  destroyed ;  in  80  a  great  fire  broke  out 
in  Kome  which  lasted  three  days,  and  a  plague 
began  to  ravage  the  city,  of  which  thousands 
died  daily.  Titus  almost  exhausted  his  finan 
ces  in  order  to  relieve  his  unfortunate  sub 
jects,  repaired  many  aqueducts,  made  a  road 
from  Rome  to  Ariminum  (the  modern  Rimini), 
completed  the  Colosseum,  which  his  father  had 
begun,  and  also  constructed  the  baths  called 
the  baths  of  Titus.  In  dedicating  these  two 
last,  he  gave  magnificent  entertainments,  which 
continued  100  days,  on  one  of  which  5,000  wild 
beasts  are  said  to  have  been  set  fighting  in 
the  new  amphitheatre.  He  checked  all  prosecu 
tions  of  Icesa  majestas,  and  punished  all  inform 
ers.  He  pardoned  his  brother  Domitian,  who 
several  times  had  attempted  to  supplant  him. 
Meanwhile  his  health  declined,  and  going  to 
the  Sabine  country,  he  expired  in  the  same  vil 
la  in  which  his  father  had  died.  Titus  is  said 
to  have  written  Greek  poems  and  tragedies. 

TITUS,  a  companion  and  fellow  laborer  of 
the  apostle  Paul.  He  was  a  Greek,  and  was 
one  of  those  persons  sent  from  Antioch  to 
Jerusalem  to  consult  the  apostles,  and  it  was 
not  judged  necessary  that  he  should  be  cir 
cumcised.  He  accompanied  Paul  to  Jerusa 
lem,  was  his  agent  at  Corinth  and  in  Dalma- 
tia,  and  was  left  with  ecclesiastical  commis 
sions  on  the  island  of  Crete.  According  to 
ecclesiastical  authorities  and  tradition,  he  was 
the  first  bishop  of  Crete. 

TITTS,  Epistle  to,  a  canonical  book  of  the 
New  Testament,  addressed  by  the  apostle  Paul 
to  his  disciple  Titus.  This  and  the  two  epis 
tles  to  Timothy  form  the  pastoral  letters  of 
the  apostle,  all  of  which  have  so  many  points  | 
in  common  that  their  authenticity  has  been 
generally  attacked  and  defended  simultaneous 
ly.  The  date  of  the  Epistle  to  Titus  lias  been 
the  subject  of  much  dispute,  some  fixing  it  as 
early  as  the  year  52,  others  as  late  as  05,  oth 
ers  at  various  intermediate  years.  The  apostle 
furnishes  Titus,  whom  lie  had  left  behind  in 
Crete,  with  rules  of  conduct  for  himself,  es 
pecially  in  regard  to  the  appointment  of  elders 
(i.  5-9),  and  certain  false  teachers  (i.  10-16),  as 
well  as  for  Christians  in  general  (ch.  ii.  and 
iii.).  The  commentaries  on  the  Epistles  to 
Timothy  generally  include  also  the  Epistle  to 
Titus.  (See  TIMOTHY,  EPISTLES  TO.) 

TITUSVILLE,  a  city  of  Crawford  co.,  Penn 
sylvania,  on  Oil  creek,  85  m.  1ST.  by  E.  of  Pitts 
burgh,  and  40  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Erie;  pop.  in  1870, 
8,639;  in  1875,  about  10,000.  It  is  in  the  midst 
of  a  fine  dairy  region,  and  is  surrounded  by 
hills.  The  streets  are  brcfad,  straight,  and  well 
paved;  the  dwellings  are  of  wood  and  brick, 
and  are  surrounded  by  gardens ;  the  business 
blocks  are  of  brick.  It  is  well  drained,  lighted 
with  gas,  and  has  Holly  water  works.  It  com 
municates  with  Buffalo,  Erie,  Pittsburgh,  and 
other  points  by  means  of  the  Dunkirk,  Alle- 
ghany  Valley,  and  Pittsburgh,  the  Oil  Creek 
and  Alleghany  River,  and  the  Union  and  Titus- 


ville  railroads.     Titusville  is  the  chief  place  in 
the  oil  region,  and  owes  its  prosperity  to  the 
petroleum  wells  in  the  vicinity.     It  had  only 
300  inhabitants  in  1859,  when  the  production 
was  commenced.     It  contains  seven  oil  refine 
ries,  using  6,000  barrels  of  crude  petroleum 
daily ;  three  oil-barrel  factories,  besides  a  nura- 
j  ber  of  cooper  shops,  together  producing  3,000 
I  barrels  a  day ;  four  iron  works  and  f ounderies, 
manufacturing  steam  engines  and  boilers,  stop 
cocks  and  pipe  fittings,  and  oil-well  tools,  and 
also  doing  brass  casting   and  finishing ;    two 
i  sulphuric   acid  factories,   two   flouring  mills, 
'  two  lager-beer  breweries,  four  banks,  a  high 
I  school,  four  ward  schools,  two  Roman  Catho 
lic  schools,  two  daily  and  weekly  newspapers, 
and  12  churches. 

TIVOLI  (anc.  T-ibur),  n  town  of  Italy,  in  the 
province  and  16  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Rome, 
on  the  Teverone  (anc.  An  to)  and  on  the  slope 
of  Mt.  Ripoli ;  pop.  about  6,000.  It  is  remark 
able  for  magnificent  scenery  and  for  its  an 
tiquities,  which  include  villas,  bridges,  and  the 
temples  of  the  Sibyl  and  of  Vesta,  The  cele 
brated  falls  of  the  Anio  were  best  seen  from 
the  grottoes  of  Neptune  and  the  Sirens  till 
1826,  when  the  artificial  wall  over  which  they 
flowed  was  destroyed  by  an  inundation.  The 
course  of  the  river  was  then  diverted  by  cut 
ting  two  long  tunnels  through  the  rock  of  Mt. 
Catillo,  finished  in  1834;  the  new  falls  thus 
formed  are  exceedingly  picturesque,  as  well  as 
the  numerous  small  cascades  in  the  TV.  part 
of  the  town. — The  ancient  Tibur,  probably  a 
Siculian  city,  was  one  of  the  early  rivals  of 
Rome.  As  a  member  of  the  Latin  league,  it 
was,  after  a  protracted  struggle,  taken  in  338 
B.  C.,  and  deprived  of  a  part  of  its  territory. 
Remaining  nominally  independent,  it  became 
a  resort  of  Roman  exiles.  It  was  famed  for 
the  worship  of  Hercules  in  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  temples  of  the  period,  and  for  its 
associations  with  illustrious  Romans  who  had 
villas  here  during  the  republic  and  the  early 
days  of  the  empire.  The  domain  of  Hadrian, 
S.  of  Tibur,  extended  over  8  m.,  and  included 
many  public  buildings  besides  a  magnificent 
palace.  In  the  middle  ages  the  town  again 
became  important.  Pius  II.  built  the  castle  in 
its  present  form  near  the  gate  Santa  Croce. 

TLAXCALA,  or  Tlascala  (Aztec,  "  land  of 
bread"),  a  state  and  city  of  the  republic  of 
Mexico.  The  state  is  bounded  W.  by  the  state 
of  Mexico,  and  on  all  other  sides  by  that  of 
Puebla;  area,  1,498  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  121,- 
665.  In  area  it  is  the  smallest  of  the  Mexican 
states,  not  including  the  federal  district.  It 
received  its  name  from  its  great  fertility  in 
maize.  The  city,  capital  of  the  state,  is  be 
tween  two  mountains  on  an  upper  branch  of 
the  river  Mescala,  20  m.  N".  of  the  city  of  Pae- 
bla,  and  70  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Mexico ;  pop.  about 
5,000.  It  has  a  cathedral,  state  house,  bishop's 
palace,  and  the  oldest  Franciscan  convent  in 
Mexico. — The  Techichimecs  founded  the  Tlax- 
calan  republic,  which  successfully  resisted  all 


TLEMCEN 


TOAD 


777 


efforts  of  surrounding  tribes  and  even  of  the 
Mexican  monarchy  for  its  subjugation.  In 
1519  the  Tlaxcalans  resisted  the  march  of  Cor 
tes,  but,  after  being  defeated  in  four  battles, 
they  submitted  as  vassals  to  Spain,  but  refused 
to  abjure  their  religion.  (See  CORTES.)  The 
city  is  said  to  have  numbered  at  the  time  of 
the  invasion  about  20,000  families,  and  Sept. 
18,  the  day  of  Cortes's  entrance,  is  still  cele 
brated  there. 

TLEMCEN,  a  town  of  Algeria,  in  the  province 
and  68  m.  S.  "W.  of  the  city  of  Oran ;  pop.  in 
1872,  18,722,  including  3,000  French.  It  is 
the  strongest  Algerian  fortress  on  the  Moroc 
can  border,  and  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
places  of  the  country.  It  has  about  30  mosques, 
the  most  magnificent  being  that  of  Sid  Ibrahim. 
Trade  and  industry  are  active,  and  increasing 
in  consequence  of  improved  communications. 
It  was  originally  called  Jiddah,  and  for  several 
centuries  was,  with  occasional  interruptions, 
the  capital  of  an  independent  kingdom,  with  a 
population  estimated  at  more  than  100,000. 
Many  vestiges  of  its  former  splendor  remain. 
(See  Histoire  des  rois  de  Tlemcen,  from  the 
Arabic,  by  the  abbe  Barges,  Paris,  1852.)  In 
the  16th  century  it  fell  under  the  domination 
of  the  Turks,  who  allotted  it  to  the  dey  of  Al 
giers.  The  inhabitants  having  revolted  in  1670, 
the  place  was  burned.  The  French,  after  a 
brief  occupation,  restored  it  in  1837  by  treaty 
to  Abd-el-Kader,  and  they  did  not  recover  pos 
session  until  after  partly  destroying  the  town 
in  1842,  since  which  time  they  have  greatly 
strengthened  the  fortifications. 

TOAD,  the  common  name  of  a  w^ell  known 
family  of  anourous  or  tailless  batrachians,  the 
general  character  and  anatomy  of  which  have 
been  described  under  AMPHIBIA  and  FEOG. 
The  T)ufonid<jB,  which  comprise  the  common 
toads,  have  a  well  developed  tongue,  jaws 
rather  sharp  at  the  edge  but  without  teeth, 
thick  and  heavy  body,  and  skin  more  or  less 
covered  with  glandular  warts  which  secrete 
an  acrid  fluid ;  the  hind  legs  are  but  little 
longer  than  the  anterior.  According  to  Agas- 
siz,  the  toads  should  rank  higher  than  the 
frogs,  from  their  more  terrestrial  habits  ;  the 
embryonic  web,  which  still  unites  the  fingers 
of  the  frog,  disappears  in  the  toad,  and  the 
cutaneous  glands  of  the  skin  do  not  exist  in 
frogs.  Toads,  like  frogs,  absorb  moisture  by 
the  skin,  which  is  cast  at  intervals,  coming  off 
in  lateral  halves  which  are  swallowed  by  the 
animal  at  a  gulp  ;  the  skin  feels  hard  to  the 
touch,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Rainey  ("Micro 
scopic  Journal,"  1855),  contains  a  layer  of 
earthy  matter  under  the  derm  is  effervescing 
with  acids,  considered  by  him  the  analogue 
of  what  becomes  a  continuous  hard  dermal 
skeleton  in  the  testudinata.  Like  frogs,  they 
have  also  a  large  sac  resembling  a  bladder, 
often  found  filled  with  pure  water,  in  no  way 
connected  with  the  kidneys,  but  formed  of 
the  allantois,  serving  as  a  reservoir  of  water 
and  aiding  in  respiration,  its  walls  being  high 


ly  vascular.  The  acrid  fluid  of  the  skin  may 
be  pressed  out  from  two  eminences  like  split 
beans  just  behind  the  head  ;  it  comes  forth  in 
a  jet,  and  will  make  the  eyes  smart  severely 
if  it  touches  them.  The  hyoid  bone  being  ab 
sent,  the  root  of  the  tongue  is  attached  ante 
riorly  in  the  concavity  formed  by  the  branches 
of  the  lower  jaw,  the  free  extremity  pointing 
backward  when  at  rest;  it  is  capable  of  pro 
trusion  in  a  reversed  position  so  rapidly  that 
the  eye  cannot  follow  it.  They  are  not  only 
inoffensive,  but  of  great  service  to  man  in  de 
stroying  noxious  insects  and  larva) ;  they  usu 
ally  lie  hid  during  the  day,  but  come  out  at 
dusk  in  woods,  fields,  and  gardens,  in  search 
of  food,  and  are  not  unfrequently  found  in 
cellars  and  dark  places  about  houses;  their 
metamorphoses  are  of  the  same  character  as 
those  described  under  FEOG  ;  they  live  out  of 
the  water  except  durin'g  the  breeding  season 
in  March  or  April ;  during  winter  they  remain 
torpid  in  holes  and  crevices,  under  stones, 
stumps,  &c.  ;  they  lay  a  great  number  of  eggs 


Common  European  Toad  (Bufo  vulgaris). 

united  into  long  strings,  enclosed  in  a  ge 
latinous  substance,  generally  two,  which  the 
male  draws  out  with  his  hind  feet.  The  spe 
cies  are  less  numerous  than  in  the  terrestrial 
and  tree  frogs ;  they  are  found  in  both  hemi 
spheres,  but  unequally  distributed,  being  most 
abundant  in  America,  and  least  so  in  Europe, 
which  has  not  a  single  species  peculiar  to  it, 
both  the  common  toad  and  the  natterjack  oc 
curring  also  in  Africa  and  Asia  ;  they  are  more 
abundant  in  Asia  than  in  Africa,  and  only  one 
is  described  in  Australia;  Dumeril  and  Bi- 
bron  recognize  only  35  species  oi"bvfonidce. — 
In  the  genus  bvfo  (Laur.)  the  tongue  is  ob 
long,  free  posteriorly ;  anterior  limbs  four- 
toed  and  free,  the  posterior  five-toed  and  semi- 
palmated ;  the  tuberosity  behind  each  eye, 
above  the  tympanum,  porous  and  cushion- 
shaped  ;  head  obtuse  in  front,  the  upper  jaw 
descending  directly  downward  so  that  the  in- 
termaxillaries  do  not  project  in  front  of  the 
cranium.  The  common  European  toad  or  pad 
dock  (B.  vulgaris,  Laur.),  le  crapaud  of  the 
French,  is  3  to  3|  in.  long,  of  a  lurid  brown- 


778 


TOAD 


ish  gray,  with  reddish  brown  tubercles  and  a 
blackish  stripe  externally  or  along  the  glands 
on  the  sides  of  the  head ;  the  iris  red  or  gold 
en  ;  the  body  thick  and  much  inflated.  It 
feeds  on  insects  and  worms  of  all  kinds,  but 
will  touch  only  a  living  and  a  moving  prey; 
it  remains  motionless,  with  eyes  fixed  on  its 
intended  victim  till  it  comes  within  reach  of 
its  tongue,  which  is  darted  out  with  extreme 
rapidity  and  accuracy  ;  when  it  seizes  a  worm, 
it  pushes  it  into  the  mouth  with  the  fore  feet 
till  all  disappears,  and  the  animal  is  swallowed 
whole.  Its  motions  are  by  a  kind  of  crawl ; 
when  alarmed  it  stops  and  swells  out  the  body, 
and  sometimes  makes  short  and  awkward  leaps. 
The  eggs  are  in  a  double  series,  3  or  4  ft.  long 
and  two  lines  thick,  and"  are  laid  in  the  spring 
two  or  three  weeks  later  than  those  of  the 
frog,  the  young  being  fully  developed  by  the 
last  of  summer ;  they  are  smaller  and  blacker 
in  all  their  stages  than  the  young  of  the  frog. 
Small  toads  of  this  and  the  common  North 
American  species  are  often  found  in  places,  such 
as  gardens  arid  cellars,  where  they  could  neither 
have  had  access  to  water  nor  have  been  intro 
duced  from  without,  and  therefore  could  not 
have  gone  through  the  usual  stages  of  tadpole 
existence ;  the  gills  must  have  disappeared 
shortly  after  birth,  if  they  ever  existed ;  they 
appear  to  have  the  power  of  prematurely  as 
suming  the  functional  conditions  of  terrestrial 
animals  when  circumstances  demand  it ;  a  sim 
ilar  rapid  metamorphosis  is  observed  as  a  rule 
in  the  Surinam  toad  mentioned  below.  (See 
"Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History," 
vol.  xi.,  London,  1853.)  The  toad  has  been 
regarded  as  venomous  in  almost  all  countries 
and  ages,  its  saliva,  bite,  and  cutaneous  and 
watery  secretion  being  supposed  to  be  poi 
sonous  and  more  or  less  maleficent ;  the  acrid 
exudation  from  the  skin  is  sufficient  to  pro- 
duco  a  painful  irritation  on  a  tender  skin  or 
a  wounded  mucous  membrane  ;  though  it  will 
make  a  dog  quickly  drop  a  toad  from  its 
mouth,  it  has  no  effect  when  introduced  into 
the  circulation;  it  not  only  serves  thus  for 
the  protection  of  the  animal,  but  is  probably 
partly  excrementitious,  and  assists  the  lungs 
in  freeing  the  blood  of  carbon.  The  toad  has 
been  known  to  live  35  or  40  years,  and  it  is 
thought  to  attain  a  considerably  greater  age ; 
it  has  been  so  far  domesticated  as  to  come  and 
feed  from  the  hand,  and  seems  capable  of  at 
tachment  to  man.  From  their  well  known 
fondness  for  insects,  toads  make  excellent  traps 
for  the  entomologist,  who  may  thus  procure 
rare  and  otherwise  unattainable  beetles  and 
nocturnal  species,  which  they  can  be  made  to 
disgorge  without  difficulty;  gardeners  often 
put  them  into  hot-houses  to  destroy  ants  and 
other  insects  and  larvae.  Like  many  reptiles, 
the  toad  can  live  a  considerable  time  without 
food  and  with  a  very  small  supply  of  air  ;  but 
the  alleged  instances  of  their  being  found  im 
bedded  in  solid  stone  or  the  heart  of  a  tree, 
with  no  possible  communication  with  the  ex 


ternal  world,  have  no  doubt  arisen  from  errors 
of  observation.  Dr.  Buckland's  experiments 
in  1825,  in  connection  with  the  so-called  ante 
diluvian  toads,  show  that  these  animals  cannot 
usually  survive  a  long  time,  not  even  a  year, 
deprived  of  air  and  food.  (See  "Curiosities 
of  Natural  History,"  by  his  son  Francis  T. 
Ruckland,  1st  series,  London,  1859,  pp.  74-86.) 
— The  other  European  species  is  the  natter 
jack,  or  mephitic  or  green  toad  (B.  calamita, 
Laur.)  ;  it  is  less  than  3  in.  long,  of  a  light 
yellowish  brown  color  clouded  with  dull  olive, 
and  with  a  bright  yellow  stripe  along  the  mid 
dle  of  the  back ;  under  parts  yellowish  with 
black  spots,  and  the  legs  with  black  bands ; 
iris  yellowish  green ;  it  is  less  tumid,  and  the 
eyes  more  prominent ;  the  hinds  legs  are  short 
er  and  the  toes  less  palmated,  indicating  more 
terrestrial  habits ;  it  is  less  common,  more  ac 
tive,  and  frequents  drier  places;  it  is  found 
throughout  Europe,  and  in  Asia  and  N.  Africa. 
— The  common  American  toad  (13.  America- 
nus,  Le  Oonte)  is  2£  to  3  in.  long,  with  short, 
thick,  and  bloated  warty  body ;  anterior  limbs 
large,  posterior  short  with  a  spade-like  pro 
cess  at  root  of  first  toe,  described  as  a  rudi 
mentary  sixth  toe  by  some  writers;  the  jaws 
entire,  and  the  eyes  large  and  brilliant.  It  has 
a  longitudinal  line  of  dirty  white  from  the  oc 
ciput  to  the  vent,  on  each  side  several  spots  of 
various  colors,  size,  and  shape,  and  a  row  of 
black  and  whitish  ones  extending  to  the  hind 
legs;  lower  parts  granulated  and  dirty  yellow 
ish  white;  anterior  limbs  dusky  above  with 
gmall  white  spots,  the  posterior  ashy  with 
blotches  and  bands  of  black.  The  head  is 
smaller  than  in  the  European  toad,  the  body 
less  bloated,  and  the  movements  more  active. 
In  the  breeding  season  toads  and  frogs  do  not 
generally  assemble  in  the  same  pond ;  this 
species  has  been  found  on  sandy  shores  over 
grown  with  beach  grass  and  in  salt  marshes ; 
it  is  met  with  from  Maine  and  Canada  to  the 
Mississippi  valley ;  its  note  is  a  prolonged  trill, 
continued  by  day  and  night. — There  are  several 
toad-like  batrachians,  generally  arranged  by 
modern  herpetologists  in  the  frog  family.  One 
of  these,  the  accoucheur  toad  (B.  obstetricam, 
Laur. ;  genus  alytes,  "Wagler),  is  common  in 
the  vicinity  of  Paris,  France,  and  in  S.  Ger 
many;  the  males  not  only  assist  the  females 
in  the  exclusion  of  the  eggs  (which  are  yellow), 
but  afterward  attach  them  to  their  hind  legs 
by  small  pedicles ;  the  young  are  developed 
under  ground  in  the  femoral  region  until  they 
reach  the  tadpole  state,  when  the  males  enter 
the  water  and  the  young  escape. — The  family 
pipidce  constitute  the  group  of  phrynoglosses, 
so  named  from  having  no  tongue,  as  distin 
guished  from  the  pliancroglosses,  in  which  this 
organ  exists ;  the  head  is  triangular,  and  the 
small  eyes  are  low  and  near  the  mouth ;  the 
body  is  broad  and  thick,  the  hind  legs  very 
powerful  and  large,  and  the  toes  united  by  a 
complete  and  full  web.  The  family  contains 
only  two  genera,  pipa  (Laur.)  and  dactylethra 


TOAD  FISH 


TOBACCO 


779 


(Cuv.),  each  with  a  single  species.  In  pipa 
there  are  no  teeth,  and  the  last  joint  of  the 
slender  anterior  toes  is  divided  into  four  parts. 
Indactylethra  the  upper  jaw  has  small  pointed 
teeth,  the  tongue  is  at  the  back  of  the  mouth, 
and  some  of  the  hind  toes  have  (alone  among 
hatrachians)  hoof -like  claws ;  the  anterior  legs 
are  small  and  slender;  the  D.  Oapensis  (Cuv.) 


Surinam  Toad  (Pipa  Americana). 

is  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  on  the 
Mozambique  coast.  The  Surinam  toad  (P. 
Americana,  Laur.)  has  a  remarkable  and  anom 
alous  mode  of  reproduction ;  the  eggs  do  not 
escape  into  the  water,  but  are  received  by  the 
male,  who  deposits  them  on  the  back  of  the 
female  and  there  impregnates  them  (some 
authors  say  that  impregnation  takes  place  be 
fore  the  deposition  of  the  eggs  on  the  back  of 
the  female);  the  skin  becomes  thickened  be 
tween  them,  rises,  and  partly  invests  each  egg 
in  a  sac  or  pouch,  covered  by  a  thin  operculum 
of  dried  gelatinous  matter,  probably  a  portion 
of  that  which  originally  surrounded  the  egg; 
the  young  go  through  the  usual  changes  in  the 
dorsal  pouches,  and  emerge  perfect  toads ;  the 
yolk  is  large ;  the  external  branchiae  disappear 
at  a  very  early  period  ;  the  tail  is  fully  formed 
in  the  embryo,  but  is  absorbed  before  it  leaves 
the  egg ;  the  embryo  at  this  stage  is  larger  than 
the  original  egg,  so  that  it  must  have  absorbed 
something  from  the  pouch  of  the  parent.  This 
animal  is  commonly  found  in  the  dark  corners 
of  houses  in  Guiana,  and,  though  very  large 
and  exceedingly  disgusting  in  appearance,  is 
said  to  be  eaten  by  the  natives. 

TOAD  FISH,  a  spiny-rayed  fish  of  the  lopMus 
family,  and  genus  latrachus  (Bloch),  so  named 
from  its  large  head,  wide  gape,  usually  naked 
skin,  and  disgusting  appearance ;  it  is  also 
called  frog  fish  and  oyster  fish.  The  head  is 
flattened  and  wider  than  the  body ;  teeth  coni 
cal,  small  and  crowded  on  the  intermaxillaries, 
larger  on  the  lower  jaw,  palate,  and  vomer ; 
operculum  small  and  spiny;  head,  lips,  and 
cheeks  provided  with  numerous  fleshy  appen 
dages  ;  lower  jaw  the  longer ;  first  dorsal  short, 


with  three  spinous  rays  almost  concealed  in 
the  skin ;  second  dorsal  and  anal  low,  soft,  and 
long ;  ventrals  under  the  throat,  narrow,  with 
three  rays ;  pectorals  on  short  arms  of  five 
carpal  bones;  fourth  branchial  arch  without 
gills ;  body  generally  scaleless ;  no  pyloric 
cseca;  air  bladder  deeply  forked  anteriorly, 
attached  to  the  vertebra  by  slender  ligaments, 
and  muscular  on  the  sides.  They  hide  in  the 
sand  and  mud  of  salt  water,  and  occur  in  both 
hemispheres,  preying  on  fish.  There  are  more 
than  a  dozen  species,  of  which  one  of  the  best 
known  is  the  grunting  toad  fish  (B.  gruninens, 
Bloch),  found  in  the  seas  of  the  East  Indies ; 
the  skin  is  naked,  smooth,  soft  and  spongy; 
the  head  and  jaws  with  numerous  cutaneous 
appendages ;  the  color  is  brownish  above,  mar 
bled  with  darker,  below  white,  fins  white  with 
brown  bands;  it  is  8  to  13  in.  long,  and  is  said 
to  be  eaten  at  Bombay ;  it  received  its  specific 
name  from  its  making  a  grunting  noise  like  a 
pig,  from  the  expulsion  of  air  by  the  muscular 
air  bladder  through  the  mouth. — The  common 
American  toad  fish  (B.  tail,  De  Kay)  is  much 
like  the  East  Indian,  with  half  a  dozen  more 
rays  in  the  second  dorsal  and  anal,  stronger 
teeth,  more  prominent  dorsal  spines,  and  rather 
darker  colors ;  it  is  8  in.  to  a  foot  long,  light 
brown,  marbled  with  black,  and  the  fins  with 
black  lines ;  the  body  is  covered  with  a  copious 
viscid  secretion ;  the  mouth  very  large,  and  the 
chin  and  cheeks  with  numerous  fleshy  appen 
dages.  It  is  found  from  Maine  to  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  and  the  West  Indies,  on  the  Xew  Eng 
land  coast  usually  in  ponds  and  lagoons  con 
nected  with  the  sea,  in  muddy  shoal  water,  or 
under  eel  grass  and  stones.  The  disgusting 
appearance  of  this  fish,  its  slimy  body,  goggle 


American  Toad  Fish  (Batraclius  tau). 

eyes,  and  immense  mouth,  have  generally  pre 
vented  the  use  of  its  flesh  as  food,  though  it  is 
said  to  be  delicate,  palatable,  and  wholesome ; 
it  is  a  savage  biter,  and  capable  of  inflicting 
severe  wounds.  Other  species  are  found  in  the 
Indian  and  African  seas,  and  some  larger  ones 
with  soft  scales  on  the  Brazilian  coast,  g 

TOBACCO,  the  plant  and  the  dried  and  pre 
pared  leaves  of  Nicotiana  taltaciim  and  other 
species  of  Nicotiana,  a  genus  of  the  solanacem 
or  nightshade  family.  (See  SOLAXTTM.)  The 
name  of  the  genus  commemorates  that  of  Jean 
Nicot,  a  French  ambassador  to  Portugal,  who 
in  1560  sent  the  seeds  from  Lisbon  to  France, 
as  those  of  a  highly  valuable  medicinal  plant 
which  was  then  known  throughout  Portugal, 
having  been  introduced  in  1520.  The  botani 
cal  specific  name,  and  the  common  name,  come 


780 


TOBACCO 


from  tolago  or  tdbaco,  the  native  term  in  Santo 
Domingo  for  the  tube  or  pipe  through  which 
the  smoke  of  the  burning  leaves  was  inhaled. 
The  native  Brazilian  name  for  the  plant  was 
petum  (now  used  as  a  generic  name  for  the 
related  petunia), .which  the  Portuguese  intro 
duced  into  Europe,  and  it  is  occasionally  met 
with  in  old  works.  The  genus  Nicotiana  is 
mostly  American,  containing  about  50  species, 
mainly  herbs,  with  leaves,  stems,  &c.,  covered 
with  viscid  hairs;  calyx  tubular-bell-shaped 
and  five-lobed;  corolla  funnel-shaped,  with  a 
five-lobed  limb ;  stamens  five,  inserted  on  and 
included  by  the  corolla ;  ovary  two-celled, 
ripening  into  a  two-celled  capsule,  surrounded 
by  the  persistent  calyx,  and  opening  by  two  or 
several  valves  for  the  escape  of  the  numerous, 
very  small,  kidney-shaped,  roughened  seeds. 
The  species  most  generally  cultivated  is  N~. 
tabacum,  a  stately  plant,  3  "to  6  ft.  high,  with 
ample,  oblong-lance-shaped  leaves,  which  are 


Tobacco  Plant  in  Flower  (Nicotiana  tabacum). 

mostly  decnrrent  upon  the  stem,  and  decrease 
in  size  toward  the  summit  of  the  plant;  the 
flowers  are  in  a  large  terminal  panicle,  the 
rose-purple  corolla  about  2  in.  long.,  with  a 
somewhat  inflated  throat  and  short  lobes.  This 
species  was  extensively  cultivated  by  the  na 
tives  before  America  was  visited  by  Europeans, 
and  has  not  been  detected  in  a  truly  wild  state. 
N.  rustica,  according  to  Humboldt,  was  largely 
cultivated  by  the  ancient  Mexicans,  as  it  was 
(by  the  more  northern  aborigines;  it  is  occa 
sionally  found  as  a  weed  as  far  north  as  New 
York  state,  and  occurs  in  various  other  parts 
of  the  country  as  a  relic  of  its  cultivation  by 
the  Indians ;  though  a  native  of  tropical  Amer 
ica,  it  is  more  hardy  than  the  common  species ; 
it  was  early  introduced  into  cultivation  in  Eu 
rope,  and  has  become  naturalized  in  the  south 
ern' parts  of  that  continent.  It  has  ovate, 
petioled  leaves,  and  dull  greenish  yellow  flow 
ers,  which  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  N. 
tabacum.  As  its  leaves  in  drying  retain  much 


of  their  color,  it  is  sometimes  called  green 
tobacco,  and  being  earlier  and  more  hardy, 
it  is  better  suited  to  northern  localities  than 
the  common  species ;  it  comes  to  maturity  in 
Canada,  and  is  cultivated  in  northern  Ger 
many,  Sweden,  and  Russia,  and  various  east 
ern  countries  ;  the  Turkish,  Hungarian,  and 
Latakia  tobaccos  are  of  this  species.  Chinese 
tobacco  is  accredited  to  N.  Chinensis,  and 
that  of  Shiraz  to  N.  Persica,  species  of  doubt 
ful  origin  and  identity.  N.  repanda  is  said 
to  be  raised  in  Cuba  for  the  manufacture  of 
a  particular  brand  of  cigars.  The  tobacco 
formerly  cultivated  by  the  Indians  of  Mis 
souri  and  further  west  was,  according  to  Nut- 
tall,  N.  quadrivahis,  a  low,  much  branched 
plant,  with  short,  lanceolate,  sessile  leaves,  and 
nearly  white  flowers,  opening  only  at  sunset ; 
its  native  country  is  unknown. — Tobacco  is 
largely  produced  in  China,  Japan,  Persia,  and 
other  parts  of  the  East,  in  some  of  which  the 
plant  has  become  so  thoroughly  naturalized 
that  an  eastern  origin  has  been  sometimes 
claimed  for  it ;  but  Alphonse  de  Candolle,  after 
a  thorough  study  of  the  subject,  finds  no  satis 
factory  evidence  that  its  uses  and  culture  were 
anywhere  known  before  the  discovery  of  Amer 
ica. — In  speaking  of  the  cultivation  and  uses 
of  tobacco,  the  common  species,  jV.  tabacum, 
is  intended,  unless  otherwise  mentioned.  Like 
some  other  plants  of  the  family,  as  the  potato 
and  tomato,  tobacco  readily  adapts  itself  to 
new  conditions,  and  it  becomes  to  a  certain 
extent  acclimated.  The  influences  of  climate 
and  soil  upon  the  development  of  plants  are 
strikingly  illustrated  in  tobacco  as  cultivated 
in  the  United  States ;  it  is  grown  from  near 
the  borders  of  Canada  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  almost  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  several 
states  produce  a<  leaf  of  such  well  marked 
characteristics  tliat  a  good  judge  can  at 
once  tell  the  locality  of  its  growth.  The 
valley  of  the  Connecticut  produces  a  leaf 
which  is  large,  thin,  and  remarkably  fine  and 
silky,  and  which,  though  deficient  in  flavor,  is 
so  superior  for  wrappers,  or  the  outer  covering 
of  cigars,  that  it  is  even  sent  to  Cuba  for  that 
use.  In  the  attempts  to  improve  the  flavor  of 
the  tobacco  of  the  Connecticut  valley,  seeds 
from  Cuba  and  other  localities  have  been  tried 
there ;  but  it  is  found  that  in  a  very  few  sea 
sons  the  tobacco,  from  whatever  source  the 
seeds  are  obtained,  becomes  similar  to  that 
which  has  long  been" raised  there;  it  has  also 
been  found  that  when  Connecticut  valley  seeds 
are  sown  in  other  localities  the  plants  in  two 
or  three  generations  give  a  product  almost 
precisely  like  that  peculiar  to  the  locality. — 
The  first  European  cultivation  of  tobacco  took 
place  in  Portugal,  in  the  early  part  of  the  10th 
century;  it  was  raised  in  France  in  1572,  a 
box  full  of  powdered  leaves  having  been  sent 
to  Catharine  de'  Medici,  who  acquired  a  taste 
for  it,  and  the  plant  was  for  a  time  called 
Tierfie  de  la  reine.  The  culture  rapidly  ex 
tended  to  other  parts  of  Europe  and  to  Asia, 


IN  A    \ 


TOBACCO 


781 


in  some  cases  being  checked  by  severe  laws  or 
made  useful  as  a  source  of  revenue.  Its  pro 
duction  in  England,  by  a  law  of  1660,  was  re 
stricted  to  a  very  small  quantity  for  medicinal 
purposes,  and  the  prohibition  still  remains  in 
force.  The  earliest  settlers  in  Virginia  en 
gaged  in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  as  it  was 
a  salable  commodity  in  England ;  but  as  early 
as  1616,  when  the  colony  only  numbered  351 
persons,  a  provision  was  made  by  law  against 
neglect  of  food  crops  in  its  favor. — In  the  cul 
tivation  of  tobacco  the  first  step  is  to  sow  the 
seeds  in  a  seed  bed;  the  success  of  the  crop 
greatly  depends  upon  the  management  of  this. 
A  spot  with  a  warm  exposure  and  well  shel 
tered  is  selected,  a  temporary  fence  b.eing 
sometimes  put  up  to  protect  it  from  the  winds, 
and  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  thawed  the  bed  is 
highly  manured  and  spaded  or  ploughed.  It 
is  very  common  to  put  upon  the  bed  a  cover 
ing  of  brush,  burn  it,  and  rake  the  ashes  into 
the  soil ;  this  burning  destroys  all  -the  seeds  of 
weeds  near  the  surface,  and  leaves  the  soil  in 
good  condition.  The  seeds  of  tobacco  are  so 
exceedingly  minute  that  it  is  said  an  ordinary 
thimbleful,  if  each  germinated,  would  produce 
more  than  enough  plants  for  an  acre;  but,  as 
is  usually  the  case  with  very  small  seeds,  a 
large  proportion  of  them  will  be  covered  too 
deeply  and  fail.  The  surface  of  the  bed  being 
raked  fine,  the  seed  is  carefully  mixed  with 
several  quarts  of  lime,  ashes,  sand,  or  other 
material  to  aid  in  its  distribution,  and  sown 
with  the  greatest  care  broadcast,  and  the  sur 
face  well  rolled.  After  sowing,  the  bed  re 
ceives  the  closest  attention;  watering  when 
needed,  applying  liquid  manure,  covering  with 
mats  or  straw  on  cool  nights,  and  when  the 
plants  are  well  up  killing  destructive  insects 
and  weeding,  are  among  the  labors  needed  to 
insure  success.  When  the  plants  are  about  4 
in.  high  they  are  ready  to  be  transplanted ;  the 
field  is  previously  prepared,  and  can  hardly  be 
made  too  rich  ;  stable  manure  and  a  great  num 
ber  of  artificial  fertilizers  are  applied  to  this 
most  exhausting  crop ;  the  land  is  marked  out 
in  ro\vs  3  ft.  apart  one  way  and  2  ft.  the  other 
for  small  varieties,  which  will  give  7,000  plants 
to  the  acre,  while  for  larger  kinds  the  rows 
are  3  ft.  one  way  and  4  ft.  the  other,  allow 
ing  4,200  plants  to  the  acre.  Transplanting  is 
done  in  cloudy  weather,  the  plants  being  set 
at  the  intersection  of  the  rows;  they  soon  be 
come  established,  and  during  their  growth  re 
ceive  the  most  thorough  cultivation.  '  When 
the  leaves  are  as  large  as  one's  hand,  the  to 
bacco  needs  "  worming."  Various  insects  at 
tack  it,  but  the  most  destructive  is  the  large 
"green  worm,"  the  larva  of  a  sphinx;  the 
common  tobacco  worm  in  western  states  is 
sphinx  Carolina,  but  8.  quinque-maculata, 
commonly  found  on  the  potato  and  tomato, 
feeds  upon  tobacco  in  the  eastern  states  ;  both 
are  large,  night-flying  moths,  with  five  inches 
spread  of  wing  and  a  long  coiled  proboscis; 
in  their  larval  state  they  eat  voraciously  and 


grow  rapidly,  forming  when  full  grown  a 
caterpillar  3  in.  long,  as  large  as  one's  finger, 
and  having  an  ornamental  horn  (not  a  sting)  at 
its  tail  end.  These  will  ruin  the  leaves  in  a 
short  time ;  the  whole  farm  force  is  frequently 
needed  to  "  worm  "  the  tobacco,  and  it  must  be 
guarded  from  these  attacks  during  its  whole 
growth ;  the  worms  are  killed  by  pinching 
them  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  When 
the  plants  and  the  worms  are  small,  a  flock  of 
young  turkeys  may  be  employed,  but  later  in 
the  season  there  is  no  substitute  for  hand  pick 
ing.  Some  have  killed  the  parent  insects  by 
placing  sirup  poisoned  with  arsenic  in  the 
large  tubular  flowers  of  the  common  thornap- 
ple  or  Jamestown  weed  (datura  stramonium) 
and  placing  these  about  the  field.  "Priming " 
is  the  name  given  to  the  breaking  off  of  such 
leaves  as  touch  the  ground  and  become  broken 
and  soiled;  this  is  not  practised  by  all  plant 
ers,  some  preferring  to  cure  all  the  leaves  and 
put  the  poor  ones  by  themselves.  "  Topping  " 
is  the  stopping  of  the  upward  growth  of  the 
plant  by  breaking  off  the  upper  end  of  the 
stem,  in  order  that  the  nourishment  which 
would  otherwise  go  to  the  production  of  flow 
ers  and  seed  may  be  diverted  to  the  greater 
development  of  the  lower  leaves;  some  top 
when  the  first  blossom  buds  show,  and  others 
leave  a  given  number  of  leaves,  10  to  16,  as 
experience  has  proved  most  profitable.  The 
upward  growth  of  the  plant  being  checked 
by  topping,  branches  soon  appear  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves;  these  are  called  suckers,  and 
the  operation  of  removing  them  is  "sucker- 
ing,"  which  is  done  as  soon  as  those  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  plant  are  large  enough  to  get 
hold  of,  and  the  laborious  work  must  be  kept 
up  as  long  as  any  suckers  appear.  The  matu 
rity  of  the  crop  is  judged  of  by  the  color  and 
the  feel  of  the  leaf  ;  over-ripeness  is  more  in 
jurious  than  its  opposite.  Cutting  is  some 
times  done  as  soon  as  the  dew  is  off  in  the 
morning,  and  the  tobacco  housed  as  soon  as 
wilted ;  others  cut  in  the  afternoon,  and  house 
the  next  morning.  A  hatchet  or  a  knife  like  a 
corn  knife  is  used,  the  stalk  being  severed  close 
to  the  ground  with  one  blow,  and  laid  down, 
where  it  remains  long  enough  to  wilt  so  that  it 
may  be  handled  without  breaking  the  leaves, 
but  not  so  long  as  to  be  sun-burned.  Where  it 
is  an  important  crop,  large  buildings  (tobacco 
houses)  are  erected  expressly  for  it ;  these  are 
so  arranged  that  the  ventilation  is  under  per 
fect  control ;  there  are  several  ventilators  in 
the  roof,  and  each  alternate  board  of  the  up 
right  siding  is  hung  on  hinges,  and  so  arranged 
that  all  may  be  opened  or  closed  at  once ; 
the  best  houses  are  provided  with  a  stove. 
The  methods  of  hanging  tobacco  to  dry  vary 
greatly;  the  old  way  is  to  hang  the  plants  upon 
poles,  which  are  supported  at  each  end  by  tim 
bers  arranged  for  the  purpose ;  the  plants  are 
tied  to  the  poles  with  a  strong  twine;  they 
hang  tops  downward,  and  are  placed  upon  al 
ternate  sides  of  the  pole  and  such  distances 


732 


TOBACCO 


apart  that  the  leaves  will  not  touch.  A  very 
common  way  of  hanging  is  on  laths ;  these  are 
4  ft.  long,  l|  in.  wide,  and  £  in.  thick ;  an  iron 
spear  about  8  in.  long,  with  a  socket  to  fit  upon 
the  lath,  is  placed  upon  one  end,  and  by  its 
means  the  tobacco  is  strung  upon  the  lath,  the 
spear  passing  through  the  stalk  near  its  larger 
end  ;  this  work  is  done  in  the  field,  and  the  laths 
with  their  load  are  hung  upon  rails  in  the  barn. 
Besides  these  methods  of  hanging  there  are  sev 
eral  patented  contrivances  intended  to  facilitate 
the  work  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  plants 
far  enough  apart.  During  the  drying  close  at 
tention  must  be  paid  to  ventilation ;  as  the  leaves 
dry  they  must  not  be  broken  by  the  wind;  if 
hung  too  close,  the  tobacco  will  "pole  barn;" 
if  it  does  not  dry  quickly  enough,  the  green 
leaves  may  freeze  and  be  spoiled ;  fire  heat  is 
often  used,  which  improves  the  color,  but  is 
objected  to  by  some  as  injuring  the  flavor ;  it 
ordinarily  takes  about  12  weeks  to  cure.  When 
quite  cured,  the  tobacco  is  stripped ;  the  house 
is  opened  in  a  damp  time,  and  when  the  leaves 
have  absorbed  so  much  moisture  from  the  air 
that  they  will  not  break,  the  tobacco  is  taken 
from  the  poles  and  put  in  piles,  where  it  will  re 
main  pliant  for  a  week.  In  stripping,  the  leaves 
are  at  the  same  time  assorted,  four  qualities 
being  usually  made.  The  first  stripper  takes 
a  stalk  and  picks  off  all  the  defective  leaves 
near  the  base,  and  throws  it  to  the  next ;  the 
second  stripper  removes  all  of  the  next  qual 
ity,  and  so  on ;  the  leaves  are  kept  even  and 
smooth,  and  when  the  stripper  gets  enough  for 
a  "  hand,"  which  is  3  or  4  oz.,  he  binds  them 
together  into  a  bunch  by 
means  of  another  leaf. 
Up  to  this  stage  the  to 
bacco  is  simply  the  dried 
leaves,  without  the  aroma 
and  other  qualities  for 
which  it  is  esteemed ; 
these  are  developed  only 
after  it  has  undergone  a 
fermentation  or  is  "  con 
ditioned,"  to  effect  which 
the  leaves  are  "  bulked." 
The  merchants  who  pur 
chase  the  tobacco  fre 
quently  prefer  to  "  con 
dition  "  it  in  their  own 
warehouses ;  when  this  is 
the  case,  the  hands  are 
simply  baled  for  trans 
portation.  "  Bulking  " 
consists  in  stacking  the 
tobacco  in  a  compact 
heap,  the  buts  of  the 
hands  laid  outward,  the  leaves  being  care 
fully  smoothed  as  they  are  placed  down;  in  a 
rude  way  the  bulk  is  made  on  a  platform  of 
boards  raised  above  the  ground  sufficiently  to 
allow^  of  a  circulation  of  air  beneath ;  when 
the  pile  is  3  or  4  ft.  high,  planks  and  weights 
are  placed  upon  it,  and  it  is  covered  if  need  be 
with  blankets.  In  this  state  it  remains  until 


IIan;l  of  Tobacco. 


the  color,  flavor,  and  other  qualities  are  prop 
erly  developed,  which  requires  from  four  to 
six  weeks.  Bulking  being  the  finishing  pro 
cess,  the  quality  of  the  crop  depends  upon  its 
proper  management,  and  it  requires  frequent 
attention.  Tobacco  is  sent  to  market  in  boxes 
containing  about  400  Ibs.,  or  in  casks  holding 
1,300  to  1,500  Ibs. ;  in  packing  in  casks  the 
buts  of  the  hands  are  laid  toward  the  outside 
and  trodden  down  by  the  bare  feet  of  the 
packer  ;  when  about  100  Ibs.  are  thus  packed, 
pressure  by  means  of  a  screw  or  .a  powerful 
lever  is  applied,  after  which  more  tobacco  is 
placed  in,  pressed  again,  and  so  on  till  the  cask 
is  full. — The  yield  of  marketable  tobacco  to  the 
acre  depends  upon  numerous  contingencies; 
but  the  average  is  not  far  from  600  Ibs.,  while 
some  growers  harvest  1,000  Ibs.  annually,  and 
this  is  exceeded  in  particular  cases.  Tobacco 
growers  are  very  careful  in  the  matter  of  seed ; 
the  tendency  of  the  plant  to  vary  has  already 
been  noticed,  and  it  is  the  custom  of  some 
growers,  to  save  a  large  supply  of  seed  from  a 
desirable  crop,  as  when  well  kept  it  remains 
good  for  six  to  ten  years. — The  various  kinds 
of  foreign  tobacco  are  known  by  the  names 
of  the  countries  producing  them,  or  the  ports 
whence  they  are  shipped,  such  as  Havana,  Ori 
noco,  Turkey,  Latakia,  Shiraz,  &c. ;  that  grown 
in  this  country  bears  the  name  of  the  state  or 
some  particular  locality,  while  the  product  of 
the  Connecticut  valley  and  some  other  locali 
ties  bears  the  unmeaning  name  of  "  seed  leaf." 
Virginia  tobacco  is  one  .of  the  strongest  kinds, 
not  fitted  for  cigars,  but  is  made  into  various 
shapes  for  pipes,  and  for  chewing,  and  used 
for  snuff ;  Maryland  is  paler  and  weaker,  and 
used  for  pipes ;  Kentucky  is  intermediate  be 
tween  the  two,  and  in  this  as  with  the  Missouri 
there  is  much  variety  ;  the  Florida  is  now  be 
coming  known  as  a  fine  tobacco,  and  used  for 
cigars ;  the  best  of  the  northern  kinds  for 
making  cigar  wrappers  is  the  Connecticut,  and 
those  from  New  York,  Ohio,  and  other  north 
ern  states  are  valued  in  proportion  as  they 
approach  this  in  texture,  as  for  this  use  strength 
or  flavor  is  not  required  ;  the  body  of  the  cigar 
being  made  ol  Havana,  a  leaf  that  has  an  at 
tractive  color  and  silky  feel  is  sought  for.  (See 
CIGAE.)  The  Turkish  and  other  kinds  from  tie 
East  are  only  used  cut  fine  for  pipes,  or  granu 
lated  for  cigarettes.  Manila  tobacco  is  im 
ported  only  in  the  form  of  peculiar  conical 
cigars  called  cheroots.  Very  fine  tobacco  is 
produced  in  Paraguay,  and  small  quantities 
have  been  imported. — In  whatever  manner  the 
tobacco  may  be  manufactured  (except  for 
snuff),  the  first  step  is  to  "strip"  it.  -The 
hands,  being  moistened  to  prevent  breaking, 
are  untied,  and  the  strong  midrib  of  the  leaf 
is  removed  ;  this  work  is  done  by  women  and 
children ;  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  leaf  are 
folded  together  lengthwise,  and  the  midrib 
dexterously  separated  by  a  pull ;  the  "  stems," 
as  the  midribs  are  called,  are  used  in  the  poorer 
kinds  of  cut  tobacco  and  snuff,  but  are  nearly 


TOBACCO 


783 


a  waste  product,  being  sold  at  low  rates  for 
making  sheep  dip  to  destroy  ticks  on  those 
animals,  and  for  fumigating  greenhouses  to 
destroy  insects.  Some  tobacco  is  sold  which 
seems  to  be  of  the  leaf  merely  stripped,  made 
into  a  roll,  and  subjected  to  moderate  pressure, 
without  any  foreign  substance,  and  some  of 
the  cut  tobacco  is  of  this  kind ;  but  the  greater 
part  of  that  made  up  into  cakes,  heads,  plugs, 
or  pigs,  as  the  parcels  are  variously  called,  as 
well  as  that  which  is  cut  for  both  smoking 
and  chewing,  is  prepared  by  various  processes 
to  meet  the  taste  of  the  consumers  ;  molasses, 
liquorice  paste,  a  decoction  of  figs,  and  glycer 
ine  are  used  to  impart  a  sweet  taste,  give  color, 
and  prevent  rapid  drying ;  common  salt  and 
other  salts  are  used  for  flavoring,  and  nitrate 
of  potash  or  soda  is  sometimes  added  to  in 
crease  the  combustibility  ;  anise  and  other  aro- 
matics  are  added  for  their  flavor,  and  smoking 
tobaccos  have  their  odor  increased,  if  not  im 
proved,  by  the  use  of  cascarilla  bark,  and  lately 
liatris  odoratissima,  the  leaves  of  which  are 
largely  collected  in  Florida  and  sold  as  "  wild 
vanilla"  or  deer's-tongue  (see  VAXILLA)  ;  these 
contain  a  great  deal  of  coumarine,  the  aromatic 
principle  of  the  Tonqua  bean,  a  seed  employed 
for  scenting  snuff.  These  additions,  except 
those  for  odor,  are  made  in  the  form  of  a  li 
quid  technically  termed  "  liquor"  or  "  sauce," 
in  which  the  leaves  are  steeped. — To  make  cut 
tobacco,  the  leaves  are  made  up  into  large 
cakes,  which  are  cut  into  shreds  or  filaments 
by  the  action  of  machines  similar  in  principle 
to  straw-cutters.  In  this  condition  the  tobacco 
is  put  up  in  a  great  variety  of  packages,  which 
are  marked  with  fanciful  names.  The  dark- 
colored  leaves,  made  still  darker  by  the  liquor 
ing  process,  produce  the  coarse  variety  called 
shag,  and  the  better  sorts  are  converted  by 
spinning  processes  into  cords  variously  folded 
or  twisted,  and  distinguished  by  different  names. 
The  term  "negro  head"  is  applied  to  coarse 
rolj#  of  tobacco  weighing  6  or  8  Ibs.  each.  The 
variety  known  as  "  pig-tail"  is  also  spun  ;  the 
cord,  but  little  larger  than  a  pipe  stem,  is  often 
braided,  and  then  oiled  and  packed  closely  in 
kegs.  In  the  United  States  a  great  deal  of  to 
bacco,  intended  chiefly  for  home  consumption, 
after  being  cut  up,  is  made  into  flat  cakes, 
which  are  moistened  with  molasses  and  power 
fully  compressed ;  these  cakes  are  about  5  in. 
long  and  1^  in.  wide,  and  when  closely  packed 
in  the  strong  oak  boxes  in  which  they  are  sent 
to  market,  they  form  a  compact  mass,  from 
which  the  cakes  are  torn  out  only  by  the  ap 
plication  of  considerable  force;  this,  known 
as  plug  or  Cavendish  tobacco,  is  in  common  j 
use  for  chewing,  and  is  smoked  in  pipes  by 
those  who  are  fond  of  tobacco  of  the  strongest 
flavor. — Snuffs  vary  greatly  in  quality,  the 
poorer  kinds  being  made  from  the  "  stems," 
or  midribs  of  the  leaves,  separated  in  preparing 
tobacco  for  other  purposes ;  in  the  finer  kinds 
these  are  rejected,  the  blade  or  better  portion 
of  the  leaf  only  being  used ;  and  in  interme- 
VOL.  xv. — 50 


diate  qualities  both  parts  are  ground  up  to 
gether,  and  the  refuse  or  dust  from  the  cutting 
machines  is  used.  There  are  two  principal 
classes  of  snuffs,  the  dry  and  the  moist.  The 
dry  snuffs  are  prepared  from  tobacco  which 
has  been  exposed  to  a  high  temperature  before 
grinding,  arid  they  differ  in  quality  according 
to  the  proportion  of  stem  they  contain ;  they 
are  usually  very  finely  powdered,  of  a  light 
yellowish  brown  color,  and  from  their  exces 
sive  dryness  are  very  diffusible  in  the  air,  and 
need  careful  handling ;  lime  is  said  to  be  some 
times  mixed  with  these  snuffs,  to  increase  their 
dryness,  and  those  so  treated  have  an  injurious 
effect  upon  the  membranes  of  the  nose.  The 
Scotch  or  yellow  snuff  is  the  commonest  of 
this  class ;  this  is  usually  packed  in  bladders ; 
yellow  ochre  is  often  added  to  improve  the 
color  and  as  a  cheap  adulteration  to  increase 
the  weight.  The  names  of  some  of  the  brands 
indicate  the  method  of  preparation,  such  as 
"high-dried"  and  "high  toast."  The  Irish 
and  Welsh  snuffs  belong  in  this  class ;  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  Irish  brands  is  Lundy  Foot, 
taking  its  name  from  the  original  makers, 
Lundy,  Foot  and  co.  The  moist  snuffs  present 
a  greater  number  of  varieties.  They  are  pre 
pared  by  grinding  the  tobacco  while  moist,  and 
are  subjected  to  various  manipulations.  The 
finely  divided  tobacco  is  moistened,  usually 
with  a  solution  of  salt,  and  placed  in  a  heap 
to  ferment ;  the  extent  to  which  this  fermen 
tation  is  carried,  the  fineness  of  the  subsequent 
grinding,  the  addition  of  perfumes,  and  the 
admixture  of  other  substances  to  increase  the 
pungency  or  to  maintain  its  moist  condition, 
all  vary  in  producing  the  different  commercial 
varieties.  Carbonate  of  potash,  in  the  form 
of  pearlash,  readily  attracts  moisture  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  is  sometimes  added  to  keep 
the  snuff  damp.  Salt  is  added  to  all  moist 
snuffs,  and  is  not  regarded  as  an  adulteration, 
as  it  is  considered  necessary  to  prevent  mould. 
Various  essential  oils  are  used  to  perfume  par 
ticular  brands,  the  most  common,  being  those 
of  bergamot  and  rose ;  powdered  orris  root 
and  rosewood  are  both  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  color  of  the  snuff  is  due  to  the  extent  to 
which  it  is  fermented.  The  leading  brands  of 
moist  snuffs  are  rappees  (Fr.  rdper,  to  rasp) 
of  various  kinds  (coarser-grained  than  oth 
er  varieties),  prince's  mixture,  maccoboy  (Fr. 
maconlxt),  Dutch  carrottee,  Grand  Cairo,  &c. 
Snuff  is  much  more  largely  consumed  in  Great 
Britain  and  France  than  in  the  United  States. 
In  Scotland  the  rappee  snuff  is  generally  pre 
ferred,  the  so-called  Scotch  snuff  being  used 
chiefly  by  women  of  the  lower  classes. — The 
first  analysis  of  tobacco  was  made  by  Yau- 
quelin  in  1809,  who  detected  a  volatile  ac 
rid  principle,  which  was  not  isolated  till  1828, 
by  Posselt  and  Reimann,  as  a  colorless  oily 
liquid,  which  was  called  nicotine  or  nicotia, 
and  is  the  constituent  upon  which  the  active 
properties  of  the  plant  chiefly  depend.  (See 
NICOTIA.)  The  proportion  of  this  alkaloid 


TOBACCO 


in  the  dried  leaves  varies  from  less  than  2 
per  cent,  in  Havana  to  nearly  8  per  cent,  in 
tobacco  produced  in  the  department  of  Lot  in 
France.  The  occurrence  of  nicotia  in  tobacco 
smoke  is  asserted  by  some  chemists,  while  oth 
ers  have  failed  to  detect  it.  Another  constitu 
ent  is  tobacco  camphor,  or  nicotianine,  a  con 
crete  volatile  oil  which  appears  on  the  surface 
of  the  distillate  as  minute  crystals  when  the 
leaves  are  distilled  with  water;  very  discrep 
ant  accounts  are  given  of  its  sensible  proper 
ties,  which  have  not  been  sufficiently  studied. 
Besides  these  the  leaves  contain  a  bitter  extrac 
tive  matter,  gum,  malate  of  lime,  chlorophyl, 
albuminoids,  malic  acid,  woody  fibre,  and  va 
rious  salts.  The  amount  of  ash  is  very  large, 
varying  from  16  to  27  per  cent.  Wolff  found 
in  1,000  parts  of  air-dried  leaves  197'5  of  ash, 
composed  as  follows:  potash,  54*1 ;  soda,  7'3 ; 
magnesia,  20'7;  lime,  73'1 ;  phosphoric  acid, 
7*1;  sulphuric  acid,  7'7;  silica,  19'0;  chlorine, 
&•&.  The  leaves  contain  from  2J-  to  4^-  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen,  partly  in  the  form  of  nitrates ; 
this,  with  the  large  content  of  potash  and  phos 
phoric  acid,  shows  the  heavy  draft  made  by 
the  crop  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  which 
can  only  be  maintained  by  the  most  liberal 
manuring.  By  dry  or  destructive  distillation 
at  a  red  heat,  an  empyreumatic  oil  is  obtained, 
of  about  the  color  and  consistence  of  molasses, 
with  acrid  taste,  and  precisely  the  odor  of  an 
old  pipe ;  this  is  powerfully  poisonous ;  under 
the  name  of  oil  of  tobacco  it  is  used  in  oint 
ments  for  skin  diseases.  This  oil  has  been  de 
tected  in  tobacco  smoke  together  with  nico 
tianine  (as  some  assert),  nicotia,  salts  of  ammo 
nia,  hydrocyanic  acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
several  volatile  fatty  acids,  phenol,  creosote, 
and  numerous  basic  substances  of  the  picolinic 
series.  It  appears  therefore  that  the  physio 
logical  effects  of  smoking  cannot  be  directly 
deduced  from,  although  closely  allied  to,  those 
of  tobacco  administered  by  the  mouth  or  oth 
erwise. — The  admixture  of  some  of  the  ma 
terials  used  in  the  processes  of  manufacturing 
tobacco  cannot  be  properly  called  adultera 
tions,  as  they  are  added  to  suit  the  tastes  of 
consumers.  Water,  necessary  to  bring  the 
leaf  into  proper  form,  may  be  sometimes 
fraudulently  used  to  increase  the  weight,  and 
those  who  keep. the  unmanufactured  tobacco 
in  store  are  careful  that  it  shall  not  lose  in 
this  respect;  the  other  additions,  of  various 
saccharine  and  saline  matters,  have  already 
been  mentioned.  In  England,  where  tobacco 
bears  a  high  price,  there  is  a  temptation  to  add 
other  materials,  and,  especially  in  cut  tobaccos, 
various  vegetable  substances  have  been  de 
tected  ;  dock,  rhubarb,  coltsfoot,  and  other 
leaves,  malt  sprouts,  and  peat  are  among  the 
most  important ;  but  the  use  of  these  is  not 
frequent,  as  detection  in  the  adulteration  of 
tobacco,  and  even  their  possession  by  a  tobac 
conist,  are  punished  by  a  fine  of  £200.  The 
microscope  serves  for  the  detection  of  these 
adulterations,  the  structure  of  the  true  leaf 


being  quite  distinct  from  that  of  any  likely  to 
be  mixed  with  it.  The  various  salts,  such  as 
nitrates  to  increase  the  combustibility,  and  oth 
ers 'to  modify  the  flavor  or  to  increase  the 
weight,  are  detected  by  chemical  tests.  Snuff 
is  more  liable  to  adulteration  than  any  other 
form  of  tobacco ;  common  salt  is  a  very  fre 
quent  addition;  ochres  and  other  earthy  mat 
ters,  pearlash  to  absorb  moisture,  oxide  of  lead, 
and  various  other  foreign  substances,  including 
powdered  glass  (supposed  to  be  accidental), 
have  been  detected. — The  medicinal  effects  of 
tobacco  upon  the  system  are  very  marked, 
whether  it  is  taken  internally  or  applied  ex 
ternally.  In  small  quantities,  taken  by  either 
of  the  methods  in  which  it  is  commonly  used, 
as  smoking,  chewing,  or  snuffing  the  pulver 
ized  dry  leaf,  it  acts  as  a  sedative  narcotic ; 
in  larger  quantities,  or  with  those  unaccus 
tomed  to  it,  it  causes  giddiness,  faintness,  nau 
sea,  vomiting,  and  purging,  with  great  debility ; 
as  the  nausea  continues  with  severe  retching, 
the  skin  becomes  cpld  and  clammy,  the  mus 
cles  relaxed,  the  pulse  feeble,  and  fainting  and 
sometimes  convulsions  ensue,  terminating  in 
death.  Its  power  of  causing  relaxation  of  the 
muscular  system  is  great,  and  has  been  taken 
advantage  of  in  surgical  treatment,  as  by  Dr. 
Physick  in  a  case  of  obstinate  and  long  con 
tinued  dislocation  of  the  jaw,  the  desired  effect 
being  produced  by  smoking,  to  which  the  pa 
tient  was  unaccustomed.  An  infusion  or  the 
smoke  of  tobacco  has  been  introduced  into  the 
rectum  to  facilitate  the  reduction  of  .a  hernia 
or  intestinal  obstruction ;  but  it  is  now  entirely 
superseded  for  these  purposes  by  the  more  ef 
fectual  and  less  dangerous  ether  or  chloroform. 
Its  physiological  action  is  nearly  opposed  to 
that  of  strychnia,  to  which  it  has  been  used 
as  an  antidote.  It  is  also  applied  in  the  form 
of  infusions  and  cataplasms  to  relieve  various 
spasmodic  affections,  and  its  use  generally  in 
medicine  is  in  external  applications,  the  nau 
sea  it  occasions  almost  wholly  preventing  its 
exhibition  internally.  It  is  recommended  in 
articular  gout,  rheumatism,  and  neuralgia ;  and 
the  toothache  is  often  relieved  by  smoking  a 
cigar.  The  application  of  the  infusion,  or  even 
of  the  leaves,  or  of  powdered  tobacco,  to  sur 
faces  deprived  of  the  cuticle,  has  sometimes 
been  attended  with  fatal  effects;  these  have 
even  followed  the  inhalation  of  the  smoke. 
The  powerfully  nauseating  effects  of  tobacco 
suggest  its  use  as  an  emetic,  but  it  is  rarely 
resorted  to  for  this  purpose.  Entirely  differ 
ent  opinions  have  been  entertained  by  the  most 
respectable  medical  authorities  as  to  the  effects 
of  tobacco  upon  the  system,  whether  beneficial 
or  hurtful,  as  it  is  commonly  used;  and  ever 
since  its  early  introduction  many  have  ear 
nestly  condemned  it  for  its  supposed  univer 
sally  injurious  qualities.  Its  use  nevertheless 
has  been  constantly  increasing,  and  multitudes 
among  all  nations  depend  upon  it  daily,  suffer 
ing  extremely  if  deprived  of  it  for  a  time.  At 
tempts  have  been  made  to  show  that  the-  use 


TOBACCO ' 


TOBIT 


785 


of  tobacco  lessens  mental  vigor,  but  it  would 
be  very  easy  to  produce  abundant  instances  to 
prove  that  its  action  in  this  direction  can  be 
but  slight.  Its  use,  however,  is  specially  to 
be  avoided  by  persons  who  have  not  reached 
their  full  bodily  development.  Medical  au 
thorities  are  able  to  trace  pretty  clearly  to  its 
extreme  use  certain  forms  of  pharyngitis,  dys 
pepsia,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  so-called 
nervousness.  A  form  of  blindness  known  as 
tobacco  amaurosis  is  recognized  by  oculists ; 
this  is  sometimes,  but  not  usually,  attended  by 
actual  atrophy  of  the  optic  ne'rve,  and  is  gen 
erally  very  amenable  to  treatment. — In  Spain 
and  Spanish  American  countries  women  smoke 
as  well  as  men,  while  in  England  and  North 
America  the  use  of  tobacco  by  women,  except 
in  the  form  of  snuff,  is  very  rare,  and  the  use 
of  snuff  by  women  is  becoming  less  frequent. 
The  use  of  snuff  for  u  dipping "  appears  to 
be  peculiar  to  the  southern  states;  it  avoids 
the  unpleasant  effects  of  snuffing,  and  has  been 
largely  practised  in  secret  as  well  as  openly;  it 
is  done  with  a  small  brush,  which  is  first  wetted, 
then  dipped  in  snuff,  and  applied  to  the  gums ; 
it  is  thought  to  brighten  the  eyes  and  improve 
the  complexion  of  the  young,  but  the  older 
soon  abandon  it  for  the  pipe. — The  general  es 
timate  of  the  crop  of  leaf  tobacco  in  1875  is: 
Virginia,  65,000  hhds.  ;  Maryland,  35,000  ; 
Ohio,  15,000 ;  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  100,- 
000 ;  Illinois  and  Indiana,  30,000 ;  Missouri, 
30,000  ;  total,  275,000  hhds.  In  January,  1876, 
the  average  values  of  leaf  tobacco  per  hhd. 
were :  Kentucky,  $150  ;  Virginia,  $120 ;  Mary 
land,  $60 ;  Ohio,  $60 ;  at  which  rates  the  total 
value  of  the  estimated  crop  of  1875  would  be 
$29,400,000.  The  annual  consumption  in  the 
United  States  is  estimated  at  60,000  to  75,000 
hhds.  Of  seed-leaf  tobacco  the  stock  on  hand 
on  Jan.  1,  1875,  was  180,000  cases;  exported 
during  the  year,  35,000  ;  consumption,  70,000  ; 
packed  in  hogsheads  and  for  cutting  purposes, 
10,000;  total,  115,000;  leaving  stock  on  hand 
Jan.  1,  1876,  65,000  cases,  to  which  must  be 
added  the  estimated  crop  of  1875,  as  follows  : 


The  receipts  and  shipments  of  American  leaf 
tobacco  at  the  principal  tobacco  ports  in  the 
United  States  in  1875  were  as  follows  : 


COUNTRIES. 

Hhds. 

Cases. 

Bales. 

Ceroons. 

Great  Britain  
Germany 

16,103 

3  333 

751 

22,816 

38 
28060 

12  754 

Spain 

11  718 

France  
Italy  

3.909 
12,625 

50 

25 

761 

STATES. 

Cases. 

Price. 

Value. 

Connecticut  and  Massachusetts.. 
New  York 

40,000 
10000 

$70 
30 

$2.800,000 
300000 

Pennsylvania  

Ohio 

30,000 
15000 

60 
30 

1,800,000 
450000 

Wisconsin  and  other  W.  states  .. 

10,000 

33 

300,000 

Total 

105  000 

$5  650  000 

PORTS. 

Received,  hhds. 

Shipped,  hhdg. 

New  York  ... 

46,932 

54.831 

New  Orleans  ... 

4,017 

4.447 

Virginia 

38  966 

22,450 

40290 

42  930 

Total  

130  205 

124  658 

The  exports  of  all  kinds  of  tobacco  from  the 
port  of  New  York  in  1875  were  :  leaf  in  hhds., 
54,831;  cases,  30,668  ;  bales,  45,122 ;  ceroons, 
13,515  ;  stems  in  hhds.,  mostly  to  Germany, 
2,253 ;  manufactured  tobacco,  6,554,936  Ibs. 
The  greater  part  was  distributed  as  follows  : 


Manufactured  tobacco  was  exported  as  follows : 
to  Great  Britain,  2,866,560  Ibs. ;  Germany, 
86,713  Ibs.;  West  Indies,  754,365  Ibs.;  South 
America,  1,109,155  Ibs. ;  Australia,  1,246,262 
Ibs. ;  and  in  less  quantities  to  Belgium,  Hol 
land,  Portugal,  the  Mediterranean,  Africa,  the 
British  North  American  provinces,  China,  and 
India.  The  receipts  of  Cuban  tobacco  in  the 
United  States  in  1875  were  82,819  bales.— See 
Joubert,  Nouveau  manuel  du  fabric  ant  de  ta- 
bac  (Paris,  1844);  Hassall,  "Adulterations  de 
tected  in  Food  and  Medicine  "  (London,  1857  ; 
new  and  enlarged  ed.,  1876) ;  II.  P.  Prescott, 
"  Tobacco  and  its  Adulterations "  (London, 
1858) ;  "  The  Uses  and  Abuses  of  Tobacco," 
by  John  Lizars,  professor  of  surgery  (Edin 
burgh  ;  reprinted,  Philadelphia,  1859) ;  Fair- 
holt,  "  Tobacco,  its  History  and  Associations  " 
(London,  1859 ;  new  ed.,  1875) ;  "  Tobacco 
Culture,  by  Fourteen  Experienced  Cultiva 
tors"  (New  York,. 1863);  and  "Tobacco,"  by 
John  Dunning,  in  the  "British  Manufacturing 
Industries  "  (1876). 

TOBACCO  PIPE.     See  PIPE,  TOBACCO. 

TOBAGO,  an  island  of  the  Windward  group 
of  the  British  West  Indies,  the  N.  point  of 
which  is  in  lat.  11°  25'  N.,  Ion.  60°  32'  W.,  32 
m.  long ;  area,  120  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  17,- 
054.  It  is  a  mass  of  rocks  which  rises  abrupt 
ly  on  the  N.  E.  side  and  descends  toward  the 
S.  W.,  the  most  elevated  part  of  which  is  about 
900  ft.  above  the  sea.  There  are  several  good 
harbors  on  the  N.  side  for  vessels  of  150  tons, 
and  a  few  on  the  S.  side.  The  valleys  are  well 
watered  by  numerous  streams.  The  produc 
tions  are  sugar,  molasses,  and  rum.  The  value 
of  imports  in  1874  was  £43,743;  of  exports, 
£45,280.  It  has  a  lieutenant  governor,  sub 
ordinate  to  the  governor  of  the  Windward  isl 
ands,  a  privy  council,  a  legislative  council  of  7 
members,  and  a  house  of  assembly  of  16  mem 
bers,  elected  by  the  parishes.  The  capital  is 
Scarborough,  on  the  S.  coast. — Tobago  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  was  ceded 
by  France  to  Great  Britain  in  1763. 

TOBIT,  a  book  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  canon,  but  regarded  as  apoc 
ryphal  by  Jews  and  Protestants.  It  contains 
the  history  of  Tobit  or  Tobias,  a  pious  Jew  of 
the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  living  in  exile  at  Nine 
veh.  Being  purveyor  to  the  court  of  King 
Shalmaneser,  he  became  wealthy ;  but.  under. 


786 


TOBOLSK 


TODD 


Sennacherib  he  lost  his  position  and  his  prop 
erty,  because  he  had  buried  Jews  who  had  been 
executed.  Having  returned  to  Nineveh  after 
the  death  of  Sennacherib,  he  became  blind; 
but  he  was  cured  by  the  application  to  his 
eyes  of  the  gall  of  a  fish  which  his  son  To 
bias  had  brought  home  from  a  journey  under 
taken  in  company  with  the  angel  Raphael. 
The  Greek  text  of  the  Septuagint,  which  some 
writers  believe  to  be  the  original,  and  the  Latin 
translation  of  Jerome,  which  he  claims  to  have 
made  from  a  Chaldaic  text,  differ  considerably. 
The  author  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Jew  of 
Palestine,  who,  according  to  Ewald,  most  prob 
ably  wrote  in  the  far  East  about  350  13.  C. 
Among  the  best  commentaries  are  those  of 
Fritzsche  (Leipsic,  1853),  Sengelmann  (Ham 
burg,  1859),  and  Reusch  (Freiburg,  1857). 

TOBOLSK.  I.  A  government  of  Russia,  in 
western  Siberia,  extending  from  the  Arctic 
ocean  to  the  Central  Asian  provinces  of  Akmo- 
linsk  and  Semipolatinsk,  separated  on  the  west 
by  the  Ural  mountains  from  European  Russia, 
and  bounded  E.  by  Yeniseisk  and  Tomsk ;  area, 
531,964  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,086,848.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  Obi  and  its  principal  tribu 
taries,  and  contains  extensive  lakes.  Timber 
abounds  in  the  south.  Its  great  mineral  re 
sources  are  not  yet  properly  explored.  The 
land  on  the  banks  of  some  of  the  rivers  yields 
much  grain.  Fish  and  game,  including  fur- 
bearing  animals,  are  especially  plentiful.  The 
transit  trade  with  China  is  considerable.  II. 
A  city,  capital  of  the  government,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Irtish,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Tobol,  nearly  1,200  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Moscow; 
pop.  in  1867,  20,330.  It  contains  a  cathedral 
and  many  other  churches,  several  mosques,  an 
episcopal  palace,  an  arsenal,  a  theatre,  and  a 
gymnasium.  Inside  the  citadel  is  a  workhouse 
for  Siberian  exiles  of  the  lower  classes.  The 
manufactures  are  unimportant. 

TOCAXTIXS,  a  river  of  Brazil,  formed  by  the 
Almas  and  Maranhao,  which  rise  in  the  prov 
ince  of  Goyaz  and  unite  in  lat.  14°  S.,  Ion.  "49° 
15'  W.  After  a  course  of  about  1,000  m.,  in  a 
general  northerly  direction,  it  falls  into  the 
Rio  Para,  about  80  m.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  the 
same  name.  The  Araguay,  Parannan,  Great 
Somno,  Tucahunas,  and  Theresa  are  its  afflu 
ents.  The  tide  ascends  about  300  m.,  and  at 
its  mouth  the  Tocantins  is  8  in.  wide. 

TOCQUEVILLE,  Alexis  Charles  Henri  Clerel  de,  a 
French  author,  born  in  Paris,  July  29,  1805, 
died  iu  Cannes,  April  16,  1859.  He  studied 
law,  was  appointed  a  judge  in  Versailles  in 
1826,  was  promoted  in  1830,  and  in  1831  was 
sent  with  Gustave  de  Beaumont  on  a  mission 
to  the  United  States,  to  examine  the  peniten 
tiary  system.  The  report  of  their  .  observa 
tions  was  published  under  the  title  Du  systeme 
penitcntiaire  aux  Etats-  Uriis  (8vo,  1832 ;  trans 
lated  into  English  by  Francis  Lieber,  8vo,  Phil 
adelphia,  1833).  De  Tocqueville  investigated 
at.  the  same  time  the  political  and  social  insti 
tutions  of  the  country,  and  wrote  his  cele 


brated  philosophical  work  De  la  democratie 
aux  Etats-  Unis  (2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1835),  which 
received  the  Montyon  prize,  and  procured  his 
admission  to  the  academy  (1844).  He  was 
elected  in  1839  to  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
and  became  the  leader  of  a  moderate  wing 
of  the  opposition.  As  a  member  of  the  con 
stituent  assembly  in  1848,  he  opposed  social 
istic  doctrines  and  ultra-democratic  measures. 
After  attending  the  diplomatic  conferences 
in  Brussels  upon  Italian  affairs,,  he  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  June  2,  1849.  He 
strongly  supported  the  French  expedition  to 
Rome,  but,  dissatisfied  with  Louis  Napoleon  in 
other  respects,  he  resigned  at  the  end  of  Oc 
tober.  .  On  Dec.  2,  1851,  he  protested  against 
the  coup  d'etat,  and  was  imprisoned,  but  re 
leased  after  a  few  days,  when  he  retired  to 
private  life.  In  1856  he  published  L^ancien 
regime  et  la- revolution  (8vo;  translated  by  J. 
Bonner,  12mo,  New  York,  1856)..  His  CEmres 
et  correspondance  inedites  have  been  published 
with  a  biographical  notice  by  G.  de  Beaumont 
(2  vols.  .8  vo,- 1860;  English  translation,  2  vols. 
8vo,  London  and  Boston,  1861).  His  complete 
works  are  in  9  vols.  (Paris,  1860-'G5).  His 
"Democracy  in  America"  was  translated  irito 
English  by  Henry  Reeve,  with  a  preface  -and 
notes  by  John  C.  Spencer  (8vo,  New  York, 
1838;  new  ed.,  London,  1875;  abridged  ed., 
"American  Institutions  and  their  Influence," 
with  notes,  16mo,  New  York,  1856) ;  and 
Reeve's  translation  has  been  edited  by  Prof. 
F.  Bowen  (2  vols.  8vo,  Cambridge,  1862).— 
See  "  Correspondence  and  Conversations  of 
Alexis  de  Tocqueville  with'.  Nassau  William 
Senior,"  edited  by  M.  C.  M.  Simpson  (2  vols., 
London,  1872). 

TOD,  James,  an  English  soldier,  born  in  1782, 
died  in  London,  Nov.  17,  1835.  He  went  to 
India  in  1800  as  a  cadet  in  the  East  India  com 
pany's  service,  and  attained  the  rank  of  lieu 
tenant  colonel.  After  the  Mahratta  war,  he 
was  engaged  to  survey  Rajpootana,  of  which 
a  topographical  map  was  finished  in  1815.  He 
was  political  agent  of  Mewar  and  other  Raj 
poot  states  from  1817  to  1823.  He  wrote  "An 
nals  and  Antiquities  of  Rajasthan"  (2  vols. 
4to,  London,  1829-'32),  and  "  Travels  in  West 
ern  India"  (4to,  1839). 

TODD.  I.  A  S.  W.  county  of  Kentucky,  bor 
dering  on  Tennessee,  arid  drained  by  Pond  river 
and  several  large  creeks;  area,  350  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  12,612,  of  whom  4,860  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  generally  hilly  and  the  soil  fer 
tile.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  and  Great  Southern  and  the  St.  Louis 
and  Southeastern  railroads.  The  chief  pro 
ductions  in  1870  were  178,837  bushels  of  wheat, 
445,275  of  Indian  corn,  57,375  of  oats,  13,490 
of  sweet  potatoes,  2,620,193  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
18,925  of  wool,  65,260  of  butter,  and  1,633 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,363  horses,  1,789 
mules  and  asses,  2,000  milch  cows,  2,423  other 
cattle,  7,300  sheep,  and  18,370  swine!  Capital, 
Elkton.  II.  A  central  county  of  Minnesota, 


TODD 


TODHUNTER 


787 


watered  by  Long  Prairie  and  Partridge  rivers 
and  other  streams;  area,  960  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  2,036.  The  surface  is  generally  level,  in 
terspersed  with  numerous  small  lakes,  and  the 
soil  is  productive.  The  Northern  Pacific  rail 
road  passes  through  the  N.  part.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  15,907  bushels  of 
wheat,  18,012  of  oats,  13,736  of  potatoes,  25,- 
G83  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  3,339  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  74  horses,  337  milch  cows,  and  613  other 
cattle.  Capital,  Long  Prairie.  III.  A  S.  E. 
county  of  .Dakota,  bordering  on  Nebraska,  and 
lying  between  the  Missouri  and  Niobrara  riv 
ers;  area,  about  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  337. 
The  river  bottoms  are  very  fertile;  the  uplands 
consist  of  prairies.  Capital,  Fort  Randall. 

TODD,  Henry  John,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  1763,  died  at  Settrington,  Yorkshire, 
Dec.  24,  1845.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  was  vicar  of  Milton  near  Canterbury,  rec 
tor  of  Allhallows,  London,  keeper  of  the  manu 
scripts  at  Lambeth  palace  (1803),  rector  of 
Settrington  (1820),  prebendary  of  York  (1830), 
and  archdeacon  of  Cleveland  (1832).  His  pub 
lications  comprise  "  Illustrations  of  the  Lives 
and  Writings  of  Geoffrey  Chaucer  and  John 
Gower"  (8vo,  1810);  an  edition  of  Johnson's 
"  Dictionary,"  with  corrections  and  additions 
(4  vols.  4to,  1814) ;  "Memoirs  of  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  Brian  Walton  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  1821)  ; 
"A  Letter  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
concerning  the  Authorship  of  Icon  Basilike" 
(8vo,  1825) ;  "  Some  Account  of  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  John  Milton"  (8vo,  1826);  and  a 
life  of  Archbishop  Cranmer  (2  vols.  8vo,  1831). 

TODD,  James  Henthorae,  an  Irish  antiquary, 
born  in  Dublin,  April  23, 1805,  died  near  there, 
June'  28,  1869.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  col 
lege,  became  a  fellow  there  in  1831,  and  was 
regius  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  university  of 
Dublin.  He  was  also  treasurer  and  precentor 
of  St.  Patrick's  cathedral,  president  of  the 
royal  Irish  academy,  and  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Irish  archosological  society.  He  edited 
several  rare  Irish  manuscripts  and  tracts,  in 
cluding  "  The  Wars  of  the  Danes  in  Ireland," 
and  published  "  Historical  Tablets  and  Medal 
lions  "  (1828) ;  "  Discourses  on  the  Prophecies 
relating  to  Antichrist "  (1840) ;  "  Historical 
Memoirs  of  the  Successors  of  St.  Patrick  and 
Archbishops  of  Armagh"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1861); 
and  "St.  Patrick,  Apostle  of  Ireland"  (1863). 
He  collected  a  library  of  manuscripts,  which 
after  his  death  brought  extraordinary  prices. 

TODD,  John,  an  American  clergyman,  born  in 
Rutland,  Vt,,  Oct.  9,  1800,  died  in  Pittsfield, 
Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1873.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
college  in  1822,  spent  four  years  at  the  Ando- 
ver  theological  seminary,  and  was  ordained  to 
the  ministry  in  the  Congregational  church  at 
Groton  in  1827.  In  1833  he  was  settled  over 
the  Edwards  church  at  Northampton,  in  1836 
was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  first  Congre 
gational  church  in  Philadelphia,  and  from  1842 
to  1872  was  pastor  of  the  first  Congregational 
church  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.  He  was  one  of  the 


founders  of  Mount  Holyoke  female  seminary, 
and  for  several  years. was  president  of  the 
trustees  of  the  young  ladies'  institute  of  Pitts- 
field.  In  1845  he  received  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
from  Williams  college.  His  principal  works, 
most  of  which  have  passed  through  many  edi 
tions  both  in  the  United  States  and  England, 
and  several  translated  into  other  languages, 
are:  "Lectures  to  Children"  (2  vols.  16mo, 
Northampton,  1834;  2d  series,  1858);  "Stu 
dent's  Manual"  (12mo,  1835);  "Index  Re- 
rum,"  prepared  for  noting  books  read  (4to, 
1835)  ;  "  Truth  made  Simple  "  (18mo,  1839)  ; 
"Great  Cities,  their  Moral  Influence"  (18mo, 
1841);  "Lost  Sister  of  Wyoming"  (18mo, 
1841);  "The  Young  Man"  (18mo,  1843); 
"Simple  Sketches"  (2  vols.  16mo,  Pittsfield, 
1843);  ".Pastor's  Daughter"  (24mo,  1844); 
"  Stories  on  the  Shorter  Catechism  "  (2  vols. 
18mo,  Northampton,  1850-'51)  ;  "  Summer 
Gleanings"  (12mo,  1852);  "The  Daughter  at 
School"  (12mo,  1854);  "The  Angel  of  the 
Iceberg,  and  other  Stories "  (18mo,  1859) ; 
"  Future  Punishment  "  (32mo,  New  York, 
1863)  ;  "  Mountain  Gems  "  (4  vols.  16mo,  Bos 
ton,  1864) ;  "  Nuts  for  Boys  to  Crack  "  (16mo, 
New  York,  1866  ;  8vo,  1868) ;  "  Polished  Dia 
monds  "  (16mo,  Boston,  1866)  ;  "  Serpents  in 
the  Dove's  Nest"  (18mo,  1867);  "Woman's 
Rights  "  (18mo,  New  York,  1868)  ;  "  The, 
Water  Dove,  and  other  Gems  "  (18mo,  Edin 
burgh,  1868);  "Mountain  Flowers"  (16mo, 
Northampton,  1869)  ;  "  Sunset  Land,  or  the 
Great  Pacific  Slope  "  (Boston,  1869)  ;  and 
"  Old-Fashioned  Lives  "  (1870).  Several  col 
lective  editions  of  his  works  were  published 
from  1853  to  1868.— See  "John  Todd,  the 
Story  of  his  Life,  told  mainly  by  Himself, 
compiled  and  edited  by  Rev.  John  E.  Todd  " 
(16mo,  New  York,  1876). 

TODD,  Robert  Bentley,  a  British  physiologist, 
born  in  Dublin  in  1809,  died  in  London,  Jan. 
30,  1860.  He  was  educated  in  Trinity  college, 
Dublin,  went  to  London  in  1831,  became  pro 
fessor  of  physiology  and  anatomy  in  King's  col 
lege  in  1837,  and  was  also  professor  of  clinical 
medicine  in  King's  college  hospital.  He  had 
great  reputation  as  a  practitioner,  and  pub 
lished  "  Cyclopedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physi 
ology  "  (4  vols.  8vo)  ;  "  The  Physiological 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Man"  (2  vols. 
8vo),  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Bowman ;  "  An 
atomy  of  the  Brain,  Spinal  Cord,"  &c. ;  "  Lec 
tures  on  Paralysis  and  Brain  Diseases;"  and 
"  Treatise  on  Gout  and  Rheumatism." 

TODDY  TREE.  See  PALM,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  18. 

TODHOfTER,  Isaac,  an  English  mathemati 
cian,  born  in  Rye  in  1820.  He  graduated  at 
Cambridge  in  1848,  and  became  mathematical 
lecturer  at  St.  John's  college.  He  has  pub 
lished  a  series  of  works  on  higher  mathematics 
for  college  instruction,  which  enjoy  great  favor 
in  England.  The  most  important  of  his  works 
on  the  philosophy  and  history  of  mathematics 
are  the  "  History  of  the  Progress  of  the  Cal 
culus  of  Variations  during  the  19th  Century  " 


783 


TODLEBEN 


(1861),  "Researches  on  the  Calculus  of  Va 
riations"  (1872),  and  u  History  of  the  Mathe 
matical  Theories  of  Attraction  and  the  Fig 
ure  of  the  Earth,  from  the  Time  of  Newton 
to  that  of  Laplace"  (2  vols.,  1873). 

TODLEBEN,  Fraiiz  Eduard,  a  Bussian  military 
engineer,  born  in  Mitau,  Corn-land,  May  20, 
1818.  He  was  educated  at  the  school  of  engi 
neers  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  after  being  em 
ployed  in  that  department  he  served  in  the 
Caucasus  against  Shamyl  from  1848  to  1851, 
and  against  the  Turks  on  the  Danube  in  1853-'4. 
Ho  displayed  great  genius  in  the  defence  of 
Sebastopol,  and  was  wounded,  June  20,  1855. 
Subsequently  he  was  employed  in  strength 
ening  Nikolayev  and  Cronstadt.  In  1860  lie 
became  chief  of  engineering  in  the  war  office, 
with  the  rank  of  general,  and  he  is  at  the  same 
time  the  adjunct  of  the  grand  duke  Nicholas 
in  the  general  direction  of  this  service.  His 
history  of  the  defence  of  Sebastopol  (St.  Pe 
tersburg,  1864)  has  been  translated  into  sev 
eral  languages,  and  reviewed  in  a  volume  by 
William  Howard  Russell  (London,  1864). 

TOFANA.     See  AQUA  TOFANA. 

TOGRCL  BEG.     See  SELJUKS. 

TOKAT,  or  Tocat,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
in  the  vilayet  and  55  m.  N.  1ST.  W.  of  the  city 
of  Sivas,  on  the  Yeshil  Irmak  (the  ancient 
Iris) ;  pop.  estimated  variously  from  45,000  to 
150,000.  It  has  high  limestone  hills  on  three 
sides,  and  is  commanded  by  two  peaks  which 
are  almost  perpendicular  and  consist  of  crys 
talline  marble.  The  houses  are  of  mud  or 
unburned  bricks,  but  the  town  has  a  large 
and  handsome  Armenian  church  and  several 
mosques.  The  manufactures  consist  chiefly 
of  copper  articles  and  hardware,  woollen,  lin 
en,  silk,  cotton  goods,  and  carpets ;  and  there 
are  dyeing  and  calico-printing  establishments. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Turks. 

TOKAY  (Hun.  ToJcaj\  a  town  of  N".  Hun 
gary,  in  the  county  of  Zemplen,  at  the  junc 
tion  of  the  rivers  Bodrog  and  Thoiss,  117  in. 
E.  N.  E.  of  Pesth;  pop.  in  1870,  5,012.  Sev 
eral  important  fairs  are  held  here  annually. 
Tokay  is  celebrated  for  the  wine  produced  in 
its  vicinity.  (See  HUNGARY,  WINES  OF.) 

TOKIO  (formerly  YEDO),  a  city  and  the  cap 
ital  of  Japan,  in  the  E.  part  of  the  main  isl 
and,  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Yedo,  on  the 
Sumidagawa,  in  lat.  35°  40'  N.,  Ion.  139°  40' 
E. ;  pop.  in  1872,  779,361,  including  a  garrison 
of  7,140  and  400  foreigners.  The  city  is  a 
combination  of  compactly  built  and- densely 
inhabited  districts,  with  intervening  gardens 
and  groves  devoted  to  civil  and  religious  uses, 
the  whole  covering  nearly  60  sq.  m.,  the  area 
of  the  built  up  portion  being  about  28  sq.  m., 
while  one  eighth  of  the  whole  is  occupied  by 
moats  and  canals.  The  centre  of  the  city  is 
the  citadel,  surrounded  by  stone  walls  and  a 
moat,  outside  of  which  a  second  wall  encloses 
about  3  sq.  m.  A  third  system  of  walls  and 
moats  encloses  about  5  sq.  m.,  formerly  occu 
pied  by  the  residences  of  the  daimios,  but  now 


TOLAND 

covered  with  government  buildings,  colleges, 
schools,  arsenals,  barracks,  founderies,  steam 
mills,  and  factories.  Outside,  in  the  business 
and  more  densely  populated  portion,  are  miles 
of  brick  and  stone  buildings  in  the  European 
style  of  architecture,  and  the  shops  are  tilled 
with  foreign  wares.  The  streets  are  wide, 
regular,  and  clean.  The  city  is  abundantly 
supplied  with  water  brought  in  wooden  aque 
ducts  from  the  Tonegawa,  9  m.  distant,  and 
a  part  of  it  is  lighted  with  gas.  For  police 
purposes  it  is  divided  into  6  principal  and  96 
smaller  districts,  with  stations  connected  by 
telegraph  and  a  uniformed  force  of  3,500  men. 
At  the  N.  and  S.  ends  of  the  city  are  the  cem 
eteries,  filled  with  tombs  and  temples.  There 
are  741  Shinto  shrines,  2,179  Buddhist  temples, 
and  4  Christian  churches.  The  imperial  uni 
versity  has  in  its  different  faculties  nearly  100 
foreign  instructors.  The  language,  normal, 
and  elementary  schools  are  attended  by  more 
than  60,000  pupils.  There  are  several  banks, 
and  more  than  a  dozen  daily  newspapers  print 
ed  with  metal  type  on  improved  presses,  and 
native  capital  has  established  cotton,  woollen, 
and  paper  mills  driven  by  steam,  while  sew 
ing,  knitting,  and  other  manual  machines  are 
very  common.  Hundreds  of  horse  vehicles 
and  over  20,000  jin-siki-slia  (man-power  car 
riages)  make  the  streets  lively.  Places  of 
amusement  abound ;  actors,  wrestlers,  story 
tellers,  and  female  minstrels  are  numerous. 
Foreign  dress  and  manner  of  living  have  been 
largely  adopted,  and  the  place  presents  most 
of  the  characteristics  of  a  modern  European 
or  American  city.  It  is.  connected  by  tele 
graph  with  Nagasaki,  Hakodadi,  and  other 
cities.  There  is  a  railway  to  Yokohama,  18 
in.  distant,  and  a  line  has  been  surveyed  to 
Kioto,  235  m.  The  shallow  bay  permits  only 
junks  and  small  steamboats  to  reach  the  city, 
and  the  foreign  trade  is  limited. — Yedo  was 
laid  out  in  1591,  when  the  walls  of  the  present 
stronghold  were  built,  and  it  soon  became  the 
military  centre  of  the  empire.  In  1656  and 
1854  earthquakes  occasioned  an  immense  loss 
of  life  and  property ;  and  there  have  been 
many  very  destructive  conflagrations,  owing 
to  the  former  combustible  style  of  building 
and  inefficient  police.  In  1861  the  British  and 
French  legations  were  established  here,  but 
were  soon  driven  away,  and  were  not  reestab 
lished  till  1865.  It  1862  it  ceased  to  be  the 
compulsory  residence  of  the  daimios.  In  1868 
it  became  the  residence  of  the  mikado,  and 
the  name  was  changed  to  Tokio  ("  eastern 
capital").  On  Jan.  1,  1869,  the  port  was  for 
mally  opened  to  foreign  trade  and  residence. 
In  the  summer  of  1871  the  entire  power  of  the 
empire  was  centred  here. 

TOKftLYI,  or  Tokoli,  Iinre.  See  HUNGARY, 
vol.  ix.,  p.  58. 

TOLAND,  John,  a  British  author,  born  near 
Londonderry,  Ireland,  in  1669  or  1670,  died  at 
Putney,  near  London,  March  11,  1722.  He 
studied  three  years  at  the  University  of  Glas- 


TOLEDO 


789 


gow,  received  the  degree  of  M.  A.  at  the  uni 
versity  of  Edinburgh  in  1690,  studied  two  years 
for  the  ministry  at  Leyden,  and  finally  became 
•a  conspicuous  free  thinker  at  Oxford.  He  went 
to  Dublin  in  1G9T,  where  the  Irish  parliament 
ordered  the  common  hangman  to  burn  his 
"  Christianity  not  Mysterious  "  (London,  1696), 
and  returning  to  London  published  "An  Apol 
ogy  for  Mr.  Toland"  (1697).  He  visited  the 
courts  of  Hanover  and  Berlin,  apparently  as 
a  political  agent,  and  held  a  theological  dis 
cussion  with  Beausobre.  On  returning  to  Eng 
land,  he  professed  himself  in  1702  "  a  true 
Christian  "  and  "  a  good  churchman,"  but  in 
1705  declared  himself  a  pantheist.  He  wrote 
political  pamphlets  for  the  earl  of  Oxford  (Har- 
ley),  by  whom  he  was  sent  again  in  1707  to 
Germany  and  Holland,  as  a  political  spy.  Re 
turning  after  three  years,  he  was  supported 
by  Harley  till  a  quarrel  separated  them.  His 
other  publications  include  '.'The  Militia  Re 
formed,  or  an  Easy  Scheme  of  Furnishing  Eng 
land  with  a  constant  Land  Force "  (1698) ; 
a  "Life  of  Milton"  (1698);  editions  of  Lord 
Holles's  "Memoirs"  and  of  Harrington's 
"Works;"  "Anglia  Libera"  (1701),  a  treatise 
on  the  succession  of  the  crown  of  England ;  and 
"  Nazarenus,  or  Jewish  Gentile,  or  Mahometan 
Christianity,  containing  the  History  of  the 
Ancient  Gospel  of  Barnabas,  and  the  Modern 
Gospel  of  the  Mahometans,  attributed  to  the 
same  Apostle,  this  last  Gospel  being  now  first 
made  known  among  Christians,"  &c.,  which 
involved  him  in  controversies.  His  posthu 
mous  works  were  published  with  a  biography 
by  Des  Maizeaux  (2  vols.,  1726  ;  newed.,  1747). 
TOLEDO.  I.  A  central  province  of  Spain,  in 
New  Castile,  bordering  on  Avila,  Madrid,  Cu- 


enca,  Ciudad  Real,  and 
Caceres  ;  area,  5,586  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  .1870,  342,- 
272.  The  surface  is 
generally  mountainous, 
and  there  are  elevated 
plains  near  the  centre. 
The  Tagus  flows  W. 
through  the  middle  of 
the  province.  The  Jigiie- 
la  and  its  affluents  flow 
toward  the  Guadiana. 
Gold,  silver,  lead,  iron, 
copper,  quicksilver,  tin, 
cinnabar,  alum,  bismuth, 
coal,  graphite,  and  ochre 
are  found.  The  soil  is 
generally  poor,  but  in 
the  centre  and  toward 
the  south  the  quality 
improves.  Grain,  flax, 
fruit,  vegetables,  wine, 
oil,  and  silk  are  produ 
ced.  But  very  few  sheep, 
cattle,  or  horses  are  reared. 


the  river  in  horseshoe  shape  flows  in  a  deep 
and  narrow  channel,  crossed  by  two  stone 
bridges  100  ft.  in  height,  one  of  which,  built  by 
the  Moors,  consists  of  a  single  arch.  The  town 
is  encircled  by  two  walls,  originally  Roman,  but 
repaired  and  extended  by  Goths,  Moors,  and 
Spaniards,  and  entered  by  nine  gates.  The 
streets  are  steep,  crooked,  and  narrow.  The 
houses  are  generally  in  the  Moorish  style,  from 
two  to  four  stories  high,  with  the  apartments 
arranged  round  a  court.  The  cathedral,  in 
pure  Gothic  and  with  a  lofty  spire,  founded  in 
1258  and  completed  in  1492,  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  Spain.  The  palace  of  the  archbishop  (who 
is  the  primate  of  Spain)  formerly  contained  a 
rich  collection  of  books  and  manuscripts,  now 
added  to  the  provincial  library,  which  has 
70,000  volumes.  The  foundling  hospital  of 
Santa  Cruz,  a  fine  piece  of  architecture,  was 
founded  by  Cardinal  Mendoza  in  1494.  The 
dilapidated  walls  of  the  ancient  Alcazar  are 
still  standing.  The  university  was  suppressed 
in  1845  ;  a  seminary  for  theological  students 
has  been  founded  to  supply  its  place ;  and 
there  is  a  military  school,  a  female  college, 
school  of  fine  arts,  and  other  public  schools. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  woollen  and 
silk  goods,  oil,  leather,  and  the  celebrated 
Toledo  blades,  made  in  the  royal  sword  manu 
factory  two  miles  from  the  town.  There  is 
also  a  royal  foundery  outside  the  walls. — Ac 
cording  to  an  ancient  but  improbable  tradi 
tion,  Toledo  was  founded  by  Jewish  colonists 
in  the  6th  century  B.  C.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Romans  in  192  B.  C.,  and  by  the  Goths  in 
A.  D.  467,  who  made  it  the  capital  of  their 
kingdom  a  century  later.  It  was  captured 
by  the  Moors  in  714,  and  wrested  from  them 


The  Alcazar  of  Toledo. 


Toletum),  capital  of  the  province,  on  the 
gus,  42  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Madrid ;  pop.  about  18,- 
000.    It  stands  on  a  rocky  height,  around  which 


II.  A  city  (anc.  |  by  Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile  and  Leon  after 


terrible  siege  in  1085,  when  it  became  the 
capital  of  Castile,  and  at  one  time  had  a  popu 
lation  of  200,000.  It  afterward  suffered  many 


790 


TOLEDO 


TOLLAND 


sieges,  and  the  removal  of  the  court  to  Madrid 
in  1560  led  to  its  decline.  It  was  occupied  by 
the  French  from  1808  to  1813. 

TOLEDO,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Lucas  co., 
Ohio,  port  of  entry  of  the  district  of  Miami, 
on  the  Maumee  river,  5  m.  from  its  mouth  in 
Maumee  bay  and  8  in.  from  the  W.  extremity 
of  Lake  Erie,  92  m.  W.  of  Cleveland,  and  53  m. 
S.  S.  W.  of  Detroit,  Mich. ;  pop.  in  1850,  3,829  ; 
in  1860,  13,768;  in  1870,  31,584,  of  whom 
11,099  were  foreigners,  including  5,341  Ger 
mans  and  3,031  Irish ;  in  1875,  estimated  at 
50,000.  It  comprises  an  area  of  21'5  sq.  m., 
of  which  9-63  sq.  m.  were  annexed  in  1874 ; 
6 '2  sq.  ni.  are  on  the  E.  side  of  the  river  and 
15-3  sq.  m.  on  the  W.  side.  It  has  a  fine  har 
bor,  and  is  well  laid  out,  having  wide  streets 
that  give  an  easy  ascent  from  the  harbor  to 
the  table  land  on  which  most  of  the  houses 
are  built.  It  has  large  and  handsome  public 
buildings,  several  small  parks,  street  railroads, 
and  water  works  recently  erected.  The  num 
ber  of  miles  of  improved  streets  at  the  begin 
ning  of  1875  was  35*06;  of  sewers,  26*945  ;  of 
water  pipe,  41-62.  Toledo  communicates  by 
the  Miami  and  Erie  canal  with  Cincinnati  and 
Evansville,  Ind.,  and  has  extensive  railroad 
connections.  The  lines  centring  here  are  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  Toledo, 
Wabash,  and  Western,  Dayton  and  Michigan, 
Detroit  and  Toledo,  Flint  and  Pere  Marquette, 
Canada  Southern,  Columbus  and  Toledo,  Tole 
do  and  Maumee,  Toledo  and  Sylvania,  and 
Toledo,  Tiffin,  and  Eastern.  All  these  rail 
roads  concentrate  at  an  immense  union  depot. 
The  chief  items  of  receipt  and  shipment  are 
grain  and  flour.  There  are  10  grain  elevators, 
with  a  storage  capacity  of  4,017,000  bushels, 
and  capacity  to  receive  and  ship  780,000  bush 
els  daily.  The  aggregate  deliveries  of  grain, 
including  flour,  for  14  years  have  been  as 
follows : 


YEARS. 

Bushels. 

YEARS. 

Bushels. 

1861... 

18.593,565 

1868  . 

16  141  990 

1862  

21,518,063 

1869  

18,660,949 

1863 

14  326  459 

1870 

23  714  510 

1861 

14  103  9()3 

1871 

3'")  300  °'?0 

1805  
1866  

12,857,240 

11,595.835 

1S72  
1873 

35,527,285 
34  349  877 

1667  

13,131,905 

1S74 

39  304  891 

The  receipts  in  1874  were  730,768  barrels  of 
flour,  10,107,382  bushels  of  wheat,  17,031,996 
of  Indian  corn,  6,460,247  of  oats,  14,105  of 
rye,  and  190,224  of  barley.  The  shipments 
were  879,268  barrels  of  flour,  8,342,069  bush 
els  of  wheat,  16,801,345  of  Indian  corn,  6,381,- 
372  of  oats,  13,896  of  rye,  and  24,030  of  bar 
ley.  Other  important  items  of  receipt  are  pro 
visions,  livestock,  whiskey,  iron,  tobacco,  hides, 
cotton,  wool,  and  lumber.  In  18.74  there  were 
manufactured  in  the  city  237,000  barrels  of 
flour,  10,000,000  laths,  and  30,000,000  ft.  of 
lumber.  The  value  of  imports  from  Canada 
during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  was 
$79,018;  of  exports  to  Canada,  $1,836,825; 


number  of  entrances,  302  of  69,517  tons ; 
clearances,  286  of  71,389  tons;  entrances  in 
the  coastwise  trade,  1,962  of  441,593  tons; 
clearances,  1,918  of  425,951  tons;  number  of 
vessels  belonging  in  the  district,  170,  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  13,946.  The  manufac 
tories  of  Toledo  include  5  flouring  mills,  5  lum 
ber  mills,  6  iron  founderies,  a  blast  furnace,  5 
breweries,  7  brick  yards,  14  planing  mills,  4 
ship  yards,  5  tanning  and  currying  establish 
ments,  2  manufactories  of  cars,  1  of  car  wheels, 
several  of  carriages  and  wagons,  2  of  chairs,  1 
of  edge  tools,  2  of  files,  4  of  lime,  1  of  mowers 
and  reapers,  3  of  potash,  1  of  refrigerators,  2  of 
coffee  and  spice  mills,  3  of  staves,  1  of  stoves, 
3  of  tobacco,  2  of  wire  goods,  1  of  wooden 
ware,  and  2  of  boots  and  shoes.  There  are 
six  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $1,900,- 
000 ;  three  savings  banks  and  several  savings 
and  loan  associations,  three  fire  and  marine 
insurance  companies,  and  one  life  insurance 
company. — The  city  is  divided  into  eight  wards, 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  eight  aldermen, 
and  16  councilmen.  The  principal  charitable 
institutions  are  the  city  hospital,  house  of 
refuge  and  correction,  home  for  friendless 
women,  and  three  orphan  asylums.  There 
are  20  ward  school  houses  and  a  high  school 
building,  with  122  teachers  and  about  7,500 
pupils  enrolled  in  1874-'5,  and  10  denomi 
national  and  private  schools.  The  public 
library  contains  8,000  volumes.  Three  daily 
(one  German),  two  tri- weekly,  one  semi- week 
ly,  and  six  weekly  (one  German)  newspapers, 
and  six  monthly  periodicals  are  published. 
There  are  45  churches,  viz. :  3  Baptist,  1  Chris 
tian,  3  Congregational,  4  Episcopal,  2  Evangel 
ical  Association  (German),  2  Evangelical  Lu 
theran  (German),  1  Evangelical  Reformed  (Ger 
man),  2  Jewish,  3  Lutheran  (German),  8  Meth 
odist  (2  German),  4  Presbyterian  (1  German), 
8  Roman  Catholic  (2  French  and  2  German), 
1  seamen's  bethel,  1  Swedenborgian,  1  Unita 
rian,  and  1  United  Brethren. — Toledo  was  set 
tled  in  1832,  and  incorporated  in  1836. 

TOLLMD,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Connecticut, 
bordering  on  Massachusetts,  drained  by  the 
Willimantic  and  Hop  rivers ;  area,  440  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  22,000.  In  the  "W.  part  the  sur 
face  is  nearly  level  and  the  soil  fertile,  but  in 
the  E.  part  it  is  very  hilly  and  the  soil  inferior. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  Hartford,  Providence, 
and  Fishkill,  and  Rockville  branch,  and  the 
New  London  Northern  railroads.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  -15,860  bushels  of 
rye,  101,721  of  Indian  corn,  76,574  of  oats, 
17,123  of  buckwheat,  189,403  of  potatoes, 
531,399  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  21,530  of  wool,  386,763 
of  butter,  80,671  of  cheese,  and  40,320  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  2,401  horses,  6,452  milch 
cows,  3,436  working  oxen,  6,244  other  cattle, 
7,902  sheep,  and  3,851  swine  ;  1  manufactory 
of  leather  belting  and  hose,  3  of  boots  and  shoes, 
5  of  boxes,  12  of  carriages  and  wagons,  23  of 
cotton  goods,  2  of  hosiery,  3  of  iron  castings,  8 
of  machinery,  9  of  shoddy,  14  of  silk  goods, 


TOLLENS 


TOMATO 


791 


24  of  woollens,  2  bleaching  and  dyeing  estab 
lishments,  and  8  flour  mills.  Capital,  Tolland. 

TOLLENS,  Hendrik  Corneliszoon,  a  Dutch  poet, 
born  in  Rotterdam,  Sept.  24,  1780,  died  in 
Ryswick,  Ocix  21,  1856.  He  was  intended  for 
trade,  but  in  1800  began  publishing  poetry, 
and  finally  became  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
national  bards.  His  masterpieces  include  a 
narrative  poem  on  Barentz's  expedition  to 
Nova  Zembla  (new  ed.,  1844),  dramatic  works, 
and  patriotic  lyrics,  especially  the  Wapenkreet 
(1815).  His  Gezamentlijke  dichticcrken  com 
prise  8  vols.  (Leeu warden,  1855-'7). 

TOL1YA,  a  S.  TV.  county  of  Hungary,  border 
ing  on  the  counties  of  Veszprem,  Stuhlweis- 
senburg,  Pesth,  Baranya,  and  Sornogy ;  area, 
1,407  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  220,740.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Danube,  which  forms  its  E. 
frontier,  and  by  the  Sarviz  and  Kapos.  The 
soil  is  generally  fertile,  except  the  sandy  E. 
portion.  Corn,  tobacco,  flax,  wine,  and  fruit 
are  produced,  and  cattle,  pigs,  sheep,  and  horses 
abound.  Capital,  Szegszard. 

TOLSTOI,  a  Russian  family,  celebrated  since 
the  17th  century.  Among  its  best  known 
members  at  the  present  day  are  Count  Alexis 
Tolstoi  (born  Sept.  5, 1817,  died  Oct.  10,  1875), 
a  poet,  novelist,  and  dramatist,  author  of  three 
historical  tragedies  forming  a  trilogy,  "Death 
of  Ivan  the  Terrible,"  "Czar  Feodor,"  and 
"Czar  Boris,"  and  Count  Leo  Tolstoi,  whose 
novel  of  Anna  Karenina  (1875-'6)  has  given 
him  a  great  reputation. 

TOLTECS,  or  Tnlhrcatecas,  a  nation  of  Mexico, 
who  according  to  Mexican  annals  appeared  in 
Anahuac  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century, 
led  in  their  wanderings  from  another  conti 
nent  or  country  by  Tanub.  They  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Tula,  and  were  the  first  civilized 
and  civilizing  race.  As  they  increased,  capi 
tal  arose  at  Colhuacan,  Otompan,  and  Tollan. 
The  Chichimecs,  a  nation  of  different  origin, 
entered  the  country  about  a  century  later,  and 
these  were  followed  in  time  by  seven  Nalmatl 
tribes,  of  the  same  race  as  the  Toltecs,  the 
Mexicans  being  the  last.  Before  this  the  Tol- 
tec  monarchy,  rent  by  civil  wars  between  the 
clergy  and  nobles,  had  fallen  in  the  llth  cen 
tury  ;  famine  and  pestilence  desolated  the  coun 
try,  and  many  of  the  survivors  emigrated  to 
Guatemala.  The  rest  of  the  Toltecs  were  in 
corporated  by  the  Chichimecs,  to  whom  they 
imparted  their  civilization.  The  emigrants 
founded  in  Guatemala  a  new  empire,  and  the 
Quiches  claimed  xlescent  from  them,  though 
the  names  of  the  later  Quich6  monarchs  show 
another  language  than  the  Toltec.  It  is  usual 
to  refer  all  that  is  grand  or  surprising  in  Mex 
ico  and  adjoining  parts  to  the  Toltecs  ;  but  tra 
dition  ascribes  to  them  definitely  the  use  of 
hieroglyphics,  astronomical  knowledge  and  the 
division  of  time,  agriculture,  weaving,  stone 
cutting,  and  architecture. 

TOLU,  Balsam  of.     See  BALSAMS. 

TOLUCA,  a  city  of  the  republic,  capital  of  the 
state,  and  30  m.  TV.  S.  TV.  of  the  city  of  Mexi 


co;  pop.  about  12,000.  It  is  in  a  valley  about 
8,800  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  has  spacious,  well 
paved  streets,  a  public  square,  and  several  fine 
churches.  Of  late  years  its  trade  and  indus 
try  have  much  declined.  Near  the  town  is 
the  volcanic  mountain  of  the  same  name,  which 
rises  to  the  height  of  16,610  ft.  above  the  sea. 
TOMATO,  a  plant  of  the  solanacece  or  night 
shade  family,  cultivated  for  its  fruit.  It  is  a 
native  of  tropical  or  sub-tropical  America,  and 
its  name,  given  in  the  earlier  works  as  tumatl 
and  tomatl,  is  of  Indian  origin.  The  plant 
was  originally  placed  in  the  genus  lycopersicum, 
which  Linnseus  reduced  to  solaimm  ;  but  later 
botanists,  thinking  that  the  difference  in  the 
anthers,  which  are  united  at  the  tips  and  open 
by  a  longitudinal  slit,  and  not  by  a  pore  at  the 
apex  as  in  solanum,  was  a  sufficient  distinction, 
restored  the  genus,  and  call  the  tomato  lyco- 
persicum  esculentum;  while  some  still  adhere 
to  the  view  of  Linnasus,  and  class  the  plant 
as  solcmum  lycopersicum.  The  older  English 
writers  call  the  fruit  love  apple ;  in  France 
pomme  d*  amour,  and  in  Italy  pomi  ctfamore, 
are  still  in  use,  perpetuating  the  old  notion 
that  their  use  as  food  had  an  influence  upon 
the  passions.  Peru  is  regarded  as  its  native 
country,  but  it  has  not  been  found  there  or 
elsewhere  in  a  truly  wild  state,  and  it  had 
probably  been  long  in  cultivation  before  the 
advent  of  the  Europeans.  The  tomato  has 
weak  stems  about  4  ft.  long,  and  when  left  to 
itself  forms  a  much  branched  trailing  or  pros 
trate  plant.  Its  leaves  are  irregularly  pinnate, 
with  the  larger  leaflets  themselves  cut  or  divi 
ded  ;  both  stem  and  leaves  are  clothed  with 
soft  viscid  hairs,  which  exude  a  strong-smell 
ing,  rather  fetid,  and  somewhat  resinous  sub- 


Varieties  of  the  Tomato.— 1.  Common  Red.    2.  The  "Tro 
phy."    8.  Pear-shaped.     4.  Currant  Tomato. 

stance,  which  stains  the  hands  and  clothing 
when  the  plants  are  handled.  It  has  been 
lately  said  that  an  infusion  of  tomato  leaves  is 
effective  in  destroying  plant  lice.  The  flower 
stalks,  or  peduncles,  are  extra-axillary  and  bear 


792 


TOMATO 


TOM  GREEN 


racemose  clusters  of  yellow  flowers,  which, 
with  the  exception  in  the  anthers  already  noted, 
have  a  similar  structure  to  those  of  the  sola- 
nums.  (See  SOLANUM.)  The  fruit  is  normally 
a  two-  or  three-celled  berry,  hut  in  the  culti 
vated  plant  there  are  usually  numerous  cells  ; 
the  fruit,  especially  in  the  larger  specimens,  of 
ten  has  a  very  complicated  structure,  resulting 
from  the  union  of  two  or  more  flowers ;  their 
pistils  being  fused  together  present  at  maturity 
a  curiously" abnormal  fruit,  in  which  all  traces 
of  the  original  structure  are  lost.  The  culti 
vated  tomatoes  present  a  great  variety  in  form, 
color,  and  size,  and  it  is  not  known  whether 
they  are  from  several  species  or  are  differ 
ent  forms  of  one  very  variable  species.  The 
plant  is  remarkably  plastic,  and  by  selecting 
seeds  from  fruit  with  desirable  peculiarities,  it 
is  very  easy  to  establish  a  strain  or  variety. 
When  tomatoes  were  first  cultivated  in  our 
gardens  there  was  but  one  variety  ;  this  had  a 


Tree-formed  Tomato. 

large,  red,  much  wrinkled,  and  often  irregular 
and  misshapen  fruit,  with  a  thick  outer  wall, 
and  a  central  placenta  bearing  the  seeds  sur 
rounded  by  their  pulp,  and  a  considerable  cav 
ity  or  empty  space  between  the  two.  By  se 
lection  this  was  improved  as  to  its  surface, 
and  greater  solidity  acquired,  and  the  strain 
known  as  the  smooth  red  was  obtained,  which 
is  still  one  of  the  best.  The  variety  known  as 
the  "Trophy"  probably  combines  more  good 
qualities  than  any  other;  it  has  very  large 
and  smooth  fruit,  which  is  solid  throughout, 
and  of  the  best  possible  quality ;  this  is  the 
result  of  20  years'  careful  selection,  by  an  in 
telligent  grower,  with  a  definite  end  in  view. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  increase 
the  earliness  of  the  fruit,  but  improvement  in 
this  direction  is  limited  by  the  law  that  every 
plant  needs  a  certain  aggregate  amount  of  heat 
to  bring  it  to  maturity;  the  varieties  "Con 
queror"  and  "Canada  Victor"  have  appar 
ently  reached  this  limit.  Among  the  very 


distinct  varieties  is  the  "Feejee,"  which  has 
a  large  rose  or  pinkish  red  fruit;  there  are 
several  yellow  varieties  and  one  nearly  white 
large  one,  and  there  are  both  yellow  and  red 
of  smaller  sorts  named  according  to  the  shape 
and  size  of  the  fruit,  such  as  the  pear,  plum, 
and  cherry  tomatoes;  the  currant  tomato, 
which  has  berries  scarcely  larger  than  a  large 
currant,  in  long  racemes,  and  delicate  foliage, 
is  very  ornamental,  and  apparently  a  distinct 
species,  probably  L.  cerasiforme.  The  upright 
or  tree  tomato  originated  in  France ;  its  main 
stem  is  thick,  and  its  few  branches  so  short 
and  strong  that  it  carries  its  weight  of  large 
fruit  without  support ;  but  it  is  not  very  pro 
ductive.  Less  than  half  a  century  ago  the  to 
mato  was  almost  unknown  to  northern  gar 
dens,  or  cultivated  in  them  only  as  a  curiosity, 
but  at  present  it  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
vegetables.  As  the  fruit  will  color  and  ripen 
when  picked  green,  it  can  be  transported  to 
great  distances,  if  properly  packed  in  small 
crates  with  abundant  openings  for  ventilation  ; 
the  first  tomatoes  in  the  northern  markets, 
come  from  Bermuda,  appearing  in  February, 
followed  successively  by  contributions  from 
Florida,  Georgia,  &c.,  before  the  fruit  from 
the  gardens  near  by  is  ripe.  At  the  north  the 
seeds  are  sown  in  hot-beds,  the  young  plants  set 
out  in  other  hot-beds,  and  finally  transplanted 
to  cold  frames,  where  they  may  be  protected 
at  night  until  the  weather  is  warm  enough  to 
set  them  in  the  open  ground.  Light,  well  ma 
nured  soils  are  better  than  heavy  ones  for  this 
crop ;  in  field  culture  the  plants  soon  fall  over 
with  the  weight  of  fruit  and  are  allowed  to  lie 
upon  the  ground,  but  in  private  gardens  they 
are  supported  by  a  frame  or  trellis,  or  tacked  up 
to  a  fence  or  the  side  of  a  building ;  by  proper 
pruning  and  removing  the  excess  of  young 
fruit,  the  size  and  quality  of  that  allowed  to 
ripen  is  greatly  improved. — The  tomato  is  used 
in  a  greaf  variety  of  ways,  being  eaten  raw  as 
a  salad,  stewed,  baked,  broiled,  and  as  an  in 
gredient  of  soups,  stews,  and  sauces ;  it  is  used 
to  make  a  popular  catsup,  and  is  pickled  and 
preserved  in  various  ways. — The  strawberry 
tomato  is  described  under  PIIYSALIS. 

TOMBIOBEE,  Tombigby,  or  Tornbeckbee,  a  river 
of  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  which  rises  in 
Tishomingo  co.  in  the  N".  E.  extremity  of  the 
former  state.  It  first  flows  S.  to  Columbus, 
thence  S.  E.  to  Demopolis,  Ala.,  where  it  re 
ceives  the  Black  Warrior  on  the  left,  and 
thence  generally  S.,  with  many  and  sudden 
windings,  to  its  junction  with  the  Alabama, 
about  45  m.  from  Mobile,  where  the  united 
stream  takes  the  name  of  Mobile  river,  and 
falls  into  Mobile  bay  about  30  m.  from  the  gulf 
of  Mexico.  Its  length  is  estimated  at  450  m., 
and  it  is  navigable  for  large  steamboats  to  Co 
lumbus,  366  m.  from  the  mouth  of  Mobile  river. 

TOM  GREEN,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Texas,  formed 
in  1874;  area,  about  14,000  sq.  m.  It  is 
bounded  S.  W.  by  the  Pecos  river  and  ST.  W. 
by  New  Mexico.  In  the  east  it  is  intersect- 


TOMLINE 


TOMSK 


793 


ed  by  the  head  streams  of  the  Colorado  river. 
This  county,  with  Crockett,  formed  in  1875,  has 
absorbed  what  was  formerly  known  as  Bexar 
district  or  territory.  Capital,  Ben  Ficklin. 

TOMLINE,  George,  an  English  prelate,  eldest 
son  of  George  Pretyman,  born  in  Bury  St.  Ed 
munds,  Oct.  9,  1750,  died  in  Winchester,  Nov. 
14, 1827.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
in  1773  became  tutor  to  AVilliam  Pitt,  who 
made  him  his  private  secretary  on  becoming 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1782,  and  his 
secretary  when  he  became  first  lord  of  the 
treasury.  Pretyman  remained  with  Pitt  till 
1787,  when  he  was  made  bishop  of  Lincoln 
and  dean  of  St.  Paul's.  In  1820  he  was  trans 
ferred  to  the  see  of  Winchester.  In  1803  he 
received  by  will  an  estate  from  Marmaduke 
Tomline,  and  assumed  that  name.  He  pub 
lished  "  The  Elements  of  Christian  Theology  " 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1799),  which  has  passed  through 
numerous  editions ;  "A  Refutation  of  Calvin 
ism"  (1811);  and  "Memoirs  of  William  Pitt" 
(3  vols.  8vo,  1821),  "which,"  Macaulay  says, 
"enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the  worst 
biographical  work  of  its  size  in  the  world." 

TOaiMASEO,  Nicolo,  an  Italian  author,  born  in 
Sebenico,  Dalmatia,  about  1803,  died  in  Flor 
ence,  May  1,  1874.  He  resided  several  years 
in  Florence,  wrote  for  the  patriotic  Antologia, 
went  as  an  exile  to  France  in  1833,  and  in 
1838  settled  in  Venice.  He  was  arrested  with 
Manin  in  January,  1848,  but  they  were  res 
cued  in  March  by  the  people,  and  in  August 
Tommaseo  became  minister  of  religion  and 
education  in  the  revolutionary  government, 
and  vainly  attempted  to  procure  French  inter 
vention  in  favor  of  the  republic.  After  the 
restoration  of  Austrian  rule  in  August,  1849, 
he  was  banished  from  Venice,  resided  in  Corfu 
and  Turin,  and  in  1865  finally  returned  to  Flor 
ence.  His  works  include  Nuovo  dizionario  clei 
sinonimi  della  lingua  italiana  (Florence,  1832; 
5th  ed.,  2  vols.,  Milan,  1867) ;  Canti  populari 
(2  vols.,  Venice,  1843) ;  Studi  critici  (2  vols., 
1843)  ;  Lettere  di  Pasquale  de1  Paoli,  with 
Paoli's  biography  and  a  history  of  the  war  for 
Corsican  independence  (Florence,  1 846) ;  Nuom 
studi  su  Dan  te  (Turin,  1865) ;  and  Poesie  (1872). 

TOMOMI  IWAKURA,  a  Japanese  statesman, 
born  in  Kioto  about  1825.  He  is  a  Jcuge  or 
court  noble  of  the  Murakami  branch  of  the 
Minamoto  family,  and  was  a  leader  as  well  as 
the  instrument  of  the  conspiracy  which  effect 
ed  the  Kioto  coup  d'etat  of  Jan.  3,  1868,  over 
throwing  the  shogunate,  and  establishing  a 
government  in  which  his  class  held  the  chief 
offices.  (See  JAPA^T,  vol.  ix.,  p.  546.)  In  Au 
gust,  1871,  he  was  made  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  was  active  in  the  abolition  of  the 
feudal  system  and  the  retirement  of  the  ex- 
daimios  to  private  life.  In  December  he  left 
Japan  as  chief  of  the  embassy  which  visited 
the  United  States  and  the  principal  capitals  of 
Europe.  On  his  return  in  September,  1873, 
he  was  made  junior  prime  minister,  which 
office  he  now  holds  (1876).  He  was  active  in 


averting  the  threatened  war  with  Corea  in 
1873.  He  has  been  especially  distinguished 
for  his  advocacy  of  the  introduction  of  the 
forms  and  improvements  of  western  civiliza 
tion,  and  he  sent  his  sons  to  the  United  States 
to  be  educated.  On  the  night  of  Jan.  14,  1874, 
while  he  was  in  his  carriage  near  the  mikado's 
palace,  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  him, 
but  he  escaped  with  several  severe  wounds. 

TOMPRIXS,  a  central  county  of  New  York, 
drained  by  several  tributaries  of  Cayuga  lake, 
the  head  of  which  lies  in  the  N.  part,  and  trav 
ersed  by  several  railroads;  area,  506  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1875,  32,915.  The  surface  is  hilly,  the 
valley  of  the  lake  being  700  ft.  below  the 
ridges  on  either  side,  and  the  soil  is  generally 
best  adapted  to  grazing.  Cayuga' lake  supplies' 
water  communication  with  the  Erie  canal.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  wrere  291,194  bushels 
of  wheat,  422,411  of  Indian  corn,  737,741  of 
oats,  236,183  of  barley,  143,917  of  buckwheat, 
273,941  of  potatoes,  63,681  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
169,867  of  wool,  62,390  of  flax,  1,834,029  of 
butter,  and  70,907  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
8,804  horses,  16,402  milch  cows,  11,369  other 
cattle,  35,372  sheep,  and  7,462  swine;  11  manu 
factories  of  agricultural  implements,  24  of  car 
riages  and  wagons,  1  of  cars,  7  of  cheese,  1  of 
clocks,  12  of  furniture,  3  of  hubs  and  wagon 
material,  7  of  iron  castings,  4  of  machinery, 
1  of  organs,  2  of  printing  paper,  6  of  tobacco 
and  cigars,  4  of  woollens,  26  flour  mills,  19 
saw  mills,  8  tanneries,  and  5  currying  estab 
lishments.  Capital,  Ithaca. 

T03IPKINS,  Daniel  D.,  an  American  states 
man,  born  at  Scarsdale,  Westchester  co.,  N.  Y., 
June  21,  1774,  died  on  Staten  island,  June  11, 
1825.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  college  in 
1795,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New  York  in 
1797,  and  in  1801  was  a  member  of  the  legis 
lature,  and  of  the  convention  for  revising  the 
state  constitution.  In  1804  he  was  elected  to 
congress  from  the  city  of  New  York,  but  re 
signed  to  become  one  of  the  associate  justices 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state.  From  1807 
to  1817  he  was  governor  of  New  York,  and  he 
was  conspicuous  for  his  support  of  the  na 
tional  government  during  the  war  of  1812. 
In  1812  he  prorogued  the  legislature  for  ten 
months,  to  prevent  the  establishment  of  the 
bank  of  America  in  the  city  of  New  York. 
This  measure  gave  him  temporary  popularity, 
but  did  not  defeat  the  charter  of  the  bank, 
which  was  passed  in  1813.  In  a  special  mes 
sage  to  the  legislature,  Jan.  28,  1817,  he  rec 
ommended  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  state 
of  New  York ;  and  an  act  for  that  purpose  was 
accordingly  passed,  to  take  effect  July  4,  1827. 
In  1816  he  was  elected  vice  president  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  1817  resigned  the  gov 
ernorship  on  assuming  that  office,  to  which  he 
was  reflected  in  1820,  retiring  March  4,  1825. 

TOMSK.  I.  A  government  of  western  Siberia, 
bordering  on  Tobolsk,  Yeniseisk,  China,  and 
the  Central  Asian  provinces  of  Semipolatinsk 
and  Akmolinsk,  from  which  it  is  partly  sepa- 


'94 


TON 


TONGUE 


rated  by  the  Irtish ;  area,  329,027  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  838,756.  The  Altai  mountains  extend 
along  the  S.  part.  The  river  Obi  rises  in  the 
south,  flows  1ST.,  and  receives  numerous  tribu 
taries,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  Tchumish, 
Torn,  Tcliulira,  and  Ket.  There  are  several 
lakes.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  iron  are 
extensively  worked  in  the  south.  The  N. 
part  is  barren,  but  toward  the  south  the  pas 
tures  become  luxuriant,  and  abundant  crops 
are  raised ;  but  cattle  constitute  the  principal 
wealth.  IL  A  city,  capital  of  the  government, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tom,  620  m.  E.  S.  E. 
of  Tobolsk ;  pop.  in  1867,  24,431.  It  consists  of 
an  upper  town  inhabited  by  the  wealthy  class 
es,  chiefly  Eussians,  and  a  lower  town,  by  Tar 
tars  and  Bokharians.  It  has  many  fine  private 
and  public  buildings.  In  1875  provisions  were 
made  for  a  Siberian  university  here.  The  chief 
trade  is  in  grain,  leather,  and  furs.  Situated 
on  the  great  road  leading  to  the  Chinese  bor 
der,  it  is  next  to  Irkutsk  the  most  prosperous 
town  of  Siberia.  It  was  founded  about  1610. 

TON,  or  Tim,  a  denomination  of  weight,  equal 
to  20  cwt.  or  2,240  Ibs.,  and  also  (usually  with 
the  second  orthography)  a  liquid  measure  of 
252  gallons  ;  also  applied  to  dry  measures  and 
solid  measures  of  various  capacities  in  differ 
ent  countries.  In  common  use,  the  ton  weight 
is  often  rated  at  2,000  Ibs.,  when  it  is  termed 
the  "  short  ton  ;"  but  by  act  of  congress,  when 
not  specified  to  the  contrary,  the  ton  is  to  be 
understood  as  2,240  Ibs.  In  Maryland  the  or 
dinary  ton  is  2,000  Ibs.,  the  usual  coal  ton 
2,240  Ibs.,  and  the  miner's  ton,  according  to 
which  he  is  paid,  is  2,470  Ibs.,  the  allowance 
being  for  waste.  The  shipping  ton  of  France 
was  by  the  old  standard  2, 158-43  Ibs.,  and  the 
metrical  ton  is  2,204'6  Ibs. ;  the  shipping  ton 
of  Spain  is  2,032-2  Ibs. ;  of  Portugal,  1,755*8 
Ibs.  The  measurement  ton  for  shipping  is  in 
the  United  States  40  cubic  ft.  In  England 
the  tun  for  wine  is  252  gallons. 

TONE,  Theobald  Wolfe,  an  Irish  revolution 
ist,  born  in  l)ublin,  June  20,  1763,  died  in 
prison  there,  Nov.  19,  1798.  lie  graduated 
at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  London  in  1789.  In  defence  of 
the  whig  club  he  published  "  A  Review  of 
the  Last  Session  of  Parliament"  in  pamphlet 
form,  and  on  the  appearance  of  a  rupture 
with  Spain  wrote  a  pamphlet  to  prove  that 
Ireland  as  an  independent  nation  was  not 
bound  by  a  declaration  of  war.  Subsequent 
ly  he  sought  to  effect  a  union  against  the 
government  between  the  Catholics  of  Ireland 
and  the  dissenters,  and  in  1791  addressed  to 
the  latter  "An  Argument  on  behalf  of  the 
Catholics  of  Ireland."  The  same  year  he  as 
sisted  in  founding  the  first  club  of  "  United 
Irishmen"  at  Belfast,  and  others  in  other 
parts  of  Ireland.  He  became  secretary  and 
agent  of  the  Catholic  committee  in  1792,  and 
was  subsequently  implicated  in  the  proceed 
ings  of  Jackson,  sent  from  France  to  sound 
the  sentiments  of  the  Irish.  He  was  allowed 


to  retire  from  the  country,  and  in  1795  came 
to  the  United  States.  Letters  asserting  that 
Ireland  was  ripe  for  a  revolt  induced  him  to 
sail  for  France  in  January,  1796,  to  gain  the  aid 
of  the  directory ;  and  owing  in  large  measure 
to  his  exertions,  that  government  determined 
to  fit  out  a  powerful  expedition  under  the 
command  of  Hoche.  In  July  Tone  received 
his  commission  as  chef  de  brigade,  and  was  also 
made  an  adjutant  general  to  Hoche,  wrhom 
he  accompanied  in  December  in  the  arma 
ment  destined  for  Bantry  bay.  The  fleet  was 
scattered  by  storms,  and  the  French  govern 
ment  would  not  undertake  another  expedi 
tion.  In  1797  Tone  was  attached  to  Moreau's 
army;  and  in  September,  1798,  he  accompa 
nied  a  petty  squadron  destined  for  Ireland, 
which  was  intercepted  and  defeated  by  an 
English  squadron.  After  fighting  desperately, 
Tone  was  captured,  carried  to  Dublin,  tried  by 
court  martial,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged  on 
Nov.  12.  He  died,  however  by  his  own  hand, 
having  cut  his  throat  with  a  penknife  on  the 
llth.  After  his  death  appeared  "The  Life  of 
Theobald  Wolfe  Tone,  written  by  himself,  with 
his  Political  Writings,"  &c.,  edited  by  his  son 
William  Theobald  Wolfe  Tone  (including  "  An 
Account  of  his  own  Campaigns  under  Napo 
leon,"  2  vols.  8vo,  Washington,  1826  ;  abridged, 
London,  1827,  1837,  and  1847).— His  son  was 
an  officer  in  the  French  army,  and  after  the 
fall  of  Napoleon  in  that  of  the  United  States  ; 
and  he  was  also  the  author  of  L'EUit  civil  et 
politique  de  Vltalie  sous  la  domination  des 
Goths  (Paris,  1813),  and  "School  of  Cavalry" 
(Georgetown,  D.  C.,  1833). 

TONGATABOO.     See  FRIENDLY  ISLANDS. 

TONGUE,  in  the  animal  system,  the  organ, 
situated  on  the  median  line,  at  the  commence 
ment  of  the  alimentary  canal,  ministering  to 
the  senses  of  touch  and  taste.  Taking  the 
tongue  of  man  as  an  example,  the  organ  is  at 
tached  at  its  base  to  the  movable  hyoid  arch  of 
bones,  and  suspended  and  kept  in  place  by  mus 
cles  from  the  base  of  the  skull,  lower  jaw,  and 
hyoid  bone  ;  it  is  essentially  composed  of  mus 
cular  fibres,  which  move  freely  its  various  por 
tions  ;  it  is  covered  by  sensitive  mucous  mem 
brane,  containing  numerous  mucous  glands 
and  follicles ;  fibrous,  areolar,  and  fatty  tissues 
enter  into  its  structure,  which  is  freely  supplied 
with  blood  vessels  and  nerves.  The  size  bears 
no  relation  to  the  height  of  the  individual,  but 
is  proportioned  to  the  capacity  of  the  alveolar 
arch ;  it  is,  therefore,  smaller  in  women  than 
in  men.  From  the  base  to  the  epiglottis  ex 
tends  a  fold  serving  to  limit  the  movements  of 
the  latter  organ,  and  from  the  sides  of  the 
base  to  the  soft  palate  two  folds  on  each  side, 
the  pillars  of  the  fauces,  between  which  are 
the  tonsils;  under  the  anterior  free  extremity 
is  the  frenum,  which  connects  it  with  the  low 
er  jaw,  a  fibrous  and  mucous  lamina  or  liga 
ment,  sometimes  so  short  congenitally  as  to 
prevent  the  free  movements  of  the  tongue  and 
to  require  an  operation  for  its  division.  There 


TONGUE 


795 


is  a  more  or  less  distinct  longitudinal  furrow 
on  the  median  line,  from  which  extend  out 
ward  and  forward  numerous  other  lines  whose 
angle  of  union  points  backward ;  the  posterior 
third  is  smooth  and  without  compound  papil 
lae,  exhibiting  a  few  simple  ones  and  the  nodu 
lar  eminences  of  the  numerous  muciparous 
glands ;  in  front  of  this  is  a  V-shaped  ridge, 
the  angle  directed  backward,  formed  by  two 
converging  lines  of  button-like  eminences,  the 
circumvallate  papillae ;  in  front  of  these,  and 
occupying  the  anterior  two  thirds  of  the  organ, 
are  the  fungiform  and  conical  or  villiform  pa 
pilla,  the  former  spheroidal  and  scattered,  the 
latter  very  numerous.  The  osseous  support 
•of  the  tongue  is  the  TJ-shaped  or  hyoid  bone, 
consisting  of  a  base  or  median  body,  two 
greater  and  two  lesser  cornua,  and  placed  in 
the  neck  between  the  lower  jaw  and  the  thy 
roid  cartilage ;  it  is  the  homologue  of  a  very 
complex  apparatus  in  the  lower  vertebrates. 
The  muscles  constitute  the  chief  bulk  of  the 
tongue;  they  are  arranged  in  a  complicated 
manner,  so  as  to  support  each  other,  rendering 
the  movements  of  the  organ  exceedingly  va 
ried  and  extensive ;  they  are  attached  to  the 
submucous  fibrous  tissue,  which  is  firm  and 
thick  on  the  superior  surface.  The  mucous 
membrane  is  invested  with  a  delicate  scaly 
epithelium,  the  superficial  layer  of  which  read 
ily  and  constantly  falls  off.  The  papilla  are 
much  like  those  of  the  skin,  most  being  com 
pound  organs,  in  their  nervous  and  vascular 
supply.  The  circumvallate  papillge  are  6  to  10 
in  number,  and  sometimes  -|-  in.  in  diameter; 
the  fungiform  are  -fa  to  -^  in.  in  diameter,  and 
vary  greatly  in  number,  perhaps  accounting 
for  the  well  known  diversity  in  the  acuteness 
of  the  sense  of  taste  in  different  individuals ; 
the  filiform  are  the  most  numerous,  closely  set 
like  the  pile  of  velvet,  covering  the  anterior 
two  thirds  of  the  tongue,  and  the  seat  of  what 
is  called  the  fur ;  their  epithelium  frequently 
breaks  up  into  hair-like  processes,  having  their 
imbrications  directed  backward,  which  mark  a 
physiological  distinction  between  the  circum 
vallate  and  fungiform  papillre  and  the  filiform 
and  conical  ones.  The  conical  papilla  are  gen 
erally  regarded  as  tactile,  the  fungiform  and 
circumvallate  as  gustatory  (acutely  tactile),  and 
the  filiform  as  the  homologues  of  the  recurved 
spines  of  the  tongue  of  the  cats,  and  as  princi 
pally  concerned  in  regulating  the  movements  of 
the  food  in  order  to  bring  it  within  the  reach 
of  the  muscles  of  deglutition.  The  principal 
arteries  of  the  tongue  are  the  lingual  branches 
of  the  external  carotid;  the  sensory  nerves  are 
the  lingual  branch  of  the  fifth- pair  or  trifacial 
and  the  glossopharyngeal,  distributed  respec 
tively  to  the  anterior  and,  posterior  portions, 
and  the  motor  nerve  is  the  hypoglossal;  for 
their  functions  see  TASTE.  ,  The  tongue  in 
fishes  is  rudimentary,  and  not  endowed  with 
any  great  sensibility  or  motor  power  ;  in  rep 
tiles  it  varies  greatly  in  length,  size,  and  mov- 
ability,  being  in  some  immovable  or  short  and 


thick,  in  some  remarkable  for  slenderness  and 
length  (as  in  serpents),  and  in  others  for  pro- 
tractility  (as  in  the  chameleon  and  frog) ;  in 
them  it  is  usually  an  organ  of  prehension  and 
not  of  sensation.  The  tongue  in  birds  is  also 
prehensile  and  not  gustatory,  and  generally 


FIG.  1. — Papilla  circumvallata  of  Man,  in  transverse  and  ver 
tical  section.  A.  Proper  papilla.  B.  Wall.  a.  Epithelium. 
c.  Secondary  papilke.  6,  b.  Nerves  of  the  papilla  and  of 
the  wall.  (Magnified  about  10  diameters.) 

provided  at  the  base  with  numerous  spines 
directed  backward  to  prevent  the  return  of 
food ;  though  itself  incapable  of  elongation, 
it  may  be  remarkably  protruded  by  the  action 
of  the  muscles  attached  to  the  very  long  and 
movable  hyoid  bones.  In  some  mammals,  as 
the  giraffe  and  ant-eater,  it  is  capable  of  great 
elongation,  and  is  an  important  organ  of  pre 
hension  ;  the  recurved  spines  of  the  cats  have 
been  referred  to,  and  constitute  efficient  in 
struments  for  cleaning  flesh  from  bones  and  for 
combing  their  fur.  In  man  the  tongue  keeps 
the  food  during  mastication  within  the  range 
of  the  teeth,  collects  it  from  all  parts  of  the 
mouth  preparatory  to  swallowing  it,  and  is 
also  concerned  in  the  commencement  of  de 
glutition  ;  and  it  is  a  principal  organ  of  articu 
lation.  It  is  liable  to  inflammation,  enlarge 
ment,  atrophy,  ulcerations,  tumors,  and  ma 
lignant  diseases.  The  fur  in  disease  depends 
on  a  sodden  and  opaque  condition  of  the  epi 
thelium  of  the  filiform  and  conical  papilla, 
arising  from  an  alteration  of  the  mucus  and 


FIG.  2. — A.  Fungiform  Papilla,  showing  the  secondary  papilla? 
on  its  surface,  and  at  a  its  epithelium  covering  them  over. 
(Magnified  25  diameters.)  B.  The  capillary  loops  of  the 
simple  papillae  of  A,  injected:  «,  artery;  v.  vein.  The 
groove  around  the  base  of  some  of  the  fungiform  papillae 
is  represented,  as  well  as  the  capillary  loops  (c.  c)  of  some 
neighboring  simple  papilla;.  (Magnified  IS  diameters.) 

saliva  of  the  mouth,  the  bright  red  color  of  the 
fungiform  papillae  presenting  a  striking  con 
trast  ;  the  amount,  color,  and  arrangement  of 
the  fur  are  symptomatic  of  various  morbid 
changes  in  the  system,  of  interest  to  the  physi 
cian,  though  there  is  great  variety  within  the 


796 


TONQUA  BEAN 


TONTINE 


limits  of  health.  The  papillary  surface  is 
healed  and  repaired  with  great  readiness  and 
perfection. 

TONQUA  BEAN  (also  written  Tonquin,  Tonga, 
and  Tonka),  an  Asiatic  name  applied  to  a 
South  American  product,  the  seeds  of  dipterix 
odorata,  a  tree  belonging  to  the  leguminoscs  or 
pulse  family.  The  genus  dipterix  (Gr.  dfc, 
double,  and  rrrepoi',  a  wing)  comprises  about 
eight  species,  all  large  trees  of  the  forests  of 
Brazil,  Guiana,  and  neighboring  countries,  and 
belongs  to  a  tribe  of  the  family  of  which  there 
are  no  representatives  in  northern  localities ; 
the  trees  have  pinnate  leaves  and  large  pani 
cles  of  flowers,  which  are  succeeded  by  (what 
is  very  unusual  in  the  family)  a  pod  containing 
only  a  single  seed.  The  Tonqua  bean  tree 
grows  60  to  90  ft.  high,  with  a  trunk  some 
times  3  ft.  in  diameter ;  the  indehiscent  pods, 
about  2  in.  long,  are  almond-shaped  and  very 
thick;  the  single  seed 
, ,'\  is  over  an  inch  long, 

shaped  somewhat  like 
a  large  kidney  bean ;  it 
has  a  wrinkled  skin, 
which  is  shiny  black. 
The  odor,  which  is  re 
markably  strong,  re 
sembles  that  of  the  me- 
lilot  or  sweet  clover 
and  the  sweet-scented 
vernal  grass  (anthox- 
anthum),  and  is  due 
to  the  same  princi 
ple,  coumarine,  a  con 
crete  crystallizable,  vol 
atile,  neutral  substance, 
with  the  composition 
Ci8H6O4,  very  solu 
ble  in  alcohol  and 
ether,  and  somewhat 
so  in  boiling  water, 
from  which  it  crys 
tallizes  on  cooling ; 
the  beans  are  often  frosted  Avith  crystals  of 
this,  which  show  very  distinctly  on  their  black 
surface.  Formerly  the  beans  were  much  used 
to  scent  snuff,  and  they  are  often  called  "  snuff 
beans,"  a  few  of  them  being  placed  in  a  jar 
with  the  snuff,  or  a  single  one  kept  in  the 
snuff  box ;  they  were  also  formerly  used  in  smo 
king  tobacco,  but  a  much  cheaper  substitute  is 
found  in  the  "wild  vanilla"  (liatris  odoratis- 
sima)  of  Florida.  (See  VANILLA.)  The  odor 
of  the  bean  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of 
the  true  vanilla,  and  much  of  the  extract  of 
vanilla  sold  for  flavoring  ice  cream  and  articles 
of  cookery  is  adulterated  with  it,  and  in  some 
of  the  cheaper  flavoring  extracts  it  is  entirely 
substituted  for  that  costly  material;  any  one 
with  a  nice  sense  of  smell  can  readily  detect 
the  least  admixture.  The  Wood  of  the  Tonqua 
bean  tree  is  remarkably  close-grained,  hard, 
and  heavy,  and,  though  redder,  much  resem 
bles  lignumvitse,  and  in  some  parts  of  South 
America  it  is  called  by  that  name ;  it  is  valued 


Tonqua  Bean  (Dipterix  odo- 
rata).  Half  of  the  one- 
seeded  pod. 


for  fine  cabinet  work.  Another  species,  D. 
eboensis,  is  the  eboe  tree,  the  fruit  of  which  is 
without  odor ;  its  timber  is  hard  and  valuable. 

TONQUIN.     See  Ax  AM. 

TONQUIN,  Gulf  of,  an  arm  of  the  China  sea, 
having  the  Anamese  province  of  Tonquin  on 
the  west,  the  Chinese  province  of  Quang-tung 
on  the  north  and  east,  and  the  island  of  Hainan 
on  the  southeast ;  length,  nearly  300  m.  ;  aver 
age  width,  150  m.  The  Sangkoi  or  Tonquin 
river  flows  into  it.  It  has,  numerous  islands. 
The  t}Tphoons  are  very  violent  in  the  gulf. 

TONSILS,  or  Amygdalae,  two  glandular  organs, 
of  an  almond  shape,  with  the  larger  end  up 
ward,  situated  on  each  side  of  the  fauces,  be 
tween  the  anterior  and  posterior  pillars  of  the 
soft  palate,  and  easily  brought  into  view  by 
opening  the  mouth.  They  are  composed  of  a 
collection  of  mucous  follicles,  which  open 
through  32  or  15  orifices  on  the  inner  side  of 
each  tonsil.  These  follicles  are  lined  with  a 
continuation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
pharynx,  and  have  a  structure  similar  to  that 
of  Peyer's  glands  in  the  small  intestine.  They 
secrete  mucus  which  goes  to  make  up  the  mixed 
mass  of  saliva,  or  to  lubricate  the  fauces  during 
the  act  of  deglutition,  the  pressure  of  the  food 
and  the  constriction  of  the  pharynx  forcing 
the  contents  from  the  organs.  They  are  sup 
plied  with  blood  from  the  facial,  inferior 
pharyngeal,  and  internal  maxillary  arteries, 
and  with  nerves  from  the  fifth  and  glosso- 
pharyngeal.  The  veins  terminate  in  the  ton- 
sillar  plexus  on  the  outer  side  of  the  tonsil. 
These  organs  vary  in  size  in  different  individ 
uals,  being  notably  larger  in  persons  of  scrofu 
lous  constitution.  They  are  liable  to  acute 
inflammation,  involving  great  enlargement  and 
suppuration;  an  affection  called  tonsillitis  or 
cynanche  tonsillaris,  and  popularly  quinsy. 

TONSTALL.     See  TUXSTALL. 

TONTINE,  a  kind  of  life  annuity  originated 
by  Loranzo  Tonti,  a  Neapolitan,  who  published 
his  scheme  and  introduced  it  into  France  about 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  The  subscri 
bers  or  their  representatives  were  divided  into 
10  classes,  and  an  annuity  was  apportioned 
to  each  class  according  to  their  age,  the  sur 
vivors  deriving  an  increased  annuity  as  their 
associates  died,  and  the  last  survivor  receiving 
the  entire  annuity  of  the  class  till  the  close  of 
his  life.  The  first  association  of  this  kind, 
called  the  "  Royal  Tontine,"  was  founded  under 
the  administration  of  Cardinal  Mazarin  in  1653. 
The  total  sum  paid  in  was  1,025,000  francs,  in 
10  classes  of  102,500  francs  each.  The  sub 
scription  was  300  francs,  and  every  subscriber 
received  the  interest  of  his  investment  until 
the  death  of  some  member  of  the  association 
increased  the  dividend  to  the  rest,  and  after 
the  death  of  the  last  subscriber  it  reverted  to 
the  state.  This  project  was  not  successful, 
nor  were  two  more  subsequently  proposed  by 
Tonti.  In  1 689  Louis  XIV.  authorized  anoth 
er  of  1,400,000  francs  divided  into  14  classes, 
according  to  age,  from  children  of  5  years  to 


TONTY 


TOOKE 


797 


adults  of  70.  In  1720  the  last  survivor  of  the 
13th  and  14th  classes  was  the  widow  of  a  poor 
surgeon  who  had  invested  300  francs  in  two 
tontines,  and  who  enjoyed  at  her  death,  at  the 
age  of  96,  an  income  of  73,500  francs.  Ton 
tines  were  again  resorted  to  by  the  French 
government  in  1733  and  1734;  but  in  1763 
they  were  interdicted  as  a  measure  of  finance. 
In  1791  a  tontine  called  the  caisse  Lafarge,  on 
a  more  extended  scale,  was  established  under 
private  management ;  but  by  a  gross  blunder 
or  fraud,  the  interest  promised  was  impossible, 
and  the  subscribers,  whose  united  contribu 
tions  amounted  to  60,000,000  francs,  never 
received  even  simple  interest,  and  the  entire 
capital  was  lost  in  the  disasters  of  the  time. 
In  England  tontines  have  been  occasionally 
resorted  to  as  a  measure  of  finance,  the  last 
opened  being  in  1789,  and  a  few  private  ones 
have  been  established.  In  1871  the  Alexandra 
park  company  in  London  proposed  to  organize 
an  institution  similar  to  the  South  Kensington 
museum  by  means  of  a  tontine  to  cease  June 
30,  1886;  but  the  scheme  proved  unsuccess 
ful,  and  was  abandoned  in  1872.  In  the  United 
States  there  have  been  private  annuities  of  this 
kind.  The  New  York  tontine  association  was 
organized  in  1790,  with  203  shares  valued  at 
$250  each.  The  tontine  coffee  house  was  built 
in  Wall  street,  and  about  1850  the  property 
was  leased  for  business  purposes.  The  lease 
was  to  expire  and  the  property  to  revert  to  the 
owners  of  the  shares  depending  upon  the  last 
seven  surviving  lives.  This  contingency  oc 
curred  in  1870,  but  proceedings  for  winding 
up  the  affairs  of  the  association  and  the  parti 
tion  of  the  property  are  still  pending  (1876). 
Buildings  have  been  erected  in  some  other 
cities  on  the  same  plan. 

TONTY,  Henry  de,  an  Italian  explorer,  died 
at  Fort  Louis,  Mobile,  in  September,  1704. 
The  son  of  Lorenzo  Tonti,  inventor  of  the 
tontine  system  of  association,  he  entered  the 
French  army  as  a  cadet,  served  in  the  navy, 
and  lost  a  hand.  He  came  to  Canada  with  La 
Salle  in  1678.  Near  the  present  site  of  Peoria 
on  the  Illinois  river  he  assisted  in  building  a 
fort  in  1680,  which  La  Salle  left  in  his  com 
mand.  He  attempted  a  white  settlement  in 
Arkansas.  In  1685  he  brought  a  force  of  west 
ern  Indians  to  join  in  attacking  the  Senecas. 
Twice  he  went  to  meet  La  Salle  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi,  but  without  finding  him. 
He  descended  a  third  time  to  meet  Iberville, 
and  remained  in  the  gulf  region.  His  memoir 
of  La  Salle's  voyage,  published  in  Margry's 
Relations  et  memoires,  has  been  translated 
into  English  under  the  title  "  Account  of  M. 
de  la  Salle's  last  Expedition  and  Discoveries 
in  North  America"  (12mo,  London,  1698  ;  8vo, 
New  York,  1814;  in  French's  "Historical 
Collections  of  Louisiana,"  vol.  i.,  1846). 

TOOELE,  a  W.  county  of  Utah,  bordering  on 
Nevada,  and  bounded  N.  E.  by  Great  Salt 
lake;  area,  8,320  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,177. 
The  greater  portion  is  a  barren  desert.  The 


hilly  portions  contain  some  valuable  arable 
and  grazing  land,  and  mines  of  gold,  silver,  cop 
per,  and  lead.  In  the  "W.  part  are  large  fertile 
valleys  and  several  mining  districts.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  23,483  bushels  of 
wheat,  2,505  of  Indian  corn,  2,840  of  oats,  1,630 
of  barley,  9,848  of  potatoes,  8,497  Ibs.  of  wool, 
and  973  tons  of  hay.  There  were  511  horses, 
2,041  cattle,  4,929  sheep,  and  121  swine;  1 
flour  mill,  and  2  saw  mills.  Capital,  Tooele. 

TOOKE,  John  Horne,  an  English  politician, 
born  in  Westminster,  June  25,  1736,  died  at 
Wimbledon,  March  18,  1812.  He  was  the  son 
of  John  Horne,  a  poulterer,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  became  an  usher  in  a  school  at 
Blackheath,  took  orders,  and  obtained  a  cu 
racy  in  Kent.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1760, 
and  for  three  years  officiated  in  the  chapelry 
of  New  Brentford.  He  then  went  to  France 
as  travelling  tutor  to  the  son  of  Elwes  the 
miser.  In  1765  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  in  favor 
of  Wilkes  and  his  party ;  and  on  a  second  visit 
to  the  continent  he  formed  at  Paris  an  inti 
mate  acquaintance  with  that  politician.  On 
his  return  in  1767  he  took  an  active  interest 
in  political  matters,  especially  in  securing  the 
election  of  Wilkes  from  Middlesex.  In  1769 
he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  society  for 
supporting  the  bill  of  rights ;  but  its  financial 
affairs  involved  him  in  a  quarrel  with  Wilkes, 
and  for  this  he  was  attacked  by  Junius,  but- 
defended  himself  with  success.  In  1771  he 
received  his  degree  of  M.  A.  from  the  uni 
versity  of  Cambridge.  In  1773,  designing  to 
study  law,  he  formally  resigned  his  living.  He 
rendered  great  assistance  in  resisting  an  en 
closure  bill  which  would  have  reduced  the 
value  of  some  property  of  his  friend  William 
Tooke  of  Purley,  who  in  return  made  him  his 
heir ;  but,  though  in  1782  he  changed  his  name 
to  Tooke,  he  never  received  more  than  £8,000 
from  the  property.  He  bitterly  opposed  the 
American  war,  and  advertised  for  a  subscrip 
tion  for  the  widows  and  orphans  of  the  Amer 
icans  "murdered  by  the  king's  troops  at  Lex 
ington  and  at  Concord."  The  ministry  prose 
cuted  him  for  libel,  and  he  was  tried  at  Guild 
hall  in  July,  1777.  He  conducted  his  own 
defence,  but  was  condemned  to  one  year's 
imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  £200.  While  con 
fined  he  published  his  celebrated  "Letter  to 
Mr.  Dunning,"  critically  explaining  the  case 
of  The  King  v.  Lawley,  which  had  been  used 
as  a  precedent  against  him  on  his  trial.  He 
declared  himself  "the  victim  of  two  preposi 
tions  and  a  conjunction,"  which  particles  he 
calls  "the  abject  instruments  of  his  civil  ex 
tinction."  After  his  release  in  1779,  he  ap 
plied  for  admission  to  the  bar,  but  was  reject 
ed  on  the  ground  of  being  a  clergyman.  He 
published  in  1780,  in  conjunction  with  Dr. 
Price,  a  pamphlet  entitled  "Facts,"  severely 
reflecting  upon  Lord  North  and  his  prosecu 
tion  of  the  American  war.  In  1786  appeared 
the  first  part  of  his  "'ETrm  Tr-epderra,  or  the 
Diversions  of  Purley,"  the  object  of  which 


798 


TOOKE 


TOPEKA 


was  to  prove  that  all  parts  of  speech  could 
be  resolved  into  nouns  and  verbs,  and  that  all 
words  were  at  first  applied  to  sensible  objects. 
The  second  part  appeared  in  1805  (new  ed.  by 
Richard  Taylor,  with  additions  from  the  copy 
prepared  by  the  author  for  republication,  and 
his  letter  to  John  Dunning,  2  vols.  Svo,  1829  ; 
with  additional  notes  by  Richard  Taylor,  8vo, 
1860).  In  1787  he  published  "  A  Letter  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales"  in  regard  to  his  supposed 
marriage  with  a  Roman  Catholic.  In  1788  ap 
peared  his  pamphlet  "Two  Pair  of  Portraits," 
in  which  he  drew  a  contrast  between  the  two 
Pitts  and  the  two  Foxes.  In  1794  he  was 
tried  for  high  treason,  with  Hardy,  Thelwall, 
and  others,  mainly  on  the  ground  of  his  par 
ticipation  in  the  action  of  the  "  Constitutional 
Society,"  and  was  acquitted,  being  eloquently 
defended  by  Erskine.  In'  1801  he  was  re 
turned  to  the  house  of  commons  by  Lord  Cam- 
elford  for  the  borough  of  Old  Sarum,  and  he 
.retained  his  seat  till  the  dissolution  in  1802 ; 
but  the  decision  of  that  parliament  that  no 
one  in  priest's  orders  could  be  a  member  dis 
qualified  him  from  sitting  again.  The  latter 
years  of  his  life  were  spent  at  Wimbledon. 
He  was  never  married,  but  left  several  illegiti 
mate  children. — See  "  Memoirs  of  John  Home 
Tooke,  interspersed  with  Original  Documents," 
by  A.  Stephens  (2  vols.  8vo,  1813),  and  "Me 
moirs  of  John  Ilorne  Tooke,  Esq.,  together 
with  his  Valuable  Speeches ;  and  Writings^' 
&c.,  by  John  A.  Graham  (New  York,  1828). 

TOOKE.  I.  William,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  Jan.  18,  1744,  died  in  London,  Nov.  17, 
1820.  In  1771  he  became  minister  of  the 
English  church  at  Cronstadt,  and  in  1774 
chaplain  to  .the  factory  of  the  Russian  com 
pany  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  remained  till 
1792.  His  most  important  works  are :  "  Russia, 
or  a  Complete  Historical  Account  of  all  the 
Nations  which  compose  the  Russian  Empire  " 
(4  vols.  8vo,  1780-'83  ;  French  translation, 
Paris,  1801) ;  "Life  of  Catharine  II.,  Empress 
of  Russia,"  an  enlarged  translation  from  the 
French  (3  vols.,  1797-1800;  new  cd.,  1810); 
"A  View  of  the  Russian  Empire  during  the 
Reign  of  Catharine  II.  and  to  the  Close  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century"  (3  vols.,  1799);  and 
"History  of  Russia,  A.  D.  862-1762"  (2  vols., 
1800-'6).  II.  Thomas,  an  English  political 
economist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  St. 
Petersburg  in  1774,  died  in  London,  Feb.  26, 
1858.  In  1838  he  published  "A  History  of 
Prices  and  of  the  State  of  the  Circulation  from 
1793  to  1837,  preceded  by  a  brief  Sketch  of 
the  State  of  the  Corn  Trade  in  the  last  two 
Centuries"  (2  vols.  Svo).  Four  additional 
volumes  bring  the  work  down  to  1856. 

TOOMBS,  Robert,  an  American  politician,  born 
in  Washington,  Wilkes  co.,  Ga.,  July  2,  1810. 
He  graduated  at  Union  college,  Schenectady,  in 
1828,  studied  law  at  the  university  of  Virginia, 
and  commenced  practice  in  his  native  place. 
In  1836  he  served  under  Gen.  Scott  as  captain 
of  volunteers  in  the  Creek  war.  In  1837  he 


was  elected  to  the  state  legislature,  and  with 
the  exception  of  1841  continued  a  member 
till  1845.  He  was  a  member  of  congress  from 
1845  to  1853,  when  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  United  States  senate,  and  was  reflected 
for  the  term  ending  March  4,  1865.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  extreme  southern 
party,  and  after  the  election  of  President  Lin 
coln  was  one  of  the  most  active  in  persuading 
Georgia  to  secede.  The  state  of  Georgia  hav 
ing  passed  its  secession  ordinance  on  Jan.  19, 
1861,  Mr.  Toombs  withdrew  from  the  senate 
on  the  23d,  and  on  March  14  he  was  expelled. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  confederate  congress 
which  met  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  was  subse 
quently  for  a  short  time  secretary  of  state  of 
the  Confederate  States,  and  also  served  as  a 
brigadier  general  in  the  confederate  army. 

TOORRISTAN.     See  TUKKISTAN. 

TOPAZ,  a  precious  stone,  a  silico-fluoride  of 
alumina,  consisting,  in  100  parts,  of  alumina 
48  to  58,  silica  34  to  39,  and  fluorine  15  to 
18P5.  Its  specific  gravity  is  3'4  to  3'65  ;  its 
hardness  is  8,  or  between  that  of  quartz  and 
sapphire.  It  is  usually  colorless,  but  is  some 
times  blue,  green,  or  red.  The  yellow  Brazil 
ian  topaz  when  heated  becomes  reddish,  while 
the  Saxon  wine-colored  topaz  loses  its  color 
entirely.  Topaz  is  pyro-electric ;  it  crystallizes 
in  the  trimetric  or  rhombic  system,  the  prism 
generally  having  dissimilar  extremities.  When 
heated  in  the  blowpipe  flame  it  becomes  cov 
ered  with  small  blisters,  while  a  coarse  variety 
called  physalite  (Gr.  fy'vaEiv,  to  blow)  swells  up 
when  heated.  Its  principal  localities  are  :  the 
Ural  and  Altai  mountains,  Kamtchatka,  Villa 
Rica  in  Brazil  (of  a  deep  yellow  color),  Alten- 
berg  in  Saxony,  and  the  Mourne  mountains  in 
Ireland ;  in  the  United  States,  at  Trumbull  and 
Middletown,  Conn.,  and  at  Crowder's  moun 
tain,  N.  C.  Physalite  is  found  in  Norway  and 
Sweden  in  very  large  crystals ;  one  weighed  80 
Ibs.  The  topaz  is  not  very  highly  valued  as 
a  gem,  though  fine  specimens  sometimes  bring 
very  good  prices.  Tavernier  speaks  of  one 
belonging  to  the  Great  Mogul  weighing  157 
carats,  which  was  valued  at  181,000  rupees. 
The  principal  supply  is  from  Brazil,  which  fur 
nishes  about  40  Ibs.  annually.  The  white  and 
rose-red  are  the  most  valuable.  The  former 
are  called  by  the  Portuguese  pingas  cfagoa 
(drops  of  water),  and  when  cut  resemble  the 
diamond  in  brilliancy.  The  oriental  topaz  is 
the  yellow  variety  of  transparent  corundum, 
and  belongs  to  the  family  of  sapphires.  (See 
SAPPHIRE.)  A  yellow  variety  of  quartz  is 
sometimes  called  false  topaz. 

TOPEKA,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Kansas, 
county  seat  of  Shawnee  co.,  situated  on  both 
banks  of  the  Kansas  river,  here  spanned  by  a 
fine  iron  bridge,  45  m.  S.  W.  of  Leavenworth 
and'  300  m.  W.  of  St.  Louis ;  pop.  in  1860, 
759;  in  1870,  5,790;  in  1875,  7,272.  The 
streets  are  wide  and  regularly  laid  out.  The 
city  is  remarkably  well  built.  The  state  house 
is  a  magnificent  building.  A  site  has  been 


TOPFFER 


TORF^EUS 


799 


purchased  by  the  United  States  government 
for  a  public  building,  and  a  state  asylum  for 
the  insane  is  in  course  of  construction  about 
2  m.  "W.  of  the  state  house.  The  surrounding 
country  is  very  fertile  and  contains  deposits  of 
coal.  The  trade  of  Topeka  is  large  and  rapidly 
increasing.  The  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
Fe  and  the  Kansas  Pacific  railroads  afford 
communication  with  the  east  and  with  Colo 
rado  and  Texas.  The  river  furnishes  good 
water  power.  The  chief  manufacturing  estab 
lishments  are  three  flouring  mills,  a  rolling 
mill,  a  foundery  and  machine  shop,  two  brew 
eries,  a  broom  factory,  and  several  manufac 
tories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  and  harness 
and  saddlery.  There  are  two  national  banks, 
two  state  banks,  two  loan  and  trust  companies, 
and  three  building  and  savings  associations. 
The  public  schools  have  accommodations  for 
2,000  pupils,  and  comprise  a  high  school  and 
seven  schools  of  inferior  grades.  Other  prom- 


state  Capitol  of  Kansas. 

inent  institutions  of  learning  are  Washburn 
college  (Congregational),  for  both  sexes ;  an 
Episcopal  theological  seminary ;  and  the  col 
leges  of  the  sisters  of  Bethany  (Episcopal) 
and  sisters  of  charity  (Roman  Catholic),  for 
females.  The  Topeka  library  association  has 
about  2,000  volumes.  Three  daily  and  four 
weekly  newspapers  are  published.  There  are 
23  religious  societies,  viz. :  3  Baptist,  1  Chris 
tian,  3  Congregational,  1  Episcopal,  1  Jewish, 
2  Lutheran  (1  Swedish),  4  Methodist  (1  Ger 
man),  3  Presbyterian,  1  Roman  Catholic,  1 
Spiritualist,  1  Unitarian,  1  United  Brethren, 
and  1  Universalist. — Topeka  was  laid  out  in 
1854,  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1857,  and  made 
the  state  capital  in  1861. 

TOPFFER,  Rndolphe,  a  Swiss  novelist,  born  in 
Geneva,  Feb.  IT,  1799,  died  there,  June  8, 1846. 
He  began  life  as  a  landscape  and  genre  painter, 
and  subsequently  became  professor  of  aesthet 
ics  at  the  academy  of  Geneva.  His  works  in- 
VOL.  xv.— 51 


elude  Le  presbytere  (Geneva,  1839  ;  English 
translation,  uThe  Parsonage,"  London,  1848); 
La  Tiibliotheque  de  mon  oncle  (1843);  Rose  et 
Gertrude  (1845) ;  Nouvelles  genewises  (Paris, 
1845);  and  Collection  des  liistoires  en  estampes 
(0  vols.,  French  and  German,  Geneva,  1846). 

TOPHET,  a  spot  in  a  fertile  valley  S.  E.  of 
ancient  Jerusalem,  called  the  valley  (ge)  of 
Hinnom,  or  of  the  children  of  Hinnom,  and 
hence  Gehenna  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
watered  by  the  brook  Kedron.  It  was  the 
place  where  the  idolatrous  Jews  passed  their 
children  through  the  fire  to  Moloch.  At  a 
later  period  it  was  used  as  a  spot  to  throw  the 
garbage  of  the  streets,  the  carcasses  of  beasts, 
and  the  dead  bodies  of  men  to  whom  burial 
had  been  refused  ;  and  as  a  fire  was  kept  con 
stantly  burning  to  consume  all  that  was  brought, 
the  word  was  used  metaphorically  for  hell. 

TOPLADY,  Augustas  Montague,  an  English  cler 
gyman,    born   in   Farnham,    Surrey,    Nov.    4, 
1740,    died    in    London, 
Aug.  11,  1778.     He  was 
educated  at  Westminster 
school   and   Trinity   col 
lege,  Dublin,  took  orders, 
and  obtained  the  living 
of    Broad    Ilembury    in 
Devonshire.     In  1775  he 
removed  to  London  and 
preached  in  a  chapel  in 
Leicester    square.       For 
several   years  he   edited 
the  "  Gospel  Magazine." 
His  fame  rests  principal 
ly   upon    his   controver 
sial  writings  against  the 
Methodists,    and    a   few 
hymns.  He  was  the  great 
champion    of    Calvinism 
in  the  church  of  England. 
An  edition  of  his  works 
was   issued    in    1794   (6 
vols.  8vo;  last  ed.,  with 
"  Life,"  1  vol.  8vo,  1869). 
TOPLITZ.     See  TEPLITZ. 
TORENO,  Jose   Maria  Qneypo  dc  Llano  Rniz  de 
Sara\ia,  count  of,  a  Spanish  statesman,  born  in 
Oviedo,  Nov.  26,  1786,  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  16, 
1843.     In  the  rising  of  the  Spaniards  against 
the  French  in  1808  he  was  sent  to  England  to 
negotiate  for  assistance,  was  afterward  repeat 
edly  a  cabinet  minister,  and  died  in  exile.     He 
published  Historia  del  letantamiento,  guerra  y 
revolution  de  Espafia  (5  vols.,  Madrid,  1835-'7 ; 
best  ed.,  4  vols.  8vo,  1848). 

TORFJttS,  or  Tormodus,  the  Latin  name  of 
Thormodr  Torfason,  an  Icelandic  scholar,  born 
in  Engo  in  1636,  died  near  Copenhagen  in 
1719.  Frederick  III.  of  Denmark  in  1660 
made  him  interpreter  of  Icelandic  manuscripts, 
of  which  he  made  a  collection  in  Iceland.  In 
1667  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  royal  col 
lection  of  antiquities,  and  in  1682  royal  his 
toriographer.  Of  his  works,  in  which  first  ap 
peared  the  northern  sagas  on  the  discovery  of 


800 


TORGAU 


TORONTO 


America,  the  most  important  is  Historia  Rerum 
Norvegicarum  (4  vols.  fol.,  1711). 

TORGAU,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Saxony,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  26  m. 
S.  E.  of  Wittenberg;  pop.  in  1871,  10,867. 
The  principal  public  building  is  the  Hartenfels 
palace,  containing  a  church  consecrated  by 
Luther,  whose  wife,  Katharina  von  Bora,  died 
here.  It  has  manufactories  of  linen  and  wool 
len  goods  and  a  brass  foundery.  The  elector 
of  Saxony  and  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  conclu 
ded  here  a  league  for  the  defence  of  the  refor 
mation,  March,  1526.  In  1576  a  conference 
of  Protestant  theologians,  assembled  by  the 
elector  Augustus,  elaborated  here  the  "  Book 
of  Torgau,"  which  formed  the  basis  of  the 
Concordice  Formula.  The  town  was  nearly 
destroyed  in  the  thirty  years'  war.  In  the 
seven  years'  war  Frederick  the  Great  here  de 
feated  the  Austrians  under  Daun,  Nov.  3,  1760. 
Napoleon  was  the  original  builder  (1810)  of 
the  present  strong  fortifications.  Torgau  was 
surrendered  to  the  Germans  in  January,  1814, 
after  a  siege  of  several  months,  during  which 
more  than  25,000  French  soldiers  died  of  ty 
phus  fever. 

TORLONIA,  Alessandro,  prince  of  Civitella  Cesi, 
Musignano,  Canino,  and  Farnese,  marquis  of 
Roma  Vecchia  and  Torrita,  an  Italian  capi 
talist,  born  in  Rome,  June  1,  1800.  lie  is  the 
youngest  and  most  enterprising  son  of  Giovanni 
Torlonia  (born  in  Siena  in  1754,  died  in  Rome, 
Feb.  25, 1829),  who  was  originally  a  small  shop 
keeper,  and  became  a  banker  of  great  wealth 
and  influence,  and  duke  of  Bracciano.  Ales 
sandro  increased  his  patrimony  by  taking  long 
leases  of  the  salt  and  tobacco  monopolies  in  the 
Papal  and  Neapolitan  states,  and  by  other  prof 
itable  transactions.  He  became  the  principal 
holder  of  real  estate  in  the  city  and  province 
of  Rome,  filled  his  palace  and  villa  with  fine 
works  of  art,  and  rendered  many  important 
services  t$  the  pope.  lie  has  made  extensive 
excavations,  and  his  collection  of  antiquities  is 
said  to  rank  next  to  that  of  the  Vatican.  The 
most  remarkable  of  his  public  enterprises  is 
the  draining  of  Lake  Fucino. 

TORNA,  a  N.  county  of  Hungary,  border 
ing  on  the  counties  of  Zips,  Abauj,  Borsod, 
and  Gomor;  area,  239  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
23,126,  chiefly  Magyars  and  Roman  Catholics. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Bodva,  which  receives  the 
Torna.  The  soil  is  mostly  rocky  and  sterile ; 
the  principal  products  are  hemp  and  wine. 
About  three  sevenths  of  the  area  is  wooded. 
Capital,  Torna. 

TORNADO.     See  HURRICANE. 

TORNEA  (Swed.  Tornea).  I.  A  river  of  Eu 
rope,  having  its  source  in  Lake  Tornea-Trask, 
in  Sweden,  and  falling  into  the  gulf  of  Bothnia 
after  a  course  of  about  240  m.  It  forms  part 
of  the  boundary  between  Sweden  and  Russia. 
II.  A  town  of  Finland,  Russia,  in  the  Ian  or 
government  of  Uleaborg,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tornea  river;  lat.  65°  50'  N.,  Ion.  24°  14'  E. ; 
pop.  about  700.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in 


timber,  fish,  furs,  reindeer  skins,  tar,  &c. 
Many  travellers  visit  Tornea  to  see  the  mid 
night  sun,  visible  here  from  the  church  steeple 
in  the  latter  part  of  June.  Most  of  them  pro 
ceed  to  Mt.  Avasaksa,  about  40  m.  N.,  which 
offers  a  more  advantageous  view.  Observations 
for  determining  the  figure  of  the  earth  were 
made  at  Tornea  by  Maupertuis  in  1736-'7,  and 
by  Prof.  Svanberg  of  Upsal  in  1801-'3. 

TORONTAL,  a  S.  county  of  Hungary,  bor 
dering  on  the  counties  of  Csongrad,  Csanad, 
Temes,  and  Bacs,  and  on  Slavonia;  area,  2,650 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  413,010,  chiefly  Magyars 
and  Roumans.  It  is  watered  by  the  Maros, 
Theiss,  Bega,  and  Temes.  The  climate  is  un- 
healthf  ul,  but  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  The  chief 
products  are  wheat,  maize,  melons,  flax,  rice, 
tobacco,  and  wine.  Many  sheep  and  horses  are 
raised.  Capital,  Nagy-Becskerek. 

TORONTO,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  capi 
tal  of  Ontario,  Canada,  county  seat  of  York  co., 
on  the  N.  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  310  m.  S.  VV. 
of  Montreal  and  36  m.  N.  E.  of  Hamilton  ;  lat. 
43°  39'  N.,  Ion.  79°  21'  W. ;  pop.  in  1861,  44,- 
821  ;  in  1871,  56,092.  The  bay  S.  of  the  city 
is  formed  by  an  island,  and  is  about  3  m.  long 
and  2  m.  wide.  The  river  Don, which  falls  into 
the  bay  on  the  east,  is  not  navigable.  The  site 
of  the  city  rises  gradually  from  the  water  and 
extends  back  about  2|-  m.,  connecting  on  the 
north  with  the  villages  of  Yorkville  and  Seaton, 
and  on  the  east  with  Lesslieville,  all  of  which, 
except  in  name,  form  part  of  the  city.  The 
corporation  limits  include  more  than  5,000 
acres.  The  Queen's  park,  in  the  centre  of  the 
N.  part  of  the  city,  contains  over  35  acres ;  the 
jail  farm  is  to  be  converted  into  a  park  in  the 
east;  and  a  few  miles  W.  of  the  present  cor 
poration  limits,  on  Humber  bay,  300  acres  has 
been  secured  for  a  park.  The  streets  intersect 
at  right  angles.  The  buildings  in  the  chief 
business  streets  are  of  brick,  white  or  red,  or 
of  cut  stone ;  and  whole  streets  of  fine  resi 
dences  of  white  brick  have  been  built  up  with 
in  a  few  years,  while  other  streets  are  occupied 
chiefly  with  wooden  structures.  Among  the 
public  buildings  are  Toronto  university  and 
University  college  building,  the  finest  in  the 
province,  erected  in  1859  at  a  cost  of  about 
$900,000 ;  the  government  house,  the  official 
residence  of  the  governor  of  Ontario  ;  the  cus 
tom  house  and  the  post  office ;  the  Grand 
opera  house  and  the  Royal  opera  house,  each 
capable  of  seating  over  1,500  persons;  the 
central  prison,  which  cost  nearly  $500,000 ; 
the  city  hall  and  St.  Lawrence  hall ;  Trinity 
college,  a  church  of  England  institution  ; 
Knox's  college,  a  Free  church  theological  insti 
tution,  just  completed  at  a  cost  of  about  $80,- 
000 ;  the  college  of  technology  ;  the  normal 
school  buildings;  the  legislative  buildings,  in 
which  also  are  some  of  the  executive  depart 
ments;  Upper  Canada  college,  a  preparatory 
school  for  University  college ;  and  Osgoode 
hall,  the  seat  of  the  principal  law  and  equity 
courts  of  the  province  and  the  headquarters 


TORONTO 


801 


of  the  benchers  of  the  law  society.  There  are 
78  churches,  the  principal  of  which  are  St. 
James's  cathedral,  commenced  in  1852,  and  re 
cently  completed  by  the  erection  of  a  spire  316 
ft.  high,  at  a  cost  of  about  $220,000;  St.  Mi 
chael's  cathedral,  Roman  Catholic ;  the  Metro 
politan  church,  Methodist,  costing  $100,000; 
St.  Andrew's,  church  of  Scotland,  $80,000; 
and  the  Baptist  church.  The  two  principal 
markets  are  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  St. 
Andrew's,  the  latter  just  completed. — Toronto 
lias  railroad  communication  with  the  United 
States  and  with  the  principal  points  of  the 
provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  by  means 
of  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Great  Western,  the 
Northern,  the  Toronto,  Grey,  and  Bruce,  and 
the  Toronto  and  Nipissing  lines.  The  imports 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  were  $14,- 
716,824,  and  for  the  next  year  $14,436,091.  The 


official  returns  of  exports  show  in  each  of  these 
years  less  than  $1,900,000,  but  they  are  imper 
fect.  The  customs  revenue  collected  in  the  first 
of  these  years  was  $1,967,997  60,  and  in  the  last 
$1,293,644  34.  The  value  of  manufactures  ac 
cording  to  the  census  of  1871  was  $13,686,093, 
the  chief  items  being  furniture,  boots  and  shoes, 
rail  cars,  ale,  and  whiskey.  There  are  five 
banks  having  their  headquarters  in  the  city, 
and  branches  of  five  Quebec  and  Montreal 
banks.  Besides  the  Toronto  savings  bank,  the 
assistant  receiver  general's  office,  a  branch  of 
the  Dominion  treasury  department,  receives 
money  on  loan  at  interest ;  and  there  are  nu 
merous  loan  societies. — The  city  is  divided  into 
eight  wards,  each  of  which  annually  elects  four 
aldermen,  who  are  vested  with  legislative  and 
executive  powers,  and  can  act  as  magistrates  if 
possessed  of  a  legal  property  qualification.  The 


University  of  Toronto. 


mayor  is  annually  elected  by  a  vote  of  the  rate 
payers.  The  assessed  value  of  the  real  and 
personal  property  (not  counting  stocks  in  pub 
lic  companies)  in  1873  was  $44,765,000 ;  in 
1874,  $43,462,512;  in  1875,  about  $46,000,000. 
The  taxes  in  1874  yielded  $608,475.  The 
funded  debt  is  about  $5,000,000  ;  and  at  the 
close  of  1874  there  was  $258,293  to  the  credit 
of  the  sinking  fund.  The  city  has  a  fire  alarm 
telegraph,  a  paid  fire  department,  and  street 
railways.  The  water  works,  which  the  cor 
poration  recently  acquired  from  a  private  indi 
vidual,  are  undergoing  improvement  and  ex 
tension,  at  a  cost  that  will  exceed  $2,000,000. 
The  water  is  taken  from  the  lake,  and  the  sand 
of  the  island,  across  which  it  passes,  is  made 
to  act  as  a  filtering  basin ;  the  filtered  water 
then  passes  across  the  bay  in  sunken  pipes,  and 
is  pumped  up  to  a  reservoir  on  a  height  N.  of 
the  city.  Among  the  charitable  institutions 


are  the  asylum  for  the  insane,  supported  by 
grants  of  the  provincial  legislature,  and  accom 
modating  about  700  patients;  the  city  hos 
pital,  the  resources  of  which,  arising  from  an 
endowment  of  public  lands,  are  supplemented 
by  an  annual  legislative  grant ;  a  boys'  home  and 
a  girls'  home,  for  unprotected  children ;  a  news 
boys'  home ;  a  home  for  female  servants  out  of 
employment;  a  house  of  industry ;  a  Protestant 
orphan  asylum ;  and  the  house  of  providence, 
belonging  to  the  Catholics,  and  mainly  support 
ed  by  them.  There  are  a  number  of  common 
schools,  supported  at  a  cost  of  about  $40,000  a 
year,  besides  Roman  Catholic  separate  schools. 
St.  Michael's  college  (Roman  Catholic)  has  not, 
like  Trinity  college,  university  powers.  There 
are  no  strictly  public  libraries,  but  several 
semi-public  ones,  including  the  legislative  li 
brary;  the  library  in  the  normal  school,  in 
tended  for  the  council  of  public  instruction; 


802 


TORPEDO 


Osgoode  Hall  library ;  University  college  libra 
ry;  the  Canadian  institute  (scientific)  library; 
and  the  mechanics'  institute  library.  Four 
newspapers  are  issued  daily,  and  17  weekly; 
and  there  are  15  literary,  scientific,  and  theo 
logical  magazines,  11  monthly,  4  bimonthly, 
and  1  quarterly. — The  site  of  Toronto  was  se 
lected  by  Governor  Simcoe  in  1794  as  the  seat 
of  the  provincial  government;  and  here  the 
capital  of  Upper  Canada  remained  till  1841, 
when  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  (now  Ontario 
and  Quebec)  formed  a  legislative  union.  From 
1849  to  1858  Toronto  was  alternately  with  Que 
bec  the  seat  of  the  united  government ;  and  in 
1867,  when  the  confederation  was  formed,  it 
became  the  permanent  capital  of  the  province 
of  Ontario.  It  was  taken  by  the  Americans  in 
1813,  and  the  legislative  buildings  and  archives 
were  burned.  It  was  known  as  York  till  1834, 
when  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city. 

TORPEDO,  the  generic  and  popular  name  of 
the  electric  rays  or  skates  of  the  family  torpe- 
dinidcB.  They  were  called  vapur)  by  the  Greeks 
and  torpedo  by  the  Latins;  the  Germans  call 
them  Krampffisch,  the  French  torpille,  and  the 
English  cramp  fish  and  numb  fish.  The  body 
i§  smooth  and  rounded ;  the  tail  short  and 
thick,  cylindrical  at  the  end  and  keeled  on  the 
sides  ;  teeth  conical,  sharp,  and  crowded ;  ven 
tral  fins  immediately  behind  the  pectorals,  dor 
sals  generally  two  and  on  the  tail,  and  the 
caudal  subtriangular.  The  electrical  apparatus, 
which  has  given  the  name  to  the  family,  is 
arranged  in  two  masses,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  skull,  between  this  and  the  base  of  the 
pectorals;  it  is  composed  of  a  multitude  of 
perpendicular  gelatinous  columns  or  hexago 
nal  prisms,  separated  by  membranous  parti 
tions  containing  a  fluid,  freely  supplied  with 
blood,  and  receiving  very  numerous  nervous 
filaments  from  the  par  vagum  and  trifacial 
nerves.  There  are  about  20  species,  arranged 
in  seven  genera,  in  the  seas  of  all  parts  of 
the  world;  the  best  known  are  the  species 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  W.  coast  of 
Europe,  and  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North 
America,  all  belonging  to  the  genus  torpedo 
(Dum.),  in  which  the  mouth  is  crescentic,  the 
teeth  not  extending  outward  beyond  the  mar 
gin  of  the  lips,  and  spiracles  distant  from  the 
eyes,  with  a  circular  fringe  around  the  opening. 
The  common  torpedo  of  the  Mediterranean  (T. 
marmorata,  End.;  T.  Galvanii,  Bonap.)  is 
sometimes  of  a  uniform  brown,  but  generally 
marbled  or  spotted  with  darker;  it  rarely  at 
tains  greater  dimensions  than  4  by  2|-  ft., "or  a 
weight  of  more  than  50  Ibs.  The  spotted  tor 
pedo  of  the  same  sea  (T.  ocellata,  Rud.  ;  T. 
narhe,  Risso)  is  yellowish  red,  with  one  to  five 
large,  rounded,  grayish  blue  spots,  surrounded 
by  a  brownish  circle,  with  a  few  whitish  dots, 
and  grayish  white  below.  One  (or  both)  of  these 
species  occurs  on  the  W.  coast  of  Europe  as  far 
as  Great  Britain,  and  also,  it  is  said,  in  the  Per 
sian  gulf  and  Indian  ocean ;  they  feed  on  small 
fish,  keeping  on  the  mud  or  sand  at  the  bottom ; 


their  flesh  is  eaten  along  the  Mediterranean. 
Their  electrical  apparatus  is  analogous  to  the 
galvanic  pile;  John  Hunter  counted  1,200  col 
umns  in  a  very  large  fish,  about  150  plates  to 
the  inch. — The  American  torpedo  ( T.  occiden- 
talis,  Storer)  attains  a  length  of  about  4^-  ft. 
and  a  width  of  3  ft. ;  it  is  dark  brown  above 
with  a  few  black  dots,  and  white  beneath ;  eyes 
very  small,  and  spiracles  directed  outward  and 
a  little  forward.  In  one  specimen  Prof.  J. 
Wyman  estimated  the  number  of  plates  at  be 
tween  250,000  and  300,000,  about  1,200  prisms 
in  each  battery,  each  1  to  2  in.  in  height,  and 


American  Torpedo  (Torpedo  occidcntalis). 

containing  about  100  plates  to  the  inch ;  the 
interval  between  the  plates  was  filled  with  an 
albuminous  fluid,  90  per  cent,  water,  contain 
ing  common  salt  in  solution ;  the  ganglia  from 
which  the  par  vagum  nerves  arise  are  larger 
than  the  brain  itself,  indicating  the  great  ner 
vous  power  supplied  to  the  battery. — See  ELEC 
TRIC  FISHES,  and  Lemons  sur  les  phenomenes 
physiques  dcs  corps  v wants,  by  C.  Matteucci 
(Paris,  1847). 

TORPEDO,  a  machine  for  destroying  hostile 
shipping,  ponton  bridges,  &c.,  through  the 
agency  of  subaqueous  explosions  ;  that  is,  a 
military  mine  used  under  water.  The  germ  of 
the  device  is  to  be  found  in  floating  powder 
vessels,  which  were  first  used  at  the  siege  of 
Antwerp  in  1585,  and  received  their  latest  ap 
plication  in  the  attempt  upon  Fort  Fisher,  5T. 
C.,  during  the  late  civil  Avar.  David  Bushnell, 
a  captain  of  engineers  in  the  American  revo 
lutionary  army,  made  the  first  practical  appli 
cation  of  the  idea  to  ordinary  warfare.  He 
devised  a  submarine  boat  to  carry  a  torpedo, 
charged  with  150  Ibs.  of  gunpowder,  to  be  at 
tached  by  a  wood  screw  to  the  bottom  of  an 
enemy's  vessel,  and  fired  by  a  clockwork  fuse. 
The  first  actual  trial  of  the  invention  was  made 
in  1776,  when  the  boat,  under  the  guidance  of 
Sergeant  Ezra  Lee,  was  placed  under  the  bot 
tom  of  the  Eagle,  an  English  ship  of  war  car 
rying  the  flag  of  Lord  Howe,  lying  at  anchor 
in  New  York  harbor.  But  the  sergeant  found 
it  impracticable  to  attach  the  torpedo,  which 
was  cut  adrift,  and  soon  exploded.  In  1777 
Capt.  Bushnell  directed  a  drifting  percussion 


U  N  I  V  t 


TORPEDO 


CAUL 


803 


torpedo  against  the  frigate  Cerberus,  lying  off 
New  London,  and  it  destroyed  a  schooner 
moored  alongside.  Similar  torpedoes  were  set 
adrift  on  the  Delaware,  but  did  no  harm.  (See 
BUSHXELL,  DAVID.)  Twenty  years  later  Robert 
Fulton  made  vigorous  attempts  to  bring  the 
new  weapon  into  notice,  under  the  name  of 
"torpedo,"  then  first  applied  by  him.  Unsuc 
cessful  in  France,  he  went  to  England  in  1804, 
and  in  1805  was  authorized  to  make  an  attempt 
to  destroy  the  French  fleet  at  Boulogne,  which 
proved  unsuccessful.  In  the  same  year  he 
blew  up  the  brig  Dorothea,  assigned  to  him  for 
experimental  trial,  in  the  harbor  of  Deal.  This 
was  accomplished  by  two  drifting  torpedoes, 
which,  connected  by  a  rope,  fouled  the  haw 
ser  ;  and  one  of  them,  charged  with  170  Ibs.  of 
powder,  exploding  by  clockwork  under  her 
bottom,  utterly  destroyed  her.  Notwithstand 
ing  this  triumph,  motives  of  policy,  resulting 
from  their  sovereignty  of  the  sea,  caused  Ful 
ton  and  his  new  weapon  to  be  rejected  by 
the  English  government;  and  he  returned  to 
America  to  encounter  ultimately  a  like  re 
pulse,  although  in  1807  he  repeated  his  experi 
ment  successfully  in  the  harbor  of  New  York. 
Fulton's  system  included  four  classes  of  torpe 
does  :  buoyant  mines,  held  in  place  by  anchors, 
and  provided  with  a  mechanical  device  by 
which  explosion  ensued  when  they  were  struck 
by  a  vessel ;  line  torpedoes,  of  the  kind  used 
in  the  destruction  of  the  Dorothea ;  harpoon 
torpedoes,  to  be  attached  to  the  enemy's  ves 
sel  by  a  harpoon  shot  from  a  gun,  and  then  to 
be  exploded  by  clockwork ;  and  lastly  "block- 
ship  "  torpedoes,  to  be  carried  on  spars  pro 
jecting  from  a  peculiar  kind  of  vessel,  and  ex 
ploded  by  contact  with  the  enemy.  Just  be 
fore  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812  prepara 
tions  were  made  for  an  extended  use  of  tor 
pedoes  in  the  defence  of  our  harbors.  Col. 
Samuel  Colt  first  practically  applied  electri 
city  to  the  ignition  of  torpedoes.  After  ex 
perimenting  for  14  years,  and  blowing  up  sev 
eral  vessels  at  anchor,  he  finally,  on  April 
13,  1843,  destroyed  a  brig  under  full  sail  on 
the  Potomac,  operating  by  electricity  from  a 
station  in  Alexandria,  5  m.  distant.  He  elabo 
rated  a  complete  system  of  buoyant  submarine 
mines,  which  were  to  be  planted  in  groups 
quincuncially  in  the  channel  to  be  defended. 
To  connect  them  with  the  shore  he  devised 
one  of  the  very  first  insulated  cables  ever  at 
tempted,  which  was  connected  with  a  platinum 
wire  fuse  imbedded  in  a  priming  of  gunpowder. 
He  proposed  to  arrange  a  reflector  to  throw  the 
image  of  the  ship  upon  a  map  of  the  mines  at 
the  operator's  station.  This  project,  bearing  the 
date  of  1836,  was  discovered  among  Colt's  pa 
pers  after  his  death.  Although  much  progress 
was  made  in  submarine  blasting,  and  an  elabo 
rate  system  of  electrical  submarine  mines  was 
prepared  by  Capt.  Hennebert  of  the  French  engi 
neers,  no  opportunity  offered  for  the  further  use 
of  torpedoes  until  the  Anglo-French  war  with 
Russia.  In  1855  a  new  kind  of  contact  mine,  de 


vised  by  Jacobi,  was  planted  off  Cronstadt  and 
at  Sebastopol ;  explosions  occurred  under  the 
frigates  Merlin  and  Firefly,  but  did  no  serious 
damage.  The  Jacobi  fuse  consisted  of  a  little 
bottle  of  sulphuric  acid  bedded  in  a  mixture 
of  potassium  chlorate  and  sugar.  This  bottle 
being  broken  by  the  shock,  an  explosion  en 
sued,  which  communicated  with  the  charge 
and  ignited  the  mine.  Had  not  this  engineer 
employed  too  small  charges  of  powder  (8  or  9 
Ibs.),  his  success  would  probably  have  been 
more  marked.  His  system  included  electrical 
mines  as  well  as  mechanical.  The  destruction 
of  the  docks  at  Sebastopol  was  effected  by  the 
French  engineers  through  the  agency  of  sub 
marine  explosions,  and  the  attention  of  all 
nations  was  thus  again  called  to  the  subject. 
The  result  appeared  in  the  defence  of  Ven 
ice  in  1859  by  Col.  Von  Ebner  of  the  Aus 
trian  engineers,  who  originated  a  system  more 
complete  than  any  which  had  preceded  it. 
During  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States,  Avhen 
the  confederates  had  no  fleet,  the  southern  ports 
and  rivers  were  much  exposed  to  attack,  and 
this  method  of  defence  was  largely  used.  The 
first  torpedoes  in  position  were  discovered  in 
Mud  river,  near  Fort  Pulaski,  in  February, 
1862 ;  they  belonged  to  the  simple  contact 
class,  and  occasioned  no  damage.  In  October, 
1862,  the  service  was  formally  legalized  by  the 
confederate  congress,  and  a  torpedo  bureau 
was  soon  established  at  Richmond.  A  special 
corps  of  officers  and  men  was  raised  and  trained 
for  submarine  warfare  ;  inventions  multiplied, 
and  agents  were  sent  to  Europe  to  provide 
material  and  get  the  latest  ideas.  The  southern 
waters  soon  became  so  dangerous  as  to  inter 
fere  seriously  with  naval  operations.  The  first 
vessel  actually  blown  up  by  the  new  machines 
was  an  ironclad,  the  Cairo,  which  was  totally 
destroyed  on  Yazoo  river  in  December,  1802. 
During  the  remainder  of  the  war  seven  United 
States  ironclads,  eleven  wooden  war  vessels, 
and  six  army  transports  were  destroyed  by 
torpedoes,  arid  many  others  were  temporarily 
disabled.  The  confederates  lost  a  fine  iron 
clad,  the  Albemarle  (see  PLYMOUTH,  N.  C.), 
two  steamers  in  Charleston  harbor,  and  a  flag- 
of -truce  boat  on  James  river,  in  the  same  man 
ner,  the  last  three  accidentally  by  their  own 
torpedoes.  This  great  destruction  chiefly  oc 
curred  in  the  last  two  years  of  the  war.  In 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  war  of  1864,  Denmark 
resorted  to  ingenious  stationary  submarine 
mines,  and  one  of  the  invading  vessels  was 
destroyed.  Paraguay  employed  torpedoes  in 
defending  its  river  coast  against  Brazil  and 
her  allies  in  1865-'8.  By  these  the  ironclad 
Rio  de  Janeiro  was  destroyed  and  the  Taman- 
dare  disabled,  although  the  engineers  were 
crippled  by  the  want  of  supplies.  During  the 
Franco-German  war  of  1870-'71  the  coasts  of 
the  Baltic  and  North  seas  were  effectively  pro 
tected  against  the  French  fleet  by  torpedoes; 
and  various  attempts  were  made  to  defend  the 
French  rivers  in  a  similar  manner. — The  recent 


804 


TORPEDO 


changes  in  naval  architecture,  which  have  pro 
duced  iron-clad  vessels  capable  of  enduring  for 
a  few  moments  the  heaviest  fire  of  modern 
artillery,  have  rendered  it  necessary  to  devise 
means  "of  striking  the  remaining  vulnerable 
points,  viz.,  the  deck  and  the  bottom.  The 
former  can  be  attacked  advantageously  in  many 
localities  only  by  the  vertical  fire  of  mortars  ; 
the  latter  can  be  most  effectively  assailed  by  the 
torpedo.  The  chief  nations  have  accordingly 
established  special  schools  for  investigating  the 
subject  of  submarine  warfare,  and  all  possible 
secrecy  is  thrown  around  these  studies.  In 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  other 
countries  a  distinction  is  made  between  the  de 
fensive  and  offensive  branches.  The  .American 
school  for  defensive  torpedoes  is  at  Willet's 
Point,  New  York  harbor.  The  general  princi 
ples  which  must  govern  this  service  are  well 
established.  The  most  vulnerable  points  of 
maritime  nations  are  now  their  great  seaboard 
cities ;  hence  it  is  of  primary  importance  to  pro 
tect  the  seaports.  The  invention  of  the  screw 
propeller  and  of  iron  armor  has  enabled  fleets 
to  steam  rapidly  past  the  forts,  under  cover 
of  night  or  fog,  and  anchor  securely  in  posi 
tions  where  their  fire  can  either  destroy  the 
city  or  compel  the  payment  of  an  enormous 
ransom.  The  great  problem  of  coast  defence 
is,  therefore,  to  devise  an  effective  obstruc 
tion  of  the  channel,  which,  while  allowing 
the  free  passage  of  friendly  vessels,  shall  bar 
the  way  to  an  enemy.  This  is  supplied  by  de 
fensive  torpedoes  planted  and  operated  from 
the  forts.  If  by  their  aid  the  enemy  can  be 
detained  100  hours  under  the  fire  of  the  forts, 
when  without  it  he  could  pass  in  one  hour,  the 
number  of  the  guns  is  virtually  multiplied  by 
100.  For  these  reasons  military  engineers  are 
giving  the  closest  possible  study  to  defensive 
torpedoes,  or  submarine  mines  as  they  are  of 
ten  called.  While  the  details  of  our  system  of 
submarine  defences  are  not  made  public,  its 
general  features  have  been  announced.  In  a 
deep  casemate  of  the  fort,  secure  from  the  fire 
of  the  enemy,  are  placed  electrical  batteries, 
operating  apparatus,  testing  galvanometers, 
&c.,  under  the  charge  of  a  thoroughly  trained 
engineer  sergeant.  A  telegraph  wire  keeps 
him  in  constant  communication  with  his  offi 
cer,  who  is  posted  at  some  commanding  point, 
where  the  whole  channel  lies  like  a  map  before 
him.  Radiating  from  the  casemate,  in  subter 
ranean  galleries,  the  torpedo  cables  extend  to 
the  channel,  where  they  terminate  in  multiple 
groups  of  mines  so  arranged  as  to  be  perfectly 
flanked  by  the  guns  of  the  work.  The  details 
of  these  mines  are  not  public,  but  an  idea  of 
their  general  construction  can  probably  be 
formed  from  fig.  1,  which  represents  the  Aus 
trian  type.  It  consists  of  an  anchor,  a;  a 
buoyant  case,  ft,  containing  the  charge,  fuse, 
and  circuit-closing  apparatus ;  and  the  electric 
cable,  d,  extending  to  the  operating  room  on 
shore.^  These  groups  are  so  placed,  in  succes 
sive  lines  and  outlying  mines,  as  to  render  it 


FIG.    1. — Austrian 
Submarine  Mine. 


impossible  for  a  vessel  to  pass  without  moving 
over  some  of  them.  Thickly  rising,  but  never 
exposed  to  view,  are  numerous  buoys,  each  con 
taining  a  simple  electrical  apparatus,  which  in 
stantly  reports  to  the  ser 
geant  the  locality  of  any 
vessel  touching  them.  If 
friendly,  the  ship  passes  in 
safety ;  but  if  an  enemy,  a 
single  motion  of  the  sergeant 
makes  every  mine  an  auto 
matic  agent  of  destruction, 
ready  to  deal  a  tremendous 
blow  at  the  precise  instant 
when  it  will  be  most  effec 
tive.  As  the  buoys  may  be 
slightly  in  rear  of  the  mines, 
all  attempts  to  protect  the 
vessel  by  outrigging  frames 
or  nets  are  futile.  Any  boat 
attempting  to  grapple  the 
torpedoes  by  night  will  be 
overwhelmed  by  a  fire  of 
grape  or  case  shot  from  the 
fort,  fired  automatically  by 
electricity,  without  the  agency  of  the  sol 
diers  sleeping  quietly  by  the  guns.  The  mines 
are  as  effective  a  year  after  they  are  planted 
as  when  first  laid;  and  if  a  single  cable  be 
injured  or  a  single  charge  be  wet,  the  fact  is 
automatically  reported,  and  within  five  min 
utes  after  the  injury  has  occurred  its  exis 
tence  and  nature  are  known  in  the  fort.  A 
mine  can  be  fired  without  the  aid  of  the  buoys. 
For  secondary  channels,  the  use  of  which  could 
be  sacrificed  for  a  time,  less  elaborate  kinds  of 
torpedoes  are  provided,  not  unlike  those  em 
ployed  by  the  confederates  in  the  late  war. 
These  mines,  once  planted,  are  dangerous  alike 
to  friend  and  foe,  as  they  explode  on  contact 
with  any  vessel.  The  electric  light  is  employed 
to  aid  the  forts  in  arresting  operations  attempt 
ed  under  cover  of  the  night.  Where  constant 
currents  exist,  as  in  rivers,  use  can  sometimes 
be  made  of  double  drifting  torpedoes,  so  ar 
ranged  as  to  foul  with  the  connecting  rope  the 
hawsers  of  vessels  at  anchor.  On  the  torpe 
does  being  brought  alongside  by  the  force  of 
the  current,  the  same  agency,  acting  on  a  sim 
ple  piece  of  mechanism,  soon  releases  a  ham 
mer  and  causes  an  explosion. — Offensive  tor 
pedoes  are  employed  in  the  battles  of  vessels 
with  vessels,  and  require  technical  naval  skill. 
They  are  various  in  principle,  and  are  receiv 
ing  the  careful  study  of  many  naval  officers  of 
all  nations.  The  American  school  for  offen 
sive  torpedoes  is  at  Newport,  R.  I.  The  prin 
cipal  types  of  this  class  are  the  following: 
spar  torpedoes,  automatic  fish  torpedoes,  otter 
or  Harvey  torpedoes,  submarine  rockets,  and 
submarine  boats.  Besides  these,  there  is  a 
mixed  class,  that  of  fish  torpedoes,  which  may 
be  directed  and  controlled  through  the  agency 
of  electricity.  These  last  may  be  either  offen 
sive  or  defensive.  The  spar  torpedo  has  given 
occasion  for  some  of  the  most  brilliant  naval 


TORPEDO 


805 


exploits  on  record,  such  as  that  of  Lieut.  Gush 
ing  in  the  destruction  of  the  Albemarle.  Fig. 
2  represents  the  Wood  and  Lay  apparatus  used 
by  him.  A  reserve  torpedo,  «,  is  shown  on  its 
spar  5.  The  port  torpedo  c  is  about  to  ex 
plode.  It  has  been  detached  from  its  spar  d 
by  a  pull  on  a  rope,  and  is  rising  by  its  own 
buoyancy  to  be  fired  at  the  proper  moment  by 
the  lanyard  e.  Since  the  civil  war  boats  espe- 


INI  VEKSIT 


FIG.  2. — Wood  and  Lay  Torpedo, 

cially  fitted  for  this  kind  of  attack  have  been 
devised  by  many  nations,  but  the  same  kind 
of  torpedo  may  be  used  from  any  vessel  pos 
sessing  the  requisite  speed.  The  automatic 
fish  torpedo,  of  which  the  Luppis  Whitehead 
is  most  widely  known,  consists  of  a  small  cigar- 
shaped  boat  #,  fig.  3,  carrying  a  contact  tor 
pedo  in  the  bow,  and  containing  an  engine 
driven  by  some  powerful  agent,  like  com 
pressed  air,  which,  acting  on  the  propeller  &, 
gives  it  an  effective  range  of  about  300  yards. 
It  is  started  usually  from  a  large  vessel,  but 
sometimes  from  a  launch  or  boat,  and  passing 
under  water  strikes  and  destroys  the  object  of 
attack.  Usually  a  directing  tube  is  employed, 
but  for  simplicity  the  engraving  shows  a  device 
sometimes  used  in  experiments.  The  otter  or 
Harvey  torpedo  is  emphatically  a  sailor's  wea- 


FIG.  3.— Luppis  Whitehead  Torpedo. 

pon,  requiring  high  nautical  skill  for  its  use.  It 
consists  of  a  thin  vertical  copper  torpedo  case, 
enclosed  in  wood,  a  a,  fig.  4,  and  so  attached 
to  a  tow  rope,  &,  leading  from  a  reel  on  deck 
through  a  leading  block  on  the  yardarm,  as  to 
diverge  from  the  quarter  of  a  fast  vessel,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  move  rapidly  past  the  enemy.  The 
course  is  so  directed  as  to  bring  the  torpedo  in 
contact  and  explode  its  charge  under  his  bot 
tom.  This  is  accomplished  by  skilfully  caus 


ing  the  case  to  dive  at  the  proper  moment,  by 
the  slackening  of  the  tow  rope,  and  then,  by 
suddenly  checking  the  latter,  making  the  tor 
pedo  rise  and  explode  by  contact,  either  through 
the  agency  of  a  contact  fuse  acted  upon  by  the 
levers  c  c,  or  by  electricity.     The  cork  buoys 
d  d  are  used  to  give  the  requisite  flotation. 
Official  trials  in   England   have    shown  that 
when  properly  handled  this  is  a  most  effec- 
l>    11   A    1 1  %  weatoon,  and  ore 
which  admits  of  use 
on  the  high  seas  as 
wtll  las    in    harbors. 
Submarine  rockets,  in 
Connection  with  sub- 
hiafine  guns,  are  now 
receiving  much  atten 
tion.     The  design  is 
to  render  it  possible 
to  attack  the  enemy 
under  his  armor  by  a 
movable  torpedo,  in  a 
manner  analogous  to 
the    ordinary  fire    of 

artillery  in  air.  Experiments  lead  to  the  belief 
that  this  project  will  ultimately  be  successful, 
for  the  short  ranges  usual  in  the  combats  of 
armor-plated  ships.  Submarine  torpedo  boats 


FIG,  4. — Harvey  Torpedo. 

have  been  an  object  of  study  since  the  days  of 
Bushnell ;  and,  under  the  name  of  Davids, 
they  played  a  conspicuous  part  during  the 
civil  war,  in  which  the  Housatonic  was  sunk 
off  Charleston  by  a  night  attack  of  this  de 
scription.  The  French  plongeur  is  a  more 
elaborate  type  of  the  same  class.  The  general 
idea  is  to  form  a  water-tight  vessel,  propelled 
by  compressed  air,  which  can  be  navigated 
under  water  to  the  enemy,  there  to  deliver  a 
blow  through  the  agency  of  a  contact  torpedo. 
As  success,  and  even  failure,  has  heretofore 
often  involved  the  lives  of  the  crew,  the  pro 
ject  is  not  now  regarded  with  much  favor. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  said  to  be  superseded  by 
fish  torpedoes  controlled  by  electricity,  which 
may  be  made  equally  effective  without  endan 
gering  the  operators.  This  device  consists 
essentially  of  an  ordinary  fish  torpedo,  which 
carries  a  coil  of  insulated  wire  to  be  paid  out 
as  it  proceeds.  One  end  of  the  wire  remains 
with  the  operator,  who  can  thus  at  will  send 
a  current  of  electricity,  positive  or  negative, 
through  certain  electro-magnets  in  the  fish, 


806 


TOKQUATUS 


TORQUEMADA 


causing  a  motion  of  the  armatures  in  either  of 
two  directions.  This  enables  him  by  ingenious 
devices  to  control  valves  which  apply  the  mo 
tive  power  as  desired,  and  thus  start,  stop,  and 
steer  the  boat.  The  idea  was  first  patented  by 
Lieut.  Col.  Ballard,  R.  E.,  but  it  has  been  in 
dependently  elaborated  by  Mr.  Lay,  by  Mr. 
II.  J.  Smith  of  this  country,  arid  by  Col.  Sche- 
liha  in  Russia.  A  modification  of  the  idea 
has  been  made  by  Capt.  Ericsson,  who  places 
his  motive  power  (compressed  air)  with  the 
operator,  and  supplies  it  to  the  fish  through  a 
flexible  tube,  thus  enabling  him  to  control  both 
its  speed  and  direction.  The  tube  is  drawn 
after  the  fish  as  it  advances.  This  kind  of 
torpedo  seems  to  be  especially  fitted  for  use  on 
shipboard,  where  the  engines  may  be  made  to 
supply  the  compressed  air,  and  where,  by  ad 
vancing  upon  the  enemy,  a  short  range  can 
usually  be  secured. 

TORQUATUS,  Titus  Manilas  Iinperiosns,  a  hero  of 
Roman  story,  of  the  4th  century  B.  0.  Jle 
was  brought  up  in  privacy  in  the  country,  on 
which  account  in  362  the  tribune  M.  Pompo- 
nius  charged  his  father,  who  was  hated  by  the 
people  for  his  haughtiness,  with  being  a  tyran 
nical  parent.  The  young  Manlius  compelled 
Pomponiiis  to  withdraw  his  accusation;  and 
this  act  of  filial  devotion  so  pleased  the  Ro 
mans  that  he  was  made  the  same  year  military 
tribune.  In  the  Gallic  invasion  of  3(51  he  slew 
in  single  combat  a  gigantic  enemy  on  the  bridge 
over  the  Anio  upon  ths  Salarian  road,  and  took 
from  his  neck  the  chain  (torque*)  and  put  it 
around  his  own;  from  which  circumstance  lie 
was  called  Torquatus.  In  353,  though  he  h.id 
not  yet  held  the  consulship,  he  was  made  dic 
tator  in  order  to  carry  on  the  war  against  the 
Ctorites  and  their  allies,  and  in  349  was  again 
miule  dictator  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the 
comitia.  lie  was  consul  in  347,  344,  and  340. 
In  340  his  colleague  was  P.  Deems  Mus,  and 
the  two  were  appointed  to  carry  on  the  war 
against  the  Latin  league.  While  they  were  in 
the  plain  of  Capua  an  order  was  issued  for 
bidding  all  single  encounters  with  the  enemy ; 
but  Titus  Manlius,  the  son  of  Torquatus,  fought 
with  Mettius  Geminus  of  Tusculum,  and  slew 
him.  Returning  to  the  camp,  he  laid  the  spoils 
at  his  father's  feet ;  but  Torquatus  assembled 
the  soldiers  in  the  prretorium,  and  in  their 
presence  his  son  was  beheaded.  The  young 
men  of  Rome  from  that  time  regarded  Tor 
quatus  with  abhorrence.  In  this  campaign  a 
great  victory  was  gained  over  the  Latins  at 
the  foot  of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  and  Torquatus  re 
turned  to  Rome  in  triumph.  According  to 
the  Fasti,  he  was  dictator  again  in  320,  but 
the  dates  of  his  life  vary  in  different  authors. 

TORQUAY,  a  town  of  England,  in  Devonshire, 
on  a  peninsula  on  the  N".  E.  side  of  Tor  bay, 
167  m.  W.  8.  W.  of  London  ;  pop.  in  1871, 
21,657.  It  has  two  principal  streets  lined  with 
substantial  houses  of  limestone,  with  several 
fine  churches,  a  town  hall,  theatre,  numerous 
schools,  assembly  and  reading  rooms,  a  me 


chanics'  institute,  and  a  public  garden.  Earth 
enware,  yellow  ochre,  cider,  and  fish  are  ex 
ported.  It  has  grown  up  within  50  years  from 
a  fishing  village,  and  owes  its  progress  mainly 
to  its  fine  climate,  making  it  a  desirable  health 
resort.  Tor  bay  is  a  large  and  well  protected 
harbor.  William  of  Orange  landed  here  in 
1688.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  Tor 
quay  abbey,  founded  in  1196.  About  a  mile 
from  the  town  is  Kent's  hole,  or  cavern,  in 
which  have  been  found  bones  of  the  elephant, 
rhinoceros,  bear,  hygena,  and  other  animals 
now  extinct  in  England.  It  has  been  penetra 
ted  to  the  depth  of  600  ft.,  and  scientific  ex 
plorations  are  still  in  progress. 

TORQUEMADA  (Lat.  TUEEECEEMATA),  Jnan  de, 
a  Spanish  theologian,  born  at  Valladolid  in 
1388,  died  in  Rome,  Sept.  26,  1468.  He  be 
came  a  Dominican  friar  in  1403,  accompanied 
his  superior  to  the  council  of  Constance  in 
1417,  graduated  in  the  university  of  Paris 
in  1424,  taught  theology  there,  and  was  suc 
cessively  chosen  prior  of  the  Dominican  con 
vents  of  Valladolid  and  Toledo.  In  1431  he 
was  appointed  by  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  "mas 
ter  of  the  sacred  palace,"  and  his  own  theo 
logian  at  the  council  of  Basel.  He  there 
contributed  to  the  solemn  condemnation  of 
the  doctrines  of  Wycliffe  and  IIuss,  and  main 
tained  that  the  doctrine  of  the  immaculate 
conception  was  divinely  revealed.  In  1439  ho 
attended  the  council  of  Florence  as  papal  com 
missary,  and  was  foremost  in  drawing  up  the 
"  articles  of  reunion"  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  receiving  on  this  occasion  from 
the  pope  the  title  of  "defender  of  the  faith." 
Ho  was  made  a  cardinal  on  Dec.  18  of  that 
year.  In  14iO  he  attended  in  the  pope's  name 
at  the  national  council  of  Bourges,  where  ho 
succeeded  in  keeping  the  French  prelates  on 
the  side  of  Eugenius  IV.  He  became  bishop 
of  Palestrina  in  1455,  and  of  Sabina  in  1464. 
His  most  important  works  are :  Mcditationcs 
Joannis  de  Turrecremata  positw  et  dcpictm  de 
ipsius  mandato  in  Ecclcsim  Ambitu  Sancta 
Maria  de  Minerva  (fol.,  Rome,  1467,  with  34 
engravings  on  wood) ;  Expositio  fire-vis  et  uti- 
lis  super  toto  Psalterio  (4to,  Rome,  1470 ;  fol., 
Augsburg,  1472,  with  many  subsequent  edi 
tions)  ;  Quwstiones  Spiritualis  Conxivii  deli- 
das  prceferentcs  super  Evangel  Us  (fol.,  Rome, 
1477 ;  Nuremberg,  1478)  ;  Commentarii  in 
Deeretum  Gratiani  (6  vols.  fol.,  Lyons,  1519  ; 
Venice,  1578;  2  vols.,  Rome,  1726).  Many  of 
his  works  have  not  been  published. 

TORQUEMADA,  Tomas  de,  the  first  Spanish  in 
quisitor  general,  born  at  Torquemada  about 
1420,  died  in  Avila,  Sept.  16,  1498.  He  be 
came  a  Dominican  and  prior  of  the  monastery 
of  the  Holy  Cross  in  Segovia,  and  in  1483  was 
made  inquisitor  general  for  Spain  by  Ferdi 
nand  and  Isabella,  in  which  post  he  was  con 
firmed  by  the  pope  on  Oct.  17.  From  him  the 
inquisition  received  its  thorough  organization. 
Tribunals  were  established  at  Seville,  Cordova, 
Jaen,  and  Ciudad  Real  (later  transferred  to 


TORRES  VEDRAS 


TORREYA 


807 


Toledo),  and  a  code  was  promulgated  by  which 
the  Spanish  inquisition  was  afterward  gov 
erned.  Jews  and  Moors  were  expelled  under 
his  control,  and  he  so  multiplied  autos  de  fe 
that  Alexander  VI.  intervened  and  gave  him 
four  colleagues  to  moderate  his  zeal. 

TORRES  VEDRAS,  a  town  of  Portugal,  25  m. 
N.  X.  AV.  of  Lisbon,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
.Sizandro ;  pop.  about  4,200.  Part  of  its  an 
cient  walls  and  an  old  fortress  still  remain. 
In  the  vicinity  are  an  aqueduct  with  Gothic 
arches  and  the  noted  convent  of  Varratojo. 
It  has  four  churches,  two  hospitals,  a  Latin 
school,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  wine.  It 
gave  its  name  to  the  defensive  lines  erected 
by  Wellington  in  1810  on  a  range  of  heights 
in  its  neighborhood,  which  took  nearly  a  year 
for  their  completion,  and  set  the  army  of  Mas- 
sena  at  defiance. 

TORREY,  Jolra,  an  American  botanist  and 
chemist,  born  in  New  York,  Aug.  15,  1796, 
died  there,  March  10,  1873.  He  graduated  at 
the  New  York  college  of  physicians  and  sur 
geons  in  1818.  While  a  student  there  he  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  New  York  lyceum 
of  natural  history,  of  which  he  was  for  many 
years  president.  In  1824  he  became  professor 
of  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology  at  West 
Point,  and  in  1827  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
chemistry  in  the  college  of  physicians  and  sur 
geons,  which  he  held  till  1854.  Ho  was  also 
at  the  same  time  professor  of  chemistry  in  the 
college  of  New  Jersey ;  and  in  1836  he  was 
appointed  botanist  of  the  geological  survey  of 
the  state  of  New  York.  In  1854  ho  became 
United  States  assayer  at  New  York,  which 
office  he  held  until  his  decease.  Though  bet 
ter  known  as  a  botanist,  he  was  a  profound 
chemist,  and  was  the  frequent  confidential 
adviser  of  the  government,  especially  in  mat 
ters  relating  to  coinage  and  currency.  Dr. 
Torrey's  first  publication  was  "  Catalogue  of 
Plants  growing  spontaneously  writhin  Thirty 
Miles  of  the  City  of  New  York"  (Albany, 
1819).  In  1824  he  published  the  first  volume 
of  the  "  Flora  of  the  Northern  and  Middle 
States."  This  was  not  continued,  but  in  1826 
he  gave  in  a  "  Compendium,"  in  a  condensed 
form,  the  materials  he  had  accumulated.  In 
1838  he  began  the  publication,  in  connection 
with  Prof.  Asa  Gray,  of  the  "Flora  of  North  , 
America,"  which  appeared  at  intervals  till  | 
1843,  when  it  was  discontinued  on  account  of 
the  vast  amount  of  new  material  brought  to 
light  by  exploration.  From  1822  to  1858  he 
prepared  the  botanical  reports,  some  of  them 
in  connection  with  Dr.  Gray,  of  most  of  the 
United  States  exploring  expeditions.  Among 
his  other  publications  are  "  Cyperacese  of  North 
America"  (1836),  and  "Flora  of  the  State  of 
New  York,"  in  the  series  of  reports  of  the 
natural  history  survey  of  the  state  (2  vols.  4to, 
1843-'4).  He  Avas  also  the  author  of  numer 
ous  botanical,  chemical,  and  mineralogical  pa 
pers  in  the  "Smithsonian  Contributions"  and 
other  scientific  publications.  His  herbarium, 


the  result  of  40  years'  collection,  and  his  botan 
ical  library,  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the 
country,  were  transferred  to  Columbia  college 
some  years  before  his  death. 

TORREYA,  a  genus  of  evergreen  coniferous 
trees,  named  by  Arnott  in  honor  of  Dr.  John 
Torrey,  from  specimens  collected  in  Florida  by 
the  late  Mr.  Croom.  It  belongs  to  the  yew 
tribe  of  conifers,  in  which  the  fruit  does  not 
form  a  proper  cone,  but  becomes  a  sort  of  fleshy 
fruit  or  drupe.  The  Florida  species,  T.  taxi- 
folia,  is  confined  to  a  rather  limited  locality 
near  Aspalaga,  on  the  Appalachicola  river,  in 
middle  Florida;  it  is  20  to  40  ft.  high,  with  a 
trunk  6  to  18  in.  through,  and  has  much  the  gen 
eral  aspect  of  the  common  hemlock  spruce  (crfnes 
Canadensis).  There  was  formerly  a  consider 
able  forest  of  Torreyas,  but  all  the  trees  not 
growing  in  inaccessible  ravines  have  been  used 
for  lumber  and  steamboat  fuel.  The  leaves, 
mostly  in  two  rows,  are  about  1|-  in.  long,  thick, 
rigid,  sharp-pointed,  and  rather  light  green ;  the 
flowers  are  dioecious,  the  fertile  ones  bearing  a 
drupe  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  small  olive, 


Torreya  taxifolia.  Leaves  half  the  natural  size;  staminate 
and  pistillate  ameuts  enlarged ;  fruit  and  a  section  re 
duced. 

consisting  of  a  hard  nut  surrounded  by  a  thin 
pulp.  The  wood,  which  is  very  durable,  gives 
off  when  saw^ed  or  burned  a  strong  terebin- 
thinate  and  somewhat  unpleasant  odor,  on 
which  account  it  was  called  in  Florida  "stink 
ing  cedar."  The  tree  has  proved  hardy  in  the 
latitude  of  New  York. — Not  long  after  the 
discovery  of  the  original  species,  Siebold  and 
Zuccarini  described  T.  nucifera,  discovered  in 
northern  Japan,  but  cultivated  in  all  parts  of 
that  country,  where  the  oil  obtained  from  its 
seeds  is  used  for  culinary  purposes.  Another 
species,  discovered  by  Fortune  in  the  moun 
tains  of  northern  China,  and  described  as  T. 
grandis,  is  a  large  fine  tree,  possibly  not  belong 
ing  to  this  genus.  Among  the  wonderful  sto 
ries  told  about  California  in  the  early  days  of 
its  present  era  was  the  discovery  of  the  nut 
meg  tree  growing  wild  in  the  mountains,  and 
the  tree  was  mentioned  as  myristica  Calif orni- 


808 


TORRICELLI 


TORT 


ca ;  materials  were  sent  to  Dr.  Torrey,  who 
found  it  to  be  a  new  species  of  the  genus  bear 
ing  his  name,  and  he  described  it  as  T.  Calif or- 
nica.  It  grows  from  40  to  50  ft.  high,  and  has 
a  smooth  bark,  and  leaves  from  2  to  2£  in. 
long;  the  nut  bears  much  similarity  in  size 
and  shape  to  the  nutmeg,  and  the  ruminated 
albumen  shown  when  it  is  cut  adds  to  a  re 
semblance  that  is  not  borne  out  by  the  taste, 
which  is  that  of  turpentine.  Another  species 
is  mentioned  as  having  been  found  in  the  Bo 
gota  Andes,  though  little  is  known  about  it. 
The  Torreyas  flourish  well  in  England,  but  trees 
of  other  than  the  Florida  species  have  not  been 
sufficiently  tested  to  know  how  they  will  suc 
ceed  in  our  Atlantic  states. 

TORRICELLI,  Evangelista,  an  Italian  mathema 
tician,  born  in  Faenza,  Oct.  15,  1608,  died  in 
Florence,  Oct.  25,  1647.  He  received  a  math 
ematical  education  in  a  Jesuit  school  at  Faenza, 
which  he  completed  at  Rome.  Some  tracts 
written  by  him  upon  the  dialogues  of  Galileo 
excited  the  latter's  attention,  and  he  invited 
Torricelli  to  Florence,  who  soon  became  his 
successor  in  the  academy  as  professor  of  math 
ematics.  His  greatest  discovery  is  that  of  the 
barometer.  (See  BAROMETER.)  He  published 
Opera  Geometrica  (4to,  Florence,  1644). 

TORSION  BALANCE.     See  BALANCE. 

TORSK,  or  Tnsk.     See  CUSK. 

TORSTENSON,  Lennart,  count  of  Ortala,  a  Swe 
dish  general  in  the  thirty  years'  war,  born  at 
Torstena,  Aug.  17,  1603,  died  in  Stockholm  in 
April,  1651.  In  1618  he  became  a  page  at  the 
court  of  G-ustavus  Adolphus,  and  as  captain  of 
the  king's  body  guard  accompanied  him  to  Ger 
many  in  1630,  where  he  directed  the  artillery. 
In  1632  he  contributed  materially  to  the  pas 
sage  of  the  Lech,  but  was  captured  during  the 
assault  on  Wallenstein's  headquarters  near  Xu- 
remberg.  He  was  carried  to  Ingolstadt,  and  the 
severity  of  his  imprisonment  made  him  an  in 
valid  for  life.  On  his  exchange  and  release  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  an  army  corps,  and  in 
1633  he  invaded  Bavaria  and  captured  Lands- 
berg.  In  1635  he  operated  against  the  Poles 
in  Prussia,  and  subsequently  marched  to  the 
relief  of  Baner,  and  was  with  him  in  the  cam 
paign  of  l()36-'7.  In  1641  he  was  made  field 
marshal  and  succeeded  Baner  as  generalissimo 
of  the  Swedish  armies  in  Germany.  With  a 
reinforcement  of  8,000  men  he  joined  the  con 
federates  in  the  duchy  of  Luneburg,  marched 
through  the  territories  of  Brandenburg  into 
Silesia,  stormed  Glogau,  and  in  May,  1642, 
gained  a  great  victory  at  Schweidnitz  over 
Franz  Albrecht  of  Saxe-Lauenburg.  He  then 
pushed  into  Moravia  and  reduced  several  cities, 
but  retreated  to  Saxony  before  superior  forces, 
and  laid  siege  to  Leipsic.  Here  he  was  attacked 
on  Oct.  23  (N".  S.,  Nov.  2)  by  the  archduke  Leo 
pold,  on  the  plain  of  Breitenfeld,  and  the  con 
flict  resulted  in  the  signal  defeat  of  the  imperial 
ists.  Torstenson,  again  resuming  the  offensive, 
reduced  all  Saxony,  invaded  Moravia,  and  laid 
the  country  under  contribution  as  far  as  the 


Danube.  In  the  mean  time  Denmark  had  en 
tered  into  a  secret  alliance  with  the  emperor ; 
and  Torstenson,  marching  with  wonderful  ce 
lerity  from  Moravia  into  Holstein,  late  in  1 643, 
soon  conquered  the  Danish  peninsula,  with  the 
exception  of  Gliickstadt  and  Krempe.  After 
an  abortive  attempt  on  the  part  of  Gallas  to 
check  his  return  to  Germany,  Torstenson  ad 
vanced  into  Bohemia,  and  on  Feb.  24,  1645, 
gained  the  battle  of  Jankau,  which  secured  the 
submission  of  Moravia;  and,  obtaining  the 
control  of  the  Danube,  he  took  even  the  forti 
fications  which  covered  the  head  of  the  bridge 
at  Vienna.  Deserted  here  by  his  allies,  he  re 
treated  into  Bohemia,  and  in  1645  his  infirmi 
ties  obliged  him  to  give  up  the  command  to 
Wrangel.  In  1647  he  was  made  a  count. 

TORT  (Lat.  tortus,  from  torquere,  to  twist), 
in  law,  a  private  or  civil  wrong  or  injury,  in 
contradistinction  from  a  crime  against  the 
public  or  the  state,  but  not  technically  inclu 
ding  breaches  of  contract  or  other  agreements. 
Torts  are  injuries  or  infringements  of  the  civil 
rights  that  belong  to  individuals  considered 
merely  as  individuals,  while  crimes  are  wrongs 
which  affect  the  community  and  so  invade  and 
violate  the  rights  of  society.  The  distinction 
between  private  injuries  and '  public  wrongs 
seems  to  be  much  dependent  on  the  constitu 
tion  and  positive  laws  of  civil  society.  So 
long  as  the  harm  done  by  an  offence  is  limited 
to  the  single  individual  against  whom  it  was 
directed,  the  offender  commits  only  a  private 
injury  or  a  tort ;  but  if  the  act,  though  imme 
diately  concerning  an  individual,  disturbs  the 
public  order  or  safety  and  welfare,  then  the 
positive  law  interposes  and  elevates  the  hither 
to  private  offence  to  the  degree  of  a  crime  or 
of  a  misdemeanor.  In  some  cases  the  injury 
may  be  both  public  and  private,  or  at  once  a 
tort  and  a  crime  or  misdemeanor.  For  ex 
ample,  the  commission  of  a  battery  subjects 
the  aggressor  to  a  public  prosecution  as  a  dis 
turber  of  the  peace,  while  the  party  beaten 
may  have  his  separate  civil  action  for  damages. 
Libel  and  nuisance  are  other  examples  of  this 
twofold  character. — As  wrongs  are  privations 
or  infringements  of  rights,  so  torts,  being  pri 
vate  wrongs,  are  infringements  of  private 
rights,  or  the  rights  of  individuals.  These 
rights  respect  either  the  person  or  the  prop 
erty.  In  the  former  class  is  included  the  right 
of  personal  security,  in  respect  as  well  to  the 
body  as  to  the  health  and  the  reputation,  and 
the  violations  of  this  right  in  one  or  other  of 
these  respects  bear  the  names  battery,  assault, 
nuisance,  slander,  libel,  and  malicious  prosecu 
tion.  In  this  class  is  included  also  the  right  of 
personal  liberty,  which  is  violated  by  false  im 
prisonment.  Rights  of  property,  real  or  per 
sonal,  may  be  infringed  by  trespasses  in  vari 
ous  degrees  by  waste,  conversion,  and  fraud, 
and  the  more  incorporeal  of  these  rights  by 
nuisance  and  by  infringement  of  patents  and 
copyrights  and  rights  in  trade  marks.  These 
several  names  of  torts  have  been  applied  by 


TORT 


TORTOISE 


809 


long  usage  of  the  law  to  prescribed  and  well 
determined  offences.  But  besides  these  there 
are  many  torts  not  specifically  designated  or 
classed,  because  they  do  not  affect  well  defined 
classes  of  rights,  but  vary  with  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  every  case. — When  one  al 
leges  that  a  tort  has  been  committed  against 
him,  he  must  show  at  all  events  that  he  has 
been  wronged.  The  mere  fact  that  the  act 
complained  of  has  injured  the  plaintiff,  does 
not  entitle  him  to  claim  indemnity  unless  the 
act  was  also  a  breach  of  a  legal  obligation  be 
tween  the  parties,  resting  either  on  their  ex 
press  agreement,  or  on  the  general  policy  and 
rules  of  the  law.  If,  for  example,  rny  neigh 
bor  builds  a  wall  just  before  windows  of  mine, 
to  which  it  is  conceded  I  have  no  prescriptive 
right  as  ancient  lights ;  or  if  in  a  street  oc 
cupied  by  private  and  costly  dwellings  my 
neighbor  chooses  to  use  his  house  for  a  shop, 
or  convert  it  to  other  uses  offensive  to  me  and 
yet  constituting  no  nuisance :  in  neither  case 
have  I  ground  for  action,  however  consider 
able  the  actual  injury  or  damage  may  be  to  me. 
The  reason  is,  that  I  have  not  been  wronged ; 
it  is  a  case  of  what  the  law  calls  damnum  als- 
que  injuria,  damage  but  no  wrong ;  no  legal 
right  of  mine  has  been  violated.  But  every 
legal  wrong  imports  damage  in  the  very  nature 
of  it ;  and  if  no  other  damage  is  established, 
the  party  is  entitled  to  nominal  damage.  To 
use  Sir  John  Holt's  quaint  and  familiar  illustra 
tion  :  "  If  a  man  give  another  a  cuff  on  the  ear, 
though  it  cost  him  nothing,  nay,  not  so  much  as 
a  little  diachylon,  yet  he  shall  have  his  action." 
It  is  on  this  principle  that,  without  proving  any 
actual  damage,  one  who  has  a  right  of  way  may 
maintain  an  action  against  an  intruder,  or  one 
whose  lands  are  flowed  against  him  who  con 
structs  a  dam  so  as  to  set  back  the  water.  So 
a  voter  can  sustain  suit  against  the  authorities 
for  refusing  his  ballot,  even  though  his  can 
didate  was  elected.  These  are  cases  of  legal 
wrongs,  infringement  of  legal  rights  ;  and  even 
if  no  actual  damage  be  proved,  the  injury  or 
damage  is  the  presumption  of  the  law.  To 
this  class  also  belong  those  cases  of  torts  in 
which  the  legal  wrong  consists  in  the  doing  of 
a  mischievous  act  which  is  only  likely  to  prove 
injurious  to  others,  or  even  in  the  doing  of  a 
legal  act  in  such  a  careless  or  negligent  man 
ner  that  injury  may  probably  result ;  for  care 
lessness  of  the  rights  of  others  is  in  itself 
morally  wrong,  and  by  the  construction  of  law 
is  legally  wrong  when  injury  results  from  it. — 
The  commonest  form  of  a  tortious  intrusion 
upon  real  property  is  called  trespass  quare 
clausum  fregit,  or  for  breaking  and  entering 
upon  the  plaintiff's  close.  A  higher  offence 
against  a  person,  in  respect  to  his  property, 
than  mere  encroachment  on  his  possession,  is 
that  which  consists  in  a  usurpation  of  the 
property  itself.  An  injury  of  this  nature  is 
most  likely  to  happen  in  respect  to  personal 
property,  and  one  of  the  most  frequent  actions 
for  torts  of  this  nature  is  that  of  trover.  One 


may  be  further  injured  in  his  rights  of  prop 
erty  by  the  effect  of  threats,  mistake,  or  fraud. 
In  the  last  respect,  for  example,  an  action  lies 
when  one  knowingly  utters  a  falsehood  to  the 
plaintiff  with  the  design  to  deprive  him  of  a 
benefit  and  to  acquire  it  to  himself,  and  damage 
naturally  results  from  the  plaintiff's  belief. 
But  it  is  not  always  necessary  to  show  that 
the  defendant  intended  to  defraud  the  plaintiff 
particularly.  Thus  one  who  makes  a  false  rec 
ommendation 'of  another,  representing  him  to 
be  solvent  and  trustworthy,  and  with  the  pur 
pose  of  obtaining  credit  for  him,  is  liable  to 
any  one  who  gives  credit  to  the  report  and 
thereby  suffers  injury.  The  tort  of  nuisance 
consists  in  injury  to  the  more  natural  rights 
of  individuals,  and  the  tort  of  infringement  of 
patent  and  copyrights  and  rights  to  trade  marks 
violates  rights  created  and  assured  by  the  posi 
tive  law. — In  our  examination  of  torts  we  have 
thus  far  considered  persons  only  in  their  natu 
ral  capacity.  It  is  obvious  that  new  rights 
ftrise  and  new  wrongs  become  possible  when 
the  individual  is  clothed  with  an  artificial 
character;  when,  for  example,  he  becomes  a 
sheriff,  a  magistrate,  or  other  public  officer. 
The  new  functions  with  which  he  is  invested 
give  him  capacity  for  doing  official  wrongs; 
and  these,  as  they  affect  private  individuals, 
form  new  classes  of  torts. — A  corporation  is 
liable  like  an  individual  for  its  torts,  and  it 
is  liable  for  the  wrongful  acts  of  its  officers, 
either  where  they  are  expressly  authorized  to 
do  the  acts,  or  where  they  were  done  bonafide 
in  pursuance  of  a  general  authority.  But,  gen 
erally  speaking,  it  cannot  be  held  for  any 
offences  by  its  servants  that  are  properly,  in 
any  case,  only  personal  acts,  like  malicious 
prosecution,  slander,  or  false  imprisonment. 
But  a  corporation  has  been  held  responsible 
for  an  assault  and  battery  committed  by  a  ser 
vant  acting  under  its  authority.  Municipal 
corporations  are  liable  in  tort  for  the  same 
acts  that  would  warrant  an  action  against 
individuals,  if  such  acts  are  done  by  the  au 
thority  of  the  corporation  or  of  a  branch  or 
bureau  of  its  government,  authorized  to  act  in 
the  premises  to  which  the  particular  act  re 
lates.  Thus  they  must  answer  for  nuisances 
on  their  lands,  and  they  are  generally  held  lia 
ble  for  injuries  resulting  from  the  want  of  care 
or  skill  on  the  part  of  a  public  surveyor,  from 
the  careless  performance  of  street  grading, 
from  neglect  to  repair  streets,  sewers,  and 
drains,  or  from  the  fury  of  a  mob.  The  civil 
liability  of  municipal  corporations  for  injuries 
sustained  by  defects  in  the  highway  is  gen 
erally  determined  by  express  statutes. — For 
the  various  kinds  of  torts,  and  of  actions  for 
tort,  see  ASSAULT,  ATTACHMENT,  COPYRIGHT, 
EXECUTION,  LIBEL,  MASTER  AND  SERVANT,  NUI 
SANCE,  PATENTS,  SHERIFF,  SLANDER,  TRADE 
MARK,  TRESPASS,  and  TROVER. 

TORTOISE,  the  popular  name  of  the  chelo- 
nian  reptiles  whose  habits  are  wholly  or'  in 
part  terrestrial  and  fluviatile,  including  all  the 


810 


TORTOISE 


testudinata  except  the  marine  species  or  turtles 
— that  is,  the  amyda  of  Oppel  as  distinguished 
from  his  chelonii.  Their  general  characters 
have  been  given  under  TESTUDESTATA.  The 
suborder  amydw,  according  to  Prof.  Agassiz, 
comprises  the  following  seven-  families,  not 
equally  related  to  each  other  :  trionycliidoB  or 
soft  tortoises,  chelyoidcB  (the  matamata),  hy- 
draspididm,  chelydroidm  or  snappers,  cinoster- 
noidw  or  mud  tortoises,  emydoidw  or  terrapins, 
and  testudinina  or  land  tortoises.  Of  the  very 
numerous  species  here  included,  space  will 
permit  the  mention  of  only  a  few  of  the  typi 
cal  forms  in  the  above  order  of  families.  Du- 
meril  and  Bibron  divide  the  amydee,  according 
to  habitat,  into  chersites  or  land  tortoises,  cor 
responding  to  testudinina,  and  elodites  or 
marsh  tortoises,  including  all  the  other  families 
except  the  trionychida,  which  form  tlieirpota- 
mites  or  river  tortoises.  Though  some  pass 
nearly  all  their  life  in  the  water,  none  are  en 
tirely  aquatic,  and  none  can  swim  unsupported 
for  great  distances ;  when  in  the  water,  they 
usually  remain  at  the  bottom,  and  seldom 
swim  freely  except  when  alarmed  or  seeking 
to  leave  it.  Their  locomotion  is  a  kind  of 
walking,  the  weight  being  about  equally  dis 
tributed  on  the  front  and  hind  limbs,  which 
have  nearly  the  same  development,  the  motions 
of  each  pair  alternating  with  each  other.  The 
shield  or  carapace  is  more  symmetrical  than  in 
the  turtles;  the  feet  are  always  distinct  from 
the  legs,  and  movable  upon  them  ;  the  toes 
are  cither  separate  and  short,  or  united  by  a 
web  capable  of  expansion  and  contraction ; 
the  limbs  can  generally  be  withdrawn  under 
the  carapace,  and  the  head  wholly  or  partially. 
The  tortoises  rank  higher  in  the  order  than 
the  turtles. — In  the  triony  chides  the  carapace 
is  flat,  thin,  and  oval,  and  very  incomplete,  the 
ribs  united  only  on  the  median  line,  and  ex 
tending  thence  to  the  margin  like  spokes  of  a 
wheel;  it  is  covered  with  a  tough  skin,  flexible 
on  the  margins;  neck  long  and  flexible  ;  head 
pointed,  and  terminating  in  a  long  leathery 
snout;  jaws  covered  with  a  horny  sheath,  and 
the  lips  fleshy ;  feet  short,  broad,  and  strong, 
five-toed  and  fully -webbed,  three  of  the  toes 
with  claws ;  limbs  only  partially  retractile  and 
moving  horizontally ;  skin  loose  and  free  about 
the  neck  and  limbs.  The  oldest  geological 
deposit  in  which  any  of  this  family  has  been 
discovered  is  the  greensand  of  New  Jersey. 
They  are  active  species,  preferring  the  muddy 
bottom  of  shallow  water,  sometimes  lying  con 
cealed  in  the  mud  with  only  a  part  of  the  head 
exposed,  taking  breath  from  time  to  time  by 
stretching  up  their  long  neck  and  raising  the 
tip  of  the  snout  above  the  surface  ;  they  can 
remain  under  water  more  than  half  an  hour 
at  a  time,  rarely  going  on  land,  where  their 
movements  are  awkward  ;  in  the  water  they 
move  rapidly,  striking  suddenly  at  objects  by 
means  of  their  long  neck ;  they  prey  principal 
ly  on  fish,  seizing  also  frogs,  small  birds,  and 
young  alligators  and  lizards ;  the  species  found 


in  the  Nile  is  very  destructive  to  young  croco 
diles  ;  they  have  been  known  to  attack  persons 
bathing.  They  are  very  wary,  but  are  fre 
quently  caught  on  hooks  baited  with  a  live 
fish ;  their  flesh  is  highly  esteemed.  Their 
eggs  are  numerous,  spherical,  and  very  brittle ; 
they  are  deposited  on  sandy  shores  near  the 
water  in  April  and  May,  and  the  young  appear 
in  July.  The  genus  trionyx  (Wagler),  equiva 
lent  to  cryptopm  (Dum.  and  Bibr.),  is  peculiar 
to  Asia  and  Africa,  the  species  of  this  country 
formerly  referred  to  it  belonging  to  the  genera 
aspidonectes  (Wagler),  platypeltis  (Fitz.),  and 
amyda  (Ag.).  The  common  soft-shelled  tor 
toise  of  the  northern  states  (A.  spinifer,  Ag.) 
attains  a  length  of  1-4  in. ;  it  is  yellowish  brown, 
beneath  white,  mottled,  streaked,  and  dotted 
with  black ;  a  blunt  keel  along  the  median  line 
slopes  uniformly  to  the  sides,  and  the  anterior 
margin  is  furnished  with  spines ;  it  is  found 
from  Lake  Champlain  to  Pennsylvania "  and 
west  to  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi  rivers ;  its 
flesh  is  very  delicate.  Other  species  are  found 
in  the  southwestern  states.  Very  large  species 
of  this  family  were  brought  here  from  west 
ern  equatorial  Africa  by  Mr.  Du  Chaillu. — The 
chelyoidce  somewhat  resemble  the  preceding 
family,  but  the  head  and  neck  are  more  re 
tractile  and  furnished  with  numerous  mem 
branous  fringes  and  lobes  of  singular  form. 
There  is  only  the  single  genus  chelt/s  (Dum.), 
and  a  single  species,  the  matamata  (0.  matama 
ta,  Dum.),  attaining  a  length  of  2  or  3  ft. ;  it 
inhabits  the  stagnant  waters  of  tropical  South 
America,  feeding  on  fish ;  it  is  captured  for 
its  excellent  flesh. — The  hydraspididce,  contain 
ing  the  genera  platemys,  podocnemys,  &c.,  were 
united  to  the  chelyoids  by  J.  E.  Gray,  the  two 
forming  the  elodites  pleuroderes  of  Dumeril 
and  Bibron.  The  neck  is  long,  the  head  re 
tractile  or  bent  laterally  under  the  shield ;  in 
some  the  skull  presents  the  union  of  the  tem 
poral  and  parietal  bones  to  form  a  broad  roof 
over  the  temporal  region,  as  in  marine  turtles, 
combining  thus  the  family  characters  of  the 
two  suborders.  Prof.  Agassiz  thinks  that  po- 
docnemys  will  be  found  to  agree  more  closely 
with  the  earlier  geological  types  than  with  any 
other,  and  that  the  group  of  pleuroderes  bears 
the  same  relation  to  other  testudinates  that 
the  marsupials  do  to  ordinary  mammals.  The 
sexual  differences  are  so  great  that  they  have 
been  mistaken  for  specific ;  the  tail  of  the 
male  is  much  the  longer,  and  in  this  sex  there 
are  sharp  asperities  between  the  joints  of  the 
hind  legs ;  the  colors  are  also  different.  This 
group  is  foreign  to  the  United  States,  and 
mostly  South  American,  a  few  being  found 
in  Africa  and  Madagascar. — The  chelydroidce, 
described  in  the  article  SNAPPING  TURTLE,  are 
thoroughly  aquatic,  and  the  lowest  of  the 
amydce  except  the  preceding  families ;  they 
are  characterized  by  their  keeled  back,  ser 
rated  margin,  broad,  flat,  and  imperfectly  re 
tractile  head,  narrow  and  cross-like  sternum, 
and  large  tail. — The  cinosternoidcB  have  a  long 


TORTOISE 


811 


and  narrow  body,  the  carapace  rising  to  be 
hind  the  middle,  and  thence  descending  steep 
ly  backward ;  the  whole  shield  is  ossified,  cov 
ered  with  large  horny  scales,  and  as  wide 
behind  as  in  front,  with  a  tendency  of  the 
edges  to  round  up  and  turn  inward ;  the  tail 
is  neither  long  nor  strong  enough  to  bear  any 
of  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  in  the  male 
ends  in  a  horny  nail ;  legs  slender,  feet  short 
and  round,  toes  freely  movable  and  webbed, 
and  the  whole  very  flexible  ;  head  long  behind 
and  short  in  front  of  the  eyes,  pointed,  with 
the  small  mouth  underneath ;  alveolar  ridge 
sharp,  the  lower  jaw  ending  in  a  point ;  neck 
long  and  slender;  the  plastron  is  sometimes 
hinged.  In  average  size  they  are  the  smallest 
of  the  order,  the  least  being  about  4  in.  and 
the  largest  9  in.  in  length ;  all  are  American, 
and  no  trace  of  their  fossil  existence  has  been 
discovered  ;  the  sexes  are  very  different.  They 
live  mostly  in  water  and  in  the  mud,  coming 
out  to  bask  in  the  sun  in  places  where  they 
can  readily  drop  into  the  water  at  the  ap 
proach  of  danger ;  their  food  is  principally 
animal,  and  their  motions  quick,  though  feeble 
and  awkward  ;  generally  timid,  they  bite  fierce 
ly  if  attacked  while  feeding,  like  the  in  sect!  v- 
ora  among  mammals.  The  colors  are  gen 
erally  dark,  sometimes  with  reddish,  greenish, 
and  yellowish  tints.  They  lay  three  to  five 
eggs,  on  the  shore  near  the  water,  in  holes 
dug  with  their  hind  feet ;  they  are  elongated, 
with  a  smooth  and  sinning  surface,  thick,  and 
brittle.  In  the  common  mud  tortoise  ((thy- 
rosternnm  Pcnnsylvanicum,  Ag.),  the  jaws  are 
strong  and  cutting,  and  the  mouth  long  and 
narrow  ;  it  is  dusky  brown  above,  yellowish 
dusky  or  brownish  below ;  chin  and  throat 
dirty  yellow,  with  the  warts  on  the  latter 
brighter  ;  it  is  usually  about  3|  in.  long,  nearly 
3  in.  wide,  and  If  in.  high.  It  is  found  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  and  west  to  the  Mis 
sissippi  valley  ;  the  anterior  and  posterior  parts 
of  the  sternum  are  movable  on  the  central 
piece  ;  it  abounds  in  muddy  ponds,  feeding  on 
small  fish  and  aquatic  insects  and  larvae  ;  it  is 
a  pest  to  anglers,  seizing  the  bait  set  for  bet 
ter  game  ;  it  has  a  slight  odor  of  musk,  but 
less  so  than  the  musk  tortoise  (ozotheca  odora- 
ta,  Ag.),  which  ranges  from  New  England  to 
Florida,  and  Avest  to  the  Mississippi. — The 
emydoidce  are  most  numerous  in  species,  over 
60  being  described,  presenting  great  differences 
in  size,  structure,  and  habits.  The  body  is 
ovate,  swelling  in  the  centre,  the  margin  with 
a  tendency  to  spread  outward  ;  the  carapace  is 
completely  ossified  and  united  by  sutures,  high 
and  irregularly  convex  in  all  directions ;  plas 
tron  long  and  broad,  and  sometimes  hinged  ; 
the  jaws  horny,  without  lips,  and  not  termi 
nating  in  long  sharp  points ;  head,  neck,  and 
limbs  completely  retractile;  nostrils  at  the 
end  of  the  snout,  which  is  not  prolonged  into 
a  proboscis ;  toes  long  and  webbed,  or  short 
and  free,  according  as  the  habits  are  aquatic 
or  terrestrial;  skin  of  head,  neck,  limbs,  and 


'  tail  more  or  less  scaly.  They  are  principally 
aquatic,  though  some  are  terrestrial,  the  limbs 
moving  horizontally  while  swimming,  and 
walking  being  performed  on  the  whole  foot 
(as  in  plantigrades) ;  they  are  generally  of 
moderate  size,  the  smallest  being  4  in.  and  the 
largest  (the  aquatic)  15  in.  in  length.  The 
food  is  both  animal  and  vegetable,  consisting 
of  fish,  worms,  Iarva3,  berries,  leaves,  and  grass ; 
they  are  most  abundant  in  warm  regions.  The 
eggs  are  laid  in  holes  dug  by  their  hind  legs, 
the  terrestrial  species  laying  2  to  7,  and  the 
aquatic  10  to  more  than  30  ;  the  shell  is  less 
calcareous  and  more  flexible  than  is  usual ; 
the  shape  is  oblong.  Though  this  family  is 
most  numerous  in  North  America,  there  is 
not  a  single  species  described  under  the  genus 
emys  by  herpetologists  which  belongs  in  it; 
the  so-called  cistudo  Blandingii,  corresponding 
to  the  emys  of  Europe,  is  the  only  representa 
tive  here  of  Brongniart's  genus;  the  others 
belong  to  various  genera  as  established  by 
Agassiz  in  vol.  i.  of  his  "Contributions  to  the 
Natural  History  of  the  United  States"  (1857). 
The  genera  trachemys  (Ag.),  ptychemys  (Ag.), 
deirochelys  (Ag.),  and  malacoclcmmys  (Gray) 
have  been  described  under  TEEEAPIN.  The 


Shell  of  the  Painted  Tortoise  (Chrysemys  picta). 

common  painted  tortoise  (clirysemys  picta, 
Gray)  may  be  known  by  the  yellow  borders 
of  the  black  dorsal  scales,  the  blood-red  blotch 
es  and  lines  on  the  marginal  plates,  limbs,  and 
under  part  of  tail,  and  the  golden  yellow  ster 
num.  It  is  found  as  far  north  as  New  Bruns 
wick,  through  the  eastern  and  middle  states 
to  South  Carolina  and  Georgia;  west  of  the 
Ohio  it  is  replaced  by  the  C.  marginata  (Ag.) ; 
it  is  about  6  in.  long,  4£  in.  wide,  and  2-J-  in. 
high  ;  it  is  most  abundant  in  ditches  and  slug 
gish  waters,  spending  most  of  the  day  basking 
in  the  sun  ;  it  is  very  timid,  hibernates  early, 
and  is  one  of  the  first  to  appear  in  spring;  it 
feeds  on  insects,  worms,  tadpoles,  &c.,  and  is 
very  troublesome  to  anglers;  it  will  survive 
only  a  few  days  out  of  the  water.  The  speck 
led  or  spotted  tortoise  (nanemys  guttata,  Ag.) 
is  another  very  common  species,  distinguished 
by  its  yellow  dots  on  a  black  ground,  and  its 
blackish  sternum  bordered  with  yellow.  It  is 
found  from  New  England  to  the  Carolines, 


812 


TORTOISE 


east  of  the  Alleghanies;  it  often  comes  on 
land,  to  feed  on  worms  and  orthopterous  in 
sects  ;  it  is  about  5  in.  long,  3  in.  wide,  and  If 
in.  high.  The  geographic  tortoise  (graptemys 
geographic^  Ag.)  is  so  called  from  the  network 
of  reddish  brown  lines  spread  irregularly  over 
the  dark  brown  carapace,  somewhat  resem 
bling  the  outlines  of  countries  on  a  map.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  active  and  bold  of  the  family, 


Shell  of  Speckled  Tortoise  (Nanemys  guttata). 

and  is  found  from  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
to  Michigan,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas ;  it  is 
over  8  in.  long,  6  in  wide,  and  3  in.  high, 
with  a  tail  of  2£  in.  The  sculptured  tortoise 
(fjlyptemys  insculpta,  Ag.)  is  very  common  in 
the  northern  states  as  far  south  as  New  Jer 
sey ;  the  carapace  is  reddish  brown,  each  scale 
with  radiating  yellow  ridges,  often  smoothed 
down  in  old  specimens ;  marginal  plates  and 
sternum  yellow,  each  with  a  black  spot  at  the 
posterior  angle,  and  generally  with  concentric 
striaa ;  limbs  brick-dust  color  below ;  it  is  8  in. 
long,  5  in.  broad,  and  about  3  in.  high,  with  a 
tail  of  over  2  in. ;  it  passes  long  periods  away 
from  water.  Blanding's  tortoise  (emys  melea- 
gris,  Ag.)  is  the  only  true  species  of  the  genus 
here ;  it  is  black  above  with  numerous  yellow 
spots,  sometimes  arranged  in  lines ;  below 
dusky  yellow,  each  plate  with  a  largo  quad 
rangular  dark  spot  at  the  outer  and  posterior 
angle.  It  is  found  from  New  England  west 
ward  to  Wisconsin,  being  most  abundant  on 


culptured  Tortoise  (Glyptemys  insculpta). 


the  prairies,  and  very  terrestrial  in  its  habits; 
it  is  8  in.  long,  5£  in.  wide,  and  3  in.  high, 
with  a  tail  of  2|  in.  The  box  or  checkered 
tortoise  (cistudo  Virginea,  Ag. ;  C.  claitm 
and  Carolina  of  other  authors)  has  a  rough 
and  strong  shell,  generally  of  a  light  brown 
ish  color  with  very  numerous  bright  yellow 
blotches  and  lines,  more  or  less  radiating, 
giving  somewhat  the  appearance  of  tortoise 


Shell  of  Box  Tortoise  (Cistudo 
Virgiuea). 


shell;  sternum  usually  yellowish  with  dark 
blotches ;  hind  feet  plantigrade ;  plastron  with 
a  hinge  in  the  middle,  so  that  the  anterior 
and  posterior  portion 
can  each  be  brought 
in  contact  with  the 
carapace,  and  enclose 
the  animal  in  a  per 
fect  box.  It  is  about 
6^  in.  long,  4J-  in. 
wide,  and  2|  in.  high  ; 
it  is  found  from  New 
England  south  to  the 
Oarolinas,  and  west 
to  Michigan ;  it  is  entirely  terrestrial,  and  a 
very  poor  swimmer ;  it  is  common  in  the  pine 
barrens  of  the  southern  states,  where  it  is 
called  cooter  and  pine  terrapin  by  the  negroes ; 
it  feeds  on  insects  and  succulent  plants,  and  is 
easily  domesticated. — In  the  testudmina  or 
land  tortoises  the  carapace  is  entirely  ossified, 
very  convex  in  the  middle  region,  but  well 
balanced ;  the  plastron  is  broad,  flat,  and  solid ; 
openings  for  protrusion  of  limbs* small  and 
narrow ;  head,  limbs,  and  tail  completely  re 
tractile  within  the  shell,  and  the  plastron  in 
some  with  movable  lobes;  head  small  and 
shielded,  nose  broad,  and  eyes  far  apart ;  alve 
olar  margin  with  a  sharp  edge,  and  the  jaws 
fitting  closely  by  ridges  and  furrows ;  skin 
everywhere  more  or  less  scaly ;  toes  mostly 
concealed  under  the  skin,  as  far  as  the  last 
joints,  which  are  free  and  covered  by  flat  sharp 
nails,  usually  live  anterior  and  four  posterior ; 
feet  short,  stout,  and  somewhat  clubbed ;  the 
great  intestine  is  longer  and  the  lungs  are  larger 
than  in  any  other  testudinate,  in  relation  with 
the  greater  convexity  of  the  shell.  They  are 
most  abundant  in  warm  climates,  and  are  the 
largest  of  the  order,  the  great  Galapagos  tor 
toise  being  3  to  4ft.  long,  the  African  coui 
(psammobates  radiatus,  Fitz.)  l^ft.,  the  gopher 
1  ft.,  and  the  common  European  land  tor 
toise  8  in.  (the  smallest  of  the  family).  Here 
also  belongs  the  fossil  gigantic  colowochelys 
Atlas  (Cautl.  and  Falc.),  from  the  Sivalik  hills, 
which  must  have  measured  nearly  18  ft.  in 
length;  it  is  found  with  the  great  extinct  un 
gulates  which  it  so  much  resembled  in  gait  and 
habits.  There  are  no  tortoises  indigenous  to 
the  British  islands,  though  they  might  easily 
be  naturalized  there.  Agassiz  places  all  the 
American  testudmina  in  the  genus  trerobates. 
They  live  entirely  on  land,  and  when  put  into 
water  walk  on  the  bottom ;  the  body  is  raised 
on  the  last  joint  of  the  toes,  and  the  gait  is 
firmer,  more  steady,  and  less  slow  than  in  any 
other  tortoise.  Their  food  consists  of  succu 
lent  plants  and  fleshy  fruits.  There  are  only 
sight  genera,  but  many  species.  The  gopher 
tortoise  (testudo  polyplwmus,  Daudin)  is  about 
15  in.  long,  and  has  a  nearly  flat  shell,  the 
plates  marked  with  concentric  striae  disappear 
ing  in  old  age;  the  plastron  is  thick  and  firm, 
projecting  beyond  the  carapace  in  front,  and 
deeply  emarginate  behind ;  the  head  is  short, 


TORTOISE 


TORTOLA 


813 


thick,  and  obtuse,  covered  with  plates ;  the 
eyes  are  large,  with  a  dark  iris ;  the  jaws  cov 
ered  with  horny,  serrated  plates;  the  neck 
short,  and  its  skin  granulated ;  the  fore  limhs 
very  large  and  thick,  compressed  antero-pos- 
teriorly,  with  five  fingers  armed  with  strong 
nails ;  along  the  outer  edge  of  the  forearm 
is  a  row  of  projecting  horny  points ;  the  hind 
limbs  are  short,  thick,  rounded,  with  four  toes 
armed  with  strong  nails.  The  general  color  is 
brownish  yellow,  with  darker  brown  tints,  the 
head  almost  black,  the  lower  parts  dirty  yel 
low,  and  the  limbs  dusky.  It  is  found  in 
Florida,  Alabama,  and  Georgia,  but  does  not 
appear  to  go  north  of  the  Savannah  river. 
Like  the  rodent  gophers,  they  burrow  in  the 
ground,  preferring  such  dry  and  sandy  places 
as  the  pine  barrens,  where  they  exist  in  troops ; 
they  live  entirely  on  vegetable  food ;  they  are 
fond  of  basking  in  the  sun,  though  they  cannot 
bear  its  full  summer  heat,  and  cannot  endure 
rain ;  they  become  torpid  in  winter.  The 
adults  are  very  strong,  moving  with  a  weight 
of  200  Ibs.^and  the  females  are  the  largest ;  the 
flesh  and  the  eggs  are  esteemed  as  food.  In 
the  European  land  tortoise  (testudo  Gr&ca, 
Linn.)  the  carapace  is  oval,  somewhat  widest 
and  gibbous  behind,  marbled  with  black  and 
yellow ;  plastron  pale  yellow  with  a  wide 
blackish  band  down  each  side;  legs  short,  and 
tail  ending  in  a  horny  tip.  It  is  found  in 
Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  and  other  countries  bor 
dering  on  the  Mediterranean;  in  England  it 
has  been  domesticated  and  known  to  live  more 
than  a  century.  The  Galapagos  tortoise  (mega- 
locJielys  Indica,  Fitz. ;  testudo  elepliantopus, 
Harlan)  is  the  largest  of  the  order,  frequently 
measuring  12  ft.  in  circumference ;  the  shell  is 
very  convex  and  of  a  deep  brown  color.  It  is 
very  fond  of  water,  drinking  large  quantities, 
and  delighting  to  wallow  in  the  mud  like  a 
pachyderm ;  some  live  in  the  mountains  and 
others  in  the  low  lands  of  the  Galapagos  isl 
ands,  and  the  latter  in  their  journeys  after 
water  in  the  elevated  regions  have  worn  well 
beaten  paths,  which  led  mariners  to  the  dis 
covery  of  the  springs,  often  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  shore;  they  drink  by  immersing  the 
head  up  to  the  eyes,  and  swallowing  great 
mouthfuls,  about  10  a  minute,  according  to 
Darwin ;  their  flesh  is  excellent  and  largely 
used  both  fresh  and  salted,  and  a  very  clear  oil 
is  made  from  the  fat.  They  feed  on  succulent 
plants  and  vegetables,  and  in  captivity  are  fond 
of  cabbage,  lettuce,  and  marrows.  They  were 
formerly  very  numerous  in  these  islands,  and 
probably  live  for  centuries.  Their  gait  is  very 
slow,  about  two  miles  in  24  hours,  though 
they  have  been  known  to  travel  four  miles 
in  the  same  time.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  Oc 
tober  in  the  sand,  and  are  about  8  in.  in 
circumference ;  the  young  are  devoured  by 
birds  of  prey ;  in  Great  Britain,  where  num 
bers  have  been  kept  alive,  they  go  under 
ground  in  November  and  reappear  in  the  mid 
dle  of  April ;  many  have  been  seen  in  the  Uni 


ted  States. — The  tortoise  shell  of  commerce  is 
the  product  of  the  hawk's  bill  or  imbricated 
turtle.  (See  TUKTLE.) 

TORTOISE  PLANT,  a  plant  of  the  yam  family, 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  also  called  ele 
phant's  foot,  these  two  common  names  being 
equivalent  to  its  systematic  name,  testudinaria 
elephant  ipes.  While  its  habit  is  strikingly 
unlike  that  of  the  yam  (dioscorea),  it  is  so 
close  to  that  in  flower  and  fruit  that  a  descrip 
tion  of  one  will  answer  for  both.  (See  YAM.) 
The  yam  makes  an  underground,  thin-skinned, 
tuberous  root,  or  rootstock;  but  in  this  the 
same  portion  is  above  ground,  and  very  large, 
while  the  stem  proper  is  slender ;  several  stems 
from  the  same  rootstock  climb  to  the  height 
of  20  to  40  ft.,  throwing  off  numerous  branches, 
which  bear  bright  green  heart-shaped  or  kid 
ney-shaped  leaves.  It  is  often  cultivated  as  a 
gre.enhouse  climber  for  its  pleasing  foliage,  and 
for  its  curious  rootstock  ;  this  is  hemispherical 
or  nearly  globular,  and  sometimes  3  ft.  in  diam- 


Tortoise  Plant  (Tostiidinaria  elephantipes). 

eter ;  its  exterior  is  covered  with  a  thick  cork- 
like  substance,  which  cracks  and  forms  many- 
sided  protuberances,  separated  by  deep  fissures, 
giving  the  whole  much  the  appearance  of  the 
shell  of  a  large  tortoise  ;  the  brown  color  and 
apparently  lifeless  character  of  this  mass  form 
a  striking  contrast  with  the  vigor  and  lively 
green  of  the  rest  of  the  plant.  The  dormant 
rootstocks  as  imported  from  Africa  are  to  all 
appearance  dead,  but  when  placed  upon  the 
ground  soon  throw  out  small  roots  from  the 
lower  surface,  and  stems  start  from  the  upper 
surface  and  grow  very  rapidly.  When  not 
growing,  the  plant  is  kept  quite  dry.  It  is 
called  in  Africa  Hottentots'  bread,  but  it  is 
said  that  the  natives  do  not  eat  it,  though  the 
fleshy  interior  of  the  rootstock  affords  food  to 
baboons  and  other  animals.  One  or  two  other 
species  are  known,,  but  are  not  cultivated. 

TORTOLA,  the  most  important  of  the  Vir 
gin  group  of  West  India  islands,  belonging  to 


814: 


TORTOSA 


TORTURE 


Great  Britain,  lying  between  Virgin  Gorda 
and  St.  John's,  in  lut.  18°  24'  X.,  Ion.  64°  32' 
W. ;  area,  26  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  4,000.  It  is 
12  m.  long  by  2  to  4  m.  broad,  and  has  a 
rough  surface,  rising  to  the  height  of  over 
1,600  ft.  On  the  north,  at  Tortola,  the  chief 
town,  is  an  excellent  land-locked  harbor.  It 
exports  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  and  copper  ore. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  lieutenant  governor  and 
the  administrative  council.  The  climate  is  un- 
liealthful.  (See  VIRGIN  ISLANDS.) 

TORTOSA  (anc.  Dertosa),  a  walled  city  of 
Catalonia,  Spain,  in  the  province  and  41  m. 
S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Tarragona,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Ebro;  pop.  about  25,000.  It  is  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill,  and  is  entered  by  three  gates ; 
the  streets  are  narrow,  ill  paved,  and  some  of 
them  very  steep.  It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral,  a 
theological  seminary,  and  numerous  churches 
and  schools.  Cotton  and  linen  goods,  glass, 
earthenware,  cordage,  wax  candles,  leather, 
soap,  brandy,  starch,  and  baskets  are  manu 
factured.  The  river  is  navigable  for  vessels 
of  100  tons,  and  there  is  considerable  trade. 
There  are  quarries  of  valuable  marble,  known 
a->  Tortosa  jasper,  about  3  m.  from  the  city. — 
The  town  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  a  Roman 
municipium.  It  was  early  taken  by  the  Moors, 
but  was  wrested  from  them  in  811  by  Louis  le 
Debonnaire.  They  afterward  retook  it,  and  it 
became  a  harbor  of  pirates.  A  crusade  was 
proclaimed  against  it  in  1148  by  Pope  Euge- 
nius  III.,  and  it  was  captured.  The  Moors 
made  desperate  efforts  to  retake  it,  but  the 
Christian  women  defended  the  walls  while  the 
men  sallied  out  and  put  the  besiegers  to  flight. 
Many  privileges  were  conferred  upon  the  wo 
men  for  their  bravery,  and  in  1170  the  military 
order  of  La  Hacha,  or  the  Flambeau,  was  in 
stituted  for  them.  The  French  took  Tortosa 
in  1708,  and  again  at  the  beginning  of  1811. 

TORTIGAS.  I.  See  DRY  TORTUGAS.  II.  An 
island  of  the  West  Indies,  off  the  N.  E.  coast 
of  Cuba,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  by  a 
narrow  channel  called  El  Savinal.  It  forms 
the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Nuevitas,  and  is 
about  25  m.  long  from  N.  "W.  to  S.  E.  and  0  m. 
wide. — Several  smaller  islands  are  called  Tor- 
tuga,  or  Tortuc  (Sp.  and  Fr.,  a  tortoise)  from 
their  shape,  or  from  abounding  in  tortoises. 

TORTURE,  properly,  an  infliction  of  severe 
pain  upon  an  accused  person  to  induce  a  con 
fession  of  guilt,  or  upon  a  criminal  to  extort  a 
revelation  of  his  accomplices.  The  term  is  fre 
quently  used  carelessly  to  designate  severe  and 
unusual  punishment  inflicted  for  crime,  but 
improperly,  as  it  is  never  spoken  of  by  judicial 
writers  as  a  punishment.  By  legal  writers  on 
the  continent  of  Europe  and  the  earlier  Eng 
lish  authors,  the  word  question  (Lat.  qucestio, 
a  seeking)  is  used  as  a  synonyme  of  torture ; 
the  object  being  a  search  for  the  truth  in  regard 
to  the  criminality  of  the  tortured  person,  or 
the  names  of  his  accomplices,  by  the  compul 
sion  of  suffering.  Torture  was  divided  as  to 
intensity  into  the  "  question  ordinary,"  a  com 


paratively  mild  application  of  the  instruments 
used  in  torturing,  and  the  "  question  extraor 
dinary,"  where  these  means  were  used  to  the 
greatest  extent  compatible  with  the  preserva 
tion  of  life.  The  threats  of  torture  were  divided 
into  "  verbal  territion,"  when  the  executioner 
described  the  torture,  and  "real  territion," 
when  the  victim  was  placed  upon  the  rack  but 
not  tortured.  As  to  the  time  of  its  applica 
tion,  it  was  called  the  "  question  preparatory  " 
when  used  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the 
accused  to  confess  his  own  crime,  and  the  "ques 
tion  prealable  or  preliminary  "  when  applied 
to  extort  from  a  criminal  the  revelation  of  his 
accomplices. — Torture  seems  to  have  been  early 
practised  as  a  means  of  discovering  guilt,  both 
judicially  and  privately,  but  was  not  inflicted 
on  freemen  or  citizens  till  the  time  of  the  Ro 
man  emperors,  except  in  cases  of  suspected 
crime  against  the  state  itself.  The  Greeks  in 
flicted  it  on  their  slaves,  and  after  their  subju 
gation  by  the  Romans  it  was  inflicted  on  those 
who  had  not  a  claim  to  the  name  of  Roman  citi 
zen;  the  oath  of  the  citizen  was  considered  suffi 
cient.  Under  the  emperors  this  distinction  was 
not  long  continued,  and  men  and  women  even 
of  patrician  birth  were  subjected  to  torture  to 
compel  confession  of  crimes  existing  only  in 
the  imagination  of  tyrants.  Wherever  the  code 
of  Justinian  was  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  legal 
system  of  European  nations  during  the  middle 
ages,  judicial  torture  formed  a  feature  of  the 
examination  of  persons  accused  of  crime ;  in 
the  Teutonic  nations  it  gradually  took  the  place 
of  ordeals  and  the  trial  by  battle.  In  England 
it  was  probably  never  considered  a  part  of  tho 
common  law,  though  the  pcine  forte  et  dure, 
which  was  used  to  compel  a  prisoner  to  plead 
to  the  indictment,  had  certainly  some  counte 
nance  from  that  law.  (See  PEIXE  FORTE  ET 
DURE.)  But  it  was  recognized  as  one  of  the 
prerogatives  of  the  crown  to  order  it,  and  was 
thus  in  occasional  use  up  to  1640,  when  the  last 
case  occurred.  Severe  and  cruel  as  were  the 
punishments  inflicted  by  the  ecclesiastical  law, 
there  is  no  evidence  of  a  resort  to  "  the  ques 
tion  "  by  the  inquisition  or  any  other  ecclesi 
astical  court  before  1252,  when  Innocent  IV. 
called  upon  the  civil  arm  to  use  it  to  induce 
confessions  and  accusations  by  offenders.  Not 
long  after  this  period  the  necessity  of  secrecy 
in  the  proceedings  of  the  inquisition  led  to  its 
extensive  adoption,  and  to  refinements  of  cru 
elty  in  its  use  before  unknown.  Judicial  tor 
ture  continued  in  most  of  the  European  states 
till  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century.  In  1780 
the  "  question  preparatory  "  was  discontinued 
by  a  decree  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  in  1V89  torture 
in  general  was  abolished  throughout  the  French 
dominions.  In  Russia  it  was  abolished  in  1801. 
In  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Saxony  it  was  sus 
pended  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  last  cen 
tury,  but  in  several  of  the  smaller  German 
states  it  continued  on  the  statute  books  till  the 
present  century.  Thomasius,  Hommel,  Vol 
taire,  Beccaria,  and  Howard  were  instrumental 


TORTURE 


TOTAL  ABSTINENCE 


815 


in  bringing  about  its  discontinuance.  In  the 
United  States  torture  has  never  been  reckoned 
an  adjunct  of  judicial  examination,  though 
there  are  traces  of  the  belief  in  its  necessity 
among  the  lower  classes  in  some  of  the  early 
colonial  enactments. — Among  the  Romans,  the 
scourge  was  the  usual  instrument  of  torture ; 
the  equuleus,  a  sort  of  upright  rack,  was  an  in 
vention  of  the  Romans  used  upon  their  slaves, 
to  which  pincers  to  tear  the  flesh,  fire,  &c., 
were  added.  The  rack  as  used  in  the  tower  of 
London  was  of  uncertain  origin  ;  it  consisted 
of  an  open  frame  of  oak  under  which  the  pris 
oner  was  laid  on  his  back,  and  his  wrists  and 
ankles  fastened  by  ropes  to  rollers  at  the  end 
of  the  frame,  which  were  tightened  by  means 
of  a  ratchet  wheel  till  the  whole  body  was 
brought  to  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  rollers, 
and  in  the  "question  extraordinary"  till  the 
joints  were  dislocated.  The  "boot"  was  the 
favorite  French  instrument  of  torture ;  in  this 
rings  of  iron  were  passed  around  the  legs,  and 
wooden  wedges  driven  between  them  and  the 
flesh  till  the  muscles  wrere  reduced  to  jelly. 
Among  other  instruments  used  to  test  the  pow 
er  of  human  endurance  were  the  thumbscrew  ; 
iron  gauntlets;  the  "little  ease,"  a  narrow  cell 
in  which  the  prisoner  was  confined  for  several 
days,  and  in  which  the,  only  position  possible 
was  one  which  soon  cramped  every  muscle ; 
the  "scavenger's  daughter"  (a  corruption  of 
"  Skevington's  daughter  "),  an  instrument  in 
vented  by  Sir  William  Skevington,  which  so 
compressed  the  body  as  to  start  the  blood  from 
the  nostrils,  and  often  also  from  the  hands  and 
feet;  the  torture  by  water;  and  numerous 
other  inventions  capable  of  producing  intense 
suffering. — For  those  forms  of  punishment 
which  aimed  at  making  the  penalties  of  crime 
terrible  by  the  intensity  of  the  physical  suffer 
ing  they  inflicted,  ingenuity  seemingly  exhaust 
ed  its  powers.  Crucifixion,  fastening  to  the 
cross  with  cords,  and  anointing  the  body  with 
honey  that  insects  might  torment  the  helpless 
victim,  hanging  up  in  a  cage,  suspending  the 
culprit  by  the  arms  while  weights  were  tied  to 
the  feet,  the  fastening  of  limbs  to  trees  which 
were  forced  into  proximity  to  each  other  and 
then  suffered  to  fly  apart,  pouring  melted  lead 
into  the  ears,  immersing  one  or  more  limbs  or 
the  whole  body  in  boiling  oil,  suspending  over 
a  slow  fire,  plucking  out  the  hair  in  masses, 
slitting  the  nostrils  and  lips,  putting  out  the 
eyes,  cropping,  cutting  off  the  hands,  brand 
ing,  mutilation,  crushing  the  body  with  heavy 
weights,  starvation,  deprivation  of  air,  confine 
ment  in  oubliettes  or  bottle-like  prisons  with 
out  ventilation,  pulling  out  the  nails,  and  break 
ing  on  the  wheel,  are  a  few  of  the  many  means 
by  which  punishment  has  been  inflicted,  often 
for  offences  of  a  secondary  grade,  within  the 
past  200  years.  To  the  same  writers  who  ef 
fected  the  discontinuance  of  torture,  is  due  in 
a  great  degree  also  the  abolition  of  these  cruel 
punishments. — See  Jardine,  "  On  the  Use  of 
Torture  in  the  Criminal  Law  of  England"  (8vo, 
VOL.  xv. — 52 


London,  1839);  Maclaurin,  "Introduction  to 
Criminal  Trials ;"  Augustin  Nicolas,  tii  la  tor 
ture  est  un  moyen  xur  d  verifier  les  crimes 
secrets  (12mo,  1681)  ;  Reitemaier,  Sur  la  ques 
tion  cliez  les  Grecs  et  les  Remains  ;  and  Mitter- 
maier,  Das  Deutsche  Strafverfahren,  vol.  i. 

TORY.     See  WHIG  AND  TOET. 

TOSCHI,  Paolo,  an  Italian  engraver,  born  in 
Parma  about  1788,  died  there  in  1854.  He 
studied  in  Paris,  returning  in  1819  to  Parma 
as  director  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts.  He 
was  the  first  to  engrave  Correggio's  frescoes, 
of  which  he  completed  22  plates  with  the  aid 
of  his  pupils,  who  continued  the  work  after 
his  death ;  the  whole  number  is  to  be  48,  and 
18  additional  had  been  finished  in  1874. 

TOTAL  ABSTINENCE.  As  early  as  1639  a  law 
was  made  in  Massachusetts  to  restrain  intem 
perate  drinking,  and  similar  laws  were  passed 
about  the  same  time  in  Connecticut.  In  1760 
the  religious  societies  began  to  protest  against 
the  use  of  liquors  at  funerals.  In  1756  a  duty 
was  laid  upon  imported  spirits  in  Pennsylvania 
for  the  purpose  of  diminishing  their  consump 
tion,  and  in  1772  this  act  was  extended  to  em 
brace  spirits  of  domestic  production.  The  first 
continental  congress,  in  1774,  recommended 
"  the  several  legislatures  of  the  United  States 
immediately  to  pass  laws  the  most  effectual 
for  putting  an  immediate  stop  to  the  pernicious 
practice  of  distilling,  by  which  the  most  exten 
sive  evils  are  likely  to  be  derived  if  not  quick 
ly  prevented."  The  first  modern  temperance 
society  was  formed  in  1789  by  200  farmers  of 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  who,  to  discourage  the  use 
of  spirituous  liquors,  "determined  not  to  use 
any  distilled  liquors  in  doing  their  farm  work 
the  ensuing  season."  In  December,  1790,  the 
college  of  physicians  in  Philadelphia  memorial 
ized  congress  "to  impose  such  heavy  duties 
upon  distilled  spirits  as  shall  be  effectual  to 
restrain, their  intemperate  use  in  our  country." 
The  Methodist  church  from  its  foundation  in 
America  took  decided  ground  against  the  use 
and  sale  of  liquors.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
18th  century  the  clergy  in  general  began  to 
make  active  efforts  against  intemperance.  The 
cause  of  temperance  was  also  publicly  advo 
cated  by  philanthropists,  chief  among  whom 
was  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush.  But  the  modern 
temperance  movement  may  be  said  to  date 
from  1811,  when  the  efforts  for  the  suppres 
sion  of  intemperance  assumed  an  organized 
and  systematic  form,  although  for  25  years 
thereafter  but  limited  results  were  apparent. 
In  that  year  the  general  assembly  of  the  Pres 
byterian  church  appointed  a  committee  of 
seven  ministers  to  devise  measures  for  pre 
venting  the  evils  arising  from  the  intemperate 
use  of  spirituous  liquors.  In  1812  this  com 
mittee  recommended  that  all  Presbyterian  min 
isters  in  the  United  States  should  deliver  dis 
courses  on  the  evils  of  intemperance,  and  that 
extended  efforts  should  be  made  to  circulate 
addresses,  sermons,  tracts,  and  other  printed 
matter  on  this  subject.  In  June,  1811,  the 


816 


TOTAL  ABSTINENCE 


general  association  of  Massachusetts  appointed 
a  committee  of  four  ministers  and  four  laymen 
to  cooperate  with  the  committee  of  the  gen 
eral  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church  and 
the  general  association  of  Connecticut  in  de 
vising  measures  for  the  promotion  of  temper 
ance.  In  1813  this  committee  organized  the 
"Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Suppression 
of  Intemperance,''  which  in  1833  changed  its 
name  to  that  of  the  "Massachusetts  Temper 
ance  Society,"  under  which  title  it  was  incor 
porated  in  1845  and  still  holds  a  corporate  ex 
istence.  In  1826  the  "American  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Temperance"  was  formed 
in  Boston,  with  Marcus  Morton  as  president. 
Dr.  Justin  Edwards  of  Andover,  Mass.,  be 
came  the  corresponding  secretary  in  1829,  and 
travelled  extensively,  preaching  total  absti 
nence  and  organizing  state  and  local  societies. 
The  five  annual  reports  of  the  society  written 
by  him  are  among  the  best  contributions  to  the 
literature  of  this  subject.  In  1836  the  society 
became  by  change  of  name  the  "American 
Temperance  Union,"  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  John 
Marsh  as  secretary.  It  was  then  established 
in  Philadelphia,  but  in  October,  1838,  was  re 
moved  to  New  York.  Although  total  absti 
nence  \vas  publicly  advocated  as  early  as  1820, 
it  was  not  till  many  years  later  that  any  of 
the  temperance  organizations  insisted  upon  this 
requirement.  The  object  of  the  Massachusetts 
society,  as  set  forth  in  its  constitution,  was 
"  to  discountenance  and  suppress  the  too  free 
use  of  ardent  spirits."  Neither  the  American 
temperance  society  nor  its  auxiliaries  opposed 
the  use  of  wine,  cider,  or  malt  liquors.  Total 
abstinence  from  distilled  spirits,  except  when 
prescribed  as  a  medicine,  and  moderation  in 
the  use  of  the  less  intoxicating  drinks,  were 
the  only  general  requirements.  Many  of  the 
earlier  advocates  of  temperance,  including 
Mathew  Carey,  encouraged  the  culture  of  the 
grape  and  the  use  of  wine  as  a  preventive  of 
intemperance.  Dr.  Marsh,  in  his  "  Fifty  Years' 
Tribute  to  the  Cause  of  Temperance,"  says: 
"  The  first  reformers  built  a  brewery  in  Bos 
ton  for  the  accommodation  of  members  of  the 
temperance  society."  Even  the  first  national 
temperance  convention,  which  assembled  in 
Philadelphia  in  May,  1833,  and  was  composed 
of  400  delegates  from  21  states,  including  a 
large  number  of  clergymen  of  all  denomina 
tions,  simply  took  the  ground  that  "the  traffic 
in  ardent  spirits  as  a  drink,  and  the  use  of  it 
as  such,  are  morally  wrong,  and  ought  to  be 
abandoned  throughout  the  world."  Nothing 
was  said  of  total  abstinence  from  other  alco 
holic  beverages.  At  this  convention  the  "  Uni 
ted  States  Temperance  Union"  was  formed, 
consisting  of  the  officers  of  the  American  tem 
perance  society  of  Boston,  23  state  societies, 
and  more  than  7,000  minor  associations.  Its 
object  was,  by  diffusing  information  and  exert 
ing  a  moral  influence,  to  extend  the  principles 
of  temperance  throughout  the  world.  In  1833 
the  Massachusetts  society  adopted  a  new  con 


stitution  with  a  pledge  of  total  abstinence.  In 
1836  the  state  society  of  Pennsylvania,  formed 
in  1827,  adopted  the  pledge  of  "total  absti 
nence  from  all  that  can  intoxicate."  Demand 
was  now  made  in  all  the  states  that  higher 
ground  should  be  taken ;  yet  few  were  pre 
pared  to  include  malt  liquors  in  the  pledge, 
believing  that  beer  was  necessary  and  bene 
ficial.  The  second  national  convention  was 
held  at  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  in  1836,  when  the 
name  of  the  United  States  temperance  union 
was  changed  to  that  of  the  "American  Tem 
perance  Union,"  with  the  design  of  admitting 
members  from  all  parts  of  North  America. 
The  convention  was  attended  by  348  delegates 
from  19  states  and  territories  and  from  Can 
ada.  The  most  marked  feature  of  the  pro 
ceedings  was  the  adoption  of  the  principle  of 
total  abstinence  from  all  intoxicating  drinks  as 
beverages.  One  of  the  earliest  state  societies 
was  that  of  Connecticut,  organized  in  May, 
1829.  In  the  same  year  state  temperance  so 
cieties  were  formed  in  New  Hampshire,  Ver 
mont,  New  York,  Virginia,  and  Illinois.  In 
May,  1831,  there  were  19  state  societies,  with 
2,200  known  local  societies  formed  on  the  plan 
of  total  abstinence,  and  embracing  more  than 
170,000  pledged  members.  In  1832  the  war 
department  abolished  the  "  grog  "  ration,  sub 
stituting  coffee  and  sugar. — As  early  as  1832 
the  license  question  began  to  be  agitated,  and  a 
strong  public  opinion  against  license  laws  was 
soon  formed.  In  1837-'8  a  bill  introduced  in 
the  Maine  legislature  to  repeal  all  license  laws 
of  the  state,  and  to  forbid  the  sale  of  ardent 
spirits  as  a  beverage  in  less  quantity  than  28 
gallons,  was  lost  by  one  vote  in  the  senate.  In 
Tennessee  a  law  was  passed  repealing  all  acts 
licensing  tippling  houses,  and  making  the  retail 
ing  of  spirits  a  misdemeanor  punishable  by  fine 
at  the  discretion  of  the  courts.  In  Massachu 
setts  the  sale  of  spirituous  liquors  in  less  quan 
tity  than  15  gallons,  except  by  physicians  and 
apothecaries,  was  forbidden.  Laws  were  also 
passed  in  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and  New 
Hampshire,  either  restricting  the  sale  or  leav 
ing  it  to  a  vote  of  the  people  of  each  town 
whether  liquor  selling  should  be  licensed.  The 
third  national  convention,  composed  of  560  del 
egates,  assembled  in  July,  1841,  and  resolved 
"that  the  license  laws  are  at  variance  with  all 
true  political  economy,  and  one  of  the  chief 
supports  of  intemperance."  Large  conven 
tions  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Massa 
chusetts  declared  against  granting  licenses,  and 
in  favor  of  providing  by  fine  and  imprison 
ment  for  the  effectual  suppression  of  the  traffic. 
In  1846  New  York  voted  against  license  by  a 
large  majority.  Vermont  gave  a  majority  of 
8,000  against  license,  and  many  towns  in  New 
Hampshire  voted  against  it.  In  Rhode  Island 
every  town  but  three,  and  in  Connecticut  two 
thirds  of  the  towns,  declared  in  favor  of  "no 
license."  In  Pennsylvania  18  counties  voted 
on  the  question,  and  generally  against  license. 
In  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Iowa,  and  Wis- 


TOTAL  ABSTINENCE 


CALlFOii. 


817 


cousin  about  half  of  the  counties  opposed  it. 
The  agitation  of  the  question  of  license  resulted 
in  a  strong  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  pro 
hibition.  In  March,  1847,  the  supreme  court 
of  the  United  States  unanimously  decided  that 
prohibitory  laws  "were  not  inconsistent  with 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  nor  with 
any  acts  of  congress;"  and  that  it  was  within 
the  police  powers  of  the  states  to  restrain 
or  prohibit  the  traffic  in  intoxicating  drinks. 
Maine  was  the  first  state  to  prohibit  by  law  the 
sale  of  strong  drinks.  A  prohibitory  law  was 
enacted  in  that  state  in  1846,  with  only  ordi 
nary  fines  for  its  violation.  The  "  Maine  law," 
drafted  by  Gen.  Neal  Dow,  provided  for  the 
seizure  and  destruction  of  liquors  held  for  il 
legal  sale  ;  fine  and  imprisonment  for  the  illegal 
manufacture  or  sale  of  liquors  were  prescribed 
in  1851.  This  law  was  repealed  in  1856,  and 
a  stringent  license  law  substituted ;  but  after 
an  experience  of  two  years  of  license,  with  in 
crease  of  poverty,  crime,  and  public  disorder, 
contrasted  with  the  previous  years  of  prohibi 
tion,  an  enactment  was  passed  and  submitted 
to  the  people,  and  prohibition  again  became 
the  policy  of  the  state,  being  ratified  by  a  ma 
jority  of  22,952.  Delaware  was  the  second 
state  to  enact  a  prohibitory  law,  which  was  sub 
mitted  to  the  people  and  ratified  in  1847;  but 
in  1848  it  was  declared  unconstitutional  by  the 
supreme  court  for  being  so  submitted.  In 
May,  1852,  Ehode  Island  passed  a  prohibitory 
law,  which  was  declared  unconstitutional  by 
Judge  Curtis  of  the  United  States  circuit 
court.  It  was  amended  in  January,  1853,  and 
was  repealed  in  1863.  In  1865  a  law  was 
passed  allowing  town  councils  and  boards  of 
aldermen  to  grant  or  refuse  licenses.  In  1874 
the  license  clause  was  repealed,  and  prohibi 
tion  reenacted ;  but  in  June,  1875,  the  prohibi 
tory  clause  was  again  repealed.  Massachu 
setts  passed  a  prohibitory  law  in  1852,  which 
was  declared  unconstitutional  in  some  of  its 
provisions,  and  a  new  law  was  passed  in  1855, 
which  remained  till  1868,  when  it  was  repealed 
and  license  substituted ;  but  the  prohibitory 
law  was  again  enacted  in  1869,  cider  being  ex- 
cepted.  In  1870  the  law  was  altered  to  allow 
the  free  sale  of  lager  beer,  ale,  porter,  and 
strong  beer,  in  every  town  in  the  state  where 
the  citizens  did  not  vote  to  prohibit  it ;  but  in 
1871  the  law  was  again  changed  so  that  malt 
liquors  might  not  be  sold  in  towns  without  a 
vote  in  its  favor,  cider  being  still  exempt.  In 
1873  the  beer  clause  was  repealed,  thus  resto 
ring  the  prohibition  of  both  malt  and  spirituous 
liquors;  but  as  apothecaries  were  permitted 
to  sell,  the  law  of  1855  and  1857  was  not  ful 
ly  restored.  In  1875  the  prohibitory  clause  of 
the  law  was  repealed,  and  license  substituted. 
The  Vermont  legislature  in  1852  passed  a  pro 
hibitory  law,  which  was  ratified  by  the  peo 
ple  in  1853,  and  still  remains.  In  1850  Michi 
gan  prohibited  the  sale  of  liquor  by  a  consti 
tutional  provision;  and  in  1853  a  prohibito 
ry  law  was  enacted  and  ratified  by  a  popular 


majority  of  20,000.  In  1854  the  law  was  pro 
nounced  unconstitutional  by  half  of  the  judges 
of  the  supremo  court,  because  it  had  been  sub 
mitted  to  the  people.  The  law  was  reenacted 
in  1855,  and  was  changed  seven  times  previous 
to  1875,  when  the  prohibitory  law  was  repealed 
and  a  tax  law  substituted.  In  1853  Chief  Jus 
tice  Williams  of  Connnecticut  drafted  a  pro 
hibitory  law,  which  was  passed  by  the  legisla- 
lature,  but  was  vetoed  by  Governor  Seymour. 
But  in  1854  a  bill  was  passed  prohibiting  the 
sale  of  liquors  by  a  vote  of  13  to  1  in  the  senate 
and  148  to  61  in  the  house.  It  was  repealed 
in  1872.  A  prohibitory  law  was  enacted  in 
Indiana  in  1853,  with  a  clause  providing  for 
its  submission  to  the  people,  which  the  su 
preme  court  pronounced  unconstitutional.  In 
1855  another  prohibitory  law  was  passed,  but 
it  became  null  because  the  supreme  court  was 
equally  divided  as  to  its  constitutionality.  In 
Iowa  a  prohibitory  law  was  passed  by  the 
legislature  in  1855,  and  ratified  by  the  people. 
This  law  still  exists,  with  some  modifications 
in  regard  to  fermented  liquors.  The  New 
York  legislature  passed  a  strong  prohibitory 
law  in  1854,  which  was  vetoed  by  Governor 
Seymour.  The  next  year  the  law  was  again 
passed,  and  its  constitutionality  was  affirmed 
by  the  court  of  appeals  in  1856.  In  New 
York  city  the  mayor  did  not  attempt  to  en 
force  it.  New  Hampshire  passed  a  prohibi 
tory  law  in  1855,  which  is  still  in  force.  Illi 
nois  also  passed  a  prohibitory  law,  with  a 
clause  providing  for  submitting  it  to  a  vote 
of  the  people,  by  whom  it  was  defeated. — The 
fourth  national  convention  assembled  in  1851 
at  Saratoga,  and  passed  resolutions  in  favor  of 
prohibitory  laws,  and  advised  that  an  appeal 
should  be  made  to  the  people  in  states  where 
the  legislature  would  not  enact  such  a  law. 
The  fifth  convention,  held  in  1865,  recom 
mended  the  use  of  unfermented  wine  by  the 
churches  in  the  communion,  deprecated  the 
use  of  alcoholic  liquors  as  a  medicine,  and 
urged  the  medical  profession  "to  substitute 
other  articles  in  the  place  of  alcohol  as  far  as 
in  their  judgment  it  can  be  wisely  done."  A 
committee  appointed  by  this  convention  or 
ganized  in  1865  the  "National  Temperance 
Society  and  Publication  House,"  which  has  its 
headquarters  in  New  York,  and  is  engaged  in 
the  publication  and  distribution  of  temperance 
literature.  The  sixth  convention,  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  in  1868,  urged  the  friends  of  the  cause 
"to  refuse  to  vote  for  any  candidate  who  de 
nies  the  application  of  the  just  powers  of  civil 
government  to  the  suppression  of  the  liquor 
traffic."  The  seventh  convention,  held  at  Sara 
toga  in  1873,  declared  "that  the  time  had  ar 
rived  to  introduce  the  temperance  issue  into 
state  and  national  politics,"  and  "  to  cooperate 
with  existing  party  organizations  where  such 
will  indorse  the  legislative  policy  of  prohibition 
and  nominate  candidates  pledged  to  its  sup 
port,  otherwise  to  organize  and  maintain  sepa 
rate  independent  party  action."  The  eighth 


818 


TOTAL  ABSTINENCE 


national  convention  was  held  in  Chicago  in 
1875.  It  resolved  "to  nominate  and  vote  for 
such  candidates  only,  state  and  national,  as 
will  unqualifiedly  indorse  and  sustain  the  .pro 
hibition  of  the  liquor  traffic,"  and  "that  when 
ever  suitable  nominations  are  not  otherwise 
made,  independent  prohibition  candidates  be 
nominated."  Political  action  was  early  taken 
by  temperance  organizations,  many  local  offi 
cers  being  elected  in  various  states  as  temper 
ance  candidates ;  and  in  1854  the  candidate  of 
the  temperance  party  for  governor  in  New 
York,  Myron  II.  Clark,  was  supported  by  the 
remnant  of  the  whig  party,  and  elected.  In 
1872  the  Hon.  James  Black  of  Lancaster,  Pa., 
was  nominated  for  president,  and  received 
votes  in  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Michigan. —  To 
tal  Abstinence  Societies.  The  "  Wasbingtonian 
Temperance  Society"  was  formed  in  Baltimore, 
April  5,  1840,  by  six  men  of  intemperate  hab 
its,  who  signed  a  pledge  of  total  abstinence 
with  the  determination  to  urge  others  to  do 
the  same.  The  number  of  members  rapidly 
increased,  and  at  the  first  anniversary  of  the 
society  more  than  1,000  reformed  drunkards 
marched  in  procession.  Similar  societies  were 
formed  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States, 
and  speakers  travelled  through  many  states, 
advocating  the  cause.  It  is  estimated  that 
150,000  decidedly  intemperate  men  signed  the 
pledge  and  gave  up  drink.  The  first  division 
of  the  "  Sons  of  Temperance "  was  organ 
ized  in  New  York  city  in  1842,  by  John  "W. 
and  Isaac  Oliver.  The  order  increased  with 
great  rapidity,  numerous  divisions  being  or 
ganized  in  every  state  and  territory,  and  in 
Canada  and  Great  Britain.  The  strength  of 
the  order  reached  its  maximum  in  1850,  when 
there  were  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  and 
England  87  grand  divisions  and  6,097  subor 
dinate  divisions,  with  a  total  membership  of 
238,903.  In  1873  there  were  42  grand  and 
1,836  subordinate  divisions,  with  82,299  mem 
bers;  the  number  of  members  in  Great  Brit 
ain  was  11,116.  The  basis  of  the  organiza 
tion  is  :  1,  a  strict  adherence  to  the  princi 
ples  of  total  abstinence  from  all  intoxicating 
drinks ;  2,  the  payment  of  regular  dues  to 
form  a  common  fund  for  cooperative  tem 
perance  agitation,  mutual  aid  in  sickness  and 
distress,  and  funeral  expenses.  The  "  Temple 
of  Honor  and  Temperance"  was  organized  by 
prominent  sons  of  temperance,  and  designed 
as  a  higher  branch  of  that  order.  The  first 
temple  was  instituted  in  New  York  city  in 
1845  ;  a  national  temple  was  organized  in  1846. 
In  1848  all  connection  with  the  sons  of  tem 
perance  was  severed,  and  the  temple  of  honor 
assumed  an  independent  position.  In  1855 
there  were  343  temples,  with  13,860  members. 
In  1874  there  were  20  grand  temples,  with  315 
subordinate  and  110  inner  temples,  the  total 
membership  being  16,923.  The  order  stands 
firmly  by  total  abstinence  as  the  only  rule  of 
personal  duty,  .and  prohibition  as  the  true 


policy  of  the  state.  The  "Independent  Order 
of  Good  Templars"  was  formed  in  1852,  on 
the  basis  of  total  abstinence  from  all  intoxi 
cating  liquors  as  a  beverage,  and  the  absolute 
prohibition  by  law  of  the  manufacture,  im 
portation,  and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  for 
beverages.  The  society  has  passAvords,  signs, 
grips,  and  signals.  There  are  four  degrees : 
the  subordinate  degree,  degree  of  fidelity,  de 
gree  of  charity,  and  grand  lodge  degree.  Each 
grand  lodge  is  the  head  or  legislative  body  of 
the  state  or  territory  where  it  exists,  and  is 
composed  of  representatives  from  the  subor 
dinate  lodges  within  the  jurisdiction.  The 
grand  lodges  meet  annually  and  elect  repre 
sentatives  to  form  the  right  worthy  grand 
lodge,  whose  province  is  .to  legislate  upon 
all  matters  of  general  interest  to  the  whole 
order.  In  1875  there  were  60  grand  lodges 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  order ;  there 
are  grand  lodges  in  Great  Britain,  Canada, 
Australia,  and  elsewhere,  besides  subordinate 
lodges  in  China,  India,  Japan,  France,  Ger 
many,  Holland,  Portugal,  Africa,  and  the  West 
Indies.  The  total  membership  is  estimated 
at  735,000.  In  England,  where  the  order  has 
its  greatest  numerical  strength,  there  are  3,618 
lodges,  with  166,708  members. —  Great  Brit 
ain.  The  temperance  movement  in  Great  Brit 
ain  was  begun  by  John  Dunlop,  a  justice  of 
the  peace  for  Ptenfrewshire,  who  devoted  him  • 
self  to  the  cause  in  Scotland  in  1828,  and  in 
182D  formed  the  first  temperance  society  near 
Glasgow.  The  first  total  abstinence  society 
was  organized  at  Dunfermline  in  1830.  In  Ire 
land  the  cause  was  first  advocated  by  the  Rev. 
George  Whitrnore  Carr,  who  organized  a  so 
ciety  at  New  Ross,  county  Wexford,  in  1829. 
The  first  total  abstinence  society  was  formed 
at  Strabane  in  1835.  Father  Theobald  Mathew 
began  his  labors  at  Cork  in  1838,  and  soon  ex 
tended  them  not  only  to  all  parts  of  Ireland, 
but  to  England  and  Scotland.  The  total  ab 
stinence  society  formed  by  him  in  1838  con 
tained  1,800,000  members' in  1840.  The  con 
sumption  of  whiskey  in  Ireland  decreased  from 
12,500,000  gallons  in  1838  to  6,500,000  gallons 
in  1841.  In  1843  the  number  of  persons 
pledged  to  total  abstinence  exceeded  5,000,000. 
The  active  movement  against  intemperance  in 
England  began  in  1830,  when  the  first  society 
was  formed  at  Bradford  by  Henry  Forbes,  a 
merchant.  Other  societies  were  organized  du 
ring  the  same  year  at  Warrington,  Manchester, 
Liverpool,  and  Leeds ;  and  in  1831  the  "  British 
and  Foreign  Temperance  Society"  was  formed, 
with  a  pledge  "  to  abstain  from  distilled  spirits 
except  for  medicinal  purposes."  This  society, 
which  had  for  its  patron  the  bishop  of  Lon 
don,  and  among  its  vice  presidents  bishops,  ad 
mirals,  and  other  persons  of  high  official  rank, 
held  for  many  years  a  prominent  place  in  the 
temperance  movement.  At  first  these  societies 
did  not  oppose  the  moderate  use  of  wine  and 
malt  liquors.  The  first  total  abstinence  socie 
ty  in  England  was  formed  at  Preston  in  1832. 


TOTAL  ABSTINENCE 


TOUCAN 


819 


In  1835  it  was  estimated  that  48,000  persons 
had  signed  the  pledge  in  England,  and  that 
2,000  drunkards  had  been  reformed.  In  1835 
the  "British  Association  for  the  Promotion 
of  Temperance"  was  formed  in  Manchester, 
on  the  principle  of  total  abstinence,  and  the 
"British  Teetotal  Temperance  Society"  in 
London ;  in  1836  the  latter  was  united  with 
the  "  New  British  and  Foreign  Temperance 
Society  for  the  Suppression  of  Intemperance." 
Weekly  meetings  were  held  in  various  parts  of 
London,  with  great  success.  The  moderation 
movement  finally  died  out,  and  "  teetotalism  " 
was  firmly  established  as  the  best  means  of 
suppressing  intemperance.  Up  to  1839  the  new 
British  and  foreign  society  had  two  pledges  ;  in 
that  year  the  American  pledge  of  total  absti 
nence  was  adopted.  In.  1840  the  two  general 
societies  adopted  the  principle  of  total  absti 
nence,  and  the  cause  spread  rapidly  throughout 
the  United  Kingdom.  At  this  time  about  500,- 
000  members  were  enrolled  in  the  societies  of 
Great  Britain,  while  the  adherents  to  total 
abstinence  numbered  more  than  2,000,000.  In 
1842  the  two  parent  societies  in  London  were 
dissolved,  and  the  "  National  Temperance  So 
ciety"  was  organized,  which  recognized  all 
total  abstinence  societies,  of  whatever  form 
of  pledge.  In  1843  Father  Mathew  visited 
London,  and  in  six  weeks  administered  the 
pledge  to  about  70,000  persons.  In  August, 
1846.  a  world's  temperance  convention  was 
held  in  London,  and  was  attended  by  300  dele 
gates,  including  25  from  North  America.  The 
most  marked  progress  was  made  by  the  tem 
perance  cause  from  1851  to  1856.  The  "  Lon 
don  Temperance  League"  held  monthly  meet 
ings  in  Exeter  hall,  and  free  lectures  were 
delivered  in  all  parts  of  the  city ;  3,000  peti 
tions  were  sent  to  parliament,  and  30,000  tracts 
distributed.  The  "United  Kingdom  Alliance" 
was  formed  in  1853  for  the  "  total  and  imme 
diate  suppression  of  the  traffic  in  all  intoxi 
cating  liquors  as  a  beverage ;"  it  has  since 
prosecuted  its  labors  with  great  vigor  and  suc 
cess  by  means  of  lectures,  petitions  to  parlia 
ment,  publications,  &c.  The  alliance  has  given 
its  hearty  support  to  the  "  permissive  bill," 
which  has  often  been  brought  forward  in  par 
liament  in  recent  years,  but  without  success. 
The  object  of  the  bill  is  to  prohibit  the  granting 
of  licenses  to  sell  liquor  whenever  two  thirds 
of  the  rate  payers  of  any  parish  shall  by  vote 
so  determine.  Numerous  organizations  are 
now  actively  engaged  in  various  parts  of  Great 
Britain  in  promoting  the  cause  of  temperance. 
Chief  among  these  are :  the  "  National  Tem 
perance  League,"  formed  in  1854  by  a  union 
of  the  national  temperance  society  with  the 
London  temperance  league  ;  the  "  British  Tem 
perance  League,"  whose  operations  are  chiefly 
in  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire,  its  headquarters 
being  at  Bolton ;  the  "  Western  Temperance 
League,"  established  in  1837  and  reorganized 
in  1858,  embracing  284  societies,  the  opera 
tions  of  which  extend  to  nine  English  and 


three  Welsh  counties  ;  the  "  North  of  England 
Temperance  League,"  with  125  societies  in 
Northumberland,  Durham,  Cumberland,  West 
moreland,  and  the  Cleveland  district  of  York 
shire;  the  "  Irish  Temperance  League;"  and  the 
"  Scottish  Temperance  League,"  which  in  1873 
had  issued  70,000  volumes  and  630,000  tracts, 
besides  a  weekly  and  a  monthly  periodical. 
The  United  Kingdom  alliance  has  its  executive 
council  resident  in  Manchester.  England  and 
Wales  are  divided  into  districts  superintended 
by  resident  agents.  Its  operations  also  extend 
to  Scotland  and  Ireland  in  connection  with  the 
"  Scottish  Temperance  and  Permissive  Bill  As 
sociation,"  the  "Irish  Temperance  and  Per 
missive  Bill  League,"  and  the  "  Irish  Permis 
sive  Bill  Association."  The  "  National  Asso 
ciation  for  promoting  Amendment  in  the 
Laws  relating  to  the  Liquor  Traffic"  directs 
its  eiforts  toward  obtaining  amendments  of 
license  laws.  Various  enactments  have  been 
passed  by  parliament,  and  committees  of  in 
quiry  appointed  with  the  view  of  diminishing 
the  evils  of  intemperance.  These  efforts  have 
been  directed  toward  the  restriction  of  the 
liquor  traffic  rather  than  its  prohibition. 

TOTILA  (properly  BADUILA),  a  Gothic  king 
of  Italy,  died  A.  D.  552.  He  was  duke  of 
Friuli,  and  was  chosen  king  in  541,  after  the 
surrender  of  Vitiges  to  the  Byzantine  forces 
at  Eavenna.  When  Belisarius  was  withdrawn 
from  the  service  against  the  Goths,  Totila  over 
ran  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  and  in  546  en 
tered  Rome  by  the  treachery  of  some  Isau- 
rian  sentries.  He  held  peaceful  possession  of 
the  city  until  compelled  to  leave  it  in  order  to 
repair  the  reverses  his  armies  had  sustained 
in  Lucania.  In  his  absence  Rome  was  recov 
ered  by  Belisarius,  and  in  547  Totila  was  re 
pulsed  in  endeavoring  to  retake  it.  In  548 
Belisarius  was  recalled  to  Constantinople,  and 
Rome  once  more  fell  into  the  hands  of  Totila. 
In  552  Narses  was  sent  into  Italy  by  the  em 
peror  Justinian,  and  at  Tagina  in  Umbria  To- 
tila's  forces  were  defeated,  and  he  wras  killed. 

TOUCAN,  a  name  given  to  the  scansorial 
birds  of  the  family  rampliastidce,  derived  from 
the  Brazilian  imitation  of  their  note.  The  fam 
ily  is  remarkable  for  the  disproportionate  size 
of  the  bill,  which  is  very  light  on  account  of 
its  spongy  texture;  it  is  strengthened  inter 
nally  by  a  network  of  thin  bony  laminae  freely 
supplied  with  vessels  and  nerves;  it  is  broad 
at  the  base,  without  a  cere,  smooth,  with  the 
culmen  curved,  sides  compressed,  tip  hooked, 
and  the  sides  serrated  ;  the  tongue  is  long 
and  slender,  provided  with  numerous  barbs  on 
each  side  directed  forward :  the  bill  is  usu 
ally  adorned  with  bright  colors,  which  fade 
after  death ;  the  tarsi  covered  with  transverse 
scutes,  the  quills  almost  concealed  under  the 
large  coverts,  the  tail  with  ten  feathers;  claws 
curved  and  sharp;  toes  two  before  and  two 
behind;  orbital  region  naked ;  furcula  of  two 
bony  pieces,  thin  and  not  united  below,  and 
sternum  with  two  deep  incisions  on  each  side 


820 


TOUCAN 


TOUCH 


behind.  They  are  peculiar  to  tropical  Amer 
ica,  living  in  flocks  in  the  forest,  where  they 
make  a  great  chattering  as  they  hop  from 
branch  to  branch  in  search  of  food ;  they  feed 
principally  on  pulpy  fruits,  also  on  fish,  eggs, 
larva?,  and  small  birds  and  reptiles ;  they  also 
saw  off  the  tubular  corolla  of  flowers,  pick 
ing  out  the  insects  with  the  horny,  fimbriated 
tongue.  When  roosting  they  throw  their  tail 
upward  and  forward,  and  rest  the  enormous 
bill  on  the  back.  They  are  generally  hand 
some  birds,  representing  in  America  the  horn- 
bills  of  Asia  and  Africa ;  they  are  not  power 
ful  fliers,  and  are  strictly  arboreal,  hopping 
among  the  branches  with  such  grace  and  agil 
ity  as  to  have  suggested  for  one  of  them  the 
specific  name  of  Ariel.  The  nest  is  in  holes  in 
trees,  and  the  eggs  are  two,  rounded  and  white. 
They  post  a  sentinel  while  they  feed,  whose 
warning  cry  resembles  the  word  tucano  ;  the 
skin  is  bluish,  and  the  flesh  eatable  though 
rather  tough  ;  they  sometimes  commit  great 
havoc  with  fruit,  and  are  often  killed  for  food 
and  for  their  brilliant  feathers ;  they  are  very 
sensitive  to  cold, — In  the  toucans  proper  (ram- 
pliastos,  Linn.)  the  bill  is  higher  and  wider 
than  the  forehead,  looking  as  if  too  large  for 
the  head  and  belonging  to  another  bird ;  the 
nostrils  are  hidden  behind  the  prominent  base  ; 
wings  short  and  rounded,  with  the  first  four 
quills  graduated  and  narrowed  at  the  tip,  and 
the  fifth  the  longest;  tail  short  and  nearly 
even ;  feet  short  and  stout ;  colors  generally 
black  with  patches  of  white,  red,  and  yellow, 
especially  under  the  chin.  The  toco  toucan 
(R.  toco,  Gmel.)  is  17  in.  long,  and  the  bill  is 
more  than  half  of  that  length ;  plumage  black 
with  throat  and  rump  white,  vent  red,  bill 
orange  red  with  black  tip ;  it  inhabits  Guiana 
and  Brazil,  The  yellow-breasted  toucan  (R. 
tucanus,  Linn.)  has  a  yellow  throat,  with  red 


Yellow -Toucan  (Pteroglossus  Humboldtii). 

vent  and  breast  spot,  and  the  rest  of  the  plu 
mage  black.  There  are  more  than  a  dozen  oth 
er  species. — In  the  genus  pteroglossus  (Illig.), 
generally  called  aracaris,  the  bilHs  much  small 


er  and  sometimes  not  out  of  proportion  to  the 
head,  as  high  as  the  forehead,  with  the  nos 
trils  conspicuous  at  the  base ;  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  quills  longest;  tail  long  and  graduated; 
the  colors  are  usually  green,  with  red  or  yellow 
on  the  breast.  There  are  more  than  30  spe 
cies,  with  habits  similar  to  those  of  the  last 
genus.  The  aracari  toucan  (P.  aracari,  Illig.) 
is  17  in.  long,  with  a  bill  of  4  in. ;  plumage 
blackish  green,  with  yellowish  abdomen,  red 
median  abdominal  bar  and  rump  ;  upper  man 
dible  with  a  longitudinal  black  stripe.  The 
yellow  toucan  (P.  Humloldtii,  Gould)  is  17  in. 
long,  black  and  olive  with  a  scarlet  rump,  and 
the  under  surface  yellow ;  it  is  found  on  the 
upper  Amazon. — For  description  and  figures 
of  this  family,  see  Gould's  "Monograph  of  the 
Kamphastida) "  (fol.,  London,  1834). 

TOUCH,  the  modification  of  the  common 
sensibility  of  the  body,  especially  seated  in  the 
skin,  by  which  through  physical  contact  we 
obtain  an  idea  of  resistance  or  weight,  tem 
perature,  size,  shape,  smoothness  or  roughness, 
&c.  It  is  most  acute  at  the  tips  of  the  fingers, 
on  the  tongue,  lips,  portions  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  and  the  nipples,  where  the  sensory 
papillee  are  the  most  numerous,  each  one  re 
ceiving  one  or  more  nerve  fibres.  The  nerve 
fibres  appear  to  terminate  in  what  has  been 
called  the  tactile  corpuscle  in  the  interior  of 
the  papilla.  All  the  afferent  nerves  of  tlie 
general  integument  apparently  minister  to  the 
sense  of  touch,  by  virtue  of  their  connection 
with  the  seat  of  common  sensation  in  the  brain ; 
those  of  the  lower  extremities  are  less  con 
cerned  in  conveying  sensations  than  those  of 
the  upper,  though  they  are  far  more  efficient  in 
exciting  the  reflex  action  of  the  spinal  cord. 
The  acuteness  of  touch  differs  in  various  parts 
of  the '  body,  generally  in  proportion  to  their 
vascularity;  the  non-vascular  parts,  like  the 
hair,  nails,  and  teeth,  have  no  sense  of  touch, 
while  on  the  skin  the  nerves  are  spread  in  a 
minute  network.  Its  relative  acuteness  has 
been  measured  by  Weber,  by  placing  the  legs 
of  a  pair  of  compasses  on  the  skin,  and  approxi 
mating  them  until  brought  within  the  smallest 
distance  at  which  they  could  be  felt  as  distinct 
points,  and  with  the  following  results:  the 
point  of  the  tongue,  -J  line  ;  palmar  surface  of 
third  finger,  1  line  ;  red  surface  of  lips,  2  lines ; 
tip  of  nose,  3  lines ;  edge  of  dorsum  of  tongue, 
4  lines ;  skin  of  cheek,  palm  of  hand,  and  end 
of  great  toe,  5  lines;  back  of  hand,  8  to  14 
lines;  back  of  foot,  18  lines;  over  spine,  and 
in  middle  of  arm  and  thigh,  30  lines.  There 
are  considerable  variations  in  this  respect  in 
different  individuals.  The  feeling  of  tickling 
is  most  easily  excited  in  parts  having  a  feeble 
sense  of  touch,  as  the  arm  pits,  sides  below  the 
ribs,  palms,  and  soles,  while  the  sensitive  points 
of  the  fingers  cannot  thus  be  affected.  This 
sense  is  exceedingly  acute  in  the  flying  mem 
brane  of  the  bats  and  in  the  whiskers  of  the 
carnivora  and  rodents.  It  is  combined  with 
movement  in  the  human  hand,  with  its  power 


TOUL 


TOULON 


821 


of  pronation  and  supination,  opposability  of 
the  thumb,  and  great  mobility  of  the  fingers. 
The  power  of  distinguishing  the  temperature 
of  foreign  bodies  is  restricted  within  certain 
rather  narrow  limits.  We  can  perceive  the 
temperature  of  a  substance  which  is  moder 
ately  warm  or  cool ;  but  if  it  be  either  above 
or  below  a  certain  limit,  we  fail  to  judge  ac 
curately  of  its  temperature,  and  receive  only  a 
painful  sensation.  If  the  foreign  body  be  ex 
cessively  hot  or  cold,  as  in  the  case  of  boiling 
water  or  frozen  mercury,  the  discrimination  of 
temperature  is  lost  altogether,  and  the  painful 
sensation  is  the  same  in  either  instance.  Thus 
the  touch  of  a  very  cold  conducting  body  may 
be  said  to  burn  the  fingers,  like  that  of  a  very 
hot  one.  Cold,  by  retarding  the  capillary  cir 
culation  and  by  its  direct  sedative  .influence, 
deadens  the  sense  of  touch ;  in  like  manner, 
pressure  upon  or  disease  of  the  nerve  trunks, 
and  various  states  of  the  brain  receiving  the 
sensory  impressions,  are  accompanied  by  ob- 
tuseness  of  touch.  Prominent  among  the  causes 
acting  on  the  nervous  centres  are  the  influence 
of  toxic  and  anassthetic  agents,  obstructed  cir 
culation,  and  chronic  inflammations ;  on  the 
other  hand,  irritation  and  acute  inflammation 
in  the  course  of  the  nerves,  at  their  peripheral 
terminations,  or  in  the  centres,  may  be  accom 
panied  by  hypera3sthesia  or  excessive  sensitive 
ness  of  the  surface.  Subjective  sensations, 
or  those  dependent  on  internal  causes,  are 
very  common  in  the  sense  of  touch ;  those  of 
pleasure  and  pain,  heat  and  cold,  itching  and 
creeping  sensations,  &c.,  are  familiar  examples. 
Touch  may  be  greatly  improved  when  the  other 
senses  are  impaired  or  lost,  partly  from  the 
greater  attention  given  to  the  sensations,  and 
the  consequent  increase  of  the  power  of  dis 
crimination.  Instances  of  the  education  of 
this  sense  are  very  remarkable  and  well  known 
in  the  blind.  In  the  lower  animals  it  is  most 
acute  in  the  hands,  feet,  and  prehensile  tail  of 
monkeys ;  in  the  lips  and  tongue  of  herbivora ; 
in  the  snout  of  the  elephant,  pig,  tapir,  and 
mole ;  in  the  flying  membrane,  ears,  and  nasal 
appendages  of  bats,  which  can  perceive  even 
the  vibrations  of  air ;  in  birds,  in  the  under 
surface  of  the  toes  and  their  webs,  and  in  the 
sensitive  skin  of  the  mandibles  of  the  duck 
tribe  and  some  waders ;  in  the  under  surface 
of  the  toes  in  many  lizards,  in  the  extensile 
tongue  of  the  chameleon  and  serpents,  in  the 
naked  skin  of  batrachians,  and  in  the  thumbs 
of  the  males  of  the  latter  during  the  reproduc 
tive  season ;  in  the  antennae  and  palpi  of  artic 
ulates,  in  the  oral  appendages  of  mollusks,  and 
in  the  tentacles  of  radiates. 

TOUL  (anc.  Tullum\  a  fortified  town  of 
French  Lorraine,  in  the  department  of  Meurthe- 
et-Moselle,  on  the  Moselle,  14  m.  W.  of  Nancy; 
pop.  in  1872,  0,584.  It  has  a  celebrated  Gothic 
cathedral,  and  other  notable  buildings  are  the 
church  of  St.  Genoult  and  the  former  episcopal 
palace,  now  used  as  a  town  hall.  Its  trade  and 
.industry  embrace  wine,  glass,  hosiery,  and  other 


local  products  and  manufactures. — Originally 
it  belonged  to  Belgic  Gaul,  and  afterward  suc 
cessively  to  Austrasia,  to  local  counts,  and  to 
Germany  as  an  imperial  city  under  the  pro 
tectorate  of  the  dukes  of  Lorraine ;  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century  it  was  annexed  to 
France.  The  bishopric,  established  early  in 
the  5th  century,  was  suppressed  during  the  rev 
olution.  In  January,  1814,  Toul  was  stormed 
by  the  Russians ;  and  in  1870  it  was  bombard 
ed  by  the  Germans,  to  whom  it  surrendered 
Sept.  23,  after  a  strenuous  defence. 

TOULMIN,  Camilla.     See  CEOSLAXD. 

TOULMIN,  Joshua,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  London,  May  11, 1740,  died  in  Birmingham, 
July  23,  1815.  He  was  educated  at  a  dissent 
ing  academy,  and  became  pastor  of  a  dissenting 
congregation  in  Colyton,  and  in  1765  of  a  Bap 
tist  congregation  in  Taunton,  where  he  was 
also  a  bookseller.  He  subsequently  adopted 
Unitarian  opinions,  received  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
from  Harvard  college  in  1794,  and  in  1804  was 
chosen  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  Unitarian 
congregation  at  Birmingham,  formerly  pre 
sided  over  by  Dr.  Priestley,  which  post  he 
retained  till  his  death.  His  principal  publi 
cations  are:  "Sermons  to  Youth"  (12mo, 
Honiton,  1770);  "Memoirs of  Socinus"  (1777); 
"  Letter  to  Dr.  John  Sturges  on  the  Church 
Establishment"  (1782)  ;  "  Dissertations  on  the 
Internal  Evidences  of  Christianity"  (1785); 
"  Review  of  the  Life,  Character,  and  Writings 
of  John  Biddle,  M.A."  (1789) ;  an  edition  of 
Neal's  "  History  of  the  Puritans,"  with  notes 
and  additions  (5  vols.,  l794-'7  ;  3  vols.,  1837) ; 
"  Biographical  Tribute  to  the  Memory  of  Dr. 
Priestley"  (1804);  "Memoirs  of  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Bourne"  (1809);  and  a  "Historical 
View  of  the  State  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters 
in  England"  (1814).  Theophilus  Browne  edit 
ed  and  published  22  of  his  posthumous  dis 
courses  (8vo,  Birmingham,  1818). 

TOULON,  a  seaport  city  of  France,  in  the  de 
partment  of  Var,  Provence,  at  the  head  of  a 
double  bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  lat.  43°  7' 
N.,  Ion.  5°  56'  E.,  30  m.  S.  E.  of  Marseilles ;  pop. 
in  1872,  69,127.  It  stands  upon  ground  which 
rises  gradually  from  the  sea,  and  is  sheltered 
by  a  ridge  of  mountains,  extending  round  the 
bay.  A  -tongue  of  land  stretches  nearly  across 
the  entrance  of  the  bay,  and,  together  with  all 
the  adjacent  points,  is  strongly  fortified.  The 
city  has  been  much  enlarged  within  the  last 
generation,  and  the  new  northern  quarter  is  a 
great  improvement  upon  the  old  parts  of  the 
town.  It  is  especially  rich  in  fountains,  trees, 
and  promenades.  The  cathedral  and  other  old 
and  new  churches,  the  fine  town  hall,  the  mili 
tary  and  naval  schools,  as  well  as  the  new 
palace  of  justice  and  the  new  theatre,  are  all 
eclipsed  by  the  magnitude  of  the  military  port. 
It  is  the  largest  in  the  Mediterranean  and  one 
of  the  most  admirable  of  the  kind,  extending 
over  240  acres,  and  surrounded  by  vast  build 
ings,  the  arsenal,  and  floating  docks,  and  con 
nected  with  the  supplementary  arsenals  of  Cas- 


822 


TOULOUSE 


tigneau  and  Mourillon ;  and  it  contains  a  ba 
gnio  for  prisoners  sentenced  to  transportation. 
The  adjoining  commercial  port  is  bounded  by 
a  quay,  which  is  the  most  active  part  of  Tou 


lon.  Ship  building  is  largely  carried  on,  but 
trade  and  industry  are  chiefly  supported  by 
the  military  and  naval  works,  which  employ 
10,000  men. — Toulon  was  known  as  a  harbor 


Toulon. 


under  the  Romans,  then  called  Telo  Martius. 
In  the  middle  ages  it  suffered  from  the  Sara 
cens.  The  fortifications  were  first  projected 
as  a  defence  against  pirates.  Under  Louis 
XIV.  they  became  celebrated,  withstanding  in 
1707  a  combined  attack  by  the  English  and 
Dutch  fleets  and  a  land  army  under  Prince 
Eugene  ;  and  they  were  extended  under  Napo 
leon  III.  In  1793  the  English  gained  posses 
sion  of  Toulon,  but  were  besieged  by  the  troops 
of  the  convention,  and  finally  driven  out  (Dec. 
19),  under  the  direction  of  Bonaparte,  who 
first  established  his  reputation  on  this  occasion. 
In  revenge  for  the  previous  surrender  of  the 
royalist  inhabitants  to  a  foreign  power,  the 
town  was  given  up  to  pillage  and  massacre. 

TOULOUSE  (anc.  Tolosa),  a  city  of  France,  in 
Languedoc,  capital  of  the  department  of  Haute- 
Garonne,  on  the  Garonne,  130  m.  S.  E.  of  Bor 
deaux  ;  pop.  in  1872,  124,852.  It  includes  an 
island  in  the  river,  and  the  suburb  of  St.  Cy- 
prien,  where  25,000  workmen  resided  before  its 
destruction  by  the  floods  of  1875.  It  is  more 
remarkable  for  historical  associations  and  for 
its  active  industry  than  for  external  attractions. 
The  square  is  called  after  the  capitol  or  town 
hall,  where  the  once  famous  floral  games  are 
still  annually  held  under  the  auspices  of  a  liter 
ary  society.  The  church  of  St.  Sernin  is  more 
remarkable  than  the  cathedral,  and  is  a  mas 
terpiece  of  Romanesque  architecture,  recently 
restored  by  Viollet-Leduc.  The  church  of  the 
Cordeliers,  of  the  13th  century,  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1871.  Toulouse  has  one  of  the  rich 
est  museums  of  art,  located  in  a  former  mon 
astery,  and  various  learned  institutions,  a  pub 
lic  library  of  60,000  volumes,  an  observatory, 
and  an  arsenal.  The  palace  of  justice  was  for 
merly  the  seat  of  the  Toulouse  parliament. 
The  trade  with  both  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Atlantic  is  active.  Woollen  and  cotton 
goods,  cutlery,  hardware,  and  many  other  arti 
cles  are  manufactured. — Toulouse  is  of  great 


antiquity.  It  became  the  capital  of  the  Visi 
goths  in  the  5th  century,  and  subsequently  of 
the  duchy  of  Aquitaine.  Local  counts  or  dukes 
were  the  rulers  from  the  end  of  the  8th  till 
late  in  the  13th  century,  in  the  early  part  of 


Church  of  St.  Sernin. 


which  a  crusade  was  carried  on  against  Counts 
Raymond  VI.  and  Raymond  VII.  (See  ALBI- 
GENSES.)  Philip  III.  annexed  it  to  the  French 
crown,  under  which  it  remained  the  capital  of 
Languedoc  till  the  revolution.  During  the  mid- 


TOURAINE 


TOURNAMENT 


823 


die  ages  it  was  the  seat  of  numerous  councils. 
The  memorable  battle  of  Toulouse,  April  10, 
1814,  resulted  in  Wellington's  signal  victory 
over  the  French  ufider  Soult.  The  inundation 
of  the  Garonne  on  June  24, 1875,  caused  the  loss 
of  a  vast  number  of  lives  and  immense  property. 

TOURAKVE,  an  ancient  province  of  France, 
now  chiefly  comprised  in  the  department  of 
Indre-et-Loire.  It  was  originally  inhabited  by 
the  Turones,  a  Gallic  tribe.  At  the  end  of  the 
5th  century  Clovis  took  it  from  the  Visigoths. 
Having  been  governed  for  a  time  by  local 
counts,  it  passed  in  1044  to  the  house  of  An- 
jou,  and  with  this  subsequently  under  English 
domination.  In  1202  it  was  taken  by  the 
French  king  Philip  Augustus.  It  was  a  duchy 
from  1356  till  its  final  annexation  in  1584  to 
the  French  crown.  Tours  was  at  all  times  the 
capital  of  Touraine.  (See  INDKE-ET-LOIEE.) 

TOURCOING,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Le  Nord,  8  m.  N.  E.  of  Lille,  within 
a  few  tmiles  of  the  Belgian  frontier ;  pop.  in 
1872,  43,322.  -It  contains  hundreds  of  manu 
factories  of  woollens,  cottons,  linens,  carpets, 
and  other  goods.  The  aggregate  annual  value 
of  trade  and  industry  is  estimated  at  170,000,- 
000  francs.  A  pyramid  commemorates  the 
battle  of  May  18,  1794,  in  which  the  army  of 
Pichegru  defeated  the  English. 

TOURMALINE,  a  name  applied  to  a  group  of 
rhombohedral  double  silicates,  composed  of 
silica,  fluorine,  boric  acid,  alumina,  manganic, 
ferric,  and  ferrous  oxides,  magnesia,  lime,  soda, 
potash,  lithia,  and  sometimes  phosphoric  acid. 
Rammelsberg  divides  them  into  magnesium, 
rnagnesium-iron,  iron,  iron-manganese,  and 
manganese  tourmalines,  the  last  two  varieties 
alone  containing  lithia.  The  sesquioxides  are 
alumina  and  ferric  and  manganic  oxides.  The 
color  of  tourmalines  varies  with  their  compo 
sition  ;  the  red,  called  rubellite,  are  manganese 
tourmalines,  containing  lithium  and  manganese, 
with  little  or  no  iron;  the  violet  blue  (called 
indicolite)  and  green  are  iron-manganese  tour 
malines  ;  and  the  black,  which  are  schorl,  are 
either  iron  or  magnesium-iron  tourmalines. 
White  or  colorless  tourmalines,  which  arc  rare, 
are  called  achroite.  Sometimes  the  crystals 
are  red  at  one  extremity  and  green  at  the 
other,  or  green  internally  and  red  externally, 
or  vice  versa.  Tourmaline  is  usually  found  in 
granite,  gneiss,  and  syenite,  in  mica,  chloritic, 
and  talcose  schists,  in  dolomite,  granular  lime 
stone,  and  sometimes  sandstone  near  dikes  of 
igneous  rocks  (Dana).  Rubellite  and  green 
tourmaline  are  found  at  Yekaterinburg  in  the 
Ural  mountains;  pink  crystals  in  the  island 
of  Elba;  pale  yellowish  brown  in  Carinthia; 
white  in  the  St.  Gothard  mountains,  the  Ural, 
and  Elba.  In  Massachusetts,  at  Chesterfield, 
are  red,  green,  and  blue  tourmalines,  in  a 
granite  vein  with  albite ;  and  at  Goshen  the 
blue  occurs  in  great  perfection.  At  Graf  ton 
and  Orford,  1ST.  II.,  Brattleboro,  Vt.,  and  Mon 
roe,  Conn.,  specimens  of  tourmaline  of  various 
colors  occur  in  steatite,  mica  slate,  and  other 


rocks.  Tourmalines  are  found  in  New  York, 
at  Crown  Point,  in  fine  brown  crystals,  and 
in  St.  Lawrence,  Jefferson,  Essex,  and  other 
counties;  also  in  other  states,  in  numerous 
localities.  In  California  black  crystals,  6  to 
8  in.  in  diameter,  occur  in  feldspar  veins  in 
the  mountains  between  San  Diego  and  the 
Colorado  desert.  In  Canada,  superb  greenish 
yellow  crystals  an  inch  in  diameter  occur  in 
limestone  at  Grand  Calumet  island.  In  the 
town  of  Paris,  Maine,  in  one  of  the  spurs  of 
"  Streaked  mountain  "  called  by  the  mineralo 
gists  Mt.  Mica,  several  deposits  of  beautiful 
green  and  red  tourmalines  of  perfect  forms 
were  found  in  1820  by  Elijah  L.  Ilamlin  and 
Ezekiel  Jones.  Many  specimens  were  sent  to 
various  parts  of  Europe ;  and  some  fine  ones 
obtained  from  Vander  Null,  an  antiquary,  are 
believed  to  be  in  the  museum  at  Vienna. — 
Tourmalines  are  not  often  used  in  jewelry, 
although  fine  rubellites  form  beautiful  gems, 
and  bear  a  high  price.  In  the  grand  duke's 
collection  at  Florence  there  was  a  specimen  11 
|  in.  square,  with  four  erect  green  tourmalines 
and  one  prostrate,  4,  2,  and  2-J  in.  long  and 
f  in.  to  1  in.  thick.  A  magnificent  group  of 
pink  tourmalines  nearly  a  foot  square  was 
given  by  the  king  of  Burmah  to  Col.  Sykes, 
while  commissioner  to  his  court.  The  tour 
maline  appears  to  have  been  first  brought  to 
Europe  from  Ceylon  by  the  Dutch  about  the 
end  of  the  17th  century,  and  was  exhibited  as 
a  curiosity  on  account  of  its  pyro-electric  prop 
erties,  whence  it  was  called  aschcntrccker  (Ger. 
Aschenziclier).  The  tourmaline  is  a  double- 
refracting  crystal,  but  has  the  peculiar  property 
of  polarizing  lipht.  It  has  not  the  power  like 
Iceland  spar  of  separating  and  transmitting 
both  the  ordinary  and  the  extraordinary  ray ; 
but  when  the  plate  is  cut  with  its  faces  parallel 
to  the  optic  axis  of  the  crystal,  and  exposed  to 
a  ray  of  light,  the  ordinary  ray  passes  through, 
while  the  extraordinary  ray  is  absorbed.  (See 
LIGHT,  vol.  x.,  pp.  440  and  449,  and  THEEMO- 
ELECTEICITY.) — See  "Diamonds  and  Precious 
Stones,"  by  Harry  Emanuel  (London,  1867; 
New  York,  1873);  "The  Tourmaline,"  by  A. 
C.  Ilamlin,  M.  D.  (Boston,  1873);  and  Dana's 
"Mineralogy." 

TOUR1VAMEAT  (It.  torniamento ;  Fr.  tourncr, 
to  turn),  a  military  sport  of  the  middle  ages. 
It  took  its  rise  after  the  establishment  of  the 
feudal  system,  and  appears  to  have  been  intro 
duced  into  northern  Europe  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  9th  century,  although  several 
centuries  elapsed  before  it  came  into  familiar 
or  reputable  use.  This  was  owing  perhaps  to 
the  costliness  as  well  as  the  sanguinary  charac 
ter  of  the  contests  in  the  early  tournaments, 
which  often  resulted  in  the  death  or  serious 
injury  of  several  of  the  combatants,  and  were 
conducted  very  much  in  the  spirit  of  the  gladi 
atorial  shows  of  the  ancient  Romans.  Hence 
the  prohibition  of  the  practice  by  such  princes 
as  Henry  II.  of  England,  and  the  steady  op 
position  of  the  church  down  to  a  late  period. 


824 


TOURNAMENT 


TOURNAY 


With  the  institution  of  chivalry  and  knight 
hood,  however,  the  tournament  lost  many  of 
its  objectionable  features ;  and  as  an  incentive 
to  martial  exploits  and  to  a  generous  emula 
tion  in  all  knightly  offices,  it  began  during  the 
period  of  the  crusades  to  be  tolerated,  and 
eventually  was  encouraged  in  most  countries 
of  Christendom.  The  church,  which  had  pro 
hibited  persons  from  engaging  in  tournaments 
on  pain  of  excommunication,  and  had  denied 
Christian  burial  to  such  as  lost  their  lives  in 
them,  finally  relaxed  its  opposition,  and  until 
the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century  tne  sport 
continued  in  full  activity.  It  thenceforth  be 
came  gradually  transformed  into  a  court  pa 
geant,  often  of  the  most  magnificent  and  cost 
ly  description ;  but  the  death  of  Henry  II.  of 
France  of  a  wound  received  at  a  tournament 
in  1559  occasioned  its  abolition  in  all  parts  of 
Europe,  although  for  nearly  a  century  later  it 
continued  to  be  occasionally  revived  at  court 
festivities.  The  decay  of  chivalry,  the  intro 
duction  of  firearms,  and  the  gradual  disuse 
of  defensive  armor,  together  with  the  rise  of 
the  commercial  spirit  and  the  new  civiliza 
tion  thereby  extended  over  the  world,  were 
the  real  causes  of  its  decline.  Whatever  may 
have  been  the  nature  of  the  combats  in  tour 
naments  at  the  origin  of  the  practice,  they 
soon  became  for  the  most  part  encounters  be 
tween  mounted  adversaries  (whence  the  deri 
vation  of  the  term,  as  illustrative  of  the  agil 
ity  required  by  the  combatants  in  turning  or 
managing  their  horses),  who  were  knights  or 
at  least  candidates  for  knighthood,  as  esquires 
or  pages.  A  joust  was,  properly  speaking,  a 
combat  between  two  knights,  while  the  tour 
nament  included  several  jousts,  or  an  encoun 
ter  of  several  knights  on  a  side. — In- the  course 
of  time  numerous  regulations,  having  the  au 
thority  of  a  code  of  laws,  prescribed  the  man 
ner  in  which  tournaments  should  be  conducted ; 
and,  except  where  national  pride  or  rivalry, 
or  personal  enmity,  inflamed  the  combatants, 
no  serious  result  was  likely  to  happen.  They 
were  generally  held  at  the  invitation  of  some 
prince  upon  the  .birth  or  nuptials  of  royal 
persons,  during  royal  progresses,  or  at  high 
court  festivals,  and  heralds  were  sent  into  the 
neighboring  kingdoms  to  invite  the  knights  to 
be  present.  These  frequently  came  from  dis 
tant  countries,  attended  by  splendid  retinues  ; 
and  on  the  appointed  day  the  galleries  encir- 
.cling  the  lists,  or  level  enclosed  space  in  which 
the  knights  contended,  were  gay  with  banners 
and  costly  draperies  and  crowded  with  spec 
tators,  conspicuous  among  whom  were  the 
ladies,  whose  approving  smiles  were  the  re 
wards  most  esteemed  by  the  victors.  In  the 
flourishing  period  of  tournaments  two  kinds 
of  arms  were  employed,  those  made  expressly 
for  the  purpose,  consisting  of  lances  with  the 
points  blunted  or  covered  with  pieces  of  wood, 
called  rockets,  and  swords  blunted  or  rebated ; 
and  those  ordinarily  used  in  warfare,  termed 
armes  cl  entrance,  which  in  many  cases  were 


not  permitted  by  the  judges  of  the  tournament. 
The  blows,  whether  of  lance  or  sword,  were 
required  to  be  directed  at  the  head  and  breast, 
and  no  combatant  was  permitted  to  strike  an 
adversary  after  he  had  raised  his  visor,  or  to 
wound  his  horse.  Each  knight  in  attendance 
was  obliged  to  prove  his  noble  birth  and  rank, 
which  were  originally  proclaimed  by  the  her 
alds  with  sound  of  trumpet ;  whence  the  word 
blazonry,  signifying  the  art  of  deciphering  the 
heraldic  devices  on  a  coat  of  arms,  from  the 
German  lilasen,  to  blow.  At  a  later  period  the 
emblazoned  shields  of  the  knights,  suspended 
at  the  barriers  or  entrance  of  the  lists,  sufficed 
to  indicate  their  rank  and  family.  If  upon  the 
accusation  of  any  lady  present  the  bravery  or 
loyalty  of  a  knight  was  impeached,  he  was  ex 
cluded  by  the  heralds  from  the  contest.  The 
heralds  having  proclaimed  the  laws  of  the  tour 
nament,  at  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  the  whole 
body  of  knights,  each  with  his  attendant  squire, 
entered  the  lists  in  a  glittering  cavalcade,  dis 
tinguishable  only  by  their  emblazoned  shields 
or  by  the  favors  of  their  mistresses  suspended 
from  their  crests,  after  which  the  martial  ex 
ercises  of  the  tournament  began.  At  the  word 
of  the  heralds,  Laissez-aller,  the  opposing  com 
batants  rode  at  each  other  in  full  career,  stri 
ving  to  direct  their  lances  fairly  upon  the  hel 
met  or  shield  of  their  adversaries,  that  one 
being  adjudged  the  victor  who  broke  most 
spears  "  as  they  ought  to  be  broken,"  who  held 
his  seat  the  longest,  and  who  showed  most  en 
durance  in  keeping  his  visor  closed.  Some 
times  dismounted  knights  encountered  each 
other  with  swords  or  axes.  The  prizes  were  an 
nounced  by  the  judges,  selected  from  the  older 
knights,  but  were  awarded  by  ladies. — A  favor 
ite  form  of  the  tournament  was  the  so-called  pas 
sage  of  arms,  in  which  a  party  of  knights,  as 
suming  the  office  of  challengers,  offered  combat 
to  all  who  dared  oppose  them.  Of  this,  as  also 
of  the  melee  or  encounter  of  bodies  of  knights 
attended  by  their  squires,  a  splendid  description 
is  given  in  Scott's  "  Ivanhoe."  The  later  tour 
naments  were  comparatively  harmless. 

TOURNAY,  or  Tournai  (Flem.  Doornicfy,  a 
town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Hainault, 
on  both  banks  of  the  Scheldt,  45  m.  S.  W.  of 
Brussels ;  pop.  in  1870,  31,003.  It  has  seven 
suburbs,  fine  streets  and  quays,  a  gymnasium, 
an  episcopal  seminary,  an  art  academy,  and 
many  churches,  including  a  cathedral  with  five 
towers  and  fine  paintings.  The  church  of  St. 
Brice  contains  the  tomb  of  Childeric  I.,  and 
the  "golden  bees,"  supposed  to  have  belonged 
to  his  royal  robes,  which  Napoleon  substituted 
for  ihefteurs  de  Us  of  the  Bourbon  vestments. 
Carpets,  woollen  cloths,  hosiery,  and  linens  are 
manufactured. — Under  the  Romans  Tournay 
was  included  in  Gallia  Belgica  under  the  name 
of  Turnacum  or  Tornacum.  In  the  5th  and 
6th  centuries  it  was  a  residence  of  the  Mero 
vingian  dynasty.  It  afterward  successively 
belonged  to  Flanders  and  France.  In  1520  it 
was  annexed  to  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and, 


TOURNEFORT 


TOUSSAINT 


825 


having  espoused  the  Protestant  cause,  it  was 
heroically  though  unsuccessfully  defended  in 
1581  by  Marie  de  Lalaing,  princess  of  Epinoy, 
against  the  duke  of  Parma.  It  was  conquered 
by  Louis  XIV.  in  1667,  and  fortified  by  Vau- 
ban.  The  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  gave  it  to 
Austria,  but  it  was  again  under  French  rule 
from  1745  to  1748.  The  fortifications  have 
recently  been  demolished. 

TOIRNEFORT,  Joseph  Pitton  de,  a  French  bot- 
|anist,  born  in  Aix,  June  5,  1656,  died  in  Paris 
near  the  close  of  1708.  After  extensive  stud 
ies  and  explorations  he  became  in  1683  pro 
fessor  at  the  jardin  des  plantes,  and  was  ad 
mitted  to  the  academy  of  sciences  in  1692. 
In  1700  he  was  sent  by  Louis  XIV.  on  a  scien 
tific  expedition  to  the  Levant.  He  returned  in 
1702,  and  was  subsequently  professor  of  medi 
cine  in  the  college  de  France.  Linnaeus  has 
preserved  several  of  his  classifications.  His 
works  include  Elements  de  lotanique  (3  vols., 
Paris,  1694;  new  ed.  of  his  Latin  translation, 
with  A.  de  Jussieu's  additions,  including  his 
corollarium  or  classification  of  his  vast  collec 
tions,  3  vols.,  Lyons,  1719;  English  transla 
tion,  2  vols.,  London,  1719-'30);  Histoire  des 
plantes  qui  naissent  aux  environs  de  Paris, 
avec  leurs  usages  dans  la  medecine  (1698;  en 
larged  ed.  by  Jussieu,  2  vols.,  1725;  English 
translation  by  Martyn,  2  vols.,  London,  1732) ; 
and  Voyage  du  Levant  (2  vols.,  1717;  English, 
3  vols.,  1741). 

TOURS  (anc.  Civitas  Tvronum  and  Ccesaro- 
dunum),  a  city  of  France,  capital  of  the  de 
partment  of  Indre-et-Loire,  chiefly  on  a  tongue 
of  land  between  the  Loire  and  the  Cher, 
120  m.  S.  AY.  of  Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  43,368. 
The  bridge  over  the  Loire  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  France.  A  handsome  street  traverses  the 
town,  and  contains  a  marble  statue  of  Des 
cartes,  who  was  born  near  Tours.  Only  two 
towers  remain  of  the  celebrated  cathedral  of 
St.  Martin  of  Tours,  destroyed  in  1793.  The 
palace  of  the  resident  archbishop  is  of  uncom 
mon  beauty.  The  town  hall  has  a  large  public 
library  and  remarkable  manuscripts.  Cloth, 
carpets,  silks,  and  many  other  articles  are 
manufactured. — Tours  was  the  capital  of  the 
ancient  tribe  of  Turones,  under  the  Roman 
emperors  of  the  latest  period  of  Gallia  Lugdu- 
nensis  III.,  and  lastly  of  Touraine.  A  number 
of  important  councils  were  held  here,  and  the 
states  general  of  France  were  repeatedly  as 
sembled  here  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries. 
The  silk  industry  first  arose  here,  and  was  of 
vast  extent  until  the  rise  of  Lyons.  The  town 
had  a  population  of  nearly  80,000  at  the  time 
of  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which 
ruined  its  prosperity.  Several  members  of  the 
government  of  the  national  defence,  including 
Gambetta,  had  their  seat  in  Tours  during  the 
siege  of  Paris,  till  Dec.  10,  1870,  when  they 
removed  to  Bordeaux.  The  Germans  finally 
occupied  Tours,  Jan.  19,  1871. 

TOtRVILLE,  Anne  Hilarion  de  Cotentin,  count 
de,  a  French  admiral,  born  Nov.  24,  1642,  died 


j  in  Paris,  May  28,  1701.  After  brilliant  ex 
ploits  against  the  pirates  of  1ST.  Africa,  which 
won  for  him  from  Venice  the  title  of  pro 
tector  of  commerce,  Louis  XIV.  appointed 
him  in  1667  naval  commander.  In  1676  he 
decided  the  victory  of  Agosta,  and  in  1677, 
off  Palermo,  he  nearly  destroyed  the  allied 
squadrons  of  Spain  and  Holland.  After  va 
rious  other  achievements  he  became  in  1689 
vice  admiral  of  the  Levant.  In  1690,  opera 
ting  against  the  English  and  Dutch  off  Beachy 
Head,  he  pursued  the  former  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Thames,  where  he  destroyed  many  of  their 
ships  and  transports.  In  1691,  as  command 
er  of  the  ocean  fleet,  he  enabled  the  French 
troops  to  reach  Ireland  in  aid  of  James  II. 
In  1692,  by  positive  order  from  Louis  XIV., 
at  the  head  of  44  ships,  he  engaged  off  the 
fort  of  La  Hogue,  on  the  E.  coast  of  Coten 
tin,  the  English  admiral  Russell,  whose  forces 
were  nearly  double,  and,  after  12  hours  of  de 
termined  resistance,  was  defeated,  but  escaped 
to  port  with  the  remains  of  his  fleet.  In  1C 93 
he  was  appointed  marshal,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  captured  27  Dutch  and  English  ships 
off  Cape  St.  Vincent  and  destroyed  59.  He 
retired  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697. 

TOISSAIKT,  Francois  Dominique,  surnamed  L'Otr- 
VERTUEE,  a  Haytian  general,  born  near  Cap 
Francois  in  1743,  died  in  the  dungeon  of  Joux, 
France,  April  27,  1803.  His  parents  were 
both  slaves,  and  of  pure  negro  blood.  He 
was  a  coachman,  and  afterward  held  a  post  of 
trust  in  connection  with  'the  sugar  manufac 
tory  of  the  estate  to  which  he  belonged.  He 
had  learned  to  read  and  write  from  a  fellow 
slave,  and  after  his  promotion  he  read  consid 
erably.  He  remained  apparently  contented 
with  his  lot  till  1791,  when  the  mulattoes  ap 
pealed  to  the  negroes  for  help  in  enforcing 
their  rights ;  and  even  then,  though  many  of 
the  blacks  rose  in  insurrection,  Toussaint  in 
curred  the  hostility  of  his  race  by  remaining 
quiet.  But  after  securing  the  escape  of  the 
director  of  the  estate  and  his  family,  he  joined 
the  negro  army.  Toussaint,  at  first  employed 
in  a  medical  capacity,  was  soon  appointed  a 
brigadier  general.  When  news  came  of  the 
beheading  of  Louis  XVI.  the  black  leaders  ac 
cepted  the  aid  of  Spain,  and  repelled  the  offers 
of  the  French  convention.  Toussaint  soon 
captured  the  entire  army  of  Brandicourt,  the 
general  of  the  whites,  without  bloodshed,  and 
occupied  several  important  military  posts, 
among  them  Gonaives.  The  English,  having 
in  1793  invaded  the  island,  took  Port-au- 
Prince,  while  the  French,  the  Spaniards,  the 
mulattoes,  and  the  blacks  were  all  contending 
with  each  other.  At  this  juncture  Toussaint, 
who  was  already  in  effect  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  black  forces,  became  convinced 
that  the  only  hope  for  Hayti  lay  in  declaring 
for  France,  whose  national  legislature,  while 
making  Hayti  an  integral  part  of  France,  had 
proclaimed  also  the  freedom  of  the  slaves. 
He  therefore  declared  his  fealty  to  the  repub- 


826 


TOUSSAINT 


lie,  and  applied  him  self  so  energetically  to  bring 
all  parties  to  the  same  conclusion  that  Laveaux, 
the  French  commander,  exclaimed :  Mais  cet 
ho  mine  fait  ouverture  partout ;  and  from  this 
time  he  received  his  surname  of  "L'Ouver- 
ture "  (the  opening),  lie  formed  a  junction 
with  Laveaux,  and,  though  the  Spanish  and 
English  forces  united  against  him,  he  drove 
the  English  from  nearly  all  their  strong  posi 
tions,  took  28  Spanish  batteries  in  four  days, 
maintained  a  long  line  of  defences  against  the 
allied  enemy,  who  possessed  twice  his  force, 
rescued  Laveaux,  and  finally  closed  the  cam 
paign  by  receiving  the  capitulation  of  the  en 
tire  English  force  besieged  at  St.  Marc  (1797), 
and  the  abandonment  of  the  effort  by  the 
Spanish  to  conquer  the  "W.  portion  of  the  isl 
and.  Toussaint,  who  had  been  appointed  corn- 
mander-in-chief  of  St.  Domingo  in  1796  by 
Sonthonax,  the  French  commissioner,  soon  re 
stored  order  and  industry  to  the  island,  though 
opposed  to  Iledouville,  the  new  commissioner. 
Hedouvillo,  finding  himself  without  influence, 
fled  to  France  to  make  complaint  of  the  negro 
chieftain,  who  sent  to  the  directory  a  state 
ment  of  the  true  position  of  affairs..  The 
French  directory  justified  Toussaint  and  cen 
sured  Iledouville.  But  the  latter,  on  the  eve 
of  leaving  Hayti,  had  sown  the  seeds  of  discord 
between  Rigaud,  the  mulatto  leader,  and  Tous 
saint,  and,  by  finally  setting  the  former  free 
from  his  obligations  to  the  latter,  had  prepared 
the  foundations  of  a  new  civil  war ;  and  for 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  year  1799  the  war  be 
tween  the  blacks  and  the  mixed  race  raged 
fiercely.  Toussaint  captured  Jacinel,  subdued 
the  mulatto  insurrection,  and  on  Nov.  26, 
1800,  assumed  the  government,  amenable  for 
his  administration  to  the  French  directory 
alone;  and  in  January,  1801,  the  whole  island 
became  subject  to  his  sway.  He  invited  the 
steward  of  his  old  master's  estate  and  other 
well  disposed  white  colonists  back  to  the  isl 
and.  He  assumed  great  state  in  his  public  ap 
pearance,  being  richly  attired  and  surrounded 
by  a  guard  of  1,500  to  1,800  men,  all  in  bril 
liant  uniforms  and  admirably  mounted ;  but  in 
private  life  he  was  plain  and  temperate.  At 
the  very  beginning  of  his  administration  Tous 
saint  selected  an  administrative  council  of  nine, 
of  whom  eight  were  white  proprietors  and  one 
a  mulatto.  A  constitution  was  drawn  up  by 
the  council,  in  which  he  was  named  president 
for  life,  and  free  trade  was  established.  This 
constitution  he  sent  with  a  letter  to  Bonaparte, 
then  first  consul,  whose  reply  was:  "He  is  a 
revolted  slave  whom  we  must  punish ;  the 
honor  of  France  is  outraged."  An  act  was 
passed  restoring  the  French  colonies  to  their 
condition  previous  to  1789.  In  a  subsequent 
decree  by  Bonaparte  St.  Domingo  or  Ilayti  was 
excepted — an  exception,  as  the  event  proved, 
intended  to  be  only  temporary.  Gen.  Leclerc, 
the  husband  of  Pauline,  Bonaparte's  sister,  Avas 
sent  out  with  a  force' of  30,000  men  and  66' 
war  vessels.  The  expedition  arrived  on  the 


coast  of  Hayti  in  January,  1802.  Among  those 
in  command  in  it  were  Eigaud,  Petion,  and 
Boyer,  all  enemies  of  Toussaint.  Without  a 
declaration  of  war  Leclerc  attempted  to  enter 
Cap  Francois  with  his  force,  and  Christophe, 
who  was  in  command  there,  rather  than  sur 
render,  burned  the  city.  Finding  unexpected 
resistance  at  all  points,  Leclerc  sent  Toussaint's 
sons,  who  had  been  educated  in  France,  and 
whom  he  had  brought  with  him,  to  their  fa 
ther,  with  a  letter  from  Bonaparte  and  anoth^- 
er  from  himself,  couched  in  terms  of  mingled 
flattery  and  menace.  The  negotiation  was  in 
effectual.  Leclerc  then  declared  Toussaint  and 
his  generals  outlaws,  and  a  sanguinary  con 
flict  ensued,  in  which  one  third  ofjbhe  French 
troops  were  killed  or  wounded ;  and  though 
they  possessed  the  seaports,  yet  the  blacks 
from  their  mountain  fastnesses  were  destroy 
ing  them  in  detail.  Finding  it  impossible  to 
conquer  the  island  in  this  way,  Leclerc  sought 
to  win  over  the  negro  generals,  and  succeeded 
with  Christophe  and  those  under  him,  inclu 
ding  Dessalines.  He  next  made  his  proposi 
tions  to  Toussaint,  offering  as  conditions  of 
peace  to  respect  the  liberty  of  the  people,  and 
confirming  this  by  the  most  solemn  oaths  to 
leave  the  government  of  the  island  in  Tous 
saint's  hands,  and  to  employ  the  officers  of  his 
army  according  to  their  rank,  while  for  him 
self  he  would  only  hold  the  office  of  delegate 
from  France  by  Toussaint's  side.  Toussaint 
accepted  his  offers,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  May  1.  He  avowed  however  his 
own  determination  to  leave  public  .life,  and  re 
tired  to  his  estate  near  Ennery.  But  Leclerc 
had  determined  upon  his  destruction.  At  his 
direction  Gen.  Brunet  on  June  7  sent  him  an 
apparently  cordial  letter,  asking  for  an  inter 
view  of  an  hour  in  relation  to  some  arrange 
ments  for  providing  for  the  black  troops,  in 
viting  him  to  bring  his  wife  with  him,  and 
closing  with  assuring  him  of  the  sincerity  of 
his  friendship.  Toussaint  went  to  Gonaives, 
and  after  a  short  conversation  Brunet  left  the 
room,  when  an  armed  force  entered  and  seized 
Toussaint,  and  at  midnight  put  him  on  board  a 
French  frigate,  with  his  family.  On  their  ar 
rival  at  Brest  he  was  separated  from  his  fam 
ily,  whom  he  was  never  allowed  to  see  again. 
On  Aug.  17  he  reached  Paris  under  guard,  and 
was  at  once  confined  in  the  Temple,  whence  he 
was  transferred,  without  trial  and  without  any 
explanation  of  the  cause  of  his  arrest,  to  the 
dungeons  of  the  castle  of  Joux,  in  the  depart 
ment  of  Doubs.  Here,  deprived  of  all  society, 
subjected  to  the  intense  cold  with  insufficient 
clothing,  and  with  too  little  food  to  sustain 
life,  he  appealed  repeatedly  but  in  vain  for  a 
trial ;  and  as  well  as  his  failing  strength  would 
allow,  he  -began  his  defence,  which  was  trans 
mitted  to  Bonaparte,  but  elicited  no  reply. 
Finally  the  governor -of  the  castle  went  away 
for  four  days  and  left  Toussaint  without  food 
or  drink.  On  his  return  he  was  dead,  and  the 
rats  had  gnawed  his  feet.  An  autopsy  was 


TOWHEE 


TOWN 


827 


held,  and  his  death  was  said  to  have  been 
caused  by  apoplexy. — Lives  of  Toussaint  have 
been  written,  among  others,  by  Saint-Remy 
(Paris,  1850),  the  Rev.  John  R.  Beard,  D.  I). 
(London,  1853),  Hannah  Lee  (Boston,  1854), 
0.  W.  Elliott  (New  York,  1855),  and  J.  Red- 
path  (Boston,  1863). 

TOWHEE.     See  CHEWIXK. 

TOWN  (Ang.  Sax.  tun,  from  tynan,  to  enclose), 
originally  an  enclosure  of  the  farm  and  farm 
house  by  a  hedge,  and  finally  of  a  collection  of 
houses.  Towns  began  to  exist  as  municipali 
ties  in  Germany  in  the  time  of  the  emperor 
Henry  the  Fowler  (919-936),  who  caused  all 
the  important  villages  to  be  surrounded  with 
walls  or  earthworks  and  ditches,  as  a  defence 
against  the  Huns.  Certain  of  the  landless  free 
men  were  compelled  to  reside  in  these  towns, 
while  others  were  attracted  by  the  privileges 
he  conferred.  These  were  in  the  nature  of 
charters  or  contracts  with  the  inhabitants,  and 
had  reference  to  various  subjects.  The  germ 
of  the  town  thus  planted  grew  vigorously. 
The  princes  and  bishops  of  the  empire  created 
towns  on  their  own  fiefs  and  benefices,  and 
granted  charters.  For  several  hundred  years 
thereafter  municipal  charters  were  granted  in 
Europe  afe  the  political,  military,  or  financial 
convenience  of  the  ruling  powers.  In  Spain 
the  Christian  kings  created  towns  and  granted 
municipal  charters  on  the  frontier,  as  the  ter 
ritory  was  slowrly  reconquered  from  the  Moors. 
In  England  charters  were  granted  liberally  by 
King  John,  to  enlist  the  common  people  on  his 
side  in  his  contests  with  the  barons ;  and  in 
France  by  Louis  the  Fat  for  similar  reasons. 
Sometimes  municipalities  were  chartered  as  a 
means  of  increasing  or  more  conveniently  col 
lecting  the  king's  revenue.  In  Holland 'the 
municipal  system  embraced  nearly  all  the  terri 
tory  and  population.  In  Germany  leagues  of 
the  free  towns  were  formed,  either  for  com 
mon  defence  or  for  commercial  purposes.  Of 
the  former,  the  Swabian  league  and  the  league 
of  the  Rhine  were  the  most  important ;  while- 
of  the  latter,  the  league  of  the  Ilanse  towns, 
or  the  Hanseatic  league,  was  the  most  remark 
able  and  most  powerful  confederation  of  mu 
nicipalities  that  ever  existed.  (See  HAXSEATIC 
LEAGUE.)  From  various  causes  the  self-gov 
erning  feature  of  the  towns  of  continental 
Europe  has  been  almost  entirely  obliterated. — 
The  system  of  town  government  has  existed 
in  New  England  since  the  settlement  of  the 
colonies,  and  in  substantially  the  same  form 
as  at  present,  except  that  classes  of  town  offi 
cers  have  been  largely  increased  in  number, 
and  their  various  duties  more  particularly  pre 
scribed.  Here  it  still  prevails  in  its  purest 
form ;  in  New  York  and  a  few  other  states  it 
exists  in  a  modified  form ;  with  two  or  three 
exceptions,  it  is  not  found  in  the  southern 
states.  In  New  England  it  is  the  most  im 
portant  political  division  of  the  state.  Ex 
cepting  unorganized  portions  of  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Vermont,  and  certain  incor 


porated  cities  which  have  superseded  towns, 
the  entire  territory  and  population  are  under 
town  government.  In  1870  there  were  in  New 
England  1,424  towns,  with  an  average  area  of 
34  sq.  m.,  and  an  average  population  of  2,450, 
or,  excluding  cities  and  towns  having  over 
10,000  inhabitants,  1,YOO.  The  town  is  a  po 
litical  and  corporate  body  created  by  the  legis 
lature.  Its  rights,  duties,  and  liabilities  are 
defined  by  law,  and  it  is  responsible  for  any 
act  or  omission  in  violation  of  the  law  to 
the  person  injured  or  to  the  state.  It  can 
be  fined  in  the  same  manner  as  an  individual. 
Except  in  Massachusetts  and  Maine,  where 
representation  is  by  districts,  it  is  entitled  to 
an  independent  representation  in  the  lower 
branch  of  the  legislature.  It  elects  its  own 
executive  officers,  supports  schools,  maintains 
roads  and  bridges,  supports  paupers,  restrains 
lunatics,  manages  a  local  police,  protects  the 
public  health  against  infectious  diseases,  col 
lects  through  its  own  officers  not  only  its 
self-imposed  taxes  for  local  purposes,  but  also 
the  state  taxes  and  those  levied  by  county  offi 
cers,  and  generally  administers  its  own  public 
affaire.  The  town  officers  are  usually  elect 
ed  annually  and  in  the  spring.  The  chief 
ones  are  a  town  clerk,  three,  five,  seven,  or 
nine  selectmen,  three  or  more  assessors  with 
sometimes  assistant  assessors,  three  or  more 
overseers  of  the  poor,  a  treasurer,  one  or  more 
surveyors  of  highways,  three  or  more  mem 
bers  of  school  committee,  and  constables,  who 
are  required  to  collect  taxes  unless  collectors 
are  chosen.  The  most  important  officers  arc 
the  selectmen,  who  transact  the  general  public 
business  of  the  town.  Usually  one  of  them, 
called  the  first  selectman,  appointed  by  the 
body  from  their  own  number  or  elected  to 
that  position  by  the  freemen  of  the  town,  acts 
as  the  agent  and  general  executive  officer,  but 
in  the  more  important  matters  he  consults  the 
other  selectmen.  The  most  important  busi 
ness,  such  as  that  relating  to  taxes,  and  estab 
lishing  roads,  bridges,  &c.,  is  transacted  by  the 
voters  of  the  town  in  town  meeting,  which 
is  the  general  legislative  body  of  the  town. 
The  county  in  New  England  is  an  unimportant 
subdivision  of  the  state,  and  exists  mainly  for 
judicial  purposes.  Even  the  state  does  com 
paratively  little  public  business,  and  the  towns 
raise  by  taxation  and  expend  at  least  eight 
times  the  amount  of  money  that  the  state  re 
quires  for  its  purposes. — In  marked  contrast 
to  the  town  system  as  it  exists  in  New  Eng 
land  is  the  county  system,  which  prevails  in 
California,  Delaware,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  and 
Oregon,  and  in  all  the  southern  states  excepting 
North  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia. 
In  these  states  the  county  is  the  important 
political  subdivision  of  the  state,  while  the 
town  or  township,  where  it  exists,  is  little 
more  than  a  nominal  territorial  division,  with 
out  political  power.  The  county  is  created  by 
the  legislature,  and  is  responsible  to  the  state 
for  its  share  of  the  state  taxation.  Excluding 


828 


TOWN 


TOWNSHEND 


the  unorganized  parts  of  the  state,  the  average 
area  of  the  counties  in  these  states  in  1870 
was  1,040  sq.  m.,  and  their  average  population 
11,236  ;  or  excluding  also  the  partly  organized 
and  settled  states  of  the  Pacific  slope,  their 
average  area  was  734  sq.  m.,  and  their  average 
population  11,515,  or  about  15  inhabitants  to 
the  square  mile.  The  affairs  of  the  county  are 
administered  by  its  own  officers  chosen  by  the 
people  of  the  county  or  appointed  by  other 
county  officers.  These  are  usually  the  court 
of  county  commissioners,  assessor,  treasurer, 
collector,  superintendent  of  education,  appor- 
tioners  of  roads,  and  superintendents  of  roads, 
besides  certain  judicial  officers. — In  the  middle, 
western,  and  northwestern  states,  excepting 
those  above  mentioned,  and  in  North  Carolina, 
Virginia,  and  West  Virginia,  a  union  of  the 
town  and  county  systems,  which  has  been 
called  the  "  compromise  system,"  prevails. 
In  these  states  the  political  power,  which  in 
New  England  is  vested  in  the  town  and  in  the 
southern  states  in  the  county,  is  divided  be 
tween  the  two.  The  county  is  the  political 
unit;  it  is  a  body  politic  with  the  usual  corpo 
rate  powers ;  but  it  is  subdivided  into  towns  or 
townships,  which  possess  considerable  politi 
cal  rights.  Besides  the  county  officers,  there 
are  town  officers  usually  elected  annually  by 
the  people  of  the  town.  They  are  clothed 
with  minor  political  powers,  but  their  action 
in  more  important  matters  is  subject  to  re 
vision  by  the  higher  county  officers.  In  New 
York  the  powers  of  the  county  are  exercised 
by  a  board  of  supervisors  in  which  the  towns 
of  the  county  are  represented  as  equal  political 
communities.  The  supervisor  who  represents 
the  town  in  the  county  board  has  other  town 
duties,  and  is  thus  both  an  officer  of  the  town 
and  of  the  county.  This  is  also  the  case  in 
Illinois,  Michigan,  New  Jersey,  Virginia,  West 
Virginia,  and  Wisconsin.  In  Indiana,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  Minnesota,  North  Carolina,  Ohio,  and 
Pennsylvania,  the  affairs  of  the  county  are 
usually  managed  by  a  board  of  three  commis 
sioners,  who  are  elected  from  the  body  of  the 
county  and  have  no  town  duties  whatever.  In 
New  York  and  the  more  eastern  of  the  states 
where  the  mixed  system  prevails,  the  town  in 
political  importance  approaches  more  nearly 
to  that  of  New  England;  but  in  some  parts 
of  the  west  the  township  (this  word  being 
there  more  common  than  town)  is  a  mere  geo 
graphical  division  embracing  36  sq.  m.,  and 
has  very  limited  political  functions.  Town  is 
often  used  popularly  in  the  west  to  denote  a 
small  municipality,  as  a  village.  In  none  'of 
the  states  outside  of  New  England  do  the 
towns,  or  townships,  as  such,  send  represen 
tatives  to  the  legislature.  —  Other  forms  of 
municipalities  have  been  created  by  the  differ 
ent  states.  Boroughs  and  villages  are  corpora-1 
tions  with  peculiar  powers  and  privileges,  such 
as  have  reference  to  special  objects  and  are 
not  granted  to  towns  by  general  laws.  In 
England  there  are  municipal  and  parliamentary 


boroughs,  the  former  being  a  town  (some,  as 
Liverpool,  of  the  largest  size)  having  a  munici 
pal  government,  and  the  latter  a  town  or  dis 
trict  (sometimes  including  several  municipal 
boroughs)  that  sends  a  member  or  members  to 
parliament ;  while  in  the  United  States  a  bor 
ough  is  a  municipal  corporation  that  is  usually 
expected  to  become  a  city  at  some  future  time, 
having  powTers  less  extensive  than  those  of  a 
city  and  different  from  those  of  a  town.  In 
the  extent  and  variety  of  its  powers  the  city  is 
the  most  important  municipality.  In  England 
a  city  is  any  town  that  either  is  or  has  been 
the  see  of  a  bishop  and  has  a  cathedral ;  but  in 
the  United  States  the  distinction  between  a 
town  and  a  city  usually  refers  to  size  and  al 
ways  to  the  form  of  municipal  government. 
The  governing  power  of  cities  is  usually  vested 
in  a  mayor  and  council,  composed  of  one  or 
two  boards ;  but  the  details  of  the  government 
vary  greatly.  Probably  no  two  cities  can  be 
found  whose  charters  or  governments  are  pre 
cisely  alike.— See  Elliott's  u  New  England  His 
tory"  (Boston,  1857);  Haines's  "  Township 
Organization  "  (Chicago,  1865)  ;  "  The  Origin, 
Organization,  and  Influence  of  the  Towns  of 
New  England,1'  by  Joel  Parker  (Cambridge, 
1867)  ;  and  the  article  on  "  The  Minor  Political 
Divisions  of  the  United  States,"  by  S.  A.  Gal- 
pin,  in  the  "  Statistical  Atlas  of  the  United 
States  "  (1874).  Town  manuals  have  also  been 
published  in  New  York  and  most  of  the  New 
England  states. 

TOWNLEY,  Charles,  an  English  collector  of 
works  of  ancient  art,  born  in  Lancashire,  Oct. 
1,  1737,  died  in  Westminster,  Jan.  3,  1805. 
He  received  his  education  on  the  continent, 
and  during  a  residence  in  Eome  between  1765 
and  1772  he  devoted  his  fortune  largely  to 
the  purchase  of  ancient  marbles,  terra  cottas, 
bronzes,  gems,  &c.,  aided  by  the  advice  and 
experience  of  Winckelmann  and  others.  After 
his  return  to  England,  he  added  to  his  collec 
tion  by  means  of  agents  at  Rome,  and  by  pur 
chasing  that  of  Nollekens.  After  his  death 
his  collection  of  marbles  was  purchased  by  the 
nation  for  £20,000,  and  in  1814  his  bronzes, 
coins,  and  gems  became  the  public  property  at 
a  cost  of  £8,200.  All  are  now  incorporated 
with  the  general  collection  of  Grteco-Roman 
remains  in  the  British  museum. 

TOWNS,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Georgia,  border 
ing  on  North  Carolina,  and  drained  by  the 
head  streams  of  the  Hiawassee  river ;  area, 
about  250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,780,  of  whom 
155  were  colored.  The  surface  is  hilly  and 
mountainous,  and  the  soil  generally  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,090 
bushels  of  wheat,  5,389  of  rye,  61,990  of  In 
dian  corn,  and  8,927  of  oats.  There  were  458 
horses,  1,975  cattle,  2,575  sheep,  and  4,183 
swine.  Capital,  Hiawassee. 

TOWNSHEND.  I.  Charles,  second  viscount,  an 
English  statesman,  born  in  1676,  died  at  Rain- 
ham,  Norfolk,  June  21,  1738.  He  succeeded 
to  his  title  at  ten  years  of  age,  and  soon  after 


TOWNSHEKD 


TRACHEOTOMY 


829 


taking  his  seat  in  the  house  of  peers  attached 
himself  to  the  whigs.  In  1700  he  was  ap 
pointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat  for 
the  union  with  Scotland,  and  in  1707  captain 
of  the  yeomen  of  the  queen's  guard;  and  in 
1709,  in  the  capacity  of  ambassador  extraor 
dinary  to  the  United  Provinces,  he  negotiated 
the  barrier  treaty.  The  accession  of  George  I. 
having  brought  the  whigs  into  power,  Towns- 
hend  was  appointed  one  of  the  principal  secre 
taries  of  state,  and  took  the  lead  in  the  admin 
istration  until  the  summer  of  1716,  when,  owing 
to  the  intrigues  of  his  colleagues,  Lord  Sun- 
derland  and  Gen.  Stanhope,  he  was  dismissed. 
To  break  the  ignominy  of  his  fall,  he  was  of 
fered  the  lord-lieutenancy  of  Ireland,  which 
he  indignantly  declined  ;  but  the  king,  fearing 
the  public  displeasure,  induced  him  to  accept 
it.  The  growing  influence  of  Sumlerland  and 
Stanhope  with  the  king  rendered  the  position 
uncomfortable,  and,  with  his  colleague  and 
brother-in-law  TValpole,  he  retired  from  office 
in  April,  1717.  After  remaining  several  years 
in  opposition,  he  was  in  1720  appointed  presi 
dent  of  the  council,  and  on  the  reconstruction 
of  the  ministry  in  1721  he  resumed  his  old  po 
sition  of  secretary  of  state,  "Walpole  becoming 
first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer.  Finally,  displeased  with  Walpole's 
growing  ascendancy  and  disputing  upon  ques 
tions  of  public  policy,  Townshend  resigned, 
May  15,  1730.  II.  Charles,  an  English  states 
man,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  Aug.  28, 
1725,  died  Sept.  4,'  1767.  He  entered  parlia 
ment  in  1747,  and  in  1753  brought  himself  into 
notice  by  a  speech  of  great  power  and  eloquence 
on  the  marriage  bill.  In  1754  he  was  appointed 
a  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in  the  first  admin 
istration  of  Pitt  he  was  treasurer  of  the  cham 
ber,  which  office  in  1761  he  exchanged  for  that 
of  secretary  of  war.  During  the  ministry  of 
the  earl  of  Bute  he  remained  out  of  office,  but 
in  that  of  George  Grenville  which  succeeded 
(1763),  he  was  appointed  first  lord  of  trade 
and  the  plantations.  lie  zealously  supported 
Grenville's  stamp  act,  introduced  in  1765,  in  a 
speech  which  elicited  from  Col.  Barre  in  reply 
one  of  the  most  memorable  efforts  of  parlia 
mentary  eloquence  ;  but  during  the  Rocking- 
ham  administration,  in  which  he  held  the  office 
of  paymaster  of  the  forces,  he  advocated  the 
repeal  of  the  act.  On  the  formation  of  the 
second  Pitt  administration  in  1766,  he  became 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and,  with  a  vacil 
lation  which  gained  him  the  name  of  the  weath 
ercock,  advocated  the  necessity  of  a  tax  upon 
American  ports.  On  June  2,  1767,  he  intro 
duced  into  the  house  of  commons  the  cele 
brated  resolutions  imposing  duties  upon  paper, 
tea,  and  other  articles  imported  into  the  Ameri 
can  colonies,  which  eventually  led  to  their 
revolt  and  independence.  The  illness  of  Pitt 
rendered  necessary  a  reconstruction  of  the 
cabinet,  and  Townshend  was  generally  under 
stood  to  have  been  selected  to  form  a  new 
ministry,  when  he  suddenly  died. 


TOWNSHIP.     See  TOWN,  and  SURVEYING. 

TOXICODENDROft.     See  SUMACH. 

TOXICOLOGY.     See  POISON. 

TOXODON  (Gr.  T6£ov,  a  bow,  and  bdot<c,  a 
tooth),  a  name  applied  by  Owen  to  a  genus  of 
extinct  mammals  of  the  order  of  ungulates, 
with  affinities  to  edentates  and  rodents.  The 
first  species,  named  by  Owen  the  T.  Platensis, 
was  found  in  a  miocene  clay  in  South  America, 
about  120  in.  N.  W.  of  Montevideo ;  it  was 
established  on  a  cranium  2^- ft.  long,  elongated, 
with  a  flattened  occiput,  small  cerebral  cavity, 
remarkably  strong  and  widely  expanded  zygo- 
matic  arches,  and  transverse  glenoid  cavity ; 
the  upper  molars  were  seven  on  each  side, 
implanted  with  the  convexity  outward,  the 
opposite  of  what  occurs  in  rodents  ;  they  were 
long,  arched,  without  roots,  the  enamel  form 
ing  an  irregular  prismatic  grooved  tube ;  upper 
incisors  four,  the  external  the  largest,  like  those 
of  rodents  in  structure,  and  worn  away  in  the 
same  chisel  shape  ;  in  the  lower  jaw  were  seven 
molars  on  a  side,  and  six  incisors  ranged  in  a 
semicircle ;  the  name  was  derived  from  the 
curve  of  the  outer  upper  incisors.  It  was  large, 
low  on  the  legs,  with  the  aspect  and  habits  of 
a  pachyderm.  It  shows  an  affinity  to  the  sire- 
nia  (like  the  manatee)  in  the  flattened  occiput, 
small  brain  cavity,  and  nasal  passages  widely 
opened  above,  but  differs  in  the  size  of  the 
frontal  sinuses  and  in  the  incisors  ;  it  seems  to 
have  formed  a  connecting  link  between  the 
rodents  and  the  ungulates.  It  was  probably 
aquatic  to  a  certain  extent. — See  "Fossil  Mam 
mals  of  the  Voyage  of  the  Beagle,"  described 
and  figured  by  Prof.  Owen  (4to,  London,  1840). 

TRACHEOTOMY  (Gr.  rpa^eZo,  the  windpipe,  and 
TEfiveiv,  to  cut), -a  surgical  operation  by  which 
the  trachea  or  windpipe  is  opened.  Trache 
otomy  may  be  performed  with  propriety  in 
cases  where  admission  of  air  into  the  lungs  is 
obstructed  either  by  disease  or  by  a  foreign 
body ;  and  it  has  sometimes  been  tried  with 
success  to  facilitate  the  inflation  of  the  lungs 
in  cases  of  suspended  animation.  The  opera 
tion  is  not  free  from  danger,  and  in  the  first 
class  of  cases,  though  giving  marked  temporary 
relief,  it  does  nothing  toward  curing  the  disease 
itself.  It  consists  in  first  making  an  incision 
in  the  median  line  of  the  throat,  either  below 
or  above  the  thyroid  gland,  and  dissecting 
down  to  the  trachea,  cautiously  pushing  aside 
the  sterno-hyoid  muscles  and  vessels  lying  in 
the  vicinity,  till  the  trachea  is  exposed.  When 
the  bleeding  has  ceased,  the  trachea  is  opened 
by  a  vertical  incision,  and  a  portion  of  one  or 
more  of  its  rings  removed  ;  through  the  open 
ing  thus  made  a  silver  canula  is  introduced, 
which  when  obstructed  by  mucus  may  be  re 
moved,  cleansed,  and  again  inserted.  If  the 
obstruction  to  respiration  is  removed,  the  can 
ula  may  be  withdrawn  and  the  orifice  allowed 
to  heal ;  but  if  not,  the  canula  must  continue 
to  be  worn.  If  the  operation  is  performed  to 
aid  in  restoring  animation  or  to  remove  a  for 
eign  body,  no  canula  need  be  inserted,  and 


830 


TEAOHYTE 


TRACT  AND  PUBLICATION  SOCIETIES 


the  wound  should  be  closed  so  soon  as  the 
object  is  effected. 

TRACHYTE  (Gr.  rpax'vs,  rough),  a  rock  of 
volcanic  origin,  named  from  the  roughness  of 
ibs  surface.  It  consists  chiefly  of  glassy  feld 
spar,  sometimes  associated  with  hornblende, 
and  also  with  augite.  When  these  minerals 
predominate,  the  rock  passes  into  the  varieties 
of  trap  called  basalt,  greenstone,  dolerite,  &c. 

TRACT  AND  PUBLICATION  SOCIETIES.  The 
printing  of  short  religious  treatises  and  narra 
tives  for  cheap  or  gratuitous  distribution  was 
very  early  practised.  Indeed,  prior  to  the  in 
troduction  of  printing,  Wycliffe  circulated  his 
views  by  means  of  brief  essays,  which  were 
transcribed  and  passed  from  hand  to  hand. 
Strype  testifies  to  the  circulation  of  some  of 
Tyndale's  tracts  about  1530.  In  the  17th  cen 
tury  there  were  associations  for  printing  and 
promoting  the  sale  of  religious  works.  In 
1701  tha  u  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge,"  consisting  of  members  of  the 
church  of  England,  was  founded  to  promote 
charity  schools  in  all  parts  of  England  and 
Wales,  and  to  disperse  both  at  home  and 
abroad  Bibles  and  tracts  of  religion.  In  1742 
John  Wesley  began  the  publication  and  dis 
tribution  of  tracts  and  books  on  a  large  scale, 
and  in  1782  he  and  Dr.  Coke  organized  the 
'"  Society  for  the  Distribution  of  Tracts  among 
the  Poor."  In  1750  the  "Society  for  Promo 
ting  Religious  Knowledge  among  the  Poor " 
was  organized  in  London,  and  was  the  first 
publishing  society  in  which  members  of  differ 
ent  religious  denominations  were  united.  In 
1756  societies  were  established  at  Edinburgh 
and  Glasgow  for  similar  objects,  and  for  sev 
eral  years  circulated  many  religious  publica 
tions  ;  but  eventually  they  as  well  as  the  Lon 
don  society  declined.  In  1795  Miss  Hannah 
More  commenced  at  Bath  a  monthly  series  of 
short  religious  tales  which  she  named  "  Cheap 
Repository,"  of  which  2,000,000  copies  were 
sold  the  first  year.  In  it  was  published  the 
widely  popular  story  of  "  The  Shepherd  of 
Salisbury  Plain."  Mrs.  Rebecca  Wilkinson, 
of  Clapham,  Surrey,  also  wrote  and  published 
many  small  books  and  tracts.  The  ';  Philan 
thropic  Society"  printed  for  her  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years,  commencing  with  1792,  440,250 
copies  of  books  and  tracts. — In  1790  the  "Re 
ligious  Tract  Society,"  or  as  it  is  now  called 
the  "  Religious  Tract  and  Book  Society  of 
Scotland,"  was  founded  in  Edinburgh  by  the 
Rev.  John  Campbell,  a  missionary  to  Africa. 
In  1355  this  society  adopted  the  colportage 
system  of  the  American  tract  society,  to  which 
it  has  since  given  a  large  part  of  its  effort. 
In  that  year  it  sent  out  three  colporteurs ;  in 
1875  it  sent  out  234  in  Scotland  and  20  in  the 
north  of  England.  In  the  year  ending  March 
31,  1875,  its  circulation  was  2,855,000,  inclu 
ding  55,000  copies  of  the  Scriptures  a.nd  120,- 
000  other  bound  volumes,  besides  300,000  hymn 
books,  1,240,000  periodicals,  and  1,140,000 
tracts.— The  "  Religious  Tract  Society "  of 


j  London  was  founded  in  May,  1799.  It  had 
its  origin  in  the  labors  of  the  Rev.  George 
Burder  of  Coventry,  who  had  begun  printing 
tracts  on  his  own  account  in  1781,  of  a  more 
directly  religious  character  than  those  of  Miss 
More.  He  continued  their  occasional  issue  in 
connection  with  some  friends  for  several  years, 
and  then  convened  a  meeting  of  ministers  by 
whom  the  society  was  established  under  its 
present  name.  Among  them  were  the  Rev. 
Messrs.  Rowland  Hill,  William  Newman,  Mat 
thew  Wilks,  and  Joseph  Hughes,  fo'r  many 
years  its  secretary.  Its  entire  receipts  the 
first  year  were  £407  "is.  4d.,  of  which  £203 
10s.  8d.  were  from  contributions,  &c.,  and 
£203  IGs.  Sd.  from  sales.  In  1849,  when  the 
society  celebrated  its  jubilee,  they  had  risen 
to  £50,981  15*.  8(Z.,  of  which  £4,939  2s.  Sd. 
were  from  contributions,  &c.,  and  £44,003  10s. 
Qd.  from  sales.  The  total  receipts  of  50  years 
from  contributions  and  legacies,  up  to  1849, 
were  £152,552  Ss.^from  sales  £1,023,215  13s. 
Id.,  making  with  other  items  £1,202,242  13s. 
Sd.  By  the  expenditure  of  this  sum  the  society 
had  published  5,148  different  works  in  110 
languages  and  dialects,  of  which  it  had  issued 
over  500,000,000  copies.  It  now  keeps  on  its 
catalogue  about  10,000  different  publications. 
It  issued  during  the  year  ending  March  31, 
1875,  303  new  volumes  and  167  new  tracts. 
The  total  circulation  from  the  home  deposi 
tories  during  the  year  was  40,536,057,  inclu 
ding  about  23,000,000  tracts.  The  issues  in 
foreign  depositories  in  Europe,  India,  China, 
Africa,  and  elsewhere  were  about  10,000.000 
more.  The  entire  number  of  issues  since  the 
formation  of  the  society  was  about  1.595,000,- 
000,  of  13,023  different  publications  in  120 
different  languages  and  dialects.  Its  grants  of 
books,  tracts,  &c.,  for  the  year  amounted  to 
£28,328  7s.  Id.  This  society  owns  no  presses 
or  bindery.  It  maintains  three  depositories  in 
London,  one  at  Brighton,  one  at  Manchester, 
and  others  in  the  principal  cities  of  continental 
Europe,  in  Constantinople,  Beyrout,  and  differ 
ent  cities  of  India,  China,  and  Japan ;  and  there 
are  auxiliary  and  cooperating  societies  in  Great 
Britain,  Canada,  and  Australia.  During  the 
year  it  made  grants  of  books  and  tracts  to  the 
colporteurs  in  the  north  of  England  from  the 
religious  tract  and  book  society  of  Scotland, 
and  a  grant  amounting  to  £400  to  the  negroes 
of  the  southern  United  States.  There  are  sev 
eral  other  societies  in  Great  Britain  for  the 
circulation  and  distribution  of  religious  books 
and  tracts,  each  of  the  principal  religious  de 
nominations  having  one  or  more. — The  most 
important  of  the  tract  societies  of  continental 
Europe  is  the  Hamburg  tract  society,  organized 
in  1830,  which  issued  from  April  1,  1872,  to 
Nov.  1,  1874,  2,648,000  copies  of  its  publica 
tions  in  German,  Danish,  and  Lettish ;  and  it 
has  issued  since  its  organization  27,000,000 
tracts  in  seven  languages.  The  Paris  tract 
|  society  has  issued  665,380  publications.  The 
i  Toulouse  book  society  has  issued  137,129  vol- 


TRACT  AND  PUBLICATION  SOCIETIES 


831 


umes.  The  evangelical  society  of  Geneva,  or 
ganized  in  1831,  expended  in  1874  $15, 000,  and 
has  issued  in  all  335,000  volumes  and  3,000,000 
tracts.  The  Belgian  evangelical  society  issued 
1,380  volumes  and  202,000  tracts  in  1874.  The 
British  American  book  and  tract  society  was 
organized  at  Halifax  in  1867,  and  has  given  its 
effort  largely  to  colportage.  In  1874  it  em 
ployed  26  colporteurs  at  an  expense  of  $34,629. 
Its  total  expenditure  has  been  $169,193.— The 
first'  religious  publication  society  in  the  United 
States  was  the  "  Methodist  Book  Concern," 
originally  established  in  Philadelphia,  which 
issued  its  first  publication  in  1789.  It  was  re 
moved  to  New  York  in  1804,  and  for  29  years 
had  its  depository  in  Crosby  street.  In  1822 
the  agents  established  a  bindery,  and  in  1824 
added  a  printing  office.  In  1833  it  was  re 
moved  to  No.  200  Mulberry  street,  and  in  Feb 
ruary,  1836,  its  premises  were  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  a  loss  of  $250,000  incurred.  A  new 
building  was  immediately  erected  on  the  same 
site,  which  is  still  occupied  by  the  printing 
office  and  bindery.  In  1869  a  building  for  a 
sales  house  and  offices  was  purchased  in  Broad 
way  at  the  corner  of  llth  street.  The  book 
concern  has  a  depository  in  Cincinnati,  which 
publishes  periodicals  and  a  few  books ;  it  has 
also  depositories  publishing  denominational 
journals,  and  keeping  full  supplies  of  its  books, 
at  Boston,  Pittsburgh,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and 
San  Francisco;  and  the  ministers  of  the  de 
nomination  are  agents  for  the  sale  and  circula 
tion  of  its  journals  and  tracts.  Its  publica 
tions  consist  of  books,  periodicals,  and  tracts. 
The  book  concern  is  conducted  strictly  as  a 
business  house,  and  makes  no  donations.  In 
1874  the  Methodist  Episcopal  tract  society 
made  donations  of  tracts,  purchased  from  the 
book  concern,  to  the  value  of  $15,000,  besides 
contributing  more  than  $5,000  for  the  publica 
tions  of  missionary  presses  in  foreign  lands. 
In  1844  the  division  of  the  Methodist  church 
led  to  the  organization  of  a  book  concern 
connected  with  the  Methodist  church,  South, 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  which  eventually  re 
ceived  $200,000  of  the  capital  of  the 'book 
concern  as  the  share  of  the  church  south. 
— The  Rev.  Dr.  John  Stanford  published  tracts 
in  New  York  in  1786.  In  1803  the  Massa 
chusetts  "Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge"  was  formed  by  the  Rev.  Drs. 
Tappan,  Holmes,  and  Morse,  Lieutenant  Gov 
ernor  Philips,  and  others.  This  seems  to  have 
been  the  earliest  undenominational  tract  so 
ciety  organized  in  America.  Subsequently  nu 
merous  local  societies  sprung  into  existence, 
of  which  the  "  Religious  Tract  Society "  of 
New  York,  founded 'in  1812,  and  the  "New 
England  Tract  Society"  at  Andover,  in  1814, 
seem  to  have  been  the  most  efficient.  The 
latter  grew  rapidly,  and  in  1823  changed  its 
name  to  the  "American  Tract  Society,"  and 
shortly  thereafter  its  location  to  Boston,  great - 
.ly  enlarging  its  operations.  In  1825  this  so 
ciety  had  205  auxiliaries,  had  issued  177  gen- 
YOL.  xv. — 53 


eral  tracts  and  19  of  a  series  for  the  young, 
had  published  in  all  over  800,000  copies,  and 
had  commenced  the  publication  of  an  almanac 
and  a  monthly  journal.  In  the  spring  of  1825 
the  "American  Tract  Society"  was  organized 
in  New  York,  and  was  intended  to  unite  the 
local  societies  then  in  existence  as  far  as  pos 
sible  as  auxiliaries.  The  Boston  society  be 
came  a  branch  of  it.  This  union  continued 
till  May,  1859,  when,  in  consequence  of  the 
dissatisfaction  of  a  considerable  number  of  the 
members  in  New  England  and  elsewhere  at 
the  hesitation  of  the  American  tract  society 
in  New  York  to  publish  tracts  or  treatises  on 
the  subject  of  slavery,  the  two  societies  re 
sumed  their  independent  organizations.  In 
1870  the  total  sales  of  the  society  at  Boston 
amounted  to  $103,027  38,  and  the  expenses 
of  the  charitable  department  to  $7,970  95. 
In  1871  it  simplified  its  plan  of  operation  by 
contracting  with  a  publishing  house  to  print, 
bind,  and  sell  its  tracts,  periodicals,  and  books. 
This  arrangement  proved  efficient  and  econom 
ical,  and  enabled  the -society,  while  carrying 
forward  its  usual  work,  to  clear  off,  before 
May,  1875,  a  debt  of  $22,493  27  incurred  pre 
vious  to  1871.  This  plan  is  still  pursued.  The 
American  tract  society  in  New  York,  owning 
a  large  building  in  Nassau  and  Spruce  streets 
called  the  "Tract  House,"  manufactures  its 
publications,  and  has  become  one  of  the  largest 
of  the  national  benevolent  societies  of  the 
country.  At  first  only  English  tracts  were 
printed,  215  the  first  year ;  the  third  year  one 
volume,  and  tracts  in  Spanish,  French,  and 
German.  Every  succeeding  year  the  list  was 
enlarged,  until  at  the  end  of  50  years  (1875) 
its  catalogue  contained  1,133  volumes  and  3,497 
smaller  publications.  In  1843  was  commenced 
the  "American  Messenger,"  a  monthly  fam 
ily  paper;  in  1847  the  Botschafter,  a  German 
paper;  in  1852  the  "Child's  Paper,"  an  illus 
trated  juvenile  ;  in  1871  the  "Morning  Light," 
an  illustrated  monthly  for  beginners,  the  "  Il 
lustrated  Christian  Weekly,"  and  the  Yollis- 
freund,  a  similar  weekly  in  German.  The 
average  daily  issue  from  the  tract  house  is 
54,000  copies  of  publications,  of  which  4,000 
are  volumes;  and  the  entire  issue  from  the 
beginning  has  been  358,718,338  copies,  of 
8,338,141,531  pages,  of  which  331,683,312 
copies  were  tracts  averaging  about  8  pages 
each,  and  27,035,026  volumes,  averaging  about 
208  pages;  36,307,806  tracts  and  2,603,884 
volumes  were  in  foreign  languages.  The  so 
ciety  has  also  expended  in  printing  at  mission 
stations  in  foreign  lands  $616,637  30.  The 
entire  receipts  from  April,  1825,  to  April, 
1875,  were  $13,597,589  63,  of  which  $8,957,- 
219  50  were  from  sales,  $312,274  69  from 
rents,  and  $4,328,095  44  from  donations  and 
legacies.  In  1842  the  society  commenced  its 
colportage  system,  which  it  has  maintained 
up  to  the  present  time.  The  colporteur,  as 
the  term  is  employed  by  the  society,  is  an  itin 
erant  missionary,  who  distributes  its  publica- 


TRACTARIANISM 


TRADE  MARK 


tions  either  by  sale,  partial  sale,  or  gift,  as 
may  seem  best  in  each  case,  from  the  desire 
to  do  good,  and  also  engages  as  opportunity 
offers  in  the  more  direct  missionary  labors  of 
preaching,  prayer,  and  religious  conversation ; 
his  expenses  are  partly  defrayed  by  the  socie 
ty,  and  partly  by  the  sales  of  books.  Through 


this  agency,  for  the  34  years  from  its  estab 
lishment  in  1842  to  1875,  10,503,696  volumes 
were  sold  and  2,780,066  given  away. — The  dif 
ferent  religious  denominations  have  each  also 
their  tract  or  publication  societies,  of  which 
the  most  important  particulars  are  given  in 
the  following  table: 


ORGANIZATIONS. 

Date  of 
Organiza 
tion. 

No.  of 
publica- 

catalogue. 

ISSUED   DURING   THE 
YEAK   1874-'5. 

Value  of 
issue  during 
1874-'o. 

Volumes. 

Tracts,  pam 
phlets,  and 
periodicals. 

1789 
18-24 
1833 
1847 
1854 
1854 
1863 
18-29 

2,809 
1,156 

'382 
650 

100 
1,000 
1,000 

352,170 
180,900 
689,000 

35,055,428 

9,678,482 
4,917,878 
480,000 

'  200,  600 
25,235 

1,820,000 

$1,580,613  74 
26-2,597  14 
307,728  02 

Baptist  publication  society  

Presbyterian  board  of  publication 

Protestant  Episcopal  evangelical  knowledge  society  
'•                  "         church  book  society  

"6,266' 

7,957 
140,000 

12,302  27 
"13^533"  99 

Reformed  church  board  of  publication 

New  Church  (Swedeuborgian)  tract  and  publication  society  
Congregational  publishing  society  

TRACTARIANISM,  a  movement  within  the 
church  of  England,  so  called  from  a  series 
of  papers  entitled  "Tracts  for  the  Times," 
published  at  Oxford  from  1833  to  1841.  It 
may  be  traced  to  the  agitation  of  Roman 
Catholic  emancipation  in  parliament,  and  par 
ticularly  to  the  suppression  of  the  sees  of  the 
Irish  bishops  who  voted  against  the  reform 
bill  in  the  house  of  lords  in  1831.  An  address 
deprecating  change,  and  urging  a  revival  of 
the  ancient  discipline,  was  presented  to  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  signed  by  7,000  cler 
gymen  ;  in  the  following  May  the  king  alluded 
to  the  movement  in  his  birthday  speech ;  and 
meetings  were  held  throughout  the  country 
in  behalf  of  the  maintenance  of  the  church. 
The  sentiments  now  advocated  had  been  al 
ready  expressed  by  the  Rev.  John  Keble  in  his 
"  Christian  Year  "  (1827),  and  by  the  Rev.  Hugh 
James  Rose  in  the  "British  Magazine."  In 
July,  1833,  a  conference  was  held  at  Hadleigh, 
which  led  to  the  publication  of  the  "  Tracts 
for  the  Times."  These  wrere  90  in  number, 
and  consisted  of  extracts  from  the  writings  of 
the  ante-Nicene  fathers  and  some  later  eccle 
siastical  authorities,  and  original  works  by  E. 
B.  Pusey,  John  Keble,  Isaac  Williams,  John 
Henry  Newman,  and  others.  They  advocated 
the  doctrines  of  apostolical  succession,  baptis 
mal  regeneration,  the  real  presence,  priestly 
absolution,  the  authority  of  the  church,  and 
the  value  of  tradition.  The  movement  cul 
minated  in  the  publication  of  tract  No.  90, 
which  maintained  the  compatibility  of  the 
thirty-nine  articles  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  This  was  condemned 
by  the  hebdomadal  board  of  Oxford  univer 
sity  in  1841,  and  its  author,  Dr.  Newman,  in 
1843  resigned  his  vicarage  of  St.  Mary's,  Ox 
ford,  and  in  1845  entered  the  Roman  Cath 
olic  church.  In  1843  Dr.  Pusey  was  suspend 
ed  from  the  office  of  university  preacher  on 
account  of  a  sermon  on  the  eucharist.  The 
tractarian  movement  has  resulted  in  the  de 
velopment  of -high  church  and  ritualistic  views, 


the  restoration  and  building  of  numerous 
churches,  and  the  secession  of  many  members 
of  the  church  of  England,  including  some 
clergymen  of  distinction,  to  the  Roman  Cath 
olic  church. — See  Perceval,  "Collection  of 
Papers"  (1842);  W.  Palmer,  "Narrative  of 
Events"  (1843);  and  F.  Oakeley,  "Historical 
Notes  on  the  Tractarian  Movement"  (1865). 

TRACTORS,  Metallic,     See  PEEKINS,  ELISIIA. 

TRACY.     See  DESTUTT  DE  TEACY. 

TRADE  MARK,  the  name,  symbol,  form,  or 
device  used  by  a  manufacturer  or  merchant  to 
distinguish  the  merchandise  which  he  produces 
or  sells  from  that  of  others,  in  order  that  such 
merchandise  may  be  known  as  his,  and  that  he 
may  secure  the  profits  arising  from  its  reputa 
tion  for  superiority.  Trade  marks  have  long 
been  protected  by  law,  on  the  general  princi 
ples  of  equity,  in  nearly  all  civilized  countries ; 
but  statutes  for  this  purpose  are  of  recent  ori 
gin.  The  object  of  such  laws  is  not  only  to 
secure  to  the  individual  the  fruits  of  his  skill, 
industry,  and  enterprise,  but  also  to  protect 
the  public  against  frauds.  In  the  United  States 
trade  marks  are  protected  by  the  statute  of 
1870,  which  is  the  first  one  passed  by  congress 
for  this  purpose.  It  does  not  interfere  with  the 
common  law  protection,  which  is  open  to  every 
person  independently  of  the  statute.  It  pro 
vides  that  any  person  or  firm  domiciled  in  the 
United  States,  or  any  corporation  created  by 
the  law  of  the  United  States  or  of  any  state, 
may,  by  complying  with  the  requirements  of 
the  act,  obtain  protection  for  any  lawful  trade 
mark  to  which  he  or  it  is  entitled,  for  the  term 
of  30  years,  with  the  privilege  of  a  renewed 
term  for  the  same  period.  Every  applicant 
must  record  in  the  patent  office  his  name,  resi 
dence,  and  place  of  business ;  the  class  of  mer 
chandise,  and  the  particular  description  of 
goods  comprised  in  such  class,  to  which  the 
trade  mark  has  been  or  is  intended  to  be  ap 
plied  ;  a  description  of  the  mark,  with  facsimi 
les  thereof  and  its  mode  of  use ;  and  the  length  M 
of  time,  if  any,  during  which  it  has  been  used. 


TRADE  MARK 


TRADES  UNION 


833 


He  must  also  pay  a  fee  of  $25,  and  file  a  sworn 
declaration  that  lie  is  entitled  to  the  exclusive 
use  of  the  mark,  and  that  the  description  and 
facsimiles  presented  are  true  representations. 
If,  on  examination  in  the  patent  office,  such 
symbol  is  found  to  have  the  requisites  of  a 
valid  trade  mark,  it  is  registered,  and  the  own 
er  becomes  entitled  to  legal  and  equitable  rem 
edies  against  its  violation. — Property  in  a  trade 
mark  is  acquired  by  the  original  application  to 
some  species  of  merchandise  of  a  device  or 
symbol  not  in  actual  use  to  designate  articles 
of  the  same  kind  or  class.  If  such  symbol 
have  the  essential  qualities  of  a  lawful  trade 
mark,  the  owner  becomes  entitled  to  its  exclu 
sive  use  within  the  limits  prescribed  by  law. 
But  whoever  first  adopts  a  mark  acquires  a 
right  to  its  exclusive  use  only  in  connection 
with  the  particular  class  of  merchandise  to 
which  he  has  applied  it.  His  right  to  use  it  as 
a  mark  on  iron  does  not  prevent  its  lawful  use 
by  another  on  cloth.  The  mark  must  also  be 
put  into  actual  use  before  it  may  be  claimed 
exclusively  by  any  person;  protection  begins 
from  the  time  of  such  use,  without  regard  to 
whether  the  mark  has  gained  a  reputation.  No 
person  will  be  protected  in  the  use  of  a  trade 
mark  which  is  not  truthful,  and  is  used  with 
the  design  of  deceiving  the  public,  or  which  is 
employed  in  any  unlawful  business,  or  upon 
any  injurious  article.— One  of  the  most  impor 
tant  requisites  of  a  valid  trade  mark  is  that  it 
shall,  either  by  itself  or  by  association,  point 
distinctively  to  the  origin  or  ownership  of  the 
article  to  which  it  is  applied.  By  its  individu 
ality,  it  must  associate  the  merchandise  with 
the  producer  or  the  place  of  production,  so 
that  the  purchaser  may  know  that  all  articles 
bearing  the  same  mark  are  genuine  and  of  the 
same  quality  and  from  the  same  source.  The 
mark  thus  becomes  equivalent  to  the  owner's 
commercial  signature. — No  person  has  a  right 
to  the  exclusive  use  of  a  mark  which  is  of  such 
a  character  that  others  may  employ  it  with 
equal  truth.  A  generic  name  of  an  article,  or 
one  merely  descriptive,  or  representing  the 
kind,  quality,  ingredients,  or  characteristics  of 
the  article,  may  not  be  used  as  a  valid  trade 
mark.  "Parchment  deed,"  "beeswax  oil," 
" superior  white  wheat,"  "desiccated  codfish," 
are  not  valid  as  trade  marks,  because  they  are 
the  proper  descriptive  appellations  of  the  arti 
cles.  Geographical  names  used  in  their  proper 
sense  cannot  become  lawful  trade  marks.  All 
coal  mined  in  the  Lackawanna  valley,  or  all 
wheat  grown  in  California,  may  be  sold  as 
"Lackawanna  coal"  or  "California  wheat," 
by  whomsoever  produced.  But  if  the  phrase  is 
used  as  an  arbitrary  symbol,  and  is  not  intend 
ed  to  represent  that  the  merchandise  is  pro 
duced  in  the  region  bearing  the  name,  and  is 
so  understood  by  the  public,  it  may  be  monopo 
lized  as  a  mark  for  any  class  of  goods.  "Da 
mascus  blade,"  applied  to  scythes  made  in  the 
United  States,  is  a  valid  trade  mark. — It  is  not 
clearly  settled  how  far  a  person's  own  name 


will  constitute  a  valid  trade  mark  indepen 
dently  of  the  statute.  -In  general  all  persons 
of  the  same  name  have  an  equal  right  to  any 
honest  use  of  such  name.  But  if  one  person 
has  acquired  a  valuable  reputation  for  his  own 
name  in  connection  with  a  particular  kind  of 
merchandise,  a  court  of  equity  might  restrain 
another  person  of  the  same  name  from  using 
it  as  a  trade  mark  for  the  same  class  of  goods, 
if  his  intent  were  clearly  to  deceive  the  pub 
lic  and  to  injure  the  person  who  had  first  so 
employed  it.  The  statute  of  1870  prohibits 
the  registration  of  any  proposed  trade  mark 
"which  is  merely  the  name  of  a  person,  firm, 
or  corporation  only,  unless  accompanied  by  a 
mark  sufficient  to  distinguish  it  from  the  same 
name  when  used  by  other  persons;"  except 
that  any  lawful  trade  mark  in  use  when  the 
act  was  passed  may  be  registered.  Names  of 
persons,  living  or  dead,  other  than  the  owner 
of  the  trade  mark,  may  be  monopolized  as  ar 
bitrary.  Symbols  for  any  class  of  goods,  as 
"Bismarck  collar,"  pseudonymes  or  imaginary 
names,  &c.,  will  also  be  protected.  Mere  ini 
tials  or  numerals  do  not  generally  constitute 
valid  trade  marks,  but  may  become  so  in  special 
cases.  The  title  of  a  book,  newspaper,  maga 
zine,  or  other  publication  may  have  the  essen 
tial  characteristics  of  a  trade  mark  ;  but  in  such 
cases  protection  has  usually  been  granted  on 
the  ground  of  fraud  committed  by  the  person 
who  has  unlawfully  appropriated  such  title,  or 
one  closely  resembling  it. — Property  in  a  trade 
mark  is  invaded  when  a  person  falsely  uses 
such  mark  or  a  colorable  imitation  of  it.  with 
the  intention  or  effect  of  falsely  representing 
his  own  goods  as  those  of  another.  The  usual 
remedy  of  the  injured  person  is  by  an  injunc 
tion  restraining  the  wrong  doer  from  a  further 
use  of  the  name,  or  by  an  action  at  law  for 
damages.  Generally  an  injunction  will  be 
granted  by  a  court  of  equity  only  when  the 
petitioner's  legal  title  is  clear.  If  the  lawful 
owner  have  suffered  damages,  he  may  proceed 
in  equity  for  the  profits  made  by  the  wrong 
doer,  or  he  may  sue  at  law  for  the  loss  he  has 
sustained.  The  good  will  of  a  trade  is  a  spe 
cies  of  property  analogous  to  that  in  trade 
marks. — The  statute  of  1870  provides  for  ex 
tending  protection  to  the  trade  marks  of  aliens 
resident  in  any  foreign  country  which  by  treaty 
or  convention  affords  similar  privileges  to  citi 
zens  of  the  United  States.  Treaties  and  con 
ventions  for  this  purpose  have  been  concluded 
with  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  the  Austro- 
Ilungarian  empire,  and  Russia.  The  principal 
countries  of  Europe  have  passed  laws  for  the 
protection  of  trade  marks,  and  in  some  it  is 
obligatory  upon,  manufacturers  to  affix  marks 
to  their  products. 

TRADES  UKION,  an  association  of  workmen  for 
concerted  action  upon  questions  of  wages,  hours 
of  labor,  and  other  conditions  of  employment, 
and  for  mutual  relief.  Apart  from  the  me 
dieval  craft  guilds,  which  included  employers 
(see  GUILD),  combinations  of  workmen  to  ob- 


834 


TRADES  UNION 


tain  increased  wages  have  occasionally  appeared 
for  several  centuries ;  but  until  a  comparatively 
recent  date  they  were  everywhere  the  object 
of  severe  legal  penalties.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  last  century  the  formation  of  workmen's 
societies  received  a  new  impulse  from  the  in 
troduction  of  machinery,  which,  by  concen 
trating  the  leading  industries  in  large  estab 
lishments,  gradually  reduced  many  small  mas 
ters  to  the  position  of  laborers,  and  vastly 
increased  the  difficulty  of  •  rising  from  the 
working  to  the  employing  class.  In  England 
unions  had  been  formed  among  the  wool  comb 
ers,  cotton  spinners,  weavers,  calico  printers, 
scissors  grinders,  and  men  of  other  trades,  be 
fore  the  beginning  of  this  century.  New  laws 


prohibiting  such  combinations  were  enacted 
in  1799  and  1800,  but  were  evaded  in  various 
ways;  and  in  1824  a  committee  of  the  house 
of  commons  reported  that  these  laws  had 
only  produced  irritation,  distrust,  and  violence. 
They  were  repealed,  and  an  act  was  passed  to 
protect  combinations  of  workmen  or  employ 
ers  from  prosecution  for  conspiracy  under  the 
common  law.  Later  acts  were  still  more  fa 
vorable  to  the  unions,  providing  for  their  re 
gistration  and  enabling  them  to  hold  real  estate. 
At  the  beginning  of  1876  the  number  of  mem 
bers  enrolled  in  the  trades  unions  of  the  United 
Kingdom  was  estimated  at  1,200,000,  of  which 
number  more  than  one  fourth  is  comprised  in 
the  14  societies  named  in  the  following  table : 


NAMES  OF  SOCIETIES. 

Date  of 

organi 
zation. 

Year 

of 
report. 

No.  of 
branches. 

No.  of 
memben. 

Year's 
income. 

Year's 
expendi 
tures. 

Funds  in 
hand. 

1851 
1833 

1852 
1809 
1834 
I860 
1866 
1871 

1874 

1874     ' 

1874 
1873-'4 
1874 
1873-n4 

379* 
360 
98 
106 
143 
265t 
261 
173 
269 
217 
80 

43,150 
26,000 
10,652 
12,097 
14,715 
13.817 
13,293 
14,500 
21,962 
40.000 
13,500 
17,000 

£118,556 
28,939 
9,577 
86,467 
33,945 
34,484 
13,343 

44.618 
43,806 

£80,490 

'  3.350 

29.246 

23,670 
8,506 

21,882. 

33,884 
31,174 

£238,990 

'  9,989 
56,543 

49,208 
41.264 
7,004 
9.800 
15,000 

13.415 

19.000 
4,000 
30,000 

Friendly  society  of  operative  stone  masons  

United  operative  masons  of  Scotland       .                             

Friendly  society  of  iron  founders  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Wales 
Boiler  makers  and  iron  ship  builders  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
Amalgamated  society  of  carpenters  and  joiners 

Amalgamated  society  of  railway  servants  

1874 

1874'" 
1873 
1874^5 

1873-14 

Durham  miners1  association  

1869 
1871 

isri 

1S70 

West  Yorkshire  miners1  association 

National  agricultural  laborers1  union  
Amalgamated  association  of  operative  cotton  spinners  

1,368 

58,652 
12,812 

41,244 

38,125 

The  following  societies  comprised  in  1875  a 
membership  of  258,550  : 

Miners1  national  union 146,000 

South  Yorkshire  miners1  association 25,000 

East  Lancashire  power-loom  weavers 16,000 

Federal  union  of  agricultural  laborers 30.000 

Kent  and  Sussex  agricultural  laborers1  union 10,000 

General  union  of  carpenters  and  joiners 9,700 

Operative  bricklayers1  accident  and  burial  society. . .  7,350 

United  Kingdom  society  of  coach  builders 7,300 

North  Wales  quarrymen's  union 7,200 

The  23  societies  named  above  comprise  all  hav 
ing  not  less  than  7,000  members  which  were 
represented  in  the  national  trades  union  con 
gress  at  Liverpool  in  January,  1875,  or  in  that 
held  in  Glasgow  in  October  of  the  same  year, 
besides  a  few  that  were  not  represented  in 
either.  Their  aggregate  membership  is  570,- 
700,  or  nearly  half  of  the  total  estimated  mem 
bership  of  the  trades  unions  of  the  kingdom. — 
Trade  societies  comprise  those  organized  for 
trade  purposes  alone,  such  as  mutual  support 
in  strikes,  and  those  which  are  also  mutual 
benefit  associations,  the  latter  class  now  com 
prising  nearly  all  of  the  stronger  organizations, 
in  which  the  expenditures  for  benefits  are  usu 
ally  much  greater  than  those  incurred  for 
strikes.  But  on  the  other  haad,  the  amalga 
mated  association  of  miners  paid  £80,000  with 
in  one  year  (1874-'5)  to  assist  branches  on 
strike  in  South  Staffordshire.  By  the  periodi- 

*  Of  these,  7  were  in  Australia,  3  in  New  Zealand,  6  in 
Canada,  31  in  the  United  States,  and  6  in  other  countries. 

t  Of  these,  14,  comprising  447  members,  were  in  the  Uni 
ted  States,  and  4  were  in  Canada. 


cal  publication  of  reports  showing  the  state  of 
trade  in  various  towns  and  districts,  some  of  the 
unions  render  valuable  service ;  and  another 
useful  device  is  that  of  keeping  in  each  of  the 
larger  towns  a  "vacant  book,'1  in  which  the 
names  of  men  out  of  employment  and  employ 
ers  in  want  of  men  are  registered.  The  quali 
fications  for  membership  generally  include  good 
health,  sound  physique,  ability  as  a  workman, 
steady  habits,  and  good  moral  character ;  and 
(except  in  societies  of  unskilled  laborers)  the 
candidate  must  have  served  a  regular  appren 
ticeship  to  his  trade.  The  minimum  limit  of 
age  for  admission  to  full  membership  is  usu 
ally  21  years ;  the  maximum  varies  from  35  to 
50  years.  A  prime  object  of  these  organiza 
tions  is  to  obtain  better  wages,  shorter  time, 
or  more  agreeable  conditions  of  employment. 
They  discountenance  long  engagements  at  a 
^reestablished  rate  of  wages,  oppose  the  prac 
tice  of  working  beyond  the  customary  hours, 
object  to  working  in  the  same  establishment 
with  non-unionists,  and  usually  seek  to  estab 
lish  in  each  town  or  district  a  minimum  rate  of 
wages.  In  the  skilled  trades  they  insist  upon 
apprenticeship,  and  seek  to  regulate  the  pro 
portion  between  apprentices  and  workmen,  de 
fending  their  action  on  the  ground  that  it  is  the 
workman,  and  not  the  employer,  who  instructs 
the  apprentice.  In  the  various  trades  con 
nected  with  building  and  engineering  the  mem 
bers  of  the  unions  generally  refuse  to  work 
under  piece  masters  or  sub-contractors.  The 
objection  to  piece  work  is,  that  it  is  desired  by 


TRADES   UNION 


835 


the  employers  only  for  the  purpose  of  exciting 
among  the  men  a  spirit  of  rivalry,  which  in 
their  opinion  would  result  in  a  reduction  of 
wages  or  an  increase  in  the  hours  of  labor.  In 
the  mining  trade,  when  the  output  of  coal  has 
been  in  excess  of  the  demand,  they  have  some 
times  insisted  on  diminishing  production,  in 
order  that  the  price  might  not  fall  so  low  as  to 
entail  a  reduction  of  wages.  Some  unions  have 
endeavored  to  fix  a  limit  to  the  amount  of  work 
which  each  man  might  do. — One  of  the  best 
results  of  free  association  among  the  workmen 
of  the  United  Kingdom  is  the  mental  culture 
which  it  has  promoted.  The  members  of  trades 
unions  generally  believe  that  wages  have  been 
considerably  raised  through  their  agency,  and 
they  usually  assume  that  this  advantage  to  the 
workmen  has  been  gained  by  cutting  down 
the  profits  of  the  employers.  Some  employers 
deny  that  the  unions  have  affected  wages  at 
all,  while  others  complain  that  they  have  af 
fected  them  to  an  injurious  degree.  Among 
political  economists,  some  strenuously  maintain 
that  wages  can  only  be  determined  by  the  law 
of  supply  and  demand ;  others  admit  that  com 
bination  may  have  raised  the  rate  of  wages  in 
particular  trades,  but  contend  that  it  has  there 
by  raised  the  price  of  the  products  of  those 
trades  in  the  same  proportion,  and  thus  in 
creased  the  cost  of  living  to  all  classes,  inclu 
ding  large  masses  of  workmen,  who,  without 
receiving  any  increase  in  their  own  wages, 
are  compelled  as  purchasers  of  commodities  to 
contribute  to  the  increase  received  by  their 
more  fortunate  fellows.  On  the  other  hand, 
Mr.  "W.-T.  Thornton,  in  his  well  known  work 
on  labor  published  in  1869,  argues  that  the 
efforts  of  the  trades  unions  have  raised  the 
wages  of  laborers  in  general,  and  estimates 
the  addition  thus  made  to  the  aggregate  earn 
ings  of  the  working  men  of  the  United  King 
dom  at  £9,000,000  per  annum. — A  trades  union 
congress,  composed  of  delegates  from  different 
unions  and  local  federations,  has  been  held  an 
nually  since  1869.  Thus  far  these  congresses 
have  confined  their  attention  to  objects  which 
had  a  direct  relation  to  the  interests  of  the 
working  classes,  such  as  providing  for  the 
proper  ventilation  of  mines,  and  reducing  the 
hours  of  labor  for  women  and  children.  To 
ward  the  adoption  of  such  measures  they  have 
materially  contributed,  and  the  passage  of  the 
labor  laws  of  1875  is  mainly  attributable  to 
the  exertions  of  their  committee.  A  federa 
tion  for  defensive  purposes,  called  the  United 
Kingdom  alliance  of  organized  trades,  has  ex 
isted  for  several  years,  but  does  not  embrace 
any  of  the  larger  unions.  There  is  also  a  work 
man's  international  league  (distinct  from  the 
revolutionary  international  workingmen's  as 
sociation),  having  for  its  object  concert  of  ac 
tion  between  English  and  foreign  workmen  in 
certain  trades  wherein  the  keenness  of  inter 
national  competition  tends  to  depress  wages. 
— A  national  federation  of  associated  employ 
ers  of  labor  was  formed  in  August,  1873.  The 


scope  of  its  operations  was  limited  to  parlia 
mentary  legislation,  the  collection  and  distri 
bution  of  information  upon  industrial  ques 
tions,  and  the  endeavor  to  secure  unity  of  action 
among  employers.  The  masters  in  the  princi 
pal  trades  have  long  had  associations  for  the 
specific  purpose  of  resisting  those  of  the  men. 
In  case  of  a  strike  against  one  of  their  mem 
bers,  they  assist  him  in  obtaining  other  work 
men,  supply  him  with  funds  or  credit,  under 
take  or  guarantee  his  contracts,  and  in  other 
ways  help  him  to  dispense  with  his  workmen 
until  they  accept  his  terms.  A  "lockout "-is 
a  retaliatory  measure  on  the  part  of  employers, 
to  deprive  workmen  on  strike  of  assistance 
from  others  by  throwing  the  latter  out  of  em 
ployment.  The  occurrence  of  strikes  and  lock 
outs  has  often  been  attended  with  riotous  de 
monstrations  and  destruction  of  life  and  prop 
erty.  The  principal  strikes  since  the  repeal  of 
the  combination  laws  were  as  follows : 


TRADES. 

Date. 

No.  of 
persons 
idle. 

Duration 
of  strike. 

Manchester  cotton  spinners  
Ashton  and  Staleybridge  cotton 
spinners    .         

1829 
1S30 

10,000 
30,000 

6  months. 
10  weeks. 

Liverpool  building  trades  
Preston  cotton  spinners  
Amalgamated  engineers  

1833 

1836 
1851 
1854 

'  8,66() 
3,000 
17  000 

6  months. 
13  weeks. 
8  months. 
86  weeks. 

London  building  trades.          .... 

1859 

7,856 

General  lockout  in  the  iron  trade. 
Clyde  ship-building  trade  

ISTorth  of  England  iron  trade  
Colliers  of  South  Wales. 

1865 
18G6 
1866 
1871 

200.000 
18,000 

12,000 
10,000 

16  weeks. 
j    several 
|  months. 
5  months. 
12  weeks. 

At  the  end  of  1875  a  strike  occurred  at  the 
Erith  iron  works,  which  threatened  to  become 
general,  the  workmen  resisting  and  the  em 
ployers  insisting  upon  piece  work. — Members 
of  the  amalgamated  society  of  engineers  who 
were  engaged  in  the  unsuccessful  strike  of 
1851  emigrate'd  the  same  year  to  Australia, 
and  established  a  branch  at  Sydney.  Trades 
unions  have  since  become  general  in  Aus 
tralia,  and  have  enabled  workmen  not  only 
to  make  their  own  terms  with  employers,  but 
to  exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  legislation, 
especially  in  defeating  appropriations  to  pro 
mote  immigration  of  laborers.  They  have  a 
trades  and  labor  council  comprising  23  societies 
and  3,000  members,  with  a  permanent  com 
mittee  on  parliamentary  representation.  In 
this  colony  eight  hours  as  a  rule  constitute  a 
working  day,  and  wages  vary  from  Is.  to  2s. 
(24  to  48  cts.  gold)  an  hour.  Trades  unions 
also  exist  to  some  extent  in  New  Zealand  and 
other  British  colonies.  There  is  an  associa 
tion  known  as  the  "Canada  Labor  Union," 
composed  of  delegates  from  the  local  trades 
unions,  the  object  of  which  is  to  influence 
legislation  in  the  interest  of  the  working  class. 
There  are  no  trades  unions  in  Canada  of  na 
tional  (or  rather  of  colonial)  extent,  except 
those  which  are  connected  with  organizations 
in  the  United  States. — Trades  unions  after  the 


836 


TEADES   UNION 


English  model  (Gewerkvereine)  began  to  ap 
pear  in  Germany  in  1868.  The  laws  prohibit 
ing  combination  had  been  repealed  in  Prussia 
two  years  before,  and  a  law  passed  permitting 
employers  and  workmen  (excepting  agricultu 
ral  laborers)  to  arrange  terms  in  their  own 
way,  provided  they  abstained  from  physical 
compulsion,  insults,  and  defamation.  A  simi 
lar  law  was  passed  by  the  parliament  of  the 
North  German  confederation  in  1869.  The 
same  year  Dr.  Max  Hirsch  formed  a  plan  to 
unite  the  working  classes  of  Germany  into 
one  confederation  under  a  central  direction. 
The  local  branches  of  all  the  trades  within 
certain  limits  elect  some  central  branch  (if 
in  a  large  town)  or  the  branches  of  some 
central  place,  and  commit  to  such  branch  or 
branches  the  election  of  a  general  council, 
which  exercises  the  chief  executive  power, 
while  the  legislative  power  is  committed  to 
an  assembly  of  branch  delegates.  These  local 
or  district  federations  are  united  in  a  nation 
al  federation,  with  a  legislative  assembly  com 
posed  of  their  several  delegates,  and  a  cen 
tral  executive  committee  elected  by  the  as 
sembly.  There  is  also  an  officer  known  as 
the  union  attorney,  who,  besides  being  the 
chief  business  manager  of  the  confederation, 
has  the  special  task  of  disseminating  its  princi 
ples.  Unlike  the  English  trades  unions,  which 
sprang  from  small  affiliations  spontaneously 
formed  by  the  working  men,  the  system  of  the 
German  Gewerkvereine  originated  with  a  mem 
ber  of  the  professional  class,  and  existed  in  its 
completeness  as  an  idea  before  the  local  unions 
had  como  into  being.  The  number  of  members 
embraced  in  the  German  unions  is  therefore 
not  as  great  as  might  be  expected,  in  view  of 
their  elaborate  organization.  In  1869  it  was 
stated  at  30,000,  comprised  in  207  local  socie 
ties  existing  in  145  towns,  and  representing 
the  following  trades :  miners,  masons  and  stone 
cutters,  potters,  carpenters,  shipwrights,  cabi 
net  makers,  shoe  and  harness  makers,  tailors, 
weavers,  painters  and  lithographers,  gold  and 
silver  smiths,  machine  builders,  and  metal 
workers.  Besides  these,  the  confederation  in 
cluded  societies  of  factory  operatives  and  other 
workpeople  belonging  to  no  special  trade.  By 
1872  the  number  of  trades  had  increased  from 
13  to  18,  and  the  number  of  branches  from 
267  to  350  ;  but  the  membership  had  fallen  off 
to  the  extent  of  nearly  10,000,  which  was  at 
tributed  in  part  to  the  war  with  France,  and 
in  part  to  the  discouragement  which  followed 
the  failure  of  the  great  strike  of  1869  among 
the  miners  at  Waldenburg  in  Silesia,  which 
had  been  supported  by  the  confederation.  The 
increase  of  membership  in  1873  and  1874  was 
about  2,000.  There  are  large  numbers  of  Ger 
man  trades  unions  devoted  to  the  socialistic 
doctrines  of  Lassalle,  who  hold  aloof  from  the 
confederation  organized  by  Hirsch,  and  stig 
matize  its  leaders  as  "  harmony  apostles."  The 
growth  of  trades  unions  among  the  socialist 
workmen  is  greatly  checked  by  the  action  of 


the  police,  who  break  up  large  numbers  of  such 
societies  every  year,  for  interference  in  politics. 
—In  France  the  legal  position  of  the  working 
class  with  respect  to  the  right  of  combination 
is  but  indistinctly  denned.  In  1864  the  law 
upon  this  subject  was  so  modified  as  to  make 
coalition  no  longer  a  crime,  and  to  give  to 
workmen  the  right  of  striking  as  well  as  that 
of  holding  public  meetings.  But  the  law  of 
1791,  which  prohibits  societies  composed  of 
persons  of  the  same  trade  or  profession,  was 
still  in  force.  As  the  authorities  had  long  tol 
erated  associations  formed  in  contravention  of 
the  law,  the  workmen  now  organized  "soci 
eties  of  resistance,"  similar  to  those  trades 
unions  which  are  organized  for  trade  purposes 
alone.  Many  of  these  were  afterward  affiliated 
with  the  international  association.  (See  INTER 
NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION.)  In  1868  the  govern 
ment  intimated  that  the  various  trades  in  Paris 
would  be  permitted  to  organize  under  the  di 
rection  of  syndical  chambers,  on  condition  of 
abstaining  from  politics.  In  1875  there  were 
about  100  such  syndicates  among  the  employ 
ers,  and  about  70  among  the  workmen.  The 
latter  were  refused  the  privilege  of  forming  a 
central  committee,  while  the  employers'  syndi 
cates  have  both  a  central  committee  and  a 
newspaper  organ. — In  Belgium  trades  unions 
have  become  prominent  within  a  few  years 
past,  and  have  made  several  vigorous  strikes 
at  the  manufacturing  centres.  Switzerland 
has  flourishing  trades  unions,  which  resemble 
the  English  societies,  but  several  related  trades 
are  usually  'represented  in  one  organization. 
They  embrace  both  trade  and  benefit  purposes, 
and  take  part  in  politics.  The  strikes  among 
the  Swiss  unions  from  1868  to  1873  inclusive 
varied  from  a  few  days  to  several  months.  In 
a  fair  proportion  of  cases  the  objects  of  the 
workmen  were  attained.  In  Italy  trades  unions 
have  existed  since  about  1865,  and  several 
strikes  have  occurred.  The  strictness  of  the 
combination  laws  has  depended  a  good  deal 
on  the  pleasure  of  the  tribunals  charged  with 
their  execution.  Coalition  to  raise  or  lower 
wages  is  made  criminal  only  when  entered 
into  "  unjustly  or  abusively,"  or  "  without  rea 
sonable  cause."  There  are  trades  unions  in 
other  European  countries,  but  they  exercise 
little  influence  on  industrial  relations,  and  no 
where  on  the  continent  are  these  organizations 
so  powerful  as  in  the  United  Kingdom.  While 
the  laws  of  the  continental  countries  repress 
combinations  to  raise  wages,  they  encourage 
provident  and  mutual  aid  societies. — Though 
the  working  men  of  the  United  States  have 
enjoyed  unrestricted  liberty  of  combination, 
the  trades  unions  of  this  country  do  not  com 
pare  with  those  of  the  United  Kingdom  in 
membership,  resources,  or  discipline,  nor  in 
the  extent  to  which  they  have  combined  bene 
ficial  objects  with  trade  purposes.  The  follow 
ing  table  comprises  the  principal  unions  with 
a  national  organization ;  all  of  these,  except 
the  miners'  union,,  have  branches  in  Canada : 


TRADES  UNION 


TRADE  WINDS 


837 


•NAMES  OF.  SOCIETIES. 

Date  of 
organi 
zation. 

No.  of 
branches. 

No.  of 
mem 
bers. 

International  typographical  union  .  .  . 
Machinists1  and  blacksmiths1  inter 
national  union  
Iron     moulders'    union    of    North 

1852 
1859 
1859 

171 

150 

10,295 

8,000 
7500 

Brotherhood  of  locomotive  engineers 
Journeymen  tailors'  national  trades 

18(33 
1865 

188 
40 

12,000 
2800 

Coopers'  international  union  
Cigar  makers'  international  union.  . 
Miners'  national  union  

1870 
1873 

'ioo 

347 

5,OUO 
5,000 
35,355 

United  sons  of  Vulcan  

1874- 

4,000 

The  'miners'  union  comprises  organizations 
which  have  existed  for  years  in  different  states, 
of  which  the  strongest  was  that  of  the  anthra 
cite  miners  of  Pennsylvania.  The  member 
ship  of  the  national  association  is  now  dis 
tributed  as  follows :  Pennsylvania,  20,840  ; 
Ohio,  4,734;  Illinois,  5,122;  Indiana,  2,135; 
Indian  territory,  57 ;  Iowa,  272 ;  Colorado, 
242  ;  Wyoming,  544  ;  Maryland.  431 ;  Missouri, 
547;  Kansas,  123;  Tennessee,  129  ;  West  Vir 
ginia,  178.  The  society  of  the  "  United  Sons 
of  Vulcan  "  comprises  iron  puddlers  and  iron 
boilers.  The  local  unions  are  called  "forges." 
In  addition  to  the  above  there  are  the  brick 
layers'  national  union,  the  united  order  of 
American  plasterers,  the  house  painters,  the  hat 
finishers'  association,  the  knights  of  St.  Cris 
pin  (shoemakers),  the  order  of  morocco  dress 
ers,  the  journeymen  horse  shoers'  union,  the 
society  of  locomotive  firemen,  the  mule  spin 
ners  of  the  cotton  factories,  and  the  weav 
ers,  who  in  May,  1875,  amalgamated  their  lo 
cal  unions  into  one  association.  There  are 
also  many  local  societies,  some  of  which,  es 
pecially  among  those  in  the  larger  cities,  are 
of  considerable  importance.  The  financial 
panic  of  1873  was  followed  by  a  large  reduc 
tion  in  the  membership  of  many  of  the  unions. 
In  New  York  city  the  aggregate  membership 
in  1873  was  44,950;  in  1874,  35,765.  In  1871 
the  knights  of  St.  Crispin  had  about  300  branch 
es  and  .  70,000  members  ;  now  they  scarcely 
have  a  general  organization,  though  many  of 
the  branches  survive  with  a  reduced  member 
ship. — In  the  national  trades  organizations  of 
the  United  States,  legislative  power  is  confided 
to  an  assembly  of  delegates,  to  which  each 
local  union  sends  a  number  bearing  a  stated 
relation  to  its  membership,  and  the  action  of 
these  bodies  is  generally  final.  The  princi 
pal  exceptions  are  in  the  tailors'  union  .and 
the  iron  moulders'  union,  in  both  of  which 
questions  are  decided  by  a  majority  of  the 
unions,  and  not  as  in  England  by  a  majority 
of  individual  voters.  The  assemblies  of  dele 
gates  elect  the  executive  officers,  usually  for  a 
term  of  one  year.  The  qualifications  for  mem 
bership  in  the  skilled  trades  usually  include 
apprenticeship.  In  the  typographical  union 
the  period  required  is  four  years.  This  union 
admits  pressmen,  and  also  charters  local  unions 
of  pressmen.  The  iron  moulders'  union  ad 


mits  brass  moulders  on  the  same  conditions  as 
iron  moulders,  one  of  which  conditions  is  the 
ability  to  earn  the  average  rate  of  wages  pre 
vailing  in  the  locality  where  the  candidate  is 
employed.  The  locomotive  engineers  require 
that  the  candidate  shall  be  a  white  man,  not 
less  than  21  years  of  age,  able  to  read  and 
write,  of  temperate  habits  and  good  moral 
character,  and  possessing  at  least  one  year's 
experience  as  an  engineer.  The  contributions 
in  the  American  societies  are  generally  small. 
Those  of  the  tailors'  union  are  but  10  cts.  a 
month.  Among  the  miners  there  is  a  strike 
fund,  to  which  the  contributions  are  25  cts.  a 
month.  In  several  unions  th'e  initiation  fees, 
and  charges  for  new  charters,  travelling  cards, 
&c.,  constitute  the  only  sources  of  income  for 
general  purposes.  In  the  brotherhood  of  loco 
motive  engineers,  the  iron  moulders'  union,  and 
some  others,  the  benefit  features,  so  largely 
developed  in  the  English  societies,  appear  to  a 
limited  extent.  In  most  of  the  states  the  trades 
unions  need  legislation  for  the  better  security 
of  their  funds.  The  subject  of  a  national  law 
for  this  purpose,  and  also  of  legislation  for  the 
better  protection  of  life  in  mining  and  oth 
er  dangerous  occupations,  has  been  agitated. 
Nearly  all  of  the  societies  above  named  declare 
themselves  opposed  to  strikes  except  as  a  last 
resort,  and  several  of  them  require  their  mem 
bers  to  make  an  effort  to  settle  disputes  by 
arbitration,  before  applying  to  the  society  at 
large  for  authority  to  strike.  A  tendency  to 
ward  federation  has  manifested  itself  among 
the  trades  unions  of  the  United  States,  as  in 
the  organization  of  the  workingmen's  assem 
bly  of  the  state  of  New  York,  which  however 
had  but  a  brief  existence.  In  February,  1876, 
an  amalgamated  association  of  iron  workers 
was  formed,  embracing  societies  previously 
existing  in  different  branches  of  the  iron 
trade.  The  national  labor  union,  organized 
at  Baltimore  in  1866,  although  assuming  to 
represent  the  working  men  of  the  country, 
found  comparatively  little  support  among  the 
trades  unions,  and  gradually  took  the  form  of 
a  political  party.  A  national  industrial  eon- 
gress  was  formed  at  Cleveland,  O.,  in  July, 
1873.  Besides  an  exchange  of  views  between 
the  representatives  of  the  different  industries, 
its  objects  included  united  action  for  legisla 
tion.  Most  of  the  large  societies  and  many 
of  the  local  unions  were  represented. — See  Le- 
mercier,  Etudes  sur  lea  associations  ouxrieres 
(Paris,  1857);  Brentano,  Die  Arbeitsgilden  der 
Gegenwart  (Leipsic,  1871  et  seq.) ;  the  count  de 
Paris,  Les  associations  ouvrieres  en  Angleterre 
(French  and  English,  1869) ;  Nadaud,  Histoire 
des  classes  oiivrieres  en  Angleterre  (Paris,  1 872) ; 
Leroy-Beaulieu,  La  question  ouvriere  au  XJXe 
siecle  (Paris,  1872)  ;  Bamberger,  Die  Arltei- 
terfrage  (Stuttgart,  1873);  and  Mazaroz,  Les 
chaines  de  Vesclarage  moderne  (Paris,  1876). 

TRADE  WL\DS,  the  prevailing  N.  E.  and  S. 
E.  winds,  in  the  northern  and  southern  hemi 
spheres  respectively,  that  blow  from  the  par- 


838 


TRAFALGAR 


TRAJAN 


allels  30°  N.  and  S.  toward  the  equator.  They 
are  atmospheric  currents  moving  toward  the 
equator  to  fill  the  spaces  left  by  the  airs  that 
have  become  heated  and  passed  up  to  the  more 
elevated  portions  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  belt 
of  the  equatorial  calms.  These  currents,  mov 
ing  continually  toward  larger  parallels  of  lati 
tude,  do  not  at  once  acquire  the  increasing 
eastwardly  movement  of  the  portions  of  the 
earth's  surface  revolving  beneath,  and  the  lag 
ging  occasioned  by  the  earth  slipping  away 
under  them  produces  a  deviation  from  a  direct 
meridional  movement  as  respects  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  an  apparent  progress  of  the 
currents  toward  the  west.  Beyond  the  limits 
stated  above  these  currents  merge  into  the  re 
gions  of  variable  winds  and  calms.  (See  ME 
TEOROLOGY,  and  RAIX.)  The  trade  winds  have 
been  known  to  Europeans  since  the  end  of  the 
14th  century ;  to  them  Columbus  owed  his 
prosperous  voyages  to  America,  and  they  con 
stitute  a  most  important  factor  in  the  naviga 
tion  of  the  ocean.  The  limits  within  which 
the  trades  prevail  vary  from  month  to  month 
with  the  varying  position  of  the  sun,  the  range 
being  about  ten  degrees.  In  general  the  trade 
wind  is  not  accompanied  by  clouds,  and  the  air 
is  comparatively  dry. — See  Maury's,  Fitzroy's, 
and  Andrau's  trade-wind  charts,  the  admiral 
ty  wind  charts,  and  Coffin's  "Winds  of  the 
Globe,"  to  be  published  in  1876  by  the  Smith 
sonian  institution;  also  Ferrel's  "Motions  of 
Fluids  and  Solids"  (New  York,  1860). 

TRAFALGAR  (anc.  Promontorium  Junonis),  a 
cape  of  Spain,  on  the  S.  "W.  coast,  at  the  1ST. 
W.  entrance  of  the  strait  of  Gibraltar,  in  lat. 
36°  10'  N.,  Ion.  6°  V  W.,  about  28  m.  S.  E.  of 
Cadiz.  It  is  memorable  for  the  naval  battle 
fought  near  it,  Oct.  21,  1805,  between  the 
English  under  Nelson  and  the  combined  fleets 
of  France  and  Spain.  (See  NELSOX,  HORATIO.) 

TRAGACANTH.     See  GUM,  vol.  viii.,  p.  321. 

TRAGOPAN,  a  name  given  by  Cuvier  to  the 
birds  of  the  pheasant  family  comprised  in  the 
genus  ceriornis  (Swains.).  The  bill  resembles 
that  of  the  common  fowl ;  the  wings  are  am 
ple  and  very  concave,  with  the  fourth  to  the 
seventh  quills  the  longest;  tail  rounded,  and 
its  coverts  ample  ;  tarsi  stout  and  armed  with 
a  small  spur,  anterior  toes  united  at  the  base 
by  membrane,  and  the  claws  long  and  curved. 
There  are  three  or  four  species,  inhabitants 
of  the  gloomy  and  thick  pine  forests  of  the 
high  mountains  of  central  Asia ;  they  are 
solitary  and  shy,  and  discoverable  only  by 
their  shrill  whistle ;  the  plumage  is  very  bril 
liant,  being  red,  varied  with  black,  blue,  and 
golden,  and  with  white  eye-like  spots.  The 
best  known  species  is  the  horned  pheasant  (C. 
satyra,  Swains.),  of  the  size  of  a  large  domes 
tic  fowl ;  the  males  have  the  sides  of  the  head 
naked,  and  in  the  spring  behind  each  eye  a 
long  reddish  and  bluish  horn  directed  oblique 
ly  backward,  and  under  the  throat  long,  na 
ked,  bluish,  expansile  wattles ;  the  feathers  are 
lengthened  and  disunited  on  the  crown,  pur 


plish  black,  becoming  crimson  on  the  occiput ; 
back  of  neck  and  bare  skin  in  front  surround 
ed  by  deep  black  ;  wings  and  back  brown  with 
an  eyed  white  spot  at  the  end  of  each  feather  ; 


Horned  Pheasant  (Ceriornis  satyra). 

rest  of  plumage  deep  red  with  small  spots  of 
white ;  the  female  and  young  are  brownish, 
and  have  neither  the  horns  nor  the  wattles; 
the  males  do  not  attain  the  full  beauty  of  their 
plumage  till  the  third  year.  The  food  con 
sists  of  grains,  roots,  insects,  and  larvae.  There 
are  also  the  golden-breasted  and  black-headed 
tragopans,  similar  to  the  preceding. 

TRAGUS,  Hieronymus,  the  Latin  name  of  a 
German  botanist,  whose  real  name  was  Bock, 
born  at  Heidersbach  in  1498,  died  at  Horn- 
bach  in  1553.  He  was  successively  head  of  a 
school  in  Zweibriicken  and  superintendent  of 
the  ducal  garden,  Protestant  pastor  at  Horn- 
bach,  and  physician  of  the  count  of  Nassau 
in  Saarbruck.  He  published  Neues  Krciuter- 
huch  'com  Unterscliiede,  Wirkung  und  Nahmen 
der  Krauter,  so  im  Deutschland  waclisen  (fol., 
Strasburg,  1551 ;  Latin  translation  by  Kyber, 
1552).  This  was  the  first  attempt  in  modern 
times  toward  the  classification  of  plants. 

TRAILING  ARBITIS.     See  ARBUTUS. 

TRAJAN  (MARCUS  ULPIUS  TRAJANUS),  a  Ro 
man  emperor,  born  in  Italica,  near  Seville, 
Spain,  Sept.  18,  A.  D.  52,  died  in  Selinus  (after 
ward  called  Trajanopolis),  Cilicia,  in  August, 
117.  He  was  the  son  of  Trajanus,  an  officer 
in  the  imperial  service,  and  early  embraced 
the  profession  of  arms.  He  served  as  a  mili 
tary'  tribune  in  the  wars  of  the  East,  before 
86  was  made  pra3tor,  and  in  91  became  con 
sul  along  with  M.  Acilius  Glabrio.  After 
ward  he  went  to  Spain,  and  was  sent  by  Do- 
mitian  to  Germany  to  command  the  troops  on 
the  lower  Rhine.  When  at  the  close  of  97 
Nerva  adopted  him  and  chose  him  as  his  suc 
cessor,  the  selection  met  with  general  acquies 
cence,  although  no  previous  emperor  had  been 
born  out  of  Italy.  His  title  after  his  elevation 


TRAJAN 


TRALL 


839 


to  the  imperial  dignity  was  Imperator  Caasar 
Nerva  Trajanus  Augustus.  In  January,  98, 
Trajan,  who  was  then  encamped  at  Cologne, 
succeeded  to  the  throne ;  but  for  many  months 
he  did  not  go  to  Rome,  being  engaged  in  Avar 
on  the  frontiers  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube. 
Hd  entered  Rome  amid  the  acclamations  of 
the  people,  and  soon  received,  for  his  efforts 
to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  poor  and 
to  improve  the  judicature,  the  title  of  Pater 
Patriaa,  and  the  new  designation  of  Optirnus. 
In  100  the  younger  Pliny,  who  was  his  warm 
personal  friend,  pronounced  his  panegyric  up 
on  him.  In  101  Trajan  crossed  the  Danube, 
defeated  Decebalus,  the  Dacian  monarch,  took 
many  of  his  strong  posts  and  his  capital  Sar- 
mizegitusa,  and,  having  compelled  him  to  sue 
for  peace,  returned  to  Rome  in  triumph  with 
the  title  of  Dacicus.  In  104  Decebalus  broke 
his  treaty,  refused  to  comply  with  the  emper 
or's  demand  that  he  should  surrender  himself, 
and  when  Trajan  inarched  against  him  first  at 
tempted  to  poison  his  enemy.  The  conquest 
of  Dacia  was  now  determined  upon,  and  an 
immense  bridge  was  built  across  the  Danube, 
over  which  the  Roman  army  passed  into  that 
country.  This  bridge  was  the  largest  work  of 
the  kind  ever  built  by  the  ancients,  and,  ac 
cording  to  Dion  Cassius,  consisted  of  20  piers, 
150  ft.  high,  60  ft.  wide,  170  ft.  apart,  and 
united  by  wooden  arches ;  it  was  probably 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  modern  town  of 
Tchernetz  in  W.  Wallachia.  Decebalus  was  de 
feated  at  all  points,  and  in  despair  killed  him 
self  (100) ;  Dacia  was  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  a  Roman  province,  and  fortified  posts  were 
built  and  colonists  settled  in  it  (107).  When 
the  emperor  returned  to  Rome,  he  exhibited 
to  the  people  games  which  lasted  123  days, 
and  in  which  11,000  animals  were  killed  and 
10,000  gladiators  fought.  In  the  following 
years  he  carried  on  a  campaign  against  the 
Parthians  and  Armenians,  and  was  engaged  in 
numerous  military  expeditions,  the  history  of 
which  is  almost  altogether  lost.  In  the  spring 
of  115  he  marched  against  the  Parthians,  hav 
ing  previously  received  the  submission  of  Ar 
menia  and  the  princes  of  the  neighboring  coun 
tries.  He  crossed  the  Tigris  on  a  bridge  of 
boats,  subdued  the  country  beyond  that  river, 
and  returned  to  Antioch  the  same  year.  In 
116  he  again  marched  to  the  Tigris,  and  sailed 
down  that  stream  to  the  Persian  gulf,  but  was 
recalled  by  a  general  uprising  in  the  provinces 
which  he  had  reduced.  Arriving  at  Ctesiphon, 
he  gave  the  Parthians  a  king  whom  they  quick 
ly  expelled.  After  the  siege  of  Atrse  in  Meso 
potamia  he  fell  sick,  and,  leaving  his  successor 
Hadrian  in  command  in  Syria,  started  for  Italy, 
but  died  on  the  way.  His  ashes  were  carried 
to  Rome  in  a  golden  urn,  and  placed  under  the 
column  bearing  his  name,  which  he  had  erected 
in  honor  of  his  Dacian  victories. — For  many 
generations  afterward  Trajan's  reign  was  looked 
upon  as  the  most  brilliant  in  the  imperial  an 
nals.  The  Roman  arms  were  carried  further 


than  ever  before  or  after,  and  rarely  suffered 
defeat.  Besides  the  conquests  in  Dacia  and 
beyond  the  Euphrates,  Arabia  Petraea  was 
made  subject  to  the  empire  by  A.  Cornelius 
Palma,  the  governor  of  Syria.  Nor  were  his 
works  for  the  internal  improvement  of  his 
dominions  less  important.  He  constructed  an 
artificial  harbor  at  Centum  Cellse  (now  Civita 
Vecchia),  built  the  port  of  Ancona,  made  sev 
eral  great  roads  in  various  parts  of  the  empire, 
one  of  which  was  across  the  Pontine  marshes, 
and  erected  magnificent  bridges.  He  founded 
several  libraries  in  Rome,  one  of  which,  called 
Ulpia  Bibliotheca,  was  very  celebrated  ;  built 
a  theatre  in  the  Campus  Martins,  and  also  the 
Forum  Trajanum,  his  great  work,  in  the  centre 
of  which  was  the  column  of  Trajan,  erected  in 
112.  It  has  been  alleged  that  he  was  intem 
perate  and  licentious.  Many  writers  doubt  the 
magnitude  of  the  persecution  of  the  Christians 
which  is  said  to  have  taken  place  during  his 
reign.  His  correspondence  with  the  younger 
Pliny,  governor  of  Bithynia  and  Pontus,  con 
cerning  the  treatment  of  Christians,  displays 
an  unusual  consideration  for  justice  and  hu 
manity.  In  his  reply  to  Pliny  he  says  :  "  You 
have  adopted  the  right  course,  my  friend,  with 
regard  to  the  Christians ;  for  no  universal  rule, 
to  be  applied  in  all  cases,  can  be  fixed  in  this 
matter.  They  should  not  be  searched  for ;  but 
when  accused  and  convicted,  they  should  be 
punished ;  yet  if  any  one  denies  that  he  has 
been  a  Christian,  and  proves  it  by  action, 
namely,  by  worshipping  our  gods,  he  is  to  be 
pardoned  upon  his  repentance,  even  though 
suspicion  may  still  cleave  to  him  from  his  ante 
cedents.  But  anonymous  accusations  must  not 
be  admitted  in  any  criminal  process ;  it  sets  a 
bad  example  and  is  contrary  to  our  age." 

TRALL,  Russell  Thacher,  an  American  physi 
cian,  born  in  Yernon,  Tolland  co.,  Conn.,  Aug. 
5,  1812.  His  parents  removed  to  western  New 
York  in  his  childhood.  He  studied  medicine, 
and  for  some  time  practised  the  profession  in 
accordance  with  the  standard  system.  In  1840 
he  removed  to  New  York,  where  in  1843  he 
opened  a  water-cure  establishment ;  and  in 
1853  he  established  a  medical  school  for  pupils 
of  both  sexes,  called  the  "  New  York  Hygeio- 
Therapeutic  College,"  since  removed  to  Flor 
ence,  N.  J.  He  has  edited  the  "  Hydropathic 
Review  "  and  other  periodicals  devoted  to  hy 
dropathy  and  temperance,  and  has  published 
"Hydropathic  Encyclopaedia"  (New  York, 
1852);  "Hydropathic  Cook  Book"  (1854); 
"Prize  Essay  on  Tobacco"  (1854);  "Uterine 
Diseases  and  Displacements"  (1855);  "Home 
Treatment  for  Sexual  Abuses;"  "  The  Alcoholic 
Controversy;"  "The  Complete  Gymnasium" 
(1857);  "Diseases  of  the  Throat  and  Lungs" 
(1861);  "Handbook  of  Hygienic  Practice" 
(1865);  "The  True  Temperance  Platform" 
(1864);  "Sexual  Physiology"  (1866);  "Water 
Cure  for  the  Million"  (1867);  "Digestion  and 
Dyspepsia  "  (1874)  ;  "  The  Human  Voice  " 
(1874);  and  "Popular  Physiology"  (1875). 


840 


IRANI 


TRANSFUSION  OF  BLOOD 


TRAM,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic, 
in  the  province  and  27m.  W.  N.  "W.  of  the 
city  of  Bari ;  pop.  in  1872,  24,388.  It  is  the 
seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  an  ancient  and 
celebrated  cathedral  with  one  of  the  loftiest 
towers  in  Italy.  The  harbor  was  formerly  very 
deep,  but  is  now  accessible  only  to  small  ves 
sels.  The  trade  is  chielly  in  oil,  wine,  grain, 
almonds,  and  figs. 

TRANQUEBAR,  a  town  of  British  India,  in 
the  district  of  Tanjore,  Madras,  on  an  island 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cavery,  147  m.  S. 
by  W.  of  Madras;  pop.  about  25,000.  There 
are  Lutheran  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  chap 
el,  and  several  schools.  Tranquebar  has  some 
manufactures  of  cotton  cloth,  oil,  and  soap. 
It  belonged  to  the  Danes,  but  was  ceded  to 
the  British  in  1845. 

TRANSCAUCASIA.     See  CAUCASUS. 

TRANSCENDENTAL  (Latin  transcendere,  to  go 
beyond),  in  metaphysics,  a  term  applied  in 
general  to  ideas  and  doctrines  that  are  not 
suggested  or  limited  by  experience.  In  the 
scholastic  philosophy,  transcendcns  and  tran- 
scendentalis  designated  anything  that  was  not 
prccdicamentalis,  that  is,  anything  that  rose 
above,  was  not  comprehended  in,,  and  could 
not  be  defined  by,  either  of  the  ten  summa 
genera  or  categories  of  Aristotle.  Thus,  being 
was  transcendental,  and  only  some  category 
of  being  was  prrcdicamental.  Kant  gave  new 
and  distinct  significations  to  transcendens  and 
transcendentalis.  The  former  designated  what 
is  wholly  beyond  experience,  is  conceivable 
neither  a  priori  nor  a  posteriori,  and  thus  lies 
beyond  every  category' of  thought.  The  latter 
designated  a  priori  conceptions  and  judgments, 
which  are  necessary  and  universal,  and  which 
transcend  the  sphere,  while  affording  the  con 
ditions,  of  the  contingent  knowledge  furnished 
by  experience.  Thus  by  the  transcendental, 
formal,  or  critical  philosophy  of  Kant  is  meant 
his  system  of  the  principles  of  the  pure  reason, 
which  occupies  itself  not  with  the  objects  or 
matter  of  knowledge,  but  with  the  subjective 
ideas  or  forms,  as  time,  space,  substance,  and 
causality,  through  which  objects  are  repre 
sented  to  us  as  phenomena.  Objects  in  them 
selves  (I)inge  an  sich)  he  deemed  transcendent. 
— In  mathematics,  transcendental  quantities 
are  those  which  cannot  be  expressed  by  a  finite 
number  of  algebraic  terms,  but  are  represented 
by  means  either  of  logarithms,  or  variable  ex 
ponents,  or  some  of  the  trigonometrical  func 
tions.  Transcendental  curves,  as  the  logarith 
mic  spiral,  are  those  .whose  equation  is  tran 
scendental,  i.  c.,  expresses  a  relation  between 
transcendental  quantities. 

TRANSFUSION  OF  BLOOD,  the  operation  of 
introducing  into  the  vascular  system  of  one 
animal  blood  taken  from  the  vessels  of- another. 
This  operation  was  suggested  and  described  by 
Libavius  early  in  the  17th  century,  but  it  was 
first  successfully  practised  by  Richard  Lower 
in  England  in  1005.  Some  years  previously 
it  had  been  ascertained  bv  Robert  Bovle  that 


various  medicinal  substances  might  be  injected 
directly  into  the  bloodvessels  of  the  living  dog, 
with  the  result  of  producing  their  specific  effect 
upon  the  animal  system,  as  if  they  had  been 
introduced  by  the  stomach.  Lower's  experi 
ments  were  also  performed  upon  the  dog,  by 
connecting,  by  means  of  a  tube,  the  carotid 
artery  of  one  animal  with  the  jugular  vein  of 
another,  the  vein  of  the  second  dog  being 
allowed  to  remain  open  above  the  point  of 
connection.  Thus  the  blood  lost  by  the  second 
dog  was  supplied  by  that  coming  from  the 
carotid  artery  of  the  first.  The  consequence 
was  that  the  animal  into  whose  vessels  the 
blood  was  introduced  in  this  way  by  transfu 
sion  remained  uninjured,  while  the  other  died 
of  exhaustion  from  haemorrhage.  These  ex 
periments  encouraged  the  idea  of  performing 
a  similar  operation  upon  the  human  subject. 
This  was  first  done  in  France  in  1GOG  by  Denys 
and  Emmerets.  They  believed  that  the  opera 
tion  might  result  in  the  cure  of  chronic  diseases 
by  introducing  into  the  veins  of  the  patient 
healthy  blood  from  a  foreign  source;  and  ac 
cordingly  they  transfused  the  blood  of  a  sheep 
for  this  purpose  into  a  man.  The  first  re 
sults  were  said  to  have  been  so  favorable  as 
to  excite  the  most  extravagant  anticipations, 
and  to  create  great  enthusiasm  in  the  minds 
of  the  medical  profession  in  favor  of  the  opera 
tion.  But  these  promises  were  not  fulfilled, 
and  as  several  instances  occurred  soon  after 
ward  where  the  operation  wras  followed  by  bad 
consequences,  there  was  a  corresponding  re 
action  against  it,  and  in  ]OG8  the  parliament 
of  Paris  forbade  its  repetition  except  by  special 
consent  of  the  faculty.  In  1818  the  operation 
of  transfusion  was  again  taken  up  by  Dr.  Blun- 
dell  of  London,  who  carefully  experimented 
upon  it  as  applied  to  its  original  arid  legitimate 
object,  namely,  the  restoration  of  life  after  ex 
hausting  haemorrhage.  He  performed  S3  ex 
periments  upon  dogs,  and  established  by  them 
the  following  facts:  1,  that  dogs,  when  ex 
hausted  by  haemorrhage,  may  be  resuscitated, 
even  after  momentary  stoppage  of  the  respira 
tion,  by  injecting  the  blood  of  other  dogs;  2, 
that  human  blood  injected  into  a  dog,  in  suffi 
cient  quantity  to  supply  the  loss  caused  by 
abundant  hemorrhage,  produces  a  temporary 
reanimation,  but  does  not  save  life,  as  the  dog 
dies  some  hours  afterward ;  3,  that  the  trans 
fusion  of  blood,  whether  arterial  or  venous, 
will  be  successful  if  the  two  animals  belong  to 
the  same  species;  4,  that  the  blood  used  in 
transfusion  need  not  be  conveyed  directly  from 
the  vascular  system  of  one  animal  to  that  of 
the  other,  but  may  be  received  into  a  cup  and 
passed  through  a  syringe,  without  being  thereby 
rendered  unfit  for  the  purposes  of  life.  The 
operation  was  thus  placed  upon  its  proper  foot 
ing,  and  one  of  the  important  conditions  for 
its  success  brought  into  notice ;  namely,  that 
the  blood  used  for  transfusion  should  belong 
to  an  animal  of  the  same  or  at  least  a  kindred 
species.  This  explained  in  great  measure  the 


TRANSFUSION  OF  BLOOD 


TRANSIT 


bad  results  of  the  earlier  operations,  in  which 
the  blood  of  the  sheep  had  been  introduced 
into  the  veins  of  the  human  subject.  This  fact 
was  still  further  elaborated  by  subsequent  ex 
perimenters.  If  the  animals  used  for  experi 
ment  belong  to  different  classes,  as  where  the 
blood  of  a  quadruped  is  introduced  into  the 
veins  of  a  bird,  or  that  of  a  bird  into  the  veins 
of  a  quadruped,  even  in  small  quantity,  it  ap 
pears  to  have  an  actually  poisonous  effect,  and 
death  follows  in  a  very  short  time.  If  the 
animals  belong  to  the  same  class,  but  are  no.t 
of  the  same  genus,  as  where  the  blood  of  the 
cow  or  the  sheep  is  introduced  into  the  vessels 
of  the  cat  or  the  rabbit,  or  human  blood  into 
those  of  the  dog,  there  is  a  temporary  reani- 
mation,  but  noxious  effects  afterward  follow, 
and  death  occurs  at  the  end  of  some  days. 
These  noxious  results  appear  to  be  due  in  great 
measure  to  the  presence  of  the  fibrino  of  the 
blood ;  for  if  this  be  removed  by  beating  the 
fresh  blood  before  its  injection,  they  do  not 
follow,  or  at  least  are  much  less  strongly 
marked.  Nevertheless,  the  blood  of  animals 
belonging  to  a  different  class,  even  when  de- 
fibrinated,  though  no  longer  actually  poison 
ous,  does  not  resuscitate  or  preserve  the  animal 
experimented  on  from  the  effects  of  haemor 
rhage.  To  secure  this  beneficial  effect,  the 
animals  must  be  within  certain  limits  of  con 
sanguinity.  If  the  blood  be  used  fresh,  they 
must  belong  to  the  same  species ;  and  if  it  be 
defibrinated,  they  must  still  belong  to  the  same 
genus.  Furthermore,  it  is  found  that  the  red 
globules  of  the  blood  are  essential  to  its  vivify 
ing  influence.  The  fibrine  may  be  removed 
without  injury,  and  in  some  cases,  as  above 
mentioned,  even  with  benefit.  But  the  injec 
tion  of  serum  alone,  that  is,  blood  deprived  of 
both  fibrine  and  globules,  is  useless  as  a  means 
of  preserving  life. — With  these  improvements 
the  operation  of  transfusion  has  been  success 
fully  applied  to  the  human  subject.  After  an 
abundant  hemorrhage  there  is  frequently  an 
interval,  often  of  several  hours,  during  which, 
although  the  haemorrhage  may  have  ceased,  the 
patient  is  evidently  sinking,  and  other  means 
of  restoration  are  of  no  avail.  It  is  to  such 
cases  that  the  operation  of  transfusion  is 
adapted.  Berard  has '  recorded  14  instances 
of  this  kind,  most  of  them  cases  of  haemor 
rhage  after  delivery,  in  which  the  life  of  the 
patient  was  saved  by  this  means.  There  are 
certain  rules  which  it  is  important  to  observe  : 
1.  In  transfusion  in  the  human  subject,  it  is 
of  course  human  blood  that  should  be  used, 
supplied  by  a  healthy,  vigorous  person.  2.  But 
a  small  quantity,  namely,  from  two  to  four 
ounces,  should  be  injected  at  a  time.  This 
amount  is  generally  sufficient ;  if  not,  the  in- 
j^ption  may  be  repeated  after  an  interval.  All 
that  is  required  by  the  transfusion  is  to  restore 
the  patient  to  consciousness  and  bring  him  into 
such  a  condition  that  he  can  take  and  appro 
priate  nourishment  and  stimulus.  3.  If  the  in 
jection  be  made  by  a  syringe,  great  care  should 


be  taken  that  the  blood  be  not  allowed  to 
fall  below  its  natural  temperature  of  100°  F., 
and  especially  that  no  bubbles  of  air  become 
entangled  with  it  and  thus  introduced  into  the 
veins.  4.  The  injection  should  be  made  slowly, 
and  terminated  as  soon  as  the  requisite  effect 
has  been  produced.  5.  The  delay  should  not 
be  so  great  as  to  incur  the  risk  of  the  blood 
becoming  coagulated,  either  in  the  syringe  or 
within  the  veins  of  the  patient. 

TRANSIT,  in  astronomy,  the  passage  of  a 
planet  across  the  disk  of  .the  sun,  or  of  a  satel 
lite  across  the  disk  of  its  primary ;  also,  the 
passage  of  a  heavenly  body  across  the  meridian 
of  the  place  of  observation,  sometimes  called 
its  culmination.  Of  the  planets,  only  Mercury 
and  Venus,  having  orbits  within  the  orbit  of 
the  earth,  can  present  this  phenomenon.  The 
transits  of  Venus  are  employed  for  the  deter 
mination  of  the  sun's  distance ;  they  recur  at 
alternate  intervals  of  8  and  105£,  and  8  and 
121^  years.  The  earliest  transit  "of  the  sun's 
disk  of  which  we  have  an  account  is  that  of 
Venus  in  1639,  predicted  and  observed  by  Jere 
miah  Horrox,  an  amateur  astronomer  of  Lan 
cashire,  England.  The  transits  of  the  last 
century,  in  the  years  1761  and  1769,  were  ob 
served  with  great  care,  expeditions  having  been 
equipped  for  the  purpose  by  the  chief  Euro 
pean  states.  But  the  results  then  obtained 
were  not  so  trustworthy  as  had  been  antici 
pated.  Two  methods  of  observation  were 
relied  on,  both  depending  on  time,  though  not 
in  the  same  way.  It  had  been  suggested  by 
Ilalley,  early  in  the  century,  that  instead  of 
observing  the  position  of  Venus  on  the  sun's 
face  at  any  assigned  instant  (for  the  purpose 
of  thence  determining  her  relative  parallactic 
displacement  and  so  her  distance),  the  observ 
ers  should  note  the  interval  of  time  occupied 
by  the  planet  in  completing  her  transit.  As 
the  effect  of  parallax  would  be  to  cause  her  to 
traverse  different  chords,  as  seen  by  observers 
at  northern  and  at  southern  stations,  there 
would  result  a  difference  in  the  duration  of 
transit,  the  amount  of  which  would  enable 
astronomers  to  deduce  the  sun's  distance.  De- 
lisle,  when  the  transit  of  1761  was  approach 
ing,  discovered  that  there  would  be  on  that 
occasion  disadvantages  in  applying  Halley's 
proposed  method,  which  requires  that  both  the 
beginning  and  end  of  the  transit  should  be 
seen;  and  he  proposed  another  method,  re 
quiring  only  that  one  or  other  of  these  phases 
should  be  noted.  According  to  this  plan,  two 
observers  were  both  to  note  the  beginning  (or 
else  both  to  note  the  end),  one  observing  the 
phase  where  it  occurred  as  early  as  possible, 
and  the  other  observing  it-  where  it  occurred 
as  late  as  possible ;  then,  by  noting  the  differ 
ence  of  £ime  between  their  two  observations, 
they  would  be  able  to  estimate  the  sun's  dis 
tance.  Halley's  method  was  manifestly  the 
easier,  since  each  observer  had  to  note  the  du 
ration  between  two  phenomena  both  of  which 
were  observed  by  him,  and  the  difference  be- 


842 


TRANSIT 


TRANSIT   CIRCLE 


tween  the  two  durations  thus  noted  could  be 
determined  at  once ;  whereas  in  Delisle's  meth 
od  each  observer  had  to  determine  the  absolute 
time  of  a  single  phenomenon,  and  a  compari 
son  between  their  results  could  only  be  effected 
satisfactorily  if  these  results  could  be  referred 
to  some  common  standard  time  of  reference, 
as  Greenwich  or  Paris  time.  But  in  the  ac 
tual  application  of  both  methods  another  diffi 
culty  obtruded  itself  into  notice.  It  was  found 
that  the  moment  when  Venus  was  in  internal 
contact,  either  at  ingress  or  egress,  could  not 
be  determined,  as  Halley  had  hoped,  within  a 
single  second,  or  indeed  within  several  seconds. 
Accordingly  doubt  had  long  rested  on  the  de 
termination  of  the  sun's  distance  obtained 
from  the  observations  made  in  1761  and  1769. 
In  fact,  from  the  first,  the  results  were  found  to 
be  widely  discordant  according  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  observations  were  interpreted. 
The  values  of  the  s'un's  distance  deduced  from 
the  transit  of  1761  ranged  from  77,846,000  m. 
to  96,163,000  m. ;  those  deduced  from  the  tran 
sit  of  1769,  though  not  ranging  quite  so  widely, 
yet  differed  by  more  than  4,000,000  m.,  the 
greatest  being  as  before  96,163,000  m.,  the 
least  92,049,650  m.  Strangely  enough,  all  this 
was  forgotten  when  (after  Encke  had  published 
his  result  from  the  combination  of  both  series 
of  observations,  viz.,  95,265,000  m.)  a  long  pe 
riod  had  elapsed  during  which  the  text  books 
and  ephemerides  had  published  the  same  value 
for  this  important  element.  Accordingly, 
much  surprise  was  expressed  when  other  meth 
ods  of  observation  showed  that  this  value  so 
long  received  was  too  great  by  three  or  four 
million  miles,  the  true  value  appearing  to  be 
nearer  92,000,000  m.  Although  this  surprise 
was  by  no  means  justified  by  the  facts  of  the 
case,  yet  it  was  natural  that  much  attention 
should  be  attracted  to  the  transits  of  1874  (Dec. 
8)  and  1882.  Accordingly  great  preparations 
were  made  for  the  observation  of  the  earlier 
transit,  the  United  States  in  particular  taking  a 
distinguished  part  in  the  work.  It  has  been  es 
timated  that  nearly  $1,000,000  must  have  been 
expended  on  the  various  expeditions.  Stations 
were  occupied  in  Siberia,  China,  Japan,  the  Ha 
waiian  islands,  northern  India,  Persia,  Turkis- 
tan,  and  Egypt  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and 
at  a  number  of  islands  in  the  Indian  and  South 
ern  oceans,  from  Kerguelen  on  the  east  to  Chat 
ham  island  and  New  Caledonia  on  the  west, 
Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand  being 
also  occupied  in  force.  Various  success  attend 
ed  the  observers,  but  on  the  whole  the  results 
obtained  were  excellent.  Delisle's  method  and 
Halley's,  the  heliometric  method,  and  photog 
raphy  were  applied  at  many  of  the  most  im 
portant  stations ;  and  though  bad  weather  pre 
vailed  at  other  stations,  the  object  of  the  expe 
ditions  was  achieved.  So  far  as  can  be  judged 
at  present,  the  sun's  distance  indicated  by  these 
observations  is  about  92,000,000  m.  The  next 
transit  of  Venus  will  occur  Dec.  6,  1882,  and 
is  looked  forward  to  with  great  interest  for 


verifying  these  determinations. — The  transits 
of  Mercury  are  much  more  frequent  than  those 
of  Venus,  in  consequence  of  the  former  planet 
being  nearer  the  sun,  and  having  thus  a  nar 
rower  orbit  and  a  shorter  year ;  but  they  are 
not  available  for  the  determination  of  the  solar 
parallax.  The  transit  of  stars  is  employed  in 
the  determination  of  longitude.  (See  LONGI 
TUDE.)  The  precise  relative  situation  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  in  respect  to  their  right  as 
cension  is  determined  by  comparing  their  ex 
act  times  of  -transit.  For  the  means  by  which 
these  times  are  ascertained  see  TEANSIT  CIECLE. 

TRANSIT,  Engineer's.     See  THEODOLITE. 

TRANSIT  CIRCLE,  an  astronomical  instru 
ment  for  determining  the  absolute  positions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies.  As  these  positions  are 
given  by  two  independent  elements,  the  right 
ascension  and  declination,  corresponding  to 
geographical  longitude  and  latitude,  so  this  in 
strument  is  a  combination  of  two  independent 


Transit  Circle. 


constructions,  each  giving  its  share  to  the  name 
of  the  whole,  and  each  furnishing  its  corre 
sponding  element  by  independent  and  yet  simul 
taneous  observation.  The  transit  circle  now 
forms  an  essential  part  of  the  equipment  of 
every  well  constituted  observatory.  The  two 
constructions  which  have  here  combined  their 
powers  are  the  transit  instrument  and  the  me 
ridian  or  vertical  circle.  The  former  consists 
of  a  telescope  whose  tube  is  composed  of  two 
slightly  conical  portions  firmly  secured  at  their 
bases  to  opposite  sides  of  a  hollow  central  cube, 
from  two  other  opposite  sides  of  which  proceed 
also  equal  cones  of  more  massive  make,  gener 
ally  indeed  cast  in  the  same  piece  with  the 
cube,  and  forming  an  axis  at  right  angles  wifh 
the  telescope.  At  or  near  the  extremities  of 
this  axis  are  two  perfectly  cylindrical,  highly 
finished  pivots  of  hardened  steel,  correspond 
ing  in  position  to  sockets  resting  upon  stone 
columns  which,  based  firmly  in  the  ground, 


TRANSIT  CIRCLE 


843 


exactly  east  and  west  of  each  other,  and  rising 
to  a  convenient  height,  support  the  instrument 
so  that  the  telescope  revolves  freely  between 
them  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian.  This  gives 
the  simple  transit  instrument,  by  which  and 
its  necessary  accompaniment,  the  clock,  is  ob 
served  the  time  of  meridian  passage  (the  tran 
sit)  of  the  star  whose  place  is  to  be  determined. 
If  now  we  attach  firmly  to  the  axis  a  finely 
graduated  circle  which  will  revolve  with  the 
telescope,  we  shall  be  enabled,  by  means  of  its 
divisions,  to  measure  also  the  precise  altitude 
of  the  star  at  the  same  instant  of  culmination ; 
and  thus  the  transit  circle  will  give,  by  the  first 
observation,  the  desired  right  ascension,  and 
by  the  second,  the  desired  declination  of  the 
object.  This  combination  is  entirely  of  mod 
ern  date.  Transit  instruments  and  meridian 
arcs  and  circles  have  been  used  ever  since  the 
days  of  Roemer  and  Picard,  but  the  first  real 
conjunction  of  the  two  dates  from  the  close 
of  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century. — 
The  sockets  of  the  transit  circle  receive  the 
pivots  and  determine  the  position  of  the  in 
strument.  They  are  not  formed,  as  might  be 
supposed,  of  circular  "boxes"  accurately  fit 
ting  the  pivots,  but  are  simply  solid  little  pieces 
of  gun  metal,  cut  away  at  the  upper  surface  by 
two  planes  inclined  to  each  other  like  the  sides 
of  the  letter  V,  from  which  letter  they  take 
their  technical  and  convenient  name.  In  these 
V's  the  pivots  revolve  smoothly  and  truly, 
touching  the  inclined  sides  at  but  two  points, 
and  consequently  without  the  lateral  play  which 
it  would  be  impossible  to  avoid  in  circular 
boxes,  however  truly  ground.  Again,  the  stone 
piers  upon  which  the  instrument  rests,  even 
though  wrought  into  perfect  symmetry  and 
equality  in  every  respect,  and  though  posited 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  furnish  no  apprehension 
of  relative  change,  will  yet  continually  mani 
fest  such  change,  sometimes  under  the  influ 
ence  of  varying  temperature  from  day  to  night 
and  night  to  day,  but  more  frequently  from 
causes  even  more  irregular  and  less  known  than 
this.  In  order  therefore  to  be  able  to  keep 
the  axis  of  the  instrument  duly  east  and  west 
and  truly  horizontal,  the  V's  are  not  perma 
nently  bedded  in  the  stone,  but  are  so  held  by 
strong  plates  of  the  same  material,  themselves 
permanently  fastened,  as  to  allow  of  small 
changes  of  position,  one  in  a  horizontal  and 
the  other  in  a  vertical  direction.  Passing  next 
to  the  telescope,  we  notice  that  the  narrower 
ends  of  the  tapering  tubes  are  terminated  by 
flat  rings  of  precisely  the  same  dimensions, 
upon  which  are  fitted  caps  containing,  one  the 
object  glass  and  the  other  the  eye  tube  with  its 
mechanisms.  These  caps  are  exactly  of  equal 
weight,  and,  partially  entering  the  ends  of  the 
tube,  their  centres  of  gravity  fall  truly  in  the 
line  of  junction  with  the  telescope,  thus  the 
instrument  is  not  only  perfectly  counterpoised, 
but  also,  the  caps  being  convertible,  the  object 
glass  and  eye  tube  may  be  and  should  be  pe 
riodically  interchanged,  in  order  to  eliminate 


from  an  average  result  the  effect  of  a  possible 
flexure  of  the  tube.  The  object  glass  presents 
nothing  worthy  of  especial  remark.  The  con 
struction  of  the  eye  piece  is  peculiar.  The 
term  "eye  piece"  is  generally,  though  incor 
rectly,  applied  to  the  whole  mechanism  at  the 
eye  end  of  the  telescope,  which  consists  of  a 
small  tube  sliding  in  the  end  cap,  and  carrying 
not  only  the  eye  piece  proper,  which  is  of  the 
form  known  as  Ramsden's  (see  TELESCOPE), 
but  also  a  conveniently  shaped  box  containing 
two  thin  metallic  plates.  These  plates,  called 
diaphragms,  are  made  with  central  openings, 
across  which  are  stretched  the  threads  used 
to  mark  the  star's  position  in  or  its  progress 
through  the  field.  One  of  these  diaphragms 
is  used  for  the  observation  of  transits,  and 
is  securely  held  in  place  by  fine  "  antago 
nist"  adjusting  screws.  Across  its  opening 
and  precisely  through  the  centre  of  the  field 
is  stretched  vertically  a  most  delicate  thread 
of  spider's  web,  which,  as  the  instrument  re 
volves,  represents  to  the  observer's  eye  the 
meridian  as  a  visible  line  across  which  the 
heavenly  bodies  are  seen  to  pass  at  the  mo 
ment  of  culmination.  In  order  to  gain  more 
accuracy  in  this  observation  (for  the  instant  of 
transit  is  required  to  be  known  within  a  small 
fraction  of  a  second),  other  threads  are  also 
introduced  parallel  with  the  central  one  and 
symmetrically  disposed  on  either  side  of  it,  so 
that,  by  noting  the  time  of  crossing  each  and 
taking  the  average,  a  very  great  degree  of  ac 
curacy  is  attained.  Ordinarily  the  transit  dia 
phragm  contains  either  five  or  seven  threads, 
all  at  equal  intervals  ;  but  for  special  purposes 
their  number  and  arrangement  are  adapted  to 
the  circumstances.  With  a  telegraphic  meth 
od  of  registry,  as  practised  with  the  large  tran 
sit  instrument  of  the  Washington  observatory, 
five  different  sets  or  tallies,  with  five  threads 
in  each,  are  sometimes  used.  Across  the  same 
diaphragm  is  stretched  horizontally  another 
fixed  thread,  as  a  guide  to  the  observer  in  pla 
cing  the  telescope  so  that  the  star  shall  traverse 
the  centre  of  the  field.  The  second  diaphragm, 
carrying  only  a  single  horizontal  thread,  is  mov 
able  in  a  vortical  direction  between  truly  fit 
ting  guides,  and  by  means  of  a  finely  wrought 
micrometer  screw.  As  the  first  plate  belongs 
to  the  transit  portion  of  the  twofold  construc 
tion,  so  this  one  belongs  to  and  cooperates  with 
the  circle,  and  the  office  of  the  screw  which 
carries  it  is  to  measure  the  exact  distance  of 
the  star,  as  it  traverses  the  field,  either  from 
the  fixed  horizontal  thread,  or  from  some  other 
definite  starting  point,  which  may  be  repre 
sented  upon  the  scale  of  the  screw  without 
being  necessarily  visible.  Attached  to  the 
screw  and  revolving  with  it  is  a  small  disk  or 
"head,"  whose  edge  is  divided  into  100  equal 
parts,  so  as  to  measure  very  accurately  the 
fractions  of  a  revolution,  while  the  whole  num 
ber  of  turns  necessary  to  carry  the  thread  to 
any  part  of  the  field  is  registered  upon  a  con 
venient  scale  usually  placed  within  the  eye 


844 


TRANSIT  CIRCLE 


piece  and  visible  with  the  threads  themselves. 
In  order  to  render  thread  and  scale  visible  by 
night,  various  contrivances  are  used,  the  most 
common  of  which  is  to  introduce  a  flat  oval  ring 
with  whitened  surface  into  the  central  cube, 
and  with  its  plane  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45° 
with  the  axis,  so  that,  receiving  light  thrown 
in  through  an  orifice  in  the  pivots,  it  will  reflect 
sufficient  into  the  field  to  show  the  threads  as 
black  lines  upon  a  bright  ground.  Sometimes 
also  the  illumination  is  thrown  upon  the  threads 
themselves,  when  they  appear  as  bright  lines 
upon  a  dark  ground  ;  and  in  the  great  transit 
circle  at  Greenwich  a  very  ingenious  combina 
tion  of  prisms  enables  the  observer  to  produce 
either  effect  at  pleasure. — Upon  each  half  of 
the  axis,  between  the  cube  and  the  pivots,  is  a 
circle  whose  diameter  is  usually  from  one  third 
to  one  half  the  length  of  the  telescope.  These 
circles  writh  their  several  radii  and  cross  bars 
are  generally  cast  each  in  a  single  piece,  to  in 
sure  greater  firmness  and  avoid  unequal  ten 
sions.  But  the  six-foot  circles  of  the  Green 
wich  instrument  just  mentioned,  weighing 
about  300  Ibs.  each,  are  made  of  two  castings, 
the  rim  in  one,  and  the  whole  system  of  radii 
and  braces  in  another,  the  two  being  afterward 
firmly  bolted  together  at  12  equidistant  points. 
Upon  a  narrow  band  of  silver  inserted  near  the 
circumference  of  the  circles  are  cut  the  gradu 
ations  required  for  the  special  office  of  each  ; 
one,  used  only  for  pointing  the  telescope  in  any 
given  direction,  is  divided  so  as  to  read  with  a 
vernier  to  single  minutes,  which  is  abundantly 
sufficient ;  the  other  circle,  intended  for  the 
exact  measurement  of  angles,  is  divided  with 
the  most  scrupulous  accuracy  into  arcs  of  two, 
three,  or  five  minutes,  as  the  case  may  be, 
and,  once  fixed  upon  the  axis,  should  never 
during  observations  be  handled  or  subject 
ed  to  unequal  pressure  or  strain  of  any  sort. 
Assuming  now  that  these  division  marks  are 
truly  cut,  we  next  look  for  the  means  of  sub 
dividing  the  small  arcs  into  seconds  and  frac 
tions  of  seconds,  and  find  this  accomplished 
by  a  system  of  "  reading  microscopes."  These 
are  microscopes  of  the  ordinary  compound  con 
struction,  but  each  provided  with  a  microme 
ter  screw  carrying,  as  in.  the  German  instru 
ments,  a  pair  of  close  parallel  threads  between 
which  the  image  of  the  division  under  con 
sideration  can  be  placed  with  great  accuracy, 
or,  as  in  Troughton's  form,  two  threads  cross 
ing  each  other  at  a  very  acute  angle,  which 
may  be  bisected  by  the  division.  The  micro 
scopes  are  so  made  that  one  revolution  of  the 
screw  is  equal  to  a  minute,  and  the  microme 
ter  head  is  divided  into  60  equal  parts,  each  of 
which  therefore  represents  a  second.  There 
are  usually  four  of  these  microscopes  placed 
90  degrees  apart;  but  sometimes  as  many  as 
six  are  used  for  greater  certainty,  both  from 
the  greater  number  of  readings  and  from  the 
probable  reduction  of  the  systematic  errors  of 
the  primary  division.  The  proper  method  of 
supporting  these  microscopes  to  insure  their 


perfect  stability  has  been  a  subject  of  much 
study.  A  favorite  plan  has  been  to  place  them 
on  the  periphery  of  another  smaller  circle 
which  rests,  accurately  fitting,  upon  the  axis 
itself,  but  is  prevented  from  revolving  with  it 
by  a  small  projecting  bar  caught  below  between 
t\vo  screws  attached  to  the  pier.  Experience, 
however,  seems  to  have  decided  in  favor  of 
securing  firmly  and  independently  upon  the 
pier  itself,  near  the  Y-plate,  a 'solid  block  of 
metal  which  serves  as  the  centre  of  a  strong 
square  frame  at  whose  corners  the  microscopes 
are  attached  by  adjusting  screws.  The  micro 
scopes  are  thus  entirely  disconnected  from  the 
circle ;  and  although  every  new  adjustment  of 
the  axis  will  show  itself  in  their  record  of  the 
graduations,  yet  this  produces  no  effect  what 
ever  upon  the  mean  of  readings  of  opposite 
microscopes.  In  the  Greenwich  instrument, 
whose  piers  are  broader  than  the  circles  them 
selves,  the  microscopes  are  very  long,  and  are 
passed  through  the  pier  itself,  converging  from 
the  rim  of  the  circle  until  their  eye  pieces  are 
collected  within  a  very  small  space,  where  the 
observer  reads  them  with  convenience  and 
ease.  The  graduated  limb  is  bevelled  to  suit 
this  arrangement,  and  from  another  point  near 
the  observer  a  small  gas-burner  radiates  light 
through  other  openings  in  the  pier  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  illuminate  uniformly  the  field  of 
each  microscope ;  a  matter  of  very  high  prac 
tical  importance. — To  bring  the  instrument 
into  its  proper  place  in  the  meridian,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  middle  vertical  thread  of 
the  fixed  diaphragm  be  placed  truly  in  the  op 
tical  axis  of  the  telescope,  which  is  the  central 
line  of  the  cone  of  rays  converging  from  the 
object  glass.  This  may  be  effected  by  turning 
the  telescope  to  a  very  distant  fixed  object, 
noting  the  exact  position  of  this  middle  thread 
with  reference  to  the  images  in  the  field,  and 
then  reversing  the  instrument,  when  the  thread 
will  probably  occupy  a  different  position, 
whereupon  it  must  be  brought  by  the  adjust 
ing  screws  of  the  diaphragm  to  a  point  mid 
way  between  the  first  and  second  places,  and 
the  operation  repeated  until  no  change  ap 
pears  upon  reversal.  Next,  by  means  of  a 
spirit  level  and  the  vertical  adjusting  screws 
of  one  of  the  V-plates,  the  axis  of  the  instru 
ment  is  rendered  truly  horizontal ;  and  finally, 
the  approximate  sidereal  time  being  known, 
the  telescope  is  directed  to  some  star,  also 
know^n,  very  near  the  ])ole  of  the  heavens,  and 
the  axis  moved  by  the  horizontal  adjusting 
screws  of  the  other  V-plate,  until  at  the  right 
moment  the  star  and  thread  coincide  exactly. 
The  three  errors  thus  corrected  are  denom 
inated  the  errors  in  collimation,  level,  and  azi 
muth  respectively.  And  now,  by  help  of  stel 
lar  observations  under  properly  varied  circum 
stances,  we  are  able  not  only  to  determine 
with  great  precision  the  small  outstanding  val 
ues  of  these  errors,  which  by  no  means  remain 
constant  for  any  length  of  time,  but  also  to 
judge  the  clock  that  aided  us,  and  finally  the 


TRANSIT   CIRCLE 


TRANSYLVANIA 


84:5 


very  places  of  the  stars  that  have  served  as  our 
guides.  The  errors  of  instrument  and  clock 
having  been  thus  determined,  it  is  possible,  by 
the  aid  of  formulas  and  methods  which  have 
been  so  thoroughly  developed  and  systematized 
as  to  be  applicable  with  the  greatest  facility, 
to  obtain  by  a  single  observation  of  any  new 
object  its  right  ascension  within  a  very  small 
fraction  of  a  second  of  time. — But,  as  we  have 
intimated,  the  chief  value  of  the  instrument 
consists  in  its  power  of  furnishing  at  the  same 
culmination  not  only  the  right  ascension  but 
also  the  declination  of  the  object,  and  it  ac 
complishes  the  latter  most  simply  in  the  fol 
lowing  manner.  While  the  observer  is  noting 
the  progress  of  the  star  across  the  transit 
threads,  he  at  the  same  time,  by  a  delicate 
movement  of  the  telescope  in  altitude,  places 
it  so  that  the  star  appears  to  run  along  the 
fixed  horizontal  thread ;  a-nd  then,  the  transit 
observation  having  been  completed,  he  reads, 
even  to  the  fraction  of  a  second,  from  the  cir 
cle  microscopes  the  precise  point  correspond 
ing  to  the  apparent  altitude  of  the  star.  Or,  a 
still  more  accurate  determination  is  obtained 
by  placing  the  telescope  so  that  the  star  will 
traverse  the  field  at  a  little  distance  above  or 
below  the  fixed  thread ;  and  there  is  ordinarily 
time  enough  to  bring  the  movable  thread  sev 
eral  times  into  coincidence  with  the  star's 
image  by  means  of  the  micrometer  screw,  al 
ways  noting  its  indications  and  afterward 
taking  the  mean  of  all.  The  small  distance 
from  the  fixed  thread,  as  thus  measured,  must 
of  course  be  duly  applied  as  a  correction  to 
the  readings  of  the  microscopes,  and  thus  we  de 
rive  one  extremity  of  the  desired  arc,  and  then 
proceed  to  find  the  other.  In  order  to  know 
the  star's  declination,  we  must  first  have  its 
altitude  above  the  horizon.  This  can  some 
times  be  obtained  by  a  double  observation  of 
the  star's  image,  first  as  reflected  from  a  quick 
silver  surface,  and  then  as  seen  directly,  in 
which  case  the  arc  included  between  these  two 
directions  is  obviously  equal  to  twice  the  alti 
tude  of  the  star;  but  this  course  is  not  always 
applicable.  We  have  however  a  readier  and 
exquisitely  beautiful  method  of  obtaining  with 
very  great  accuracy  the  direction  of  the  ver 
tical  line,  from  which  we  can  count  the  star's 
zenith  distance.  The  telescope  being  turned 
so  as  to  look  directly  downward,  we  place  im 
mediately  beneath  it  a  vessel  of  quicksilver; 
and  if  then,  by  means  of  a  small  plate  of  thin 
glass  held  at  an  angle  of  45°,  we  reflect  a  strong 
light  down  the  telescope,  it  will  be  reflected 
back  by  the  quicksilver,  and,  looking  through 
the  glass  from  above,  we  shall  see  not  only 
the  threads  in  the  eye  piece,  but  also  the  re 
flected  image  of  each ;  and  by  moving  the  in 
strument  carefully  until  the  fixed  horizontal 
thread  coincides  with  its  own  image,  we  shall 
have  the  telescope  mathematically  vertical,  and 
may  read  from  the  circle  the  corresponding 
second  point  of  the  desired  arc,  whereby  we 
obtain  the  apparent  altitude,  and  thence"  cor 


recting  for  refraction,  the  true  altitude,  and 
finally  the  desired  declination. — A  few  words 
must  be  added  respecting  the  use  of  transit 
instruments  in  the  prime  vertical,  that  is,  so 
placed  that  the  great  circle  described  by  the 
collimation  axis  is  in  the  prime  vertical.  Bes- 
sel  first  suggested  this  method  of  mounting  a 
transit  instrument,  for  the  purpose  of  deter 
mining  with  special  accuracy  the  latitude  of 
the  place  of  observation.  It  is  manifest  that 
any  star  which  has  a  north  declination  less 
than  Z,  where  I  is  the  latitude,  crosses  the 
prime  vertical  at  equal  altitudes  on  the  eastern 
and  western  quadrants.  If  the  interval  in 
time  between  these  passages  be  noted  as=2£, 
it  is  manifest  from  the  right-angled  spherical 
triangle  having  for  its  angles  the  pole,  the  ze 
nith,  and  the  star's  place  in  either  quadrant 
of  the  prime  vertical,  that  tan  Z=tan  6  sec  t. 
This  method  of  determining  the  latitude  has  a 
great  advantage  in  the  readiness  with  which 
instrumental  errors  may  be  got  rid  of,  by  using 
the  instrument  alternately  in  opposite  positions 
as  respects  the  rotation  axis.  The  adjustments 
for  a  transit  instrument  in  the  prime  vertical 
relate,  like  those  of  the  meridional  transit  in 
strument,  to  the  three  points,  collimation,  level, 
and  azimuth.  In  collimation  the  adjustment 
resembles  that  of  the  ordinary  transit  instru 
ment.  The  instrument  is  brought  nearly  into 
the  prime  vertical  by  directing  it  to  a  star  of 
small  northerly  declination  at  the  calculated 
time  of  the  star's  passage  of  the  prime  verti 
cal.  When  this  has  been  done,  the  rotation 
axis  must  be  carefully  levelled,  and  a  fresh 
adjustment  made  by  means  of  another  star. 
For  the  small  adjustment  thus  rendered  ne 
cessary  provision  is  made  by  allowing  one  of 
the  V's  a  small  motion  in  azimuth.  Another 
method  is  to  have  the  instrument  provided 
with  a  graduated  horizontal  circle,  and  then, 
having  adjusted  it  in  the  meridian,  to  revolve 
it  through  90°  in  azimuth.  When  the  rota 
tion  axis  is  in  the  meridian  but  inclined  to  the 
horizon,  a  correction  can  be  readily  made  for 
this  inclination,  because  the  great  circle  de 
scribed  by  the  collimatiou  axis  crosses  the 
horizon  at  the  true  east  and  west  points,  but 
passes  slightly  to  the  north  or  to  the  south 
of  the  true  zenith ;  and  the  latitude  found  by 
means  of  the  instrument  corresponds  to  the 
latitude  of  the  point  where  the  great  circle 
thus  swept  out  crosses  the  meridian.  Thus 
the  only  required  consideration  of  the  level 
correction  is  that  this  correction  should  be 
applied  directly  to  the  latitude  found  from  the 
instrument  used  as  if  correctly  adjusted.  But 
if  the  rotation  axis  is  neither  in  the  meridian 
nor  level,  or  if  the  middle  thread  is  not  in  the 
collimation  axis,  the  correction  is  less  simple. 
(See  Chauvenet's  "  Spherical  and  Practical  As 
tronomy,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  242.) 

TRANSUBSTANTIATE.     See  LORD'S  SUPPER. 

TRANSVAAL  REPUBLIC.     See  BOERS. 

TRANSYLVANIA  (Hun.  Erdely ;  Ger.  Sieben- 
biirgeri),  a  grand  duchy  of  the  Austro-IIun- 


846 


TRANSYLVANIA 


garian  monarchy,  now  forming  part  of  the 
lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown,  bounded  W. 
and  N.  by  Hungary  proper,  N.  E.  and  E.  by 
the  Bukowina  and  Roumania,  and  S.  by  Rou- 
mania.  It  is  situated  between  lat.  45°  12'  and 
47°  42'  N.,  and  Ion.  22°  24'  and  26°  30'  E. ;  area, 
according  to  the  last  changes  of  the  frontiers, 
21,216  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,115,024.  Capi 
tal,  Klausenburg.  The  country  is  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  mountains  belonging  to  the 
Carpathian  system,  and  the  surface  is  much 
diversified,  being  traversed  by  several  moun 
tain  ranges,  between  which  there  are  numerous 
fine  valleys  and  plains.  The  principal  chain 
extends  along  the  E.  and  S.  frontiers,  and  sends 
out  many  offsets.  The  range  which  forms  the 
N.  W.  boundary  toward  Hungary  is  properly 
designated  as  the  Transylvaiiiari  Ore  moun 
tains.  The  most  elevated  points  lie  near  the 
S.  boundary,  in  the  so-called  Transylvanian 
Alps,  where  Mt.  Negoi  has  a  height  of  more 
than  8,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  Mt.  Bucsesd 
is  very  little  lower.  The  Tomos,  Ked  Tower, 
and  Vulcan  passes  lead  through  this  range. 
The  whole  drainage  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Danube,  the  chief  rivers  being  the  Aluta  (Hun. 
Olt),  the  Maros  with  its  tributaries  the  Great 
and  Little  Kokel  (Kiikullo),  the  Bistritz  (Bcsz- 
tercze),  the  Szamos,  and  the  Kdros.  There  are 
several  lakes. — The  climate  varies  greatly  ac 
cording  to  elevation.  In  the  valleys  the  heat  of 
summer  is  very  great,  but  in  the  more  elevated 
districts  the  winter  temperature  is  remarkably 
severe  and  so  long  continued  as  to  cause  serious 
injury  to  vegetation.  Gold  is  found  in  most  of 
the  streams  in  greater  or  less  quantities ;  a  num 
ber  of  gold  mines  are  worked,  and  are  said  to  be 
very  productive.  Silver  mines  are  also  worked, 
and  there  is  one  of  quicksilver.  Copper,  lead, 
iron,  antimony,  arsenic,  tin,  coal,  alum,  bitu 
men,  saltpetre,  and  salt  are  all  found ;  together 
with  crystals  and  valuable  pebbles,  including 
garnets,  chrysolites,  amethysts,  chalcedonies, 
agates,  carnelians,  and  jaspers.  A  bed  of  rock 
salt  extends  in  a  belt  60  to  80  m.  wide  through 
the  whole  country,  from  which  great  quantities 
are  extracted,  as  well  as  from  numerous  springs. 
In  the  more  elevated  parts  vegetation  is  scanty, 
but  lower  down  luxuriant  forests  make  their 
appearance,  which  yield  many  kinds  of  valua 
ble  timber.  The  valleys  and  plains  are  particu 
larly  fertile,  and,  although  agriculture  is  in  a 
backward  state,  yield  good  crops  of  various 
kinds  of  grain,  pulse,  maize,  hemp,  flax,  tobacco, 
saffron,  and  madder ;  and  the  vine  and  fruits 
are  very  generally  cultivated.  Great  numbers 
of  horses,  horned  cattle,  buffaloes,  sheep,  and 
pigs  are  reared,  large  herds  of  the  last  named 
being  fed  in  the  forests.  Game  is  abundant, 
and  the  rivers  are  well  supplied  with  fish.  The 
manufactures  consist  principally  of  coarse  linen 
and  woollen  goods,  native  silk,  different  kinds 
of  metals,  paper,  gunpowder,  leather,  porcelain 
and  earthenware,  glass,  stearine  candles,  soap, 
furniture,  and  numerous  articles  in  wood. — 
The  population  is  composed  of  various  races, 


including  Magyars  or  Hungarians  proper,  Szek- 
lers,  Saxons,  Roumans  or  Wallachs,  Buthenians, 
gypsies,  Armenians,  Greeks,  Jews,  and  Bulga 
rians.  The  Roumans  are  by  far  the  most  nu 
merous,  being  about  three  fifths  of  the  whole. 
The  gypsies  number  about  88,000.  The  reli 
gions  most  numerously  professed  are  the  non- 
united  and  united  Greek  (chiefly  by  the  Ruthe- 
nians  and  Roumans),  Roman  Catholic  (by  the 
Magyars),  Calvinist  (by  the  Magyars),  Lutheran 
(by  the  Saxons),  and  Unitarian  (by  the  Szeklers). 
The  Magyars  and  Saxons  have  the  best  schools ; 
those  belonging  to  some  of  the  others  are  of  a 
very  inferior  character.  The  first  Transylva 
nian  university  was  opened  at  Klausenburg  in 
1872.  The  Szeklers,  or  properly  Szekelys,  who 
are  believed  by  some  to  be  descendants  of  the 
Huns,  and  by  others  of  the  Petchenegs  and 
other  tribes  kindred  to  the  Magyars,  use  a 
dialect  little  different  from  the  language  of  the 
latter,  this  being  also  spoken  by  the  Bulgarians 
and  Armenians.  The  Saxons  are  descendants 
of  German  settlers  from  Flanders,  the  lower 
Rhine,  the  Hartz,  and  Thuringia,  who  estab 
lished  themselves  in  Transylvania  especially 
about  the  middle  of  the  12th  century,  where 
they  are  unmixed  with  other  races,  and  speak 
their  own  language,  the  German.  They  for 
merly  enjoyed  various  privileges,  based  chiefly 
on  a  charter  granted  them  by  King  Andrew 
II.  in  1224,  and  more  equality  of  rights  than 
the  other  races.  Together  with  the  Magyars 
and  Szeklers  they  formed  the  constitutionally 
ruling  people,  but  now  all  nationalities  enjoy 
equal  rights.  The  country  is  therefore  divided 
into  the  lands  of  the  Hungarians  (chiefly  in 
the  northwest  and  west),  of  the  Szeklers  (in 
the  east),  and  of  the  Saxons  (in  the  south  and 
northeast).  The  land  of  the  Hungarians  is 
subdivided  into  the  counties  or  comitats  (me- 
gyefy  of  Klausenburg  (Kolozi),  Doboka,  Inner 
Szolnok,  Thorda,  Kokelburg  (Kukullo],  Upper 
Weissenburg  (Fejervdr),  Lower  Weissenburg, 
and  Ilunyad,  and  the  districts  of  Fogaras  and 
Naszod ;  the  land  of  the  Szeklers  into  the  seats 
(szekelc)  of  Aranyos,  Maros,  Udvarhely,  Csik, 
and  Harom-Szek;  and  the  land  of  the  Saxons 
into  the  seats  (Stulile)  of  Hermannstadt,  Broos, 
Miihlenbach,  Reissmarkt,  Mediasch,  Scha'ss- 
burg,  Gross-Schenk,  Leschkirch,  and  Reps,  and 
the  districts  of  Kronstadt  and  Bistritz.  Be 
sides  the  capital,  the  most  important  towns  are 
Hermannstadt,  Kronstadt,  Vasarhely-on-the- 
Maros,  Bistritz,  and  the  fortress  Carlsburg. 
The  constitution  of  Transylvania  before  the 
revolution  of  1848-'9,  during  which  it  was  re 
united  with  Hungary,  resembled  that  of  the  lat 
ter  country,  but  was  more  complicated,  owing 
to  numerous  reserved  privileges.  It  was  abol 
ished  by  the  Austrians  in  1849,  and  restored 
in  1861,  though  not  in  its  full  vigor.  In  1867 
Transylvania  was  again  fully  united  with  Hun 
gary,  and  its  separate  diet  abolished. — Transyl 
vania  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire  be 
longed  to  Dacia,  was  subsequently  overrun  by 
the  Huns,  Goths,  Gepidse,  Lombards,  Bulga- 


TRANSYLVANIA 


TRAPPISTS 


817 


rians,  Avars,  Petchenegs,  and  other  tribes,  and 
in  the  10th  and  llth  centuries  conquered  by 
the  Hungarians,  who  ruled  it  by  waywodes, 
for  a  time  disputing  its  possession  with  the 
Cumans.  Having  shared  the  fate  of  Hungary 
for  centuries,  it  became  an  independent  prin 
cipality  during  the  Turkish- Austrian  wars  in 
the  early  part  of  the  16th  century,  and  was 
ruled  among  others  by  the  Zapolyas,  the  Ba- 
thoris,  Bocskay,  Bethlen,  the  Riikoczys,  and 
the  Apafis,  until  it  was  finally  annexed  to 
Austria  in  1713.  (See  HUNGARY,  vol.  ix.,  pp. 
57-61,  BATHORI,  BETHLEN,  RAKOCZY,  and  ZA- 
POLYA.)  The  antagonism  between  the  Rou- 
mans  and  Magyars,  which  in  1848  led  to  a 
bloody  rising  of  the  former,  has  not  entirely 
subsided,  and  more  or  less  secret  agitations  in 
favor  of  a  union  of  Transylvania  with  Rou- 
mania,  the  united  countries  to  form  a  strong 
Dacian  realm,  not  unfrequently  alarm  the  Hun 
garian  government.  The  Saxons,  too,  hold 
themselves  in  opposition  to  the  leadership  of 
the  Hungarians.  On  the  E.  and  S.  frontiers 
the  people  down  to  a  late  date  held  their  land 
under  the  tenure  of  protecting  the  country 
against  foreign  aggression  in  these  directions, 
the  hardy  and  warlike  Szeklers  in  the  east  con 
stituting  the  principal  strength  of  this  military 
frontier  organization. — See  "  Transylvania,  its 
Products  and  its  People,"  by  Charles  Boner 
(London,  1865),  and  Voyage  aux  regions  mi- 
nieres  de  la  Transylvanie  occidentale,  by  Eli- 
see  Reclus  (Paris,  1873). 

TRANSYLVANIA,  a  S.  W.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  bordering  on  South  Carolina ;  area, 
about  475  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,536,  of  whom 
309  were  colored.  It  contains  the  sources  of 
the  French  Broad  river,  and  is  almost  entirely 
surrounded  and  occupied  by  mountains.  The 
soil  of  the  valleys  is  fertile  and  well  adapted  to 
stock  raising.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  12,476  bushels  of  rye,  95,633  of  Indian 
corn,  8,142  of  Irish  and  3,101  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  18,844  Ibs.  of  wool,  6,301  of  tobacco,  and 
24,129  of  butter.  There  were  504  horses, 
1,197  milch  cows,  2,712  other  cattle,  4,721 
sheep,  and  6,490  swine.  Capital,  Brevard. 

TRANSYLVANIA  UNIVERSITY.  See  LEXING 
TON,  Ky. 

TRAP  (Swed.  tmppa,  a  stair),  a  class  of  vol 
canic  rocks,  so  named  because  of  the  stair-like 
appearance  they  often  present.  There  are 
several  kinds  of  trap  rocks,  distinguished  by 
their  chemical  composition  and  physical  char 
acter.  They  are  composed  mainly  of  feldspar 
and  hornblende,  in  varying  proportions  and 
states  of  aggregation,  with  sometimes  augite, 
chrysolite,  and  other  minerals  in  smaller  quan 
tities.  The  most  important  among  the  trap 
rocks  are  the  basalts,  amygdaloids,  greenstones, 
and  dolerites.  They  are  therefore  chiefly  di 
vided  into  f  elstone  traps  and  hornblende  traps, 
the  principal  variety  of  the  latter  being  green 
stone.  Hypersthene  rock  is  made  up  of  La 
brador  feldspar  and  hypersthene,  a  variety  of 
hornblende ;  it  is  abundant  in  the  isle  of  Skye. 
VOL.  xv. — 54 


TRAPANI.  I.  A  province  of  Sicily,  compri 
sing  the  W.  extremity  of  the  island,  bounded 
E.  by  Palermo  and  Girgenti,  and  on  the  other 
sides  by  the  Mediterranean;  area,  1,214  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  236,388.  The  coast  line  is 
irregular,  and  there  are  several  bays,  the  lar 
gest  of  which  is  the  gulf  of  Castellamare.  The 
most  important  of  the  numerous  islands  off  the 
W.  coast  are  the  three  anciently  called  the 
2Egates,  viz.,  Favignana,  Levanzo,  and  Mari- 
timo.  The  surface  of  Trapani  is  traversed  by 
several  offsets  from  the  Madonian  mountains. 
The  soil  is  generally  fertile.  II.  A  city  (anc. 
Drepanum  or  Drepana),  capital  of  the  prov 
ince,  on  a  peninsula  which  extends  into  the 
Mediterranean,  46  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Palermo ; 
pop.  in  1872,  33,634.  It  has  a  small  harbor 
protected  by  a  fort.  The  churches  are  exceed 
ingly  numerous,  and  there  is  a  lyceum,  a  gym 
nasium,  and  an  archaeological  museum  endowed 
in  1875  by  Cavaliere  Depoli.  The  salt  works 
and  fisheries  are  of  some  importance. — Drepa 
num  was  founded  by  Hamilcar  during  the  first 
Punic  war,  about  260  B.  C.,  who  transferred 
hither  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  Eryx ; 
and  it  remained  one  of  the  chief  strongholds 
of  the  Carthaginians  throughout  this  war.  Off 
its  port  they  gained  a  great  naval  victory  under 
Adherbal  in  249,  destroying  nearly  the  whole 
Roman  fleet ;  and  it  was  in  attempting  to  raise 
its  siege  by  the  Roman  consul  Catulus  in  241, 
that  their  ships  under  Hanno  suffered  off  the 
island  of  Favignana  (anc.  ^Egusa)  the  defeat 
which  ended  the  war. 

TRAPEZUS.     See  TEEBIZOND. 

TRAPPISTS,  a  branch  of  the  Cistercian  or 
der  famed  for  the  austere  reform  inaugura 
ted  by  De  Ranee,  abbot  of  La  Trappe.  (See 
RANGE.)  This  monastery  is  near  Mortagne,  in 
the  French  department  of  Orne.  It  was  found 
ed  in  1140  by  Rotrou  II.,  count  of  Perche,  who 
gave  it  to  a  colony  of  Benedictine  monks  from 
Savigny.  In  1148  St.  Bernard  affiliated  it  to 
Clairvaux,  and  its  inmates  became  famous  for 
piety.  During  the  incessant  wars  between  the 
French  and  the  English,  the  monks  were  fre 
quently  plundered  and  dispersed,  till  toward 
the  close  of  the  15th  century  their  long  en 
forced  absence  from  the  monastery  gradually 
weakened  the  habits  of  regular  observance, 
and  reduced  their  numbers  to  less  than  20. 
Francis  I.  gave  the  ruined  abbey  in  commen- 
dam  to  Cardinal  du  Bellay ;  and  thenceforward 
all  religious  fervor  and  discipline  were  at  an 
end.  In  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  only  seven  monks  remained,  whose  li 
centious  habits  caused  them  to  be  called  "  the 
brigands  of  La  Trappe,"  On  July  13,  1664, 
De  Ranee  was  consecrated  abbot  of  La  Trappe 
in  the  cathedral  of  Seez,  by  Oliver  Plunket, 
archbishop  of  Armagh.  The  old  monks  who 
did  not  wish  to  adopt  the  severe  life  inaugu 
rated  by  the  abbot  were  allowed  to  depart, 
and  were  pensioned  out  of  De  Ranee's  patri 
mony;  and,  after  much  opposition  from  the 
other  Cistercian  monasteries,  and  six  years 


848 


TEAPPISTS 


TRAVANCORE 


of  patient  waiting,  the  mild  firmness  of  the 
reformer  and  his  exemplary  life  attracted  a 
small  number  of  followers.  The  chief  centre 
of  the  reform,  after  La  Trappe,  was  the  Cis 
tercian  monastery  of  Tamie,  near  Fa  verges,  in 
Upper  Savoy.  It  adopted  I)e  Ranee's  rule  in 
1677,  was  suppressed  during  the  French  rev 
olution,  and,  after  various  vicissitudes,  was 
again  taken  possession  of,  Oct.  15,  1861,  by  a 
colony  of  Trappists  from  Grace-Dieu,  near  Be- 
sancon.  The  reform  was  approved  by  Inno 
cent  XL,  but  under  certain  restrictions.  The 
monastic  rule  is  noted  for  its  severity.  The 
members  rise  in  the  morning  at  2  o'clock,  and 
devote  12  hours  a  day  to  devotional  exercises, 
and  several  hours  to  hard  labor,  mostly  in  the 
field.  No  worldly  conversation  is  allowed; 
when  meeting,  they  salute  each  other  with  the 
solemn  Memento  mori  ("Remember  death"). 
Their  scanty  food  consists  of  water  and  vege 
tables  ;  meat,  wine,  and  beer  are  entirely  for 
bidden.  They  sleep  on  a  board,  with  a  pillow 
of  straw;  and  they  never  undress,  not  even 
in  case  of  sickness.  Hospitality  is  earnestly 
recommended;  but  it  is  also  enjoined  on  the 
members  to  observe,  in  the  exercise  of  hos 
pitality,  as  much  as  possible  the  customary 
silence  of  the  order  and  the  simplicity  of  its 
mode  o¥  life.  In  1789  the  Trappists  possessed, 
besides  La  Trappe  and  Tamie,  only  one  monas 
tery  in  Tuscany  and  one  in  western  Germany. 
When  they  were  suppressed  in  France,  Dom 
Augustin  Lestrange,  who  is  regarded  as  the 
second  founder  of  the  order,  opened  an  estab 
lishment  at  Fribourg  in  Switzerland,  to  which 
some  of  the  monks  repaired.  The  members 
of  the  other  extinguished  monasteries  wan 
dered  through  Europe  for  about  20  years, 
without  finding  a  permanent  abode.  In  1817 
the  French  government  authorized  the  reopen 
ing  of  La  Trappe,  and  the  order  soon  counted 
several  flourishing  establishments.  It  was  es 
pecially  prosperous  under  the  administration 
of  the  superior  general  Geramb  (after  1825), 
one  of  the  few  Trappists  who  have  won  a  rep 
utation  for  authorship.  In  1828,  and  again  in 
1830,  the  suppression  of  all  the  French  estab 
lishments  of  the  order  was  decreed  by  the 
government,  but  in  neither  case  was  the  de 
cree  executed.  Since  1870  the  Trappists  have 
ceased  to  exist  legally  in  Italy  and  Switzer 
land,  and  in  1874  they  were  suppressed  in  the 
German  empire.  In  1803  a  colony  of  Trap 
pists  led  by  Lestrange  himself  settled  at  Pigeon 
Hill,  near  Conewago,  Pa.;  in  the  autumn  of 
1805  they  removed  to  Kentucky,  thence  to 
Florissant  near  St.  Louis  in  1808,  and  in  1809 
to  a  farm  6  m.  N.  oil  the  Illinois  shore  of  the 
Mississippi.  In  1813  they  went  to  Tracadie  in 
Nova  Scotia,  where  they  still  exist.  In  18-48 
Trappists  from  La  Meilleraye  in  France  set 
tled  at  Gethsemane,  Ky.,  14  m.  S.  E.  of  Bards- 
town  ;  a  second  establishment  (now  New  Mel- 
leray  abbey)  has  since  been  founded  in  Iowa, 
12  m.  from  Dubuque.  Both  of  these  have  been 
raised  to  the  rank  of  abbeys,  the  abbots  wearing 


the  mitre. — An  offshoot  of  the  order  of  Trap 
pists  is  the  congregation  of  "Trappist  Preach 
ers,"  founded  about  1845  by  the  abbe  Muard. 
at  Avallon,  France,  which  connects  home  mis 
sionary  labors  with  the  observance  of  a  Trap- 
pist  mode  of  life. — The  first  convent  of  Trap- 
pist  nuns  was  founded  in  1692  in  France. 

TRAS  OS  MONIES,  a  N.  E.  province  of  Por 
tugal,  bordering  on  Spain  and  the  provinces  of 
Beira  and  Minho ;  area,  4,289  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  365,833.  It  is  the  most  mountainous 
part  of  the  kingdom.  The  Douro  constitutes 
its  S.  E.  and  S.  boundary,  and  it  is  watered 
by  its  affluents  the  Sabor,  Tua,  and  Tamega. 
It  is  now  divided  into  the  two  districts  of 
Villareal  and  Braganca.  Capital,  Braganga. 

TRASS.     See  POZZUOLANA. 

TRAVANCORE,  a  subsidiary  native  state  of 
British  India,  occupying  the  S.  W.  extremity 
of  the  great  Indian  peninsula,  terminating  on 
the  south  in  Cape  Comorin,  and  bounded  N. 
by  the  native  state  of  Cochin  and  the  district 
of  Coimbatore  in  Madras,  E.  by  the  Madras 
districts  of  Madura  and  Tinnevelli,  and  S.  and 
W.  by  the  Indian  ocean  ;  area,  6,653  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  1,400,000.  The  capital  is  Trivan- 
drum,  on  a  small  river  in  the  S.  part  of  the 
state,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  sea ; 
other  important  towns  are  Aleppi,  Quilon, 
and  Anjengo,  all  on  the  coast.  The  surface 
slopes  seaward  from  the  Western  Ghauts, 
which  form  its  E.  boundary,  and  at  the  N.  E. 
corner  reach  an  altitude  of  upward  of  8,000 
ft. ;  and  the  country  is  generally  hilly,  eleva 
ted,  and  well  wooded,  except  on  the  coast.  A 
large  portion  of  the  coast  is  low  and  sandy 
and  fringed  with  cocoanut  palms,  but  in  the 
south  the  heights  approach  the  sea  and  form  a 
bolder  shore.  There  is  a  good  roadstead  at 
Aleppi,  and  since  1871  Kolachul,  near  Cape 
Comorin,  has  been  used  as  a  port  by  the  coffee 
planters,  whose  large  ships  have  there  found 
safe  anchorage  in  still  water.  Travancore 
is  drained  by  numerous  westward  -flowing 
streams,  whose  waters  form  extensive  shallow 
lagoons  or  backwaters  parallel  with  the  coast. 
The  largest  river  is  the  Perryaur,  in  the  north, 
about  140. m.  long,  which  is  known  as  the  Al 
wye  near  the  sea.  The  rainfall  of  the  western 
half  of  the  country  exceeds  100  inches  per  an 
num,  but  it  is  not  more  than  52  inches  among 
the  mountains  or  at  Cape  Comorin.  The  cli 
mate  is  hot  but  not  unhealthf  ul ;  at  the  capital 
the  temperature  rarely  exceeds  90°  at  any  time, 
or  75°  during  the  S.  W.  monsoon,  when  the 
most  rain  falls.  The  soil  is  nearly  everywhere 
productive,  and  very  rich  in  the  lowlands, 
where  excellent  rice  is  raised.  The  most  val 
uable  crops  are  coffee,  which  is  very  success 
fully  cultivated  in  the  hills,  cocoanuts,  areca 
nuts,  and  pepper,  all  of  which  are  largely  ex 
ported  ;  ginger,  cinnamon,  nutmegs,  indigo, 
and  cardamoms  are  also  grown.  The  forests 
furnish  timber  for  export  in  great  abundance 
and  variety.  Cinchona  plantations  have  been 
established  under  government  auspices.  The 


TRAVERSE 


TREASON 


849 


fauna  of  Travancore  corresponds  closely  with 
that  of  Malabar.  The  mineral  resources  are 
as  yet  undeveloped ;  but  salt  is  made,  and  there 
are  known  to  be  deposits  of  iron.  There  are 
but  few  manufactures. — Travancore  is  a  Hindoo 
principality,  and  Hindoos  constitute  the  largest 
and  most  influential  part  of  the  population,  but 
the  aboriginal  element  has  been  largely  won 
over  to  Christianity.  This  element  is  most 
prominently  represented  by  the  Shannar  tribe, 
among  whom  three  English  missionary  societies 
have  labored  for  many  years,  until  as  many  as 
90,000  of  them  are  Christians  living  in  Tin- 
nevelli  and  Travancore.  In  North  Travancore 
there  are  said  to  be  250,000  Roman  Catholic 
converts,  under  one  of  the  vicariates  of  south 
ern  India  which  originated  in  the  Madura  mis 
sion.  There  is  a  college  of  high  standing  at 
Trivandrum,  affiliated  with  the  Madras  univer 
sity,  to  which  it  sent  28  students  in  1871.  In 
1872-'3  there  were  16  other  schools,  at  which 
English  was  taught  to  808  pupils,  29  vernacu 
lar  schools,  and  138  village  schools.  The  rajah 
maintains  an  astronomical  observatory  under 
the  direction  of  a  European  astronomer.  Many 
excellent  roads  and  other  public  works  have 
been  constructed,  and  Travancore  is  one  of 
the  best  governed  and  most  prosperous  native 
states  in  India.  In  1872-'3  the  total  revenue 
of  the  government  was  £957,577,'  including 
£165,992  proceeds  of  the  land  tax  and  £130,- 
421  from  customs,  while  the  total  expenditure 
was  but  £549,365.— About  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century  the  many  chieftains  under  whom 
Travancore  was  formerly  parcelled  out  were 
subjugated  by  an  ancestor  of  the  present  rajah, 
who  ruled  till  1799,  and  who  adhered  to  the 
British  in  the  war  with  Tippoo  Sultan.  In 
1795  he  entered  into  a  subsidiary  alliance  with 
the  Bombay  government.  The  subsidy  has 
been  increased  to  £80,000  per  annum,  and  the 
state  is  now  supervised  through  the  govern 
ment  of  Madras.  According  to  the  fundamen 
tal  Hindoo  law  of  Travancore,  the  succession 
to  the  throne  descends  only  through  the  female 
line.  The  sister  of  the  present  rajah,  Rama 
Wurma,  died  in  1857,  and  as  it  was  apparent 
that  the  line  would  otherwise  become  ex 
tinct,  the  British  authorities  guaranteed  him 
the  right  of  adoption. 

TRAVERSE,  a  W.  county  of  Minnesota,  sepa 
rated  from  Dakota  by  the  Bois  de  Sioux  or 
Sioux  Wood  river  and  Lake  Traverse;  area, 
about  575  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13.  It  is 
drained  by  Mustinka  river  and  other  affluents 
of  Lake  Traverse.  The  surface  consists  chiefly 
of  rolling  prairies.  The  St.  Paul  and  Pacific 
railroad  crosses  the  N.  E.  corner. 

TRAVIS,  a  central  county  of  Texas,  intersected 
by  the  Colorado  river;  area,  about  1,000  sq. 
m. ;  'pop.  in  1870,  13,153,  of  whom  4,647  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  moderately  hilly,  and 
the  soil  very  fertile.  There  is  considerable 
timber.  Steamboats  ascend  the  river  to  Aus 
tin,  which  is  also  the  terminus  of  a  branch 
of  the  Houston  and  Texas  Central  railroad. 


The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  498,710 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  88,210  of  sweet  pota 
toes,  56,792  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  16,769  bales  of 
cotton.  There  were  6,584  horses,  1,337  mules 
and  asses,  8,952  milch  cows,  8,991  working 
oxen,  30,765  other  cattle,  12,013  sheep,  and 
25,854  swine ;  6  manufactories  of  carriages, 
8  of  saddlery  and  harness,  1  of  bricks,  2  brew 
eries,  and  2  saw  mills.  Capital,  Austin,  which 
is  also  the  capital  of  the  state. 

TREADWELL,  Daniel,  an  American  inventor, 
born  in  Ipswich,  Mass.,  in  1791,  died  in  Cam 
bridge,  Feb.  27,  1872.  While  still  young  he 
invented  a  machine  for  making  wood  screws. 
In  1818  he  produced  a  printing  press  of  a  new 
construction,  and  went  to  England  in  1819. 
He  there  conceived  the  construction  of  a  pow 
er  press,  which  was  completed  the  year  after 
his  return,  and  was  widely  used.  In  1822,  in 
connection  with  Dr.  John  Ware,  he  established 
and  conducted  the  "  Boston  Journal  of  Phi 
losophy  and  the  Arts."  In  1826  he  devised 
the  system  of  turnouts  upon  single-track  rail 
roads.  In  1829  he  completed  the  first  success 
ful-machine  for  spinning  hemp  for  cordage. 
Works  capable  of  spinning  1,000  tons  in  a  year 
were  erected  in  Boston  in  1831 ;  and  in  1836 
he  furnished  to  the  Charlestown  navy  yard 
machines  for  spinning  the  hemp  and  cordage 
for  the  navy.  His  circular  hackle  or  lapper 
has  been  generally  adopted  in  spinning  hemp 
for  coarse  cloth.  In  1834  he  became  Rum- 
ford  professor  of  technology  in  Harvard  col 
lege,  and  held  this  post  till  1845.  He  devised 
a  method  of  making  cannon  of  wrought  iron 
and  steel,  and  executed  a  contract  with  the 
government  for  12  six-pounders.  But  his  first 
plan  being  found  too  expensive,  he  improved 
and  simplified  it,  and  described  his  new  meth 
od  in  a  memoir  before  the  American  academy 
in  1835.  He  secured  his  invention  by  patent 
in  the  United  States  and  in  England,  and  pub 
lished  an  account  of  it  in  1856.  It  is  certain 
that  18  years  before  the  Armstrong  gun  was 
produced  in  England  Treadwell  had  made  his ; 
and  that  some  years  after  his  English  patent 
had  been  published  Sir  William  Armstrong 
produced  his  gun,  formed  upon  the  same  plan, 
and  adding  thereto  rifling  and  breech  loading. 

TREASON,  in  general  terms,  any  act  of  hos 
tility  against  a  state,  committed  by  one  who 
owes  allegiance  to  it.  There  is  one  important 
difference  in  what  may  be  called  the  form  or 
manifestation  of  this  crime,  which  seems  to 
constitute  a  difference  in  its  essence,  and  has 
led  to  some  confusion  of  thought  as  to  the 
crime  itself,  and  as  to  the  laws  or  proceedings 
for  its  prevention.  This  difference  is  between 
the  crime  as  it  may  be  committed  against  a 
monarch  or  against  a  republic.  Where  the 
power  and  majesty  of  a  state  are  embodied 
in  a  personal  sovereign,  there  treason  against 
him  is  treason  against  the  state ;  but  where 
the  state  is  not  thus  impersonated,  the  treason 
must  be  against  the  state  itself,  and  cannot  be 
committed  against  any  person.  The  crimen 


850 


TREASON 


lasce  majestatiSj  in  all  the  ages  of  republican 
Rome,  was  regarded  as  a  crime  against  the 
state,  and  not  against  its  magistrates,  except 
ing  as  they  represented  the  state.  The  simple 
word  majestas  was  often  used  as  meaning  this 
offence,  although  the  whole  expression  of  it 
was :  crimen  lessee,  imminutce,  diminutce,  or 


minutce  mqjestatis.  At  a  later  period,  when 
the  emperors,  having  first  accumulated  in  their 
persons  the  higher  magistracies  of  the  repub 
lic,  gradually  and  yet  rapidly  became  despotic 
and  irresponsible  while  the  language  of  the 
law  remained  almost  unchanged  for  a  consid 
erable  time,  the  crime  itself  came  to  be  re 
garded  as  primarily  a  crime  against  the  per 
sonal  sovereign,  and  derivatively  against  the 
state.  In  Rome,  as  afterward  in  England,  the 
power  of  the  sovereigns  to  enlarge  the  scope 
of  this  crime,  and  accuse  whom  they  would 
of  it,  was  enormously  abused.  But  in  both 
of  these  states  it  always  remained,  and  in  all 
civilized  countries  it  must  always  remain,  the 
highest  of  crimes,  and  more  deserving  of  the 
severest  punishment  than  any  other ;  and  for 
these  reasons  it  needs  to  bo  most  carefully 
limited,  and  to  be  guarded  not  only  as  to  its 
extent,  but  as  to  the  proof  by  which  it  may  be 
established.  The  constitution  of  the  United 
States  (art.  iii.,  sec.  3)  declares  that  "treason 
against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in 
levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to 
their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort." 
This  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  definition  of  trea 
son  so  much  as  a  limitation  of  it,  and  a  decla 
ration  of  what  portion  of  the  offences  which 
had  been  at  different  times  included  within  its 
meaning  should  be  regarded  as  so  included  by 
our  law.  The  word  treason  is  used  as  a  cus 
tomary  law  term  of  well  known  significance; 
and  indeed,  in  the  most  important  cases  which 
have  arisen  in  the  United  States,  it  would  seem 
that  this  provision  of  the  constitution  has  but 
exchanged  the  burden  of  defining  treason  for 
that  of  defining  the  levying  war  against  a  state 
and  adhering  to  its  enemies. — In  order  to  show 
the  true  meaning  of  the  word  treason,  we  must 
go  back  to  the  Roman  civil  law,  which  on  this 
point  had  an  important  influence  on  the  Eng 
lish  law.  In  the  early  days  of  Rome,  the  word 
perduellio  (from  perduellis,  which  is  defined 
by  Gaius  as  hostis)  was  used  almost  as  a  syno- 
nyme  of  majestas,  and  indicates  the  idea  of 
hostility  to  the  state  as  belonging  to  it.  Al 
though  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  equivalent 
of  treason,  majestas  certainly  had  a  wider  ex 
tent  of  meaning  and  operation  than  treason 
ever  had  in  its  extremest  abuse  in  England. 
Cicero  says  (using  the  word  majestas  here  in 
its  original  sense) :  Majestas  est  in  imperil  atque 
in  nominis  populi  Romani  dignitate.  Else 
where,  for  the  purpose  of  defining  the  criminal 
offence  of  la>sa  majestas,  he  says:  Majestatem 
minuere  est  de  dignitate,  aut  amplitudine,  aut 
potestate  populi,  aut  eorum  quibus  populus  po- 
testatem  dedit  aliquid  derogare ;  and  in  this 
wide  sense  majestas  was  applied  to  any  malad 


ministration  in  office  of  any  magistrate.  It  be 
came  afterward  much  more  like  treason  as  it 
was  in  the  worst  periods  of  English  history ; 
and  the  abuse  of  it  may  be  illustrated  by  some  of 
the  provisions  of  imperial  law  about  the  statues 
of  the  emperors.  By  some  of  these  it  was  de 
clared  that  to  repair  their  statues  when  going 
to  decay,  or  to  injure  one  accidentally  and  un 
intentionally,  or  even  to  sell  one  if  it  had  not 
been  consecrated,  was  not  a  crime  against  the 
majesty  of  the  state ;  but  to  melt  one  down 
after  it  had  been  consecrated  constituted  this 
offence.  The  earliest  punishment  of  the  crime 
was  perpetual  interdiction  from  fire  and  water; 
the  later,  death,  to  persons  of  low  condition 
by  wild  beasts  or  burning,  to  those  of  higher 
rank  by  the  ordinary  method  of  execution. — 
We  find  treason  recognized  and  punished  as  a 
crime  from  the  beginning  of  the  common  law ; 
and  always  the  cause  of  the  crime  was  some 
act  of  hostility  against  the  government  by  one 
who  owed  to  it  allegiance.  But  during  many 
ages  the  criminal  law  of  England  was  unwrit 
ten,  and  lay  in  the  determinations  of  judges 
who  were  removable  at  the  king's  pleasure, 
and  who  were  often  so  corrupt  that  public 
justice  was  perverted  into  an  instrument  of 
remorseless  tyranny.  In  the  reign  of  Edward 
IV.  an  unfortunate  punster,  who  kept  an  inn 
in  London  with  the  sign  of  the  crown,  said  he 
would  make  his  son  heir  of  the  crown ;  and  for 
this  offence  he  was  hanged,  drawn,  and  quar 
tered.  In  the  same  reign  an  owner  of  deer, 
one  of  which  was  killed  by  the  king  while 
hunting,  said  he  wished  the  horns  of  the  deer 
were  in  the  king's  stomach;  and  for  this  he 
was  put  to  death.  But  at  a  later  period,  when 
Russell  and  Sidney  were  slain  through  the  in 
strumentality  of  a  judicial  trial  for  treason, 
this  atrocious  wickedness  assumes  at  least  a 
more  dignified  appearance.  Indeed,  during  the 
whole  of  English  history  until  the  times  of 
Cromwell,  treason  always  had,  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  the  character  of  a  political  offence. 
At  many  periods  the  leading  men  of  the  age 
fell  victims  to  it.  Hence  has  arisen  a  feeling 
of  compassion  for  the  sufferers,  and  of  doubt  as 
to  their  guilt,  which  has  had  an  important  in 
fluence  on  the  public  estimation  of  the  crime 
in  that  country,  and  to  some  extent  in  this. 
Another  reason  for  some  laxity  of  thought  and 
feeling  concerning  this  crime^is  the  extreme 
uncertainty  of  the  earlier  law  as  to  its  defini 
tion  and  limits.  Thus,  Glanvil  expressly  iden 
tifies  it  with  the  crimen  lessee  majestatis ;  Brae- 
ton  includes  within  it  the  counterfeiting  not 
merely  of  the  king's  seal,  but  of  the  king's 
money ;  and  by  a  very  current  phrase  it  was 
supposed  to  embrace  all  "  encroaching  of  (en 
croachment  upon)  royal  power."  So  early  as 
the  25th  year  of  Edward  III.  an  attempt'  was 
made  to  remedy  this  uncertainty  by  a  statute 
defining  treason,  which  was  for  the  time  an 
excellent  law,  although  quite  too  wide  in  its 
scope.  Among  the  principal  offences  here 
called  treason  were  compassing  the  death  of 


TREASON 


851 


the  king,  queen,  or  prince,  or  levying  -war 
against  the  king,  or  adhering  to  the  king's 
enemies ;  but  all  these  offences  were  to  be 
proved  by  some  overt  act.  In  some  of  the 
subsequent  reigns  this  excellent  provision  was 
evaded  by  construction,  or  the  statute  was  dis 
regarded,  or  new  ones  made.  Thus,  by  the  32d 
of  Henry  VIII.  it  was  made  high  treason  to 
accept,  take,  judge,  or  believe  the  king's  mar 
riage  with  Anne  of  Cleves  as  legal  and  valid. 
But  the  leading  provisions  of  the  statute  of 
Edward  III.  are  still  the  law  of  England,  and 
the  reasonable  construction  of  its  language  by 
the  courts  of  England  has  been  generally  fol 
lowed  by  the  courts  of  the  United  States  in 
construing  the  provisions  of  our  own  constitu 
tions  and  laws.  By  the  1st  of  Edward  VI.  the 
provision  was  introduced  which  we  have  copied, 
requiring,  for  the  conviction  of  one  charged 
with  treason,  two  sufficient  and  lawful  wit 
nesses;  but  this  provision  was  in  many  in 
stances  shamefully  perverted.  Thus  when  only 
one  living  witness  could  be  found  who  would 
testify  to  Algernon  Sidney's  treason,  Jeffreys 
decided  that  garbled  extracts  from  his  writings 
might  be  read  as  the  other  witness, 'and  on  this 
testimony  he  was  convicted  and  executed;  and 
no  greater  dishonor  rests  on  the  name  of  Bacon 
than  that  he  assisted  his  master,  King  James, 
in  corrupting  the  judges  of  the  king's  bench 
into  a  willingness  to  convict  of  treason  one 
Peacham,  a  parish  priest,  on  the  evidence  of 
a  sermon  which  he  had  never  delivered,  and 
which  was  found  by  searching  his  study.  Out 
of  the  many  civil  conflicts  and  commotions  in 
England,  and  especially  the  wars  of  the  roses, 
grew  one  rule,  still  in  force,  and  resting  on 
the  soundest  justice  and  reason.  During  those 
ages  of  constant  disturbance,  when  there  were 
frequently  more  persons  than  onei  who  claimed 
the  crown,  and,  so  far  as  they  could,  exercised 
royal  authority,  almost  every  person  incurred 
the  danger  of  treason,  in  case  the  claimant  to 
whom  he  adhered  was  defeated ;  and  for  this 
cause,  or  on  this  pretence,  multitudes  of  men 
of  every  rank  perished  on  the  scaffold.  But 
from  the  obvious  absurdity  of  exacting  from 
every  individual  a  sound,  or  rather  a  fortunate 
judgment  as  to  the  obscure  and  complicated 
grounds  on  which  the  claim  to  sovereignty 
often  rested,  it  became  and  still  remains  a  well 
settled  rule,  that  no  one  incurs  the  guilt  of 
treason  by  adherence  to  a  king  or  government 
de  facto,  although  that  king  or  government  has 
but  the  right  of  a  successful  rebel,  and  loses  it 
all  by  a  subsequent  defeat. — In  considering  the 
crime  of  treason  in  the  United  States,  we  must 
remember  that  there  may  be  treason  against 
the  United  States,  and  also  treason  against 
any  one  of  the  states.  Looking  first  to  treason 
against  the  United  States,  the  foundation  of 
the  law  itself,  and  of  our  knowledge  of  it, 
must  be  the  clause  in  the  constitution  already 
quoted ;  and  as  there  is  no  common  law  of  the 
United  States,  this  clause  would  have  remained 
inoperative  but  for  the  act  of  congress  of  1790, 


chap.  36,  sec.  1,  whereby  it  was  enacted,  "that 
if  any  person  or  persons  owing  allegiance  to 
the  United  States  of  America  shall  levy  war 
against  them,  or  shall  adhere  to  their  enemies, 
giving  them  aid  and  comfort  within  the  United 
States  or  elsewhere,  and  shall  be  thereof  con 
victed,  on  confession  in  open  court,  or  on  the 
testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt 
act  of  the  treason  whereof  he  or  they  shall 
stand  indicted,  such  person  or  persons  shall 
stand  adjudged  guilty  of  treason  against  the 
United  States,  and  shall  suffer  death."  When 
the  courts  came  to  the  construction  and  appli 
cation  of  that  act,  they  very  properly  made 
use  of  the  principles  and  the  jurisprudence  of 
the  common  law ;  and  they  could  do  this  the 
better,  because  the  clause  of  the  constitution 
is  substantially  the  same  as  a  provision  of  the 
statute  of  Edward  III.,  and  the  best  ability  of 
England  had  been  carefully  employed  about 
that  statute.  For  a  judicial  exposition  of  that 
clause  and  that  statute,  we  must  look  to  the 
trial  of  Burr,  and  of  Bollrnan  and  Swartwout 
(4  Cranch,  pp.  75  to  137),  although  these  are 
not  the  only  cases  in  which  the  same  subject 
has  been  considered. — The  first  question  is : 
What  is  a  levying  of  war  against  the  United 
States,  within  the  meaning  of  the  statute  ? 
In  the  first  place,  the  levying  of  war  must 
be  actual;  it  must  be  carried  out  into  some 
practical  operation  and  effect.  No  intention, 
and  no  extent  or  thoroughness  of  preparation 
or  of  conspiracy  for  war,  constitutes  the  crime 
of  treason  until  the  war  actually  begins.  Some 
kind  of  force  or  violence,  it  is  said,  must  be 
used.  But  it  would  seem  that  this  force  may 
be  what  the  law  would  call  constructive  force ; 
and  it  may  be  very  slight;  for  it  certainly 
need  not  be  sufficient  to  accomplish  either  the 
general  purpose  of  the  war,  or  the  particular 
effect  proposed.  But,  if  there  be  any  overt 
act  of  war,  then  every  one  aiding  and  abet 
ting  this  act  of  war,  however  remotely,  does 
himself  levy  war  and  commit  treason.  It 
must  be  difficult  to  determine  always  what 
this  rule  requires.  Thus,  Marshall  declares 
that  if  an  army  be  actually  raised  for  the 
avowed  purpose  of  carrying  on  war  against 
the  United  States,  and  subverting  their  govern 
ment,  the  point  must  be  weighed  very  deliber 
ately  before  a  judge  would  venture  to  decide 
that  an  overt  act  of  levying  war  had  not  been 
committed  by  a  commissary  or  purchaser  who 
never  saw  the  army,  but  who,  knowing  its  ob 
ject  and  leaguing  himself  with  the  rebels, 
supplied  that  army  with  provisions;  or  by  a 
recruiting  officer,  holding  a  commission  in  the 
rebel  service,  who,  though  never  in  camp, 
executed  a  particular  duty  required  of  him. 
Hence  it  would  follow,  that  if  there  be  an  act 
of  levying  war  against  the  United  States,  per 
sons  may  be  participators  of  that  act,  and  of 
the  crime  which  it  constitutes,  although  they 
reside  as  far  as  possible  from  its  actual  locality. 
The  prevailing  rule  of  the  criminal  law,  that 
there  may  be  principals  and  accessories  to  a 


852 


TREASON 


TREBIGNE 


crime,  has  no  application  whatever  to  treason. 
We  are  warranted  by  the  language  of  Chief 
Justice  Marshall  in  saying,  that  if  a  rebellion 
were  so  extensive  as  to  spread  through  every 
state  in  the  Union,  every  individual  concerned 
in  it  is  not  legally  present  at  every  overt  act 
committed  in  that  rebellion ;  nor  can  it  be  said 
that  even  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  rebel 
army,  or  the  head  of  the  organized  rebellion, 
is  legally  present  at  every  such  overt  act.  But 
while  a  man  may  be  actually  absent,  yet  if  he 
have  counselled  or  procured  the  treasonable 
act,  he  is  a  principal  traitor,  not  because  he  is 
legally  present,  but  because  in  treason  all  are 
principals.  This  question  of  locality  has  yet 
another  importance.  A  person  charged  with 
this  crime  can  be  tried  only  within  the  state 
or  judicial  district  in  which  it  is  committed, 
and  the  alleged  criminal  has  indeed  a  strict 
right  to  be  tried  by  a  jury  within  that  state  or 
district.  A  wide  extent  may  be  given  to  this 
rule,  by  the  doctrine  that  in  treason  all  are 
principals,  as  above  stated;  but  it  can  apply 
only  to  those  persons  who  would,  in  the  locali 
ty  in  which  they  reside,  be  either  principals  or 
accessories  if  there  could  be  accessories  to  this 
crime.  For  if  a  person  commits  his  own  act 
of  treason  in  a  certain  locality,  and  is  not  con 
nected  with  any  one  committed  elsewhere,  so 
as  to  be,  in  this  way,  a  principal  in  the  act,  he 
can  be  tried  only  within  his  locality ;  and  if 
the  judicial  tribunals  of  the  United  States  can 
not  or  will  not  perform  their  proper  functions 
within  that  state  or  judicial  district,  he  cannot 
be  tried  anywhere.  It  is  certain,  too,  that  the 
overt  act  which  is  alleged  to  be  a  treasonable 
act,  must  have  been  done  with  "  a  treasonable 
purpose."  We  have  on  this  point  high  author 
ity  for  saying,  that  if  the  object  of  the  act  be 
to  prevent  by  force  the  execution  of  any  public 
law  of  the  United  States,  that  is  a  treasonable 
purpose,  for  it  aims  at  overthrowing  the  gov 
ernment  as  to  one  of  its  laws.  So,  if  the  pur 
pose  be  to  overthrow  the  government  at  one 
place,  large  or  small,  that  is  a  treasonable  pur 
pose. — What,  then,  is  adhering  to  an  enemy, 
or,  in  the  language  of  the  constitution,  giving 
him  aid  and  comfort?  It  is  perhaps  impos 
sible  so  to  define  these  words  as  to  make  their 
meaning  any  plainer.  But,  again  on  high  au 
thority,  this  meaning  may  be  illustrated  thus  : 
If  a  conspiracy  to  levy  war  against  the  United 
States  be  in  actual  operation  anywhere  within 
it,  any  citizen,  residing  anywhere  else  and  at 
whatever  distance,  if  he  supply  the  rebels  with 
arms  or  any  munitions  of  war,  with  provisions 
to  be  used  in  support  of  the  war  or  of  the 
rebels  while  carrying  it  on,  or  money,  or  intel 
ligence  or  information,  and  even  if  none  of 
these  things  reach  the  rebels,  he  becomes  a 
traitor  in  the  place  where  he  resides.  So  it 
would  come  under  this  branch  of  treason,  if 
forts,  castles,  or  ships  of  war  were  delivered  to 
the  enemy,  or  if  the  accused  had  joined  the 
enemy's  forces,  though  no  battles  or  conflicts 
place.  The  same  principles  would  un 


doubtedly  apply,  wrhether  the  treason  charged 
were  committed  against  the  United  States  or 
against  any  one  of  the  states,  qualified  only  by 
any  special  provisions  of  the  constitution  or 
law  of  that  state. — As  all  treason  consists  of 
hostility  against  a  state  by  one  who  owes  it 
allegiance,  so  only  one  who  owes  this  duty,  in 
some  way,  may  be  a  traitor.  But  it  is  held 
that  this  modified  allegiance  may  be  that  of  an 
alien  residing  in  this  country  and  enjoying  the 
protection  and  advantages  of  its  government. 
The  allegiance  of  an  alien,  howTever,  or  the 
possibility  of  his  becoming  a  traitor,  ends  with 
his  residence  in  this  country ;  while  the  duty 
of  allegiance  goes  with  a  citizen  wherever  he 
goes  ;  and  wherever  he  may  be,  he  becomes  a 
traitor  by  hostility  against  the  government  in 
violation  of  this  duty. — We  have  seen  that  no 
one  can  be  convicted  of  treason  except  on  the 
evidence  of  two  witnesses ;  but  with  this  ex 
ception,  the  trial  for  treason  is  conducted  in 
all  respects  like  any  other  criminal  trial  for  a 
capital  offence.  If  convicted,  the  traitor  may 
be  sentenced  to  death  by  the  ordinary  means 
of  execution ;  but  by  act  of  congress  of  July 
17.  1862,  the  punishment  in  the  discretion  of 
the  court  may  be  imprisonment  for  not  less 
than  five  years  and  a  fine  of  not  less  than 
$10,000.  We  have  no  remnant  of  that  fero 
cious  cruelty  wrhich  was  considered  necessary 
in  barbarous  ages,  and  in  statutes -of  ten  out 
lived  them.  Until  the  30th  year  of  George 
III.  the  convict  of  treason  forfeited  his  prop 
erty  to  the  crown,  was  drawn  on  a  hurdle  to 
the  gallows,  there  hanged,  then  cut  down,  dis 
embowelled,  and  his  entrails  burned  before  life 
was  extinct;  and  the  body  was  then  beheaded 
and  quartered. 

TREASURE  TROVE  (literally,  found  treasure), 
a  term  applied  to  money,  coin,  plate,  or  other 
forms  of  the  precious  metals,  found  hidden, 
for  which  no  owner  or  depositor  can  be  dis 
covered.  By  the  common  law  of  England  such 
property  becomes  vested  in  the  sovereign,  if  it 
appears  to  have  been  concealed  with  the  inten 
tion  of  reclaiming  it.  In  all  other  cases,  as 
where  circumstances  showr  that  the  treasure 
was  intended  to  be  abandoned,  it  belongs  to 
the  finder,  who  by  a  special  order  in  council  is 
also  entitled  to  the  commercial  value  of  ancient 
coins  and  other  objects  of  antiquarian  interest, 
under  whatever  circumstances  they  may  be 
found.  The  civil  law  formerly  gave  the  trea 
sure  trove  to  the  finder ;  or  if  found  on  anoth 
er  man's  land,  it  was  divided  between  them ; 
but  the  practice  in  continental  Europe  has  in 
modern  times  been  similar  to  that  in  England. 

TREBBIA  (anc.  Trebia),  a  small  river  of  1ST. 
Italy,  rising  in  the  Ligurian  Alps,  about  15  m. 
N".  E.  of  Genoa,  and  emptying  into  the  Po  3m. 
above  Piacenza.  On  its  banks  the  Romans 
under  T.  Sempronius  were  defeated  by  Hanni 
bal  in  218  B.  C.,  and  the  French  under  Mac- 
donald  by  Suvaroff,  June  17-19,  1799. 

TREBIGNE,  or  Trebinie,  a  town  and  formerly 
the  capital  of  Herzegovina,  European  Turkey, 


TREBIZOND 


853 


about  8  m.  from  the  frontier  of  Montenegro, 
and  15  m.  N.  E.  of  Ragusa;  pop.  less  than 
5,000.  A  Roman  Catholic  bishop  resides  here, 
and  there  are  several  churches  and  mosques. 
It  is  defended  by  a  square  fort  with  four  tow 
ers.  Trebigne  and  its  vicinity  were  the  theatre 
of  war  with  the  Turks  during  the  insurrection 
of  1875-'6.  Under  the  early  kings  of  Servia  it 
was  of  much  greater  importance. 

TREBIZOND.  I.  A  vilayet  of  Asiatic  Tur 
key,  extending,  in  a  generally  narrow  strip 
from  20  to  80  m.  wide,  about  3GO  m.  along  the 
S.  coast  of  the  Black  sea,  between  Ion.  35°  40' 
and  42°  E.,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Russian 
division  of  Transcaucasia,  E.  by  Erzerum,  S. 
by  Erzerum  and  Sivas,  and  W.  by  Kastamuni ; 
area,  about  15,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  estimated  at 
940,000.  The  scenery  on  the  coast  is  remark 
ably  beautiful.  The  mountains  rise  immediate 
ly  from  the  sea  to  the  height  of  from  6,000  to 
8,000  ft.  in  the  east  (in  single  peaks  much 


higher),  and  nearly  5,000  ft.  in  the  west,  and 
are  clothed  with  every  variety  of  vegetation, 
from  grass  to  dense  forests.  The  country  is 
generally  well  wooded  and  mountainous,  and 
has  but  little  arable  land.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Tchoruk,  which  enters  the  sea  near 
the  E.  frontier,  and  the  Yeshil  Irmak  and 
Kizil  Irmak,  the  lower  courses  of  which  drain 
the  "W.  part  of  the  province.  The  climate  is 
temperate  but  variable,  being  subject  to  cold 
winds  from  the  Black  sea,  bearing  rain  and 
fog.  The  province  is  decidedly  healthful. 
There  are  numerous  fertile  valleys  and  well 
cultivated  tracts,  but  the  country  does  not 
produce  sufficient  grain  for  home  consump 
tion.  The  inhabitants  are  described  as  bold  and 
hardy.  In  many  districts  they  are  isolated  cot 
tagers,  there  being  few  villages.  There  are  56,- 
000  Christians  in  the  province,  of  whom  two 
thirds  belong  to  the  Greek  church,  and  the  rest 
are  Armenians.  The  chief  towns,  besides  the 


Trebizond. 


capital,  are  Tireboli  (anc.  Tripolis),  Keresun 
(Cerasus),  Rizah  (RMzus),  Batum  (Balhys\ 
and  Samsun.  The  vilayet  embraces  the  main 
parts  of  ancient  Pontus,  extending  both  E.  and 
W.  beyond  its  limits.  II.  A  city  (anc.  Trape- 
zus\  capital  of  the  vilayet,  sometimes  called 
Tarabazan,  on  the  S.  E.  shore  of  the  Black 
sea,  in  lat.  41°  1'  K,  Ion.  39°  45'  E.,  500  m. 
due  E.  of  Constantinople ;  pop.  about  40,000. 
It  is  the  first  Turkish  commercial  port  on  the 
Black  sea,  and  the  entrepot  of  an  extensive 
trade  with  the  interior  provinces  and  Per 
sia.  A  peninsula  separates  the  harbor  into 
two  ports,  of  which  the  eastern  affords  shelter 
and  anchorage  for  the  largest  vessels.  There 
is  a  lighthouse  here  and  another  at  Platana, 
a  roadstead  about  6  m.  W.  of  Trebizond.  Four 
steamship  lines  connect  the  city  with  the  prin 
cipal  ports  of  Turkey  and  southern  Russia. 
Grain,  from  Russia  and  the  Danube,  is  the 
chief  article  of  import ;  the  exports  produced 
in  the  province  itself  include  flax,  nuts,  but 
ter,  beans,  linseed,  fruits,  tobacco,  rice,  wine, 
olive  oil,  fish  oil,  beeswax,  and  timber.  The 


overland  trade  with  Persia  is  valued  at  more 
than  $6,500,000  per  annum,  and  gives  em 
ployment  to  60,000  pack  horses,  6,000  asses, 
2,000  camels,  and  3,000  oxen.  Tobacco,  silk, 
raisins,  and  carpets  are  exported  from  Persia 
for  shipment  at  Trebizond,  whence  are  im 
ported  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  tea,  sugar, 
glass  ware,  hardware,  and  European  manufac 
tured  goods  of  many  kinds.  The  inland  traffic 
with  Anatolia,  on  the  west,  represents  a  value 
of  more  than  $2,500,000  ;  the  exports  through 
Trebizond  comprising  grain,  potatoes,  fruits, 
skins,  wax,  honey,  and  chestnuts.  The  city 
consists  of  an  old  and  a  new  town,  the  former 
surrounded  by  walls  and  towers  enclosing  the 
citadel,  which  stands  upon  the  flat  top  of  a 
steep  rock.  The  modern  town  is  mainly  with 
out  these  walls  on  the  E.  side.  Trebizond  is 
well  paved  and  drained,  but  the  houses  gen 
erally  are  neither  commodious  nor  comfort 
able.  There  are  40  mosques,  18  Mohamme 
dan  schools,  and  16  churches,  of  which  9  are 
Greek,  4  Armenian,  1  Catholic  Armenian,  1 
Latin,  and  1  Presbyterian. — Trapezus  was 


854 


TREDGOLD 


TREE  FROG 


founded  by  a  colony  from  Sinope,  and  was  a 
nourishing  town  when  Xenophon  arrived  there 
on  his  retreat  from  Cunaxa.  It  became  sub 
ject  to  the  Romans  by  conquest  from  Mith- 
ridntes.  The  emperor  Trajan  constructed  a 
mole  to  improve  the  port,  and  made  it  the 
capital  of  eastern  or  Cappadocian  Pontus. 
During  the  reign  of  Gallienus  it  was  plundered 
and  nearly  destroyed  by  the  Goths,  but  in  the- 
time  of  Justinian  it  had  completely  recovered, 
and  was  made  the  capital  of  a  province  which 
included  Pontus  and  some  part  of  Armenia. 
In  1204  it  became  the  seat  of  an  independent 
branch  of  the  Comnenus  family  (see  ALEXIS, 
and  BYZANTIXE  EMPIKE),  under  whom  the  ter 
ritory  was  called  the  empire  of  Trebizond.  It 
continued  subject  to  this  line  of  rulers  until 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1461. 

TREDGOLD,  Thomas,  an  English  engineer,  born 
at  Brandon,  near  Durham,  Aug.  22,  1788,  died 
in  London,  Jan.  28,  1829.  In  1808  he  went 
to  Scotland,  where  he  worked  five  years  as  a 
journeyman  carpenter  and  joiner,  studying 
ardently  in  spare  hours.  In  1813  he  went  to 
London,  and  entered  the  service  of  William 
Atkinson,  architect  to  the  ordnance,  and  in 
1823  commenced  as  civil  engineer  on  his  own 
account.  He  published  "  Elementary  Princi 
ples  of  Carpentry"  (4to,  London,  1820);  "A 
Practical  Essay  on  the  Strength  of  Cast  Iron 
and  other  Metals"  (8vo,  1821);  "The  Princi 
ples  of  Warming  and  Ventilating  Public  Build 
ings,  Dwelling  Houses,"  &c.  (2d.  ed.,  1824); 
"A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railroads  and  Car 
riages"  (1825);  "Remarks  on  Steam  Naviga 
tion,  and  its  Protection,  Regulation,  and  En 
couragement"  (1825);  and  "The  Steam  En 
gine,  comprising  an  Account  of  its  Invention 
and  progressive  Improvement,  with  an  Inves 
tigation  of  its  Principles  "  (4to,  1827),  a  later 
edition  of  which  (1850-'53)  is  in  4  vols.  4to, 
with  226  steel  plates  and  164  woodcuts. 

TREE  FROG,  the  name  of  the  batrachian 
reptiles  of  the  family  Jiyladce,  distinguished 
from  common  frogs  (ranidce)  by  having  the 
ends  of  the  fingers  and  toes  dilated  into  flat 
tened  disks  or  suckers,  which  enable  them  to 
lead  an  arboreal  life.  They  are  more  elegant, 
smaller,  brighter,  and  more  active  than  the 
ranidce,  and  are  lively  during  the  day;  they 
feed  on  insects ;  they  climb  like  the  geckos 
among  lizards,  and  by  the  same  mechanism ; 
the  lower  surface  of  the  disks  is  endued  with 
a  viscid  secretion,  by  means  of  which  they  can 
walk  with  the  body  suspended  from  the  under 
parts  of  leaves  and  other  smooth  bodies ;  the 
skin  is  mostly  smooth  upon  the  back,  but  on 
the  abdomen  and  inside  of  legs  thickly  studded 
with  small  warts  or  tubercles.  They  possess 
to  a  remarkable  degree  the  faculty  of  chang 
ing  color,  which  enables  them  to  elude  their 
numerous  enemies.  They  are  very  clamorous, 
and  particularly  noisy  at  the  approach  of  rain ; 
in  winter  they  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  at 
the  bottom  of  pools ;  they  breed  in  the  spring, 
depositing  their  eggs  in  the  water.  They  are 


frequently  called  tree  toads,  and  their  French 
name  is  rainettes.  The  species  are  numerous, 
especially  in  America ;  only  one  is  found  in 
Europe,  and  that  also  occurs  in  N.  Africa  and 
Asia. — The  common  tree  frog  of  North  Amer 
ica  (hyla  versicolor,  Le  Conte)  resembles  a  toad 
in  form,  but  is  more  flattened  ;  body  short  and 
warty  above,  the  color  varying  from  pale  ash 
to  dark  brown,  with  several  large  irregular 
blotches  of  greenish  brown,  white  and  granu 
lated  below,  and  abdomen  yellowish  near  the 
thighs ;  the  colors  vary  at  the  will  of  the  ani 
mal.  The  head  is  short  and  rounded,  the  mouth 
large,  with  teeth  on  upper  jaw  and  vomer ; 
eyes  large  and  brilliant,  the  iris  bright  golden  ; 
there  are  four  fingers  and  five  toes,  both  end 
ing  in  viscous  pellets,  the  former  distinct,  but 
the  latter  webbed  for  four  fifths  of  their  length. 
It  is  about  2  in.  long,  and  is  found  abundantly 
in  the  northern  and  middle  states,  and  as  far 
west  as  the  Mississippi ;  it  is  generally  seen  on 


Common  Tree  Frog  (Hyla  versicolor). 

decaying  trees  and  about  old  fences  of  wood 
or  stone,  overgrown  with  mosses  and  lichens, 
the  color  of  which  it  so  nearly  resembles  that 
it  is  very  difficult  to  detect ;  it  is  very  noisy  in 
spring  and  summer  toward  evening,  especially 
in  cloudy  weather ;  the  secretion  of  the  skin 
is  copious  and  very  acrid.  This  species  is  re 
placed  in  the  southern  states  by  the  green  tree 
frog  (H.  mridis,  Laur. ;  calamita  Cctrolinensis, 
Penn.),  which  is  bright  green  above,  yellowish 
white  below,  with  a  straw-colored  lateral  line 
extending  from  the  upper  jaw  over  the  shoulder 
and  along  the  side.  The  tree  frog  of  Europe 
(//.  arborea,  Linn.)  much  resembles  the  green 
species  of  North  America,  and  the  latter  was 
considered  by  Laurent!  a  variety  of  his  H.  viri- 
dis;  it  is  spread  throughout  Europe,  except  in 
Great  Britain. — In  the  genus  acris  (Dum.  and 
Bibr.)  the  locomotive  disks  are  less  developed 
and  the  limbs  more  slender  than  in  liyla,  and 
there  are  teeth  on  the  palate  instead  of  the 


TREE  SORREL 


TREGELLES 


855 


vomer.  The  A.  gryllm  (Dum.  and  Bibr.),  or 
Savannah  cricket,  occurring  from  New  England 
to  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  is  about  \\  in.  long,  with 
an  elongated  pointed  head,  a  triangular  dusky 
spot  between  the  orbits;  body  ashy  above, 
with  a  green  and  sometimes  reddish  dorsal 
line,  and  three  oblong  black  spots  margined 
with  white  on  the  sides.  It  may  easily  be 
domesticated ;  it  makes  immense  leaps ;  it  is 
intermediate  between  the  ranidce  and  hyladce, 
having  the  aquatic  habits  of  the  former  and 
the  method  of  watching  for  its  prey  of  the 
latter ;  in  consequence  of  the  smallness  of  the 
disks  it  cannot  adhere  to  the  under  surface  of 
smooth  bodies. — The  flying  tree  frog  of  Borneo 
(rhacopliorus),  according  to  Mr.  Wallace,  has 
its  very  long  toes  fully  webbed  to  their  ex 
tremity,  so  that  by  expanding  these  webs  and 
inflating  its  body,  it  is  able  to  use  them  as  a 
parachute  or  sailing  membrane  in  its  descent 


Flying  Tree  Frog  of  Borneo  (Bhacophorus). 

from  high  trees.  The  frog  is  4  in.  long,  deep 
green  above,  yellow  below ;  the  webs  of  all  the 
feet  cover  a  surface  of  12  sq.  in. ;  at  the  ends 
of  the  toes  are  the  usual  disks  for  adhesion. 
This  is  the  only  aerial  batrachian  known. 

TREE  SORREL,  or  properly  Sorrel  Tree,  a  North 
American  tree  of  the  heath  family  (ericacece), 
formerly  known  as  Andromeda  arborea, ;  when 
later  botanists  subdivided  Linnseus's  genus  An 
dromeda,  this  was  placed  by  itself  in  a  new 
genus,  oxydendrum  (Gr.  6fi»c,  sour,  and  devdpov, 
a  tree),  a  name  which  recognizes  the  marked 
acid  character  of  the  foliage;  it  is  also  known 
as  sour-wood.  The  only  species,  0.  arboreum, 
is  found  from  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  south 
ward,  especially  along  the  mountains,  where  it 
is  met  with  as  a  large  shrub,  or  in  favorable 
locations  it  forms  a  tree  40  or  even  60  ft.  high. 
Its  leaves  are  deciduous,  serrulate  on  the  mar 
gins,  with  slender  petioles,  and  being  pointed 
at  each  end  they  have  much  the  appearance  of 
those  of  the  peach.  The  flowers,  which  ap 
pear  in  June  and  July,  and  even  later,  are  in 
long  one-sided  racemes  which  are  clustered  at 
the  ends  of  the  branches ;  the  corolla  is  ovate 
with  five  teeth,  white,  and  in  size  and  arrange 
ment  upon  the  stem  bear  some  resemblance  to 


those  of  the  lily  of  the  valley ;  after  the  flowers 
fall  the  small  pyramidal  pods  remain  white  for 
a  long  time,  and  at  a  little  distance  appear  like 


Sorrel  Tree  (Oxydendrum  arboreum). 

flowers.  The  wood  of  the  tree  is  of  little  value ; 
the  leaves  are  pleasantly  sour,  and  are  chewed 
by  hunters  to  allay  thirst.  The  tree  is  hardy 
north  of  its  natural  localities,  and  endures  the 
climate  of  Boston.  As  an  ornamental  tree  it 
possesses  many  merits,  not  the  least  of  which 
is  that  of  flowering  when  only  a  few  feet  high ; 
when  it  is  10  or  15  ft.  high  it  forms  a  spread 
ing  head,  to  which  its  fine  spray  gives  a  very 
light  appearance,  and  when  covered  with  its 
abundant  clusters  of  delicate  white  flowers,  it 
is  a  truly  beautiful  object ;  in  autumn  the  foli 
age  takes  on.  a  pleasing  dark  crimson  color. 

TREFOIL.     See  OLOVEE. 

TREGELLES,  Samnel  Prideaux,  an  English 
scholar,  born  in  Falmouth,  Jan.  30,  1813,  died 
in  Plymouth,  April  24, 1875.  His  parents  were 
Quakers,  but  he  himself  became  connected 
with  the  Plymouth  Brethren.  He  was  edu 
cated  at  Falrnouth  grammar  school,  was  em 
ployed  in  the  iron  works  at  Neath  Abbey, 
Glamorganshire,  and  in  1836  became  private 
tutor  in  Falmouth.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  originals  and 
the  old  versions,  especially  the  Syriac,  and 
edited  "  The  Englishman's  Greek  Concordance 
to  the  New  Testament"  (8vo,  1839);  "The. 
English  Hexapla,"  with  a  historical  account  of 
the  English  versions  of  the  Scriptures  (1841) ; 
"  The  Englishman's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Con 
cordance  to  the  Old  Testament "  (2  vols., 
1843) ;  and  "  Hebrew  Student's  Manual,"  com 
prising  Hebrew  reading  lessons,  and  the  book 
of  Psalms  with  interlinear  translations  (1845) ; 
and  he  translated,  with  additions  and  correc 
tions,  Gesenius's  "  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexi 
con  to  the  Old  Testament"  (4to,  1847).  Dr. 
Tregelles  visited  the  continent  several  times 
for  the  purpose  of  collating  the  principal  un- 


856 


TREGO 


TRENCK 


cial  manuscripts  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  li 
braries.  At  Rome  he  was  allowed  to  see  the 
Vatican  manuscript,  but  was  not  permitted  to 
collate  it.  His  greatest  work  is  "  The  Greek 
New  Testament,  edited  from  ancient  Authori 
ties,  with  the  Various  Readings  of  all  the  an 
cient  Manuscripts,  ancient  Versions,  and  ear 
lier  Ecclesiastical  Writers,  together  with  the 
Latin  Version  of  Jerome  "  (6  parts,  1857-'72). 
His  other  publications  are:  "The  Book  of 
Revelation,  translated  from  the  ancient  Greek 
Text"  (1848);  "The  Jansenists,  their  Rise, 
Persecution  by  the  Jesuits,  Existing  Remnant," 
&c.  (1851);  "Defence  of  the  Authenticity  of 
the  Book  of  Daniel "  (1852) ;  "Account  of  the 
Printed  Text  of  the  Greek  Testament "  (1854)  ; 
Codex  Zacynthius,  a  Greek  palimpsest,  con 
taining  portions  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel  (1861); 
and  Canon  Muratorianus,  the  earliest  cata 
logue  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  (4to, 
1868).  He  contributed  to  Smith's  "  Diction 
ary  of  the  Bible."  He  received  the  degree  of 
LL.  D.  from  St.  Andrews  university  in  1850. 

TREGO,  a  "W.  county  of  Kansas,  intersected 
by  the  Saline  and  Smoky  Hill  rivers;  area, 
900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  166.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Kansas  Pacific  railroad.  The  surface 
is  rolling  and  the  soil  rich.  It  is  unorganized. 

TREMPEALEAU,  a  W.  county  of  Wisconsin, 
bounded  S.  W.  by  the  Mississippi  river,  inter 
sected  by  Trempealeau  Mountain  river,  and 
drained  also  by  Black  and  Buffalo  rivers ;  area, 
684  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1875,  14,992.  The  surface 
is  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief  produc 
tions  in  1870  were  516,194  bushels  of  wheat, 
141,275  of  Indian  corn,  241,408  of  oats,  17,553 
of  barley,  47,699  of  potatoes,  37,242  Ibs.  of 
wool,  341,043  of  butter,  and  18,794  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  2,784  horses,  3,537  milch 
cows,  5,328  other  cattle,  9,536  sheep,  and  2,906 
swine.  Capital,  Galesville. 

TRENCH,  Richard  Chenevix,  a  British  clergy 
man,  born  in  Dublin,  Sept.  9,  1807.  He  grad 
uated  at  Cambridge  in  1829,  and  after  spending 
some  years  in  travel  took  orders  in  1833,  and 
became  curate  to  Hugh  James  Rose  at  Had- 
leigh,  Suffolk,  and  in  1835  incumbent  of  Curd- 
ridge,  a  chapelry  in  the  parish  of  Bishop's- 
Waltham,  Hants.  In  1840  he  was  appointed 
curate  to  Archdeacon  Wilberforce  at  Alver- 
stoke,  near  Gosport,  and  in  1844  rector  of 
Itchenstoke.  Dr.  Wilberforce,  being  made 
bishop  of  Oxford  in  1845,  appointed  Mr. 
Trench  his  examining  chaplain.  During  this 
and  the  following  year  he  was  Ilulsean  lec 
turer  at  Cambridge.  From  1846  to  1858  he 
was  theological  professor  in  King's  college, 
London.  In  1856  he  was  made  dean  of  West 
minster,  and  on  Jan.  1,  1864,  he  succeeded  Dr. 
Whately  as  archbishop  of  Dublin.  He  has 
published  the  following  poetical  works:  "Jus 
tin  Martyr,  and  other  Poems"  (London,  1835; 
5th  ed.,  1862);  "  Sabbation,  Honor  Neale,  and 
other  Poems"  (1838);  "Poems  from  Eastern 
Sources,"  and  "  Genoveva "  (1842;  2d  ed., 
1851) ;  "  Elegiac  Poems  "  (1846) ;  and  "  Alma  " 


(1854).  His  theological  publications  include 
"  Notes  on  the  Parables"  (1841 ;  llth  ed.,  re 
vised,  1870);  "The  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
illustrated  from  St.  Augustine  "  (London,  1844 ; 
3d  ed.,  1869);  two  volumes  of  Hulsean  lec 
tures,  "  The  Fitness  of  Holy  Scripture  for 
unfolding  the  Scriptural  Life  of  Men  "  (Cam 
bridge,  1845),  and  "  Christ  the  Desire  of  all  Na 
tions  "  (1846) ;  "  Notes  on  the  Miracles  "  (1846  ; 
9th  ed.,  1870)  ;  "  Sacred  Latin  Poetry  "  (1849  ; 
new  ed.,  1864)  ;  "  The  Star  of  the  Wise  Men  " 
(1850)  ;  "  Sermons  preached  in  Westminster 
Abbey  "  (1860) ;  "  Commentary  on  the  Epistles 
to  the  Seven  Churches  in  Asia"  (1861 ;  3d  ed., 
1866);  "Studies  on  the  Gospels"  (1867); 
"  Shipwrecks  of  Faith,"  three  sermons  (1867); 
and  "  Sermons  preached  for  the  most  part  in 
Ireland  "  (1873).  Among  his  philological  works 
are:  "  The  Study  of  Words"  (1851 ;  15th  ed., 
1874)  ;  "The  Lessons  in  Proverbs"  (1853  ;  6th 
ed.,  1869);  "  Synonymes  of  the  New  Testa 
ment"  (1854;  *2d  series,  1863;  7th  ed.,  en 
larged,  1871);  "English,  Past  and  Present" 
(1855  ;  8th  ed.,  1870) ;  "  On  some  Deficiencies 
in  our  English  Dictionaries  "  (1857) ;  "  On  the 
Authorized  Version  of  the  New  Testament" 
(1858);  and  "A  select  Glossary  of  English 
Words  used  formerly  in  Senses  different  from 
their  present"  (1859;  4th  ed.,  1865).  He  has 
also  published  "  Calderon,  his  Life  and  Genius, 
with  Specimens  of  his  Plays"  (8vo,  1856;  2d 
ed.,  1865);  "  Gustavus  Adolphus,  with  other 
Lectures  on  the  Thirty  Years'  War"  (1805; 
2d  ed.,  1866);  and  "Plutarch,  his  Life,  his 
Parallel  Lives,  and  his  Morals  "  (2d  ed.,  1874) ; 
and  he  has  edited  "  The  Remains  of  the  late 
Mrs.  Richard  Trench,"  his  mother  (1862),  and 
a  "  Household  Book  of  English  Poetry  "  (1868). 
TRENCK.  I.  Franz  yon  der,  baron,  an  Aus 
trian  soldier,  born  in  Reggio,  Calabria,  Jan.  1, 
1711,  died  in  prison  at  Brtinn,  Oct.  14,  1749. 
In  his  17th  year  he  entered  the  Austrian  ser 
vice,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  it  on  account 
of  his  insubordination  and  excesses.  In  1738 
he  became  captain  in  a  Russian  hussar  regi 
ment.  He  was  twice  condemned  to  death  for 
violations  of  discipline,  but  was  saved  by  Mar 
shal  Miinnich,  and  after  six  months'  penal  la 
bor  retired  to  his  estates  in  Slavonia.  In  1740 
he  was  permitted  by  the  empress  Maria  The 
resa  to  raise  a  corps  of  pandoors  at  his  own 
expense,  which  soon  numbered  5,000  men.  At 
the  head  of  these  he  served  in  the  war  of  the 
Austrian  succession,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  courage,  cruelty,  and  rapacity.  Hav 
ing  at  length,  while  undergoing  trial  by  court 
martial,  throttled  one  of  the  judges  and  at 
tempted  to  throw  him  out  of  a  high  window, 
he  was  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment 
in  the  castle  of  Spielberg  at  Briinn,  where, 
according  to  some,  he  poisoned  himself.  He 
possessed  astonishing  physical  strength,  united 
with  a  disposition  of  extraordinary  ferocity. 
His  autobiography  appeared  at  Vienna  in  1807, 
under  the  title  of  Merkwnrdiges  Lel)en  und 
Thatcn  des  Freiherrn  Franz  von  der  Trench; 


TRENCK 


TRENT 


857 


and  his  life  has  been  written  by  Hiibner,  un 
der  the  title  of  Franz  von  der  Trenck,  darge- 
stellt  von  einem  Unparteiisclien,  mit  einer  Vor- 
rede  von  Scfiubart  (3  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1788). 
II.  Friedrich  von  der,  baron,  a  German  adven 
turer,  cousin  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Konigs- 
berg,  Feb.  16,  1726,  guillotined  in  Paris,  July 
25,  1794.  He  was  admitted  in  1742  into  the 
body  guard  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  when 
only  18  years  old  was  selected  to  instruct  the 
Silesian  cavalry.  In  the  campaign  of  1744  he 
served  with  distinction,  acting  as  the  adjutant 
of  Frederick,  with  whom  he  became  a  favor 
ite.  In  his  memoirs  he  says  he  offended  the 
king  by  an  amour  with  the  princess  Amelia, 
but  the  story  is  apparently  without  founda 
tion.  In  1745  he  again  distinguished  himself; 
but  having  corresponded  with  his  cousin  Baron 
Franz,  then  in  the  Austrian  service,  he  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Glatz 
for  more  than  a  year.  After  several  desperate 
efforts  he  escaped  and  went  to  Vienna,  where 
he  got  into  much  trouble  and  fought  several 
duels.  After  the  peace  he  was  received  with 
much  favor  at  Moscow.  His  cousin  left  him 
his  estate,  on  condition  that  he  should  become 
a  Catholic  and  should  serve  only  the  house  of 
Austria.  To  secure  this  he  went  to  Vienna  in 
1750,  but  after  three  years  of  waiting  he  re 
ceived  only  63,000  florins.  By  the  Austrian 
court  he  was  made  captain  of  cavalry.  In 
March,  1754,  he  made  a  journey  to  Dantzic  to 
settle  some  family  affairs,  and  was  there  appre 
hended  by  the  Prussian  authorities,  carried  to 
Berlin  and  thence  to  Magdeburg,  where  he  was 
confined  in  a  dungeon  in  the  citadel.  He  made 
several  desperate  efforts  to  escape,  but  failed 
in  all  of  them,  and  after  ten  years'  imprison 
ment,  during  which  he  was  more  and  more 
heavily  loaded  with  irons,  he  was  finally  re 
leased  by  order  of  Frederick  in  December, 
1763,  and  carried  to  Prague.  Disappointed  of 
preferment  at  the  Austrian  court,  he  retired 
to  Aix-la-Chapelle,  married  there  in  1765,  and 
lived  for  several  years  in  peace,  occupying  him 
self  with  literary  pursuits.  In  1767  appeared 
his  poem  Der  macedoniscJie  Held,  which  gave 
him  considerable  reputation  in  Germany.  He 
also  engaged  in  the  wine  trade.  From  1774  to 
1777  his  time  was  spent  chiefly  in  travelling 
through  England  and  France.  Subsequently 
he  retired  to  his  estate  at  Zwerbach,  spent  sev 
eral  years  in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  pub 
lished  a  collection  of  his  works  and  a  history  of 
his  life.  After  the  death  of  Frederick  in  1786 
the  confiscation  of  his  estates  was  annulled,  and 
he  was  permitted  to  return  to  his  native  coun 
try.  During  the  French  revolution  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  arrested  by  the  commit 
tee  of  public  safety  and  put  to  death  on  the 
charge  of  being  a  secret  emissary  of  the  king 
of  Prussia.  His  autobiography  is  very  inter 
esting,  and  has  still  considerable  circulation, 
though  it  is  certain  that  Trenck  was  a  braggart 
and  a  liar,  and  has  immensely  exaggerated  his 
adventures. 


TRENDELENBURG,  Friedrich  Adolf,  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Eutin,  near  Ltibeck,  Nov. 
30,  1802,  died  in  Berlin,  Jan.  24, 1872.  In  1826 
he  graduated  in  Berlin,  where  he  was  private 
tutor  till  1833,  and  subsequently  professor  at 
the  university,  of  which  he  was  three  times  rec 
tor,  lie  was  also  for  over  20  years  secretary  to 
the  historico-philosophical  section  of  the  Berlin 
academy.  He  was  a  follower  of  Aristotle  and 
an  opponent  of  Hegel.  His  works  include  Ele- 
menta  Logices  Aristotelicce  (Berlin,  1837 ;  6th 
ed.,  1868) ;  Logisclie  Untersucliungen  (1840 ; 
3d  ed.,  1870);  Gescliiclite  der  Kategorienlehre 
(1846)  ;  Ilistoriscae  Beitriige  zur  Philosophie 
(2d  and  3d  vols.,  1856-'67)  ;  NaturrecU  auf 
dem  Grunde  der  EtUik  (1860;  2d  ed.,  1868);- 
LucTcen  im  Volkerrecht  (1870)  ;  Kuno  Fischer 
und  sein  Kant  (1869),  which  led  to  Fischer's 
Anti-Trendelenburg(l^Q) ;  and  Kleine  ScJirif- 
ten  (2  vols.,  1871). — See  Bonitz,  Zur  Erinne- 
rung  an  Friedrich  Adolf  Trendelenburg  (Ber 
lin,  1872). 

TRENT,  a  river  of  England,  which  rises  in 
Staffordshire,  4  m.  N.  of  Burslem,  flows 
through  the  central  part  of  the  country,  and 
near  Burton-on-Strather,  Lincolnshire,  joins 
the  Ouse  to  form  the  estuary  called  the  num 
ber.  Its  course  is  first  S.  E.,  then  N.  E.,  and 
finally  N.  Its  total  length  is  about  150  m.,  of 
which  25  m.,  as  far  as  Gainsborough,  is  navi 
gable  for  vessels  of  200  tons,  and  117  m.,  reach 
ing  to  Burton-on-Trent,  for  barges  of  25  tons. 
Its  chief  tributaries  on  the  right  are  the  Sow, 
Tame,  Soar,  and  Devon,  and  on  the  left  the 
Blyth,  Dove,  and  Derwent ;  and  it  is  connected 
with  other  navigable  waters  by  canals.  Stoke 
and  Nottingham  are  situated  on  its  banks. 

TRENT  (Ital.  Trento ;  Ger.  Trient ;  anc. 
Tridentum),  a  city  of  Tyrol,  Austria,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Adige,  83  m.  S.  by  W.  of 
Innspruck  ;  pop.  in  1870,  17,073.  It  is  in  a 
beautiful  valley,  surrounded  on  the  east  by 
mountains,  and  is  Italian  in  its  architecture. 
It  has  a  cathedral  built  entirely  of  marble  in 
the  Byzantine  style.  In  the  church  of  Sta. 
Maria  Maggiore,  of  red  marble,  are  the  por 
traits  of  the  members  of  the  council  of  Trent, 
which  was  held  in  that  building.  The  exten 
sive  castle  is  generally  the  residence  of  the 
local  prince-bishop.  Silk  is  the  principal  manu 
facture  ;  wine  is  largely  produced ;  and  there 
is  an  active  transit  trade. — The  ancient  Triden- 
tum  was  a  town  of  the  Rhaatians,  and  subse 
quently  became  a  Roman  colony.  Under  the 
old  German  empire  it  was  a  free  imperial  city, 
ruled  by  prince-bishops.  In  1802  it  passed 
under  the  domination  of  Austria. 

TRENT,  Conncil  of  (concilium  Tridentinum), 
the  19th  oecumenical  council,  according  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  The  first  occasion 
for  an  oecumenical  council  in  the  16th  century 
was  furnished  by  Luther,  who  on  Nov.  28, 
1518,  appealed  from  the  bull  of  Leo  X.  to  a 
general  council,  and  was  supported  by  the  Prot 
estant  princes.  The  Catholic  sovereigns  also 
desired  that  a  council  should  be  convened. 


858 


TRENT 


Three  popes,  Leo  X.,  Adrian  VI.,  and  Clement 
VII. ,  died  before  the  demands  of  the  Germans 
were  complied  with.  At  length  Paul  III.,  after 
failing  in  attempts  (1536-'8)  to  convene  a  coun 
cil  at  Mantua,  and  next  at  Vicenza,  convoked 
it  for  Nov.  1,  1542,  to  assemble  at  Trent ;  but 
on  account  of  the  war  between  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  of  France  he  again 
put  off  the  day  of  opening  to  March  15,  1545, 
and  the  actual  opening  did  not  take  place 
until  Dec.  13,  1545.  The  objects  of  the  coun 
cil  were  to  effect  a  reformation  of  the  church, 
to  define  more  explicitly  the  impugned  doc 
trines  of  the  church,  and,  if  possible,  to  in 
duce  the  Protestants  to  return  to  the  old 
faith.  At  the  second  session  (Jan.  7,  1546) 
the  council  fixed  the  mode  of  transacting  busi 
ness.  The  discussions  and  deliberations  were 
to  take  place  in  private  congregations  ;  subse 
quently  general  congregations  were  to  draft 
the  resolutions,  which  finally  were  to  be  pro 
mulgated  in  public  sessions  as  decrees.  In  the 
third  session  (Feb.  4)  the  Nicene  creed  was 
read  and  declared  to  be  the  basis  of  the  further 
proceedings.  In  the  fourth  session  (April  8) 
tradition  was  declared  to  be  equally  with  the 
Bible  a  rule  of  faith;  the  Apocrypha  of  the 
Old  Testament  were  included  in  the  Biblical 
canon  ;  the  Vulgate  was  proclaimed  to  be 
the  authentic  version  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
church  its  only  legitimate  interpreter.  In  the 
three  following  sessions  (June  17,  1546;  Jan. 
13  and  March  3,  1547),  the  Catholic  doctrines 
of  original  sin,  justification,  and  the  sacra 
ments  were  defined,  and  an  anathema  pro 
nounced  upon  all  who  rejected  these  doctrines. 
In  the  eighth  session  (March  11),  38  of  the  56 
bishops  present,  together  with  the  papal  legate, 
determined,  on  the  ground  of  being  exposed  at 
Trent  to  the  plague,  to  adjourn  to  Bologna, 
notwithstanding  the  decided  opposition  of  the 
emperor,  at  whose  request  18  German  and 
Spanish  bishops  remained  at  Trent.  At  Bo 
logna,  where  6  archbishops,  32  bishops,  and  4 
generals  of  religious  orders  were  present,  the 
9th  and  10th  sessions  were  held  (April  21  and 
June  2) ;  but,  at  the  express  order  of  the  pope, 
who  had  some  apprehensions  of  a  schism,  no 
decrees  were  promulgated,  except  decrees  of 
prorogation.  As  Charles  V.  could  not  be  pre 
vailed  upon  to  recognize  the  council  of  Bo 
logna,  the  council  was  indefinitely  prorogued 
by  a  bull  of  Pope  Paul  III.,  dated  Sept.  17, 
1549.  The  pope  died  in  November,  1549,  and 
on  May  1, 1551,  the  council  was  reopened  at 
Trent  by  order  of  Julius  III.  France  protested 
against  the  continuation,  and  all  the  French 
bishops  and  theologians  withdrew.  In  the 
succeeding  transactions  the  Jesuits  Laynez  and 
Salmeron,  who  were  sent  to  the  council  as 
papal  theologians,  took  a  leading  part.  There 
appeared  also  representatives  from  the  Prot 
estant  princes  of  "Wurtemberg  and  Branden 
burg,  and  even  Melanchthon  was  summoned 
there  by  order  of  the  elector  Maurice  of  Sax 
ony;  but  it  was  found  impossible  to  effect  a 


reunion,  and  soon  the  outbreak  of  a  new  war 
of  the  Protestant  princes  against  the  emperor 
caused  the  assembled  fathers  (April  28,  1552) 
to  suspend  their  deliberations.  During  this 
period,  extending  from  the  llth  to  the  16th 
session,  the  doctrines  of  the  eucharist,  confes 
sion,  and  extreme  unction,  and  two  reforma 
tory  decrees  on  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops, 
were  promulgated.  Paul  IV.  was  anxious  to 
assemble  the  council  at  Rome,  but  Pius  IV. 
consented  to  its  reopening  at  Trent,  which  took 
place  on  Jan.  18,  1562,  through  the  cardinal 
legate  Prince  Ercole  Gonzaga  of  Mantua.  The 
representatives  of  Charles  IX.  of  France  and  the 
emperor  Ferdinand  I.  wished  to  conciliate  the 
Protestants  by  granting  the  cup  to  the  laity,  and 
the  duke  of  Bavaria  demanded  the  abolition  of 
celibacy.  The  former  question  was  referred  to 
the  pope  ;  the  latter  was  unanimously  rejected. 
On  Nov.  13  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine  arrived, 
with  14  bishops,  3  abbots,  and  18  theologians 
from  France,  and  presented  in  the  name  of  his 
nation  34  reformatory  articles,  but  subsequently 
abandoned  their  advocacy.  On  the  question 
whether  episcopal  jurisdiction  proceeds  im 
mediately  from  Christ,  or  mediately  only  and 
through  the  pope,  no  decree  was  arrived  at; 
it  being  simply  declared  that  "  bishops  are  es 
tablished  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  to  rule  the  church 
of  God."  Decrees  were  adopted  ordering  an 
index  of  prohibited  books  to  be  made,  and  de 
fining  the  doctrines  of  the  mass,  ordination,  the 
hierarchy,  marriage,  celibacy,  purgatory,  the 
veneration  of  saints,  relics,  and  images,  monas 
tic  vows,  indulgences,  and  fasting  and  absti 
nence.  Several  "reformatory"  decrees  were 
also  passed,  the  most  important  of  which  en 
joined  the  establishment  of  theological  semina 
ries.  The  close  of  the  council  was  hastened 
by  a  serious  sickness  of  the  pope,  and  his  fear 
that  his  death  might  lead  to  a  schism.  It  took 
place  on  Dec.  4, 1563,  at  its  25th  public  session. 
The  decrees  were  signed  by  255  members,  con 
sisting  of  4  legates,  2  other  cardinals,  3  patri 
archs,  25  archbishops,  168  bishops,  39  repre 
sentatives  of  absent  bishops,  7  abbots,  and  7 
generals  of  religions  orders.  An  authentic 
copy  was  also  signed  by  the  ambassadors  of  the 
secular  governments,  with  the  exception  of  the 
ambassador  of  Spain,  who  was  without  instruc 
tion,  and  the  ambassador  of  France,  who  was 
absent.  The  decrees  were  confirmed  by  the 
pope,  with  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  cardi 
nals,  in  the  consistory  of  Jan.  26,  1564 ;  but  the 
pope  reserved  to  himself  the  right  of  explain 
ing  obscure  or  controverted  points.  The  coun 
cil  was  accepted  unconditionally  by  most  of 
the  Italian  states,  by  Portugal,  Poland,  and  the 
German  emperor;  with  a  reservation  of  the 
royal  prerogatives  by  Spain,  Naples,  and  the 
Netherlands;  with  some  exceptions  by  Switzer 
land  and  Hungary;  and  only  so  far  as  respects 
doctrines  by  France. — The  "  Canons  and  De 
crees  "  of  the  council  were  printed  by  Aldus 
Manutius  (Rome,  1564).  The  "Catechism," 
an  authorized  summary  of  the  faith  drawn  up 


TRENTE  ET  UN 


TRENTON 


859 


by  order  of  the  council,  appeared  at  Rome  in 
1566,  and  the  collection  of  documents  relating 
to  its  history  was  edited  by  Le  Plat  (7  vols. 
4to,  Louvain,  1781).  The  first  complete  his 
tory  of  the  council  was  written  by  Paolo  Sarpi 
(London,  1619  ;  English  translation  by  Brent, 
London,  1676),  in  a  spirit  of  decided  opposition 
to  the  papal  court.  Against  him  wrote  Car 
dinal  Sforza-Pallavicino  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1656- 
'7).  A  work  on  the  discrepancies  of  both  has 
been  published  by  Dr.  Brischar  (2  vols.,  Tu 
bingen,  1843).  Mendham's  "Memoirs  of  the 
Council  of  Trent"  (London,  1834)  contains 
extracts  from  28  volumes  of  manuscripts  col 
lected  in  Italy  by  Lord  Guilford.  See  also 
"Water worth's  history  of  the  council  prefixed 
to  his  translation  of  its  canons  and  decrees 
(London,  1848),  and  fitude  historique  sur  le 
concile  de  Trente,  by  L.  Maynier  (part  i.,  Paris, 
1874).  Important  "  Documents  relating  to  the 
History  of  the  Council  of  Trent"  have  been 
published  from  Austrian  archives  by  Tickel 
(Vienna,  1872).  The  long  expected  publica 
tion  of  the  original  acts  of  the  council,  by  Au- 
gustin  Theiner,  prefect  of  the  Vatican  council, 
took  place  in  1874  (Acta  genuina  Ss.  OEcume- 
nici  Concilii  Tridentini,  Agram) ;  the  work  is 
believed  to  give,  not  the  minutes  of  the  coun 
cil  as  they  were  taken  down  by  the  secretary, 
but  a  careful  revision. 

TRENTE  ET  UN.     See  ROUGE  ET  NOTE. 

TRENTON,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  New  Jer 
sey  and  of  Mercer  co.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Delaware  river  at  the  confluence  of  Assunpink 


Trenton.  Water  is  raised  from  the  Delaware 
to  a  reservoir  N.-  of  the  city.  The  capitol  is 
a  handsome  stone  building,  recently  enlarged, 
240  ft.  by  120,  stuccoed  in  imitation  of  gran 
ite.  The  county  court  house  is  in  South  Tren 
ton.  There  is  also  a  good  city  hall.  Tren 
ton  contains  one  of  the  state  lunatic  asylums, 
founded  in  1848,  and  having  accommodation 
for  600  patients;  the  state  normal  school,  es 
tablished  in  1855,  and  having  extensive  build 
ings  ;  the  state  penitentiary,  and  the  state  ar 
senal.  There  is  now  (1876)  in  course  of  con 
struction  by  the  United  States  government  a 
large  and  handsome  building,  of  Ohio  sand 
stone,  intended  for  the  post  office  and  United 
States  courts  and  offices,  to  cost  $500,000. 
The  soldiers'  children's  home  and  the  state 
industrial  school  for  girls  are  near  by.  There 
are  two  bridges  over  the  Delaware  opposite 
the  city,  one  1,100  ft.  long,  built  about  1810, 
and  recently  reconstructed  of  iron,  and  the 
other  about  1,300  ft.  long,  completed  in  1860. 
The  Delaware  and  Raritan  canal  passes  through 
the  city,  forming  a  water  communication  with 
Philadelphia  and  New  York,  and,  by  its  navi 
gable  feeder,  with  Lambertville  and  New  Hope, 
about  18  in.  N.  Trenton  is  connected  with 
Philadelphia  and  New  York  by  the  Pennsyl 
vania  railroad,  and  is  the  point  of  junction 
with  the  Belvidere  Delaware  railroad,  which 
runs  to  the  Water  Gap  and  connects  with  the 
coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania.  The  manufac 
ture  of  crockery  is  the  most  important  indus 
try,  Trenton  surpassing  all  other  places  in  the 
country  in  this  re 


state  Capitol  of  New  Jersey. 

creek,  and  at  the  head  of  steamboat  naviga 
tion,  28  m.  N.  E.  of  Philadelphia,  and  55  m. 
S.  W.  of  New  York;  lat.  40°  14'  N.,  Ion.  74° 
46'  30"  W.;  pop.  in  1860,  17,228;  in  1870, 
22,874,  of  whom  5,019  were  foreigners;  in 
1875,  25,040.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out, 
and  lighted  with  gas.  Assunpink  creek  divides 
it  into  nearly  equal  parts,  Trenton  and  South 


spect.  There  are  18 
potteries,  producing 
white  •  granite  and 
brown  •  ware  to  the 
value  of  about  $3,- 
000,000  annually.  The 
city  also  contains  iron 
founderies,  brewer 
ies,  paper  mills,  wool 
len  mills,  rolling  mills, 
rubber  works,  zinc 
works,  and  manufac 
tories  of  engines  and 
boilers,  wire,  terra 
cotta,  belting  and 
hose,  edge  tools,  soap, 
carriages,  nails,  saws, 
scales,  &c.  There  are 
two  national  banks 
with  a  joint  capital 
of  $1,000,000,  a  state 
bank  with  $500,000 
capital,  three  savings 

banks,  and  two  insurance  companies  with  a 
joint  capital  of  $700,000.  The  city  is  gov 
erned  by  a  mayor  and  a  common  council  of 
three  members  from  each  of  the  seven  wards. 
It  has  street  railroads  and  an  efficient  fire  de 
partment.  The  principal  charitable  institu 
tions  are  a  home  for  widows,  a  children's 
home,  and  the  hospital  of  St.  Francis.  There 


860 


TRENTON  FALLS 


TRESPASS 


are  a  high  school  and  11  other  public  schools, 
with  about  50  teachers  and  an  average  atten 
dance  of  about  2,000  pupils,  besides  academies 
and  Roman  Catholic  schools.  The  state  library 
contains  20,589  volumes,  the  law  library  15,- 
000,  and  the  public  library  about  5,000.  Six 
daily,  one  semi-weekly  (German),  and  six 
weekly  newspapers  are  published.  There  are 
34  churches,  viz. :  4  Baptist,  3  Episcopal,  1 
Evangelical  Lutheran,  2  Friends',  1  Jewish,  1 
Lutheran,  1  Messiah,  12  Methodist,  6  Presby 
terian,  and  3  Roman  Catholic, — The  first  set 
tlement  in  the  vicinity  was  made  about  1680, 
and  was  named  in  1720  in  honor  of  Col.  Wil 
liam  Trent,  speaker  of  the  house  of  assembly. 
It  was  selected  as  the  capital  of  New  Jersey  in 
1790,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1792.  On 
the  night  preceding  Dec.  26,  1776,  Gen.  Wash 
ington  crossed  the  Delaware  river  at  McCon- 
key's  ferry,  and  attacked  the  Hessians,  Avho 
were  encamped  in  Trenton,  surprising  and 
routing  them  completely,  taking  about  1,000 
prisoners,  6  brass  field  pieces,  1,200  stand  of 
arms,  and  the  standards  of  an  entire  brigade. 
The  Hessians  numbered  about  1,300,  and  17 
were  killed  in  the  skirmish,  while  the  Ameri 
cans  lost  not  a  man  in  the  fight,  although  two 
were  frozen  to  death  in  recrossing  the  river. 
The  force  of  the  enemy  in  the  vicinity  being 
superior  to  AYashington's,  he  returned  to  his 
camp  on  the  other  side  of  the  Delaware  on  the 
night  of  the  26th. 

TRENTON  FALLS,  a  village  of  Oneida  co.,  New 
York,  on  West  Canada  creek  and  the  Utica 
and  Black  River  railroad,  13  m.  N.  E.  of  Utica; 
pop.  in  1870,  128.  It  is  named  from  the  falls 
in  its  neighborhood,  six  in  number,  occupying 
at  intervals  a  ravine  2  m.  long,  with  an  aggre 
gate  descent  of  312  ft.  The  cascades  are  ex 
ceedingly  beautiful,  and  the  rocky  walls  in 
some  places  are  150  ft.  high. 

TRENTSCHIN  (Hung.  Tremceny},  a  N.  W. 
county  of  Hungary,  bordering  on  Moravia, 
Austrian  Silesia,  and  W.  Galicia;  area,  1,784 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  248,626,  nearly  all  Slo 
vaks  and  Roman  Catholics.  It  is  traversed 
by  two  branches  of  the  Carpathian  mountains, 
and  watered  by  the  Waag  and  its  affluents. 
Its  chief  products  are  corn,  fruit,  flax,  and 
hemp  ;  and  it  has  famous  mineral  springs. 
The  capital,  Trentschin,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Waag,  is  remarkable  for  the  springs  in  its 
vicinity,  and  for  its  castle,  one  of  the  oldest 
and  strongest  in  Hungary,  situated  on  a  rocky 
eminence ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,449. 

TREPAN,  and  Trephine  (Gr.  rpvKav,  to  per 
forate),  two  surgical  instruments  used  for  re 
moving  portions  of  bone  from  the  skull  or 
other  parts  of  the  bony  structure.  The  first 
was  an  instrument  like  a  gimlet,  to  which  was 
attached  a  crown  or  cylinder  with  saw  teeth 
on  its  lower  edge,  and  which  was  worked  by 
a  rotatory  motion  till  it  perforated  the  bone. 
Several  sizes  of  these  cylinders  were  furnished. 
The  trephine  is  of  later  invention.  It  has  a 
cylindrical  saw,  but  no  gimlet.  A  sharp  steel 


point  called  a  centre  pin,  which  can  be  pressed 
into  the  bone  until  the  saw  has  made  a  groove 
for  itself,  passes  down  the  centre  of  the  instru 
ment,  and  is  removable'  by  the  operator  as 
soon  as  the  groove  is  made.  The  cutting  is 
accomplished,  not  as  in  the  trepan  by  a  rota 
tory  movement,  but  by  semi-rotation,  as  in 
boring  with  an  awl.  The  method  of  tre 
phining  is  as  follows:  A  crucial  incision  is 
made  down  to  the  bone,  and  the  periosteum 
being  dissected  up,  the  trephine  is  applied,  the 
centre  pin  being  removed  as  soon  as  the  track 
of  the  instrument  is  fixed,  and  the  instrument 
itself  raised  every  few  strokes  in  order  to  see 
that  it  is  not  cutting  through  on  either  side, 
upon  the  tissues  below.  The  greatest  danger 
is  when  the  circular  piece  is  nearly  separa 
ted  ;  and  some  operators  raise  the  cut  portion 
by  means  of  the  elevator,  rather  than  permit 
the  instrument  to  divide  it  completely.  The 
spicula  of  bone  which  may  remain  around  the 
orifice  are  carefully  removed  by  means  of  for 
ceps.  Trephining  has  been  considered  as  in 
dicated  when  there  is  a  fracture  of  a  portion 
of  the  skull,  from  a  fall  or  blow  with  a  blunt 
instrument,  in  order  to  elevate  the  depressed 
portion;  in  some  cases  of  concussion,  where 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  inner  table 
of  the  skull  is  fractured  at  the  opposite  side  of 
the  head,  and  is  producing  irritation  of  the 
brain;  in  cases  where  extravasation  of  blood 
has  taken  place  under  the  meninges  of  the 
brain  from  injuries  or  disease,  or  where  puru 
lent  matter  has  accumulated  under  the  me 
ninges  ;  in  caries  affecting  the  bones  of  the 
skull,  the  sternum  or  breast  bone,  or  the  tibia ; 
and  in  some  cases  of  a  collection  of  purulent 
matter  under  the  sternum.  During  the  middle 
ages,  in  the  "heroic"  period  of  surgical  prac 
tice,  trephining  was  one  of  the  most  common 
operations  of  surgery.  Of  late  years  the  op 
eration  is  but  seldom  practised.  Hey's  saw, 
with  a  shaft  and  handle  like  a  common  steel 
fork,  and  having  a  plate  of  steel  1£  in.  in  breadth 
and  perhaps  If  in.  long  attached  to  it,  one  edge 
of  which  is  a  straight  and  the  other  a  convex 
saw,  has  almost  entirely  superseded  the  tre 
phine  for  most  of  those  injuries  of  the  skull 
which  were  formerly  thought  to  require  its 
use.  By  this  instrument  the  depressed  por 
tion  is  itself  removed,  instead  of  that  which 
was  not  fractured,  and  the  injuries  to  the  skull 
can  be  remedied  with  far  less  loss  of  bony 
structure  than  under  the  old  system. 

TRESPASS  (Norman  Fr.  trespasser,  from  trh, 
beyond,  and  passer,  to  go),  in  law,  as  usually 
defined,  a  wrongful  act,  committed  with  some 
kind  of  violence,  and  injurious  to  the  person, 
property,  or  rights  of  another.  Its  literal 
meaning  is  precisely  the  same  as  transgres 
sion  ;  it  is  a  step  beyond  the  limits  of  law  or 
right.  In  the  old  law  Latin  the  word  trans- 
gressio  was  used  where  trespass  is  used  in  Eng 
lish.  Formerly  the  two  words  were  employed 
in  writing  and  conversation  with  the  same 
meaning,  but  now  trespass  is  commonly  used 


TRESPASS 


TREVES 


861 


only  in  the  legal  sense,  and  is  an  important 
law  term.  Familiar  examples  of  trespass  are 
assault  and  battery,  forcible  entry  into  a  house 
or  upon  lands,  breaking  open  a  door,  and  tear 
ing  down  a  fence.  Such  acts  are  in  law  tres 
passes  m  et  armis,  or,  in  the  English  phrase  now 
used  in  indictments  and  declarations,  trespasses 
with  force  and  arms.  Early  in  the  history  of  the 
law  a  very  slight  degree  of  violence  was  suffi 
cient  to  constitute  this  offence;  and  soon  after 
ward  the  law  held  that  it  might  be  committed 
in  some  cases  without  any  actual  force  what 
ever,  implying  by  construction  the  force  ne 
cessary  to  make  it  a  trespass  vi  et  armis,  if 
the  act  were  unlawful.  Thus,  for  example,  a 
peaceable  entry  into  a  house  or  land,  with  in 
tent  to  take  possession  and  oust  the- true  owner, 
was  regarded  as  a  trespass  vi  et  armis.  Soon 
after  there  grew  up  a  large  and  very  important 
class  of  trespasses,  where  there  was  neither 
actual  nor  constructive  force.  The  courts  in 
fact  invented  a  form  of  action,  by  means  of 
which  remedies  might  be  given  for  a  great 
number  of  injuries,  to  which  the  law  of  tres 
pass  with  force  and  arms  could  not  be  made 
applicable  by  any  construction.  This  new 
legal  trespass  was  called,  in  the  law  Latin  in 
use  when  the  action  was  first  employed,  trans- 
gressio  super  casum,  and  is  now  called  a  tres 
pass  on  the  case.  In  the  days  of  special  plead 
ing  it  had  become  very  difficult  to  determine 
whether  the  action  by  which  redress  was  sought 
for  in  certain  injuries  should  be  trespass  or 
trespass  on  the  case;  and  if  the  plaintiff  mis 
took  his  form  of  action,  he  wholly  failed.  But 
by  recent  statutes,  with  the  rules  of  court  and 
the  amended  practice,  if  a  mistake  be  made  it 
may  be  corrected  without  delay  and  without 
cost.  Trespass  with  force  and  arms  (or  tres 
pass  alone,  for  the  latter  clause  is  often  omitted) 
lies  when  the  injury  complained  of  is  itself 
the  wrong  done  by  the  defendant ;  while  tres 
pass  on  the  case  lies  when  the  injury  was  con 
sequential  upon  the  wrong  done,  and  flowed 
from  it  indirectly.  For  example,  trespass  on 
the  case  lies  for  an  injury  sustained  by  the 
plaintiff  from  the  defendant's  sale  to  him  of 
unwholesome  food,  as  meat  or  wine,  especially 
where  it  was  the  business  of  the  defendant  to 
sell  these  things.  So  for  an  injury  caused  by 
the  want  of  skill  of  any  person  in  the  exercise 
of  his  profession,  as  a  physician  or  lawyer. 
There  is  yet  another  nice  and  very  important 
distinction  in  the  law  of  trespass.  A  man 
may  begin  by  doing  a  right  thing  in  a  right 
way,  and  then  so  change  his  course  as  to  do  a 
wrong  thing,  or  a  right  thing  in  a  wrong  way. 
In  some  of  these  cases  such  a  person  thus  sub 
sequently  trespassing  is  regarded  by  the  law 
as  a  trespasser  a~b  initio,  or  as  having  been  a 
trespasser  through  the  whole  of  his  conduct. 
Thus,  if,  in  the  execution  of  a  legal  process, 
he  does  something  which  is  distinctly  illegal, 
the  law  considers  that  he  began  to  act  with 
intent  to  do  an  illegal  thing,  and  that  all  of 
his  conduct  was  tainted  by  this  intention  and 


was  therefore  illegal.  The  doctrine  is  applied 
only  where  the  wrong  was  done  while  in  the 
exercise  of  a  strictly  legal  right,  which  the  in 
jured  party  had  no  right  to  resist,  and  seems 
to  be  confined  by  the  best  authorities  to  the 
cases  of  an  officer  of  the  law  acting  under  a 
legal  warrant,  and  a  guest  at  an  inn. 

TREVES  (Ger.  Trier),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Moselle,  57 
m.  S.  W.  of  Coblentz;  pop.  in  1871,  21,442. 
It  is  a  decayed  £>lace,  noted  for  its  ultramon- 
tanism  and  for  a'cathedral  which  exhibits  the 
development  of  the  Romanesque  style  from  the 
earliest  period  down  to  its  completion  in  the 
12th  century,  and  contains  remarkable  altars, 
tombs,  missals,  and  relics.  (See  Der  Dom  zu 
Trier,  by  Wilmowsky,  Treves,  1875.)  Among 
the  relics  is  the  so-called  "holy  coat,"  which 
pilgrims  revere  as  the  seamless  garment  of  the 
Saviour,  and  believe  to  have  been  deposited  in 
the  church  by  the  empress  Helena,  the  alleged 
founder  of  the  building.  The  great  agitation 


Porta  Nigra,  Treves. 

which  resulted  in  1844  from  the  multitudes 
(estimated  at  more  than  1,000,000)  flocking  to 
this  shrine  was  the  main  origin  of  the  German 
Catholic  denomination.  Adjoining  the  cathe 
dral  is  the  Liebfrauenkirche  of  the  13th  century, 
one  of  the  earliest  and  finest  specimens  of  pure 
Gothic.  The  university,  founded  in  1472,  was 
superseded  in  1798  by  a  gymnasium,  which 
contains  a  city  library  of  100,000  volumes.  In 
the  old  electoral  palace  are  the  barracks.  The 
Roman  antiquities,  more  numerous  here  than 
anywhere  else  in  Germany,  include  part  of 'the 
bridge  over  the  Moselle,  an  amphitheatre,  baths, 
and  the  colossal  quadrangle  known  as  porta 
nigra,  the  most  conspicuous  of  all.  The  chief 
articles  of  trade  are  fruit,  wine,  timber,  stones, 
and  woollen  and  other  manufactures. — Treves 
was  originally  occupied  by  the  Treviri,  a  Cel 
tic  tribe  of  Belgic  Gaul,  and  under  the  Romans 
became  the  capital  of  a  province  under  the 
name  of  Augusta  Trevivorum.  In  the  4th  cen 
tury  the  town  was  improved  by  Constantino 


862 


TREVIRANUS 


TRIBUNE 


the  Great.  Under  the  Franks  it  was  included 
in  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  and  afterward 
belonged  alternately  to  Lorraine  and  Germany, 
till  in  the  10th  century  it  was  permanently  an 
nexed  to  the  latter  country.  Subsequently, 
under  the  rule  of  archbishops,  it  became  with 
its  territory  the  second  German  electorate, 
divided  into  an  upper  and  lower  see,  the  latter 
connected  with  the  episcopal  capital  at  Co- 
blentz.  The  city  of  Treves  was  invested  with 
sovereign  rights  from  1580  till  its  occupation 
by  the  French  in  1794.  The  whole  electorate 
was  in  1797  incorporated  with  France.  In 
1814  Treves  was  annexed  to  Prussia.  The  sup 
pression  of  the  priests'  seminary,  Dec.  31, 1873, 
and  the  subsequent  imprisonment  of  the  bish 
op,  produced  disturbances  which  were  quelled 
in  March,  1874. 

TREVIRAMS.  I.  Gottfried  Reinhold,  a  German 
nat'uralist,  born  in  Bremen,  Feb.  4,  1776,  died 
there,  Feb.  16,  1837.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Gottingen,  and  after  practising  at  Bremen  be 
came  in  1797  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
lyceum  of  that  city.  His  works  include  Phy- 
siologisclie  Fragmente  (2  vols.,  Hanover,  1797- 
'9) ;  Biologic  oder  PMlosophie  der  lebenden 
Natur  (6  vols.,  Gottingen,  1802-'22) ;  ErscJiei- 
nungen  imd  Gesetze  des  organiscJien  Lebens  (2 
vols.,  Bremen,  1831-'2) ;  and  with  his  brother 
Vermischte  Schriften  anatomischen  und  phy- 
siologischen  Inhalts  (4  vols.,  Gottingen  and 
Bremen,  1816-'21).  II.  Ludolf  Christian,  a  Ger 
man  botanist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Bremen,  Sept.  10,  1779,  died  in  Bonn,  May 
6,  1864.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at 
Berlin  in  1807,  of  botany  and  natural  history 
at  Rostock  in  1812,  professor  of  botany  and 
director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Breslau  in 
1816,  and  afterward  at  Bonn.  He  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  Physiologic  der  Gewcichse  (2 
vols.,  Bonn,  1835-'9). 

TREVISO.  I.  A  N".  E.  province  of  Italy,  in 
Venetia,  bordering  on  the  gulf  of  Venice; 
area,  941  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  352,538.  It  is 
level,  excepting  in  the  north,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  fertile  regions  of  that  part  of  Italy.  The 
main  river  is  the  Piave.  The  chief  products 
are  hemp,  flax,  grain,  wine,  and  timber.  It 
is  divided  into  the  districts  of  Treviso,  Ceneda, 
Castelfranco,  Oderzo,  Asolo,  Valdobbiadene, 
Montebelluno,  and  Conegliano.  II.  A  forti 
fied  city  (anc.  Tarvisiuni),  capital  of  the  prov 
ince,  on  the  Sile,  15  m.  N".  N".  "W.  of  Venice; 
pop.  in  1872,  28,291.  .  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
and  has  an  unfinished  cathedral,  with  works 
by  Titian  and  Paul  Veronese,  a  large  Gothic 
church,  a  celebrated  palace  of  justice,  a  lyceum, 
gymnasium,  seminary,  and  academy  of  science. 
In  the  13th  century  it  was  captured  and  op 
pressed  by  Ezzelino  da  Romano ;  in  the  14th 
it  was  successively  ruled  by  Francesco  della 
Scala  of  Verona,  by  Venice,  Austria,  and  Padua, 
and  was  with  its  territory  in  the  possession  of 
Venice  from  1388  till  the  occupation  of  the 
town  in  1797  by  the  French  under  Mortier, 
who  in  1807  received  the  title  of  duke  of  Tre 


viso.  It  afterward  belonged  to  Austria.  In 
March,  1848,  it  was  taken  by  the  revolutionists, 
but  the  Austrians  regained  it  on  June  24,  after 
a  second  bombardment.  In  1866  it  became 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

TRIADITZA..    See  SOPHIA. 

TRIAL.     See  JTJEY,  and  PKOCESS. 

TRIBONIANIS,  a  Roman  jurist,  died  A.  D, 
545.  Under  Justinian  he  occupied  the  offices 
of  quaestor  sacri  palatii,  of  magister  officioruin, 
of  praetorian  prefect,  and  of  consul.  He  is 
described  as  a  man  of  great  natural  abilities 
and  learning,  but  avaricious  and  corrupt.  In 
528  he  was  one  of  the  ten  commissioners  se 
lected  by  the  emperor  to  form  his  first  Codex, 
and  in  530  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  com 
mittee  to  compile  the  Pandects  or  digest  of 
Roman  laws,  which  was  finished  and  promul 
gated  in  533.  He  at  the  same  time,  with  two 
others,  compiled  the  four  books  of  the  Insti 
tutes  of  Justinian,  published  in  533  ;  and  the 
second  Codex  of  that  emperor,  published  in 
534,  was  the  work  of  Tribonianus  and  four 
other  jurists.  (See  CIVIL  LAW.) 

TRIBUNE  (Lat.  trilmnus),  originally,  a  Ro 
man  officer  who  presided  over  one  of  the  three 
tribes,  Ramnenses,  Titienses,  and  Luceres.  In 
the  long  course  of  Roman  history  the  name 
came  to  be  applied  to  various  officers  -with 
widely  different  powers  and  duties.  As  ori 
ginally  constituted,  the  Roman  legion  consisted 
of  300  cavalry  and  3,000  infantry  ;  over  the 
cavalry  presided  an  officer  called  tribunus  cele- 
rum,  and  over  each  1,000  of  the  infantry  a 
tribunus  militum.  The  trilmni  celerum  dis 
appeared  with  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy. 
The  office  of  the  tribuni  militum  continued 
through  the  whole  course  of  Roman  history,  but 
the  manner  of  their  appointment,  their  num 
ber,  and  their  powers  and  duties  were  often 
changed.  "  Tribunes  of  the  soldiers,  with  con 
sular  power,"  were  first  chosen  in  444 ;  and  in 
succeeding  years  sometimes  consuls  and  some 
times  tribunes  with  consular  power  were  cho 
sen.  In  367  the  office  was  abolished,  and  there 
after  only  consuls  were  chosen.  The  name 
"tribune  of  the  Servian  tribes"  is  applied  by 
historians  to  the  administrative  chiefs  of  the 
local  tribes  which  were  gradually  added  to  the 
Roman  commonwealth  ;  it  is  supposed  by  Nie- 
buhr  and  others  that  the  tribunes  of  the  trea 
sury  of  later  times  were  similar  to  them. — The 
"  tribunes  of  the  people  "  were  the  most  im 
portant  of  all  the  officers  bearing  the  name. 
They  were  first  appointed  after  the  secession 
of  the  commonalty  to  the  Mons  Sacer,  in  494. 
They  were  empowered  to  protect  the  plebeians 
against  the  usurpations  of  the  patrician  magis 
trates,  and  their  persons  were  declared  sacred 
and  inviolable.  They  appear  to  have  been 
originally  two  in  number,  and  to  have  been 
elected  for  one  year  by  the  comitia  of  the  cen 
turies.  In  471,  by  the  Publilian  law,  the  elec 
tion  was  given  to  the  comitia  of  the  tribes. 
About  the  same  time  the  number  was  increased 
to  five,  and  from  457  B.  C.  until  the  end  of 


TRIBUTE 


TRIESTE 


863 


the  empire  ten  tribunes  were  annually  elected. 
None  but  plebeians  were  eligible  for  the  office ; 
so  that  if  a  patrician  were  desirous  of  filling 
it,  he  was  obliged  to  renounce  his  own  order. 
The  early  incumbents  of  the  office  exercised 
authority  within  the  city  limits  and  over  one 
mile  of  adjacent  territory ;  the  doors  of  their 
houses  were  ordered  to  be  open  day  and  night, 
and  all  persons  taking  refuge  there  were  as 
sured  of  protection.  For  similar  reasons  they 
were  forbidden  to  absent  themselves  from  the 
city  for  a  whole  day.  Although  their  lawful 
power  was  originally  merely  auxilium,  or  the 
right  to  afford  protection,  they  assumed  within 
a  few  years  the  right  to  convoke  the  senate, 
and  in  454,  after  a  long  struggle,  secured  the 
appointment  of  the  three  commissioners  whose 
labors  led  to  the  codification  of  the  laws  of 
the  osvelve  tables.  During  the  second  decemvi- 
rate  the  tribunate  was  suspended,  but  with  the 
overthrow  of  that  oligarchy  it  was  restored 
with  augmented  powers ;  and  as  the  tribes  now 
included  patricians  and  their  clients  as  well  as 
plebeians,  the  tribunes  became  the  protectors 
of  all  classes  of  citizens.  They  now  also  ac 
quired  the  right  to  be  present  at  the  delibera 
tions  of  the  senate,  and  to  take  part  in  its 
discussions,  although  not  allowed  to  pass  with 
in  the  doors  of  the  senate  house ;  and  hence 
they  gradually  assumed  the  privilege  of  inter 
cession  against  any  action  taken  by  a  magis 
trate,  and  by  the  interposition  of  their  veto 
were  enabled  to  annul  any  decree  of  the  sen 
ate  or  stop  any  la\v,  without  cause  or  reason 
assigned.  On  the  other  hand,  they  sometimes 
interfered  to  compel  the  consuls  to  comply 
with  decrees  of  the  senate.  About  132  B.  0. 
they  became  senators  by  virtue  of  their  office. 
They  also  assumed  the  right  of  commanding 
their  viator es  or  attendants  to  seize  a  refractory 
magistrate,  and  imprison  him,  or  even  to  hurl 
him  from  the  Tarpeian  rock.  They  possessed 
the  exclusive  power  of  proposing  plebiscites  to 
the  comitia  of  the  tribes ;  and  after  these  had 
obtained  by  the  Ilortensian  law,  286  B.  0.,  the 
binding  force  of  laws,  the  tribunes  became  a 
magistracy  for  the  whole  Roman  people,  in 
opposition  to  the  senate  and  the  oligarchical 
elements  in  general,  although  they  had  nothing 
to  do  with  the  administration  of  the  govern 
ment.  Subsequent  to  394  B.  0.  the  veto  of  a 
single  tribune  sufficed  to  render  a  resolution 
of  his  colleagues  void;  and  it  was  not  until 
Tiberius  Gracchus  introduced  the  practice  of 
appealing  to  the  people  to  remove  a  tribune 
who  obstinately  adhered  to  his  veto,  that  the 
harmonious  working  of  the  system  was  restored. 
During  the  latter  period  of  the  republic  Sulla, 
in  his  reform  of  the  constitution  on  an  aristo 
cratic  basis,  gave  the  tribunes  merely  the  jus 
auxiliandi  which  they  originally  possessed. 
Pompey  restored  them  to  their  former  power, 
but  under  the  empire  their  privileges  became 
much  restricted,  although  until  the  5th  century 
they  continued  to  have  the  right  of  interces 
sion  against  decrees  of  the  senate  and  on  be- 
VOL.  xv. — 55 


half  of  oppressed  individuals.  The  emperors, 
though  patricians,  found*  it -necessary  to  be  tri 
bunes,  and  the  tribunicia  potestas,  conferred 
by  the  senate  upon  Augustus  and  his  succes 
sors,  was  considered  an  essential  part  of  the 
imperial  dignity. — After  Diocletian  there  was 
an  officer  called  tribunus  voluptatum,  who  was 
the  superintendent  of  public  amusements. 

TRICHINA  SPIRALIS.  See  ENTOZOA,  vol.  vi., 
p.  669. 

TRICHINOPOLY,  or  Trichinapalli,  a  town  of 
British  India,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name  in  Madras,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Cavery,  in  lat.  10°  47'  K,  Ion.  78°  43'  E.,  190  m. 
S.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Madras,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  rail ;  pop.  about  30,000.  The 
fort  of  Trichinopoly  is  built  on  a  granite  rock 
about  600  ft.  high.  Outside  the  densely  popu 
lated  native  town,  which  was  formerly  enclosed 
within  the  walls  of  the  fortress,  are  extensive 
barracks,  hospitals,  public  rooms,  a  church  and 
Roman  Catholic  chapel,  and  the  tomb  of  Bish 
op  Heber,  who  died  here.  The  surrounding 
country  is  fertile  and  populous ;  and  the  island 
of  Seringham,  which  is  here  formed  by  the 
Cavery,  is  famous  for  the  size  and  wealth  of 
the  Hindoo  pagodas  upon  it.  Trichinopoly  is 
the  southernmost  station  of  British  troops  in 
India,  and  was  occupied  by  169  European  in 
fantry  in  1872-'3.  Cotton  cloths,  hardware, 
harness,  cheroots,  indigo,  and  jewelry  are 
manufactured  and  exported  to  different  parts 
of  India  and  Mauritius. — Trichinopoly,  after 
the  death  of  its  last  rajah  in  1732,  fell  under 
the  sway  of  the  nawaub  of  Arcot,  and  subse 
quently  changed  hands  several  times,  figuring 
conspicuously  in  the  contests  of  the  French 
and  English  for  supremacy  in  India.  It  finally 
came  under  English  government  with  the  rest 
of  the  Carnation  1801. 

TRICOLOR.     See  FLAG,  vol.  vii.,  p.  250. 

TRICOUPIS,  Spiridion,  a  Greek  historian,  born 
in  Missolonghi  in  1791,  died  in  Athens,  Feb. 
24,  1873.  He  held  important  offices  at  Athens 
after  the  Greek  revolution,  which  he  had  pro 
moted,  and  was  minister  at  London  at  various 
periods,  lastly  from  1850  till  King  Otho's 
downfall  in  1862.  He  was  a  friend  of  Lord 
Byron,  on  whose  death  he  pronounced  one  of 
his  most  celebrated  orations.  His  chief  work 
is  'laropia  rrjg  'E^r/viKJjf  'E-avacrdcrewf  ("His 
tory  of  the  Greek  Revolution,"  4  vols.,  Lon 
don,  1853-'7;  2d  ed.,  1862). 

TRIER.     See  TEEVES. 

TRIESTE  (Ger.  Triest).  I.  A  district  of  Cis- 
leithan  Austria,  forming  a  part  of  the  Litto- 
rale,  and  bordering  on  the  Adriatic,  Gorz,  and 
Istria;  area,  36  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  132,000,  of 
whom  more  than  one  half  are  Slovens,  more 
than  one  third  Italians,  8  per  cent.  Germans, 
and  44  per  cent.  Jews.  II.  A  city  (anc.  Ter- 
geste),  capital  of  the"  district,  and  the  principal 
seaport  of  Austria;  beautifully  situated  at  the 
head  of  the  gulf  of  Trieste,  or  N.  E.  coast  of 
the  Adriatic,  70  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Venice  and  210 
m.  S.  W.  of  Vienna;  pop.  in  1870,  including 


864 


TRIESTE 


suburbs,  109,324.  It  consists  of  the  old  town, 
with  a  fortified  castfe,  the  new  or  Theresa 
town,  and  the  new  Joseph  and  Francis  sub 
urbs,  with  capacious  streets  and  many  squares 
and  promenades.  The  finest  public  building 
is  the  chamber  of  commerce,  formerly  the  ex 
change  building.  The  monuments  include  the 
statue  of  Leopold  I.,  and  that  by  Rosetti  of 
Winckelmann,  who  was  murdered  here.  The 
cathedral  is  remarkable  chiefly  for  walled-in 
antiquities.  The  recently  opened  Protestant 
church  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  city.  Trieste 
is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  theological 
seminary  and  many  schools,  besides  a  commer 
cial  and  naval  academy  with  an  observatory,  a 
museum  rich  in  botany,  and  a  public  library. 
The  "Adriatic  Scientific  Society  "was  estab 
lished  in  1874.  The  Tergesteum  is  the  build 
ing  of  the  Austrian  Lloyd's,  which  company 


for  steamboat  navigation  and  miscellaneous 
enterprises  is  one  of  the  largest  organizations 
of  the  kind  in  the  world.  Trieste  is  Italian 
in  appearance  and  in  language,  though  much 
German  is  spoken.  There  are  Greek  and  Eng 
lish  merchants.  The  constant  arrival  and  de 
parture  of  steamers  make  the  port  very  lively ; 
but  the  increase  of  commerce  and  population 
is  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  In  1758 
the  population  was  only  6,000.  In  1873  the 
arrivals  of  vessels  numbered  8,046,  chiefly  Ital 
ian  and  Austrian,  and  the  departures  8,219, 
with  a  respective  tonnage  of  898,437  and  909,- 
402.  The  imports,  chiefly  coal,  grain,  iron, 
and  oil,  amounted  to  140,164,000  florins,  and 
the  exports,  mainly  grain,  flour,  timber,  and 
staves,  to  92,377,000  florins.  This  was  a  de 
cline  from  previous  years,  due  to  the  competi 
tion  of  Hamburg;  and  the  sanguine  expecta- 


Trieste. 


tions  of  increasing  the  importance  of  Trieste 
in  the  India  trade  have  been  rather  damped 
since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal.  Its  sta 
tus  as  a  free  port  is  limited  by  the  govern 
ment  monopoly  of  gunpowder,  salt,  and  to 
bacco,  and  by  an  excise  upon  wine,  spirits, 
and  other  articles.  A  breakwater  for  pro 
tecting  the  port  was  begun  in  1865,  and  an 
abortive  attempt  was  made  in  1874  to  fill  up 
the  malarious  part  of  the  canale  grande,  origi 
nally  intended  to  supplement  the  port  and  the 
roads. — Tergeste  was  originally  settled  either 
by  the  Carnians  or  Istrians.  The  earliest  his 
torical  mention  of  it  as  a  Roman  town  dates 
from  51  B.  C.  Augustus  laid  the  foundation 
of  its  prosperity.  It  was  under  the  domin 
ion  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and!  afterward  of  the 
Greek  emperors,  till  the  period  of  the  Lom 
bard  invasion.  Subsequently  Trieste  became 
independent  under  its  bishop,  who  bore  the 


title  of  count,  and  who  gradually  sold  to  the 
inhabitants  the  privileges  of  a  free  city.  Long 
wars  ensued  with  the  patriarchate  of  Aquileia, 
which  claimed  the  allegiance  of  the  bishops  of 
Trieste,  and  in  these  wTars  Venice  and  Genoa 
also  took  part.  The  peace  of  Turin  in  1381 
acknowledged  Trieste  as  an  independent  city, 
and  the  next  year  the  citizens  voluntarily  sub 
mitted  to  the  house  of  Austria.  Charles  VI. 
declared  it  a  free  city  in  1719,  and  Maria  The 
resa  made  it  a  free  port  in  1750.  It  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1797  and  1805.  From  1809 
to  1814  it  belonged  to  the  French  province  of 
Illyria,  and  subsequently  to  the  Austrian  king 
dom  of  that  name  till  1849,  when  the  so-called 
kingdom  was  dissolved.  In  reward  for  its 
fidelity  to  Austria  during  the  revolutionary  pe 
riod  of  1848-'9,  when  the  port  was  blockaded 
by  an  Italian  squadron,  the  city  and  district 
were  invested  on  Oct.  2,  1849,  with  the  privi- 


TRIGG 


TKIGONOMETKY 


865 


leges  of  local  self-government;  and  by  the 
constitution  of  Dec.  21,  1867,  they  were  made 
a  constituent  part  of  the  Littoral  province. 

TRIGG,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Kentucky,  border 
ing  on  Tennessee,  bounded  TV.  by  the  Tennes 
see  river. and  drained  by  the  Cumberland  river ; 
area,  530  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,686,  of  whom 
3,806  were  colored:  The  surface  is  hilly  and 
the  soil  fertile  in  parts.  Horses,  cattle,  mules, 
and  swine  are  exported  in  great  numbers. 
Iron,  bituminous  coal,  and  limestone  are  found. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  99,371 
bushels  of  wheat,  589,820  of  Indian  corn,  16,- 
114  of  oats,  14,805  of  Irish  and  18,832  of  sweet 
potatoes,  3,614,363  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  18,442  of 
wool,  83,308  of  butter,  and  534  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  2,673  horses,  1,908  mules  and  asses, 
2,440  milch  cows,  3,311  other  cattle,  9,439 
sheep,  and  24,288  swine  ;  4  flour  mills,  1  manu 
factory  of  pig  iron,  4  tanneries,  4  currying  es 
tablishments,  and  3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Cadiz. 

TRIGONOMETRY  (Gr.  rpiyuvov,  a  triangle,  and 
/nerptiv,  to  measure),  the  branch  of  mathematics 
which  treats  of  the  measurement  of  triangles. 
The  practical  object  in  nearly  all  applications 
of  the  science  is  to  measure  indirectly  some 
height  or  some  distance  the  direct  measure 
ment  of  which  would  be  inconvenient  or  im 
possible.  The  labors  of  the  civil  engineer  and 
the  astronomer  consist  in  great  part  in  a  con 
stant  application  of  the  principles  of  trigonom 
etry,  and  the  best  treatises  on  the  subject, 
like  that  of  Prof.  Peirce,  include  also  treatises 
on  surveying,  navigation,  and  spherical  as 
tronomy.  Trigonometry  is  divided  into  plane 
and  spherical,  the  former  treating  of  plane 
triangles,  the  latter  of  spherical  triangles.  In 
surveying  and  ordinary  engineering  operations 
plane  trigonometry  is  mostly  employed  ;  in  the 
higher  problems  of  navigation,  in  engineering 
operations  conducted  on  a  grand  scale,  as  in 
the  coast  survey,  and  in  astronomy,  spherical 
trigonometry  is  indispensable.  But  the  gen 
eral  principles  are  the  same  in  both  branches. 
As  spherical  trigonometry  consists  essentially 
in  an  extension  of  the  principles  of  plane  trig 
onometry,  we  shall  confine  our  attention  to 
the  latter.  In  every  plane  triangle  there  are 
six  elements  to  be  considered,  three  sides  and 
three  angles.  The  angles  depend  upon  the 
proportions  of  the  sides,  and  conversely  the 
proportions  of  the  sides  depend  upon  the 
angles.  If  we  know  the  three  angles,  we  can 
find  the  ratio  which  any  one  side  bears  to  each 
of  the  others,  but  we  cannot  find  the  length 
of  any  one  of  them ;  hence  it  is  necessary  for 
the  complete  determination  of  all  the  elements 
of  a  triangle,  that  we  should  know  the  length 
of  at  least  one  side.  In  calculating  the  un 
known  elements  of  a  triangle  certain  ratios 
are  employed,  called  "  trigonometrical  func 
tions,']  which  depend  upon  the  angles.  One 
quantity  is  said  to  be  a  function  of  another 
when  its  value  depends  upon  the  value  of  the 
other.  The  ordinary  method  of  measuring 
angles  is  explained  under  ANGLE. — There  are 


two  methods  of  explaining  the  trigonometrical 
functions.  The  one,  which  may  be  called  the 
ancient  method,  is  presented  in  nearly  all  the 
text  books  in  use  before  the  middle  of  the 
present  century ;  the  other  or  modern  method 
is  followed  in  the  best  text  books  of  recent 
date,  and  is  fast  superseding  the  former.  In 
the  old  system  the  trigonometrical  functions 
are  lines,  in  the  new  system  they  are  abstract 
numbers  expressing  the  ratios  of  lines.  A  brief 
explanation  of  the  modern  system  will  enable 
the  general  reader  to  form  an  iitea  of  the 
nature  and  objects  of  the  science.  Draw  two 
lines,  C  A,  C  B,  fig.  1,  forming  an  angle  at 
C.  At  any  point  in  either  line,  say  at  P  in  the 


P 

FIG.  1. 


B 


line  C  B,  erect  a  perpendicular  to  C  B,  inter 
secting  C  A  in  D.  It  matters  not  where  in  the 
line  C  B  the  point  P  is;  so  long  as  the  angle  at 
C  remains  unchanged,  the  proportions  of  the 
lines  CD,  CP,  and  PD  will  remain  the  same. 
In  the  figure  the  angle  at  C  is  intended  to  be  an 
angle  of  30°  ;  and  with  this  angle,  if  C  D  is  an 
inch,  P  D  will  be  half  an  inch,  and  if  C  D  is 
ten  miles,  PD  will  be  five  miles;  in  other 
words,  with  an  angle  of  30°,  PD  is  always  half 
of  CD.  The  number  \  is  called  the  "sine" 

of  30°,  or"~~  =  \  =  sine  of  30°.     If  the  angle 

T>  "T\ 

C  be  altered,  the  ratio  c^  will  change,  and 

hence  the  sine  is  said  to  be  a  function  of  the 
angle.  But  the  sine  does  not  vary  directly  as 
the  angle.  When  the  angle  is  a  right  angle  or 
90°,  the  lines  C  D  and  PD  fall  together  and  be 
come  one  line,  and  their  ratio  is  1,  or  the  sine 
of  90  =  1 ;  and  although  the  angle  is  three 
times  30°,  the  sine  is  only  twice  the  sine  of 

30°.     The  ratio  of  C  P  to  C  D,  or  ?~ ,  is  called 

the  "cosine"  of  the  angle  at  C.  The  cosine 
of  30°  is  the  decimal  fraction  0-866  very  near 
ly.  The  ratio  of  the  sine  to  'the  cosine,  or  of 
the  line  PD  to  CP,  is  called  the  "tangent"  of 
the  angle  at  C.  The  tangent  of  30°  is  |-  di 
vided  by  T8-ofi(To5  or,  in  decimals  correct  to  three 
places,  6-577.  The  sine  and  cosine  are  never 
greater  than  1,  and  hence  in  all  cases  except 
where  the  line  C  D  coincides  with  one  of  the 
other  lines,  the  sine  and  cosine  are  fractions. 
The  tangent  may  have  any  value.  Thus  the 
sine  of  89°  3'  is  0*99986,  and  the  cosine  is 
0-01658 ;  both  are  fractions  less  than  1,  but  the 
former  contains  the  latter  more  then  60  times, 


866 


TKIGONOMETBY 


TRILLIUM 


and  the  tangent  of  89°  3'  is  60-8058.  The  re 
ciprocals  of  the  sine,  cosine,  and  tangent  (that 

is,  -  — -)    are  called   respectively 

'   sine'   cosine'   tangent/ 

the  cosecant,  secant,  and  cotangent  of  the  angle 
at  0.  If  the  cosine  be  subtracted  from  1,  the 
remainder  is  called  the  "versed  sine;"  and  if 
the  sine  be  subtracted  from  1,  the  remainder  is 
called  the  "  coversed  sine."  In  practice  these 
names  are  always  abbreviated.  Instead  of 
"sine  of  30  "  it  is  always  written  sin  30°,  and, 
putting  C  for  the  angle,  the  abbreviations  are 
as  follows  :  sin  C,  cos  C,  tan  C,  cosec  C,  sec  C, 
cotan  C,  covers  0,  and  vers  0.  These  terms 
all  indicate  numbers  depending  on  the  value  of 
the  angle,  and  are  called  the  "  trigonometrical 
functions."  The  value  of  these  functions  has 
been  calculated  for  all  possible  angles  which 
our  most  delicate  instruments  enable  us  to 
measure,  and  these  values  are  recorded  in 
tables,  so  that,  any  angle  being  given,  the 
functions  can  be  found,  or  any  function  being 
given,  the  angle  can  be  found,  by  simply  look 
ing  in  the  tables.  The  numbers  employed  in 
trigonometry,  especially  where  great  accuracy 
is  required,  often  contain  so  many  digits  that 
the  labor  of  calculation  would  be  intolerable 
were  it  not  for  the  use  of  logarithms.  The 
tables  generally  used  in  practice  contain,  not 
the  actual  values  of  the  functions,  but  the  loga 
rithms  of  those  values.  Tables  of  the  actual 
values  are  also  .published,  and  they  can  be 
easily  found,  if  wanted,  from  their  logarithmic 
values  by  means  of  a  table  of  the  logarithms 
of  numbers.  A  single  example  of  the  use  made 
of  these  functions  will  show  how  measure 
ments  can  be  made  which  without  them  would 
be  inconvenient  or  impossible.  Suppose  a  per 
son  at  B,  fig.  2,  on  the  bank  of  a  river,  on 


FIG.  2. 

the  opposite  side  of  which  is  a  lofty  hill,  whoso 
highest  peak  II  he  can  see  with  his  telescope. 
He  wishes  to  know  the  perpendicular  height 
of  the  peak  (II  X)  above  the  plain  C  B.  Sup 
posing  him  to  be  provided  with  the  proper 
instruments  for  measuring  angles,  he  takes  a 
sight  at  the  peak  II  and  finds  that  the  angle 
of  elevation  X  B  II  is  28°  41 '.  Subtracting 
this  from  180°,  he  finds  the  angle  II  B  C  = 
151°  19'.  Next  he  measures  back  from  the 
river  say  1 ,000  ft.  to  C,  and  then  takes  another 
sight  at  the  peak  and  finds  that  the  angle  II C  X 
is  18°  4'.  The  rest  is  matter  of  calculation  and 
looking  in  the  tables.  The  angles  are  quickly 
and  easily  measured,  and  the  only  physical 
labor  of  any  consequence  is  the  carrying  his 


instruments  from  B  to  C  and  measuring  the 
distance  of  1,000  ft.  between  them.  Any  other 
distance  than  1,000  ft.  would  have  answered 
the  purpose ;  but,  for  reasons  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  enter  into,  it  will  save  trouble  and 
insure  accuracy  to  have  the  distance  B  C  as 
near  as  a  rough  guess  will  give  to  B  H.  Geom 
etry  tells  us  that  if  from  the  angle  H  B  X  =  28° 
41'  we  subtract  the  angle  H  C  B  =  18°  4',  we 
shall  get  the  angle  CHB,  between  the  two 
lines  of  sight.  We  thus  find  C  H  B  =  10°  37'. 
The  text  books  on  trigonometry  show  that  in 
every  triangle  the  sines  of  any  two  angles  are 
to  each  other  as  the  sides  opposite  the  angles. 
Looking  in  a  table  of  natural  sines  (that  is,  of 
the  actual  values,  and  not  the  logarithms),  we 
find  the  sine  of  10°  3V  is  the  decimal  fraction 
0-18424,  and  the  sine  of  18°  4'  is  0-31012.  The 
side  opposite  the  angle  C II  B  we  have  mea 
sured,  and  hence  we  have  the  proportion,  or 
"sum  in  the  rule  of  three:"  as  0*18424  is  to 
0-31012,  so  is  1,000  to  B  H,  the  side  opposite 
the  angle  II C  B.  Making  the  calculations, 
which  are  much  more  easily  made  by  means  of 
logarithms,  we  get  1683-28  ft.  as  the  distance 
from  B  to  II.  We  now  apply  the  same  process 
to  the  triangle. B II  X.  The  angle  BHX  is  a 
right  angle,  and  its  sine  is  1.  the  sine  of«  28° 
41'  is  0-47997;  hence,  as  1  is  to  0-47997,  so  is 
1683-28  to  H  X,  the  height  which  we  wished 
to  find ;  making  the  calculations,  we  find  it  to 
be  807'92  ft.,  or,  taking  the  nearest  foot,  we 
say  the  peak  is  808  ft.  high.  We  have  only 
made  use  of  the  sines ;  but  all  the  other  func 
tions  may  come  into  play,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  problem. — the  great  mathema 
ticians  of  modern  times  have  shown  how  trig 
onometry  can  be  treated  as  a  branch  of  pure 
algebra,  and  all  its  formulas  developed  without 
any  reference  t6  triangles.  They  have  also 
shown  how  in  this  abstract  form  it  can  be  ap 
plied  to  geometry,  and  a  perfectly  intelligible 
explanation  given  to  what  are  called  imaginary 
or  impossible  quantities.  Treated  in  this  man 
ner,  it  constitutes  the  connecting  link  between 
the  mathematical  sciences  of  the  present  and 
those  higher  but  as  yet  undeveloped  branches 
of  the  mathematics  of  the  future  that  have 
been  referred  to  in  the  article  GEOMETRY,  and 
the  foundations  of  which  have  been  laid  in  the 
"  Quaternions  "  of  Hamilton,  the  Ausdehnungs- 
leJire  of  Grassmann,  and  the  "  Linear  Associa 
tive  Algebra"  of  Peirce. — Among  the  multi 
tude  of  works  on  the  science,  the  following 
are  of  special  excellence :  A.  De  Morgan, 
"Trigonometry  and  Double  Algebra"  (Lon 
don,  1849);  J  Todhunter,  "Plane  Trigonom 
etry"  (4th  ed.,  London,  1869)  and  "  Spherical 
Trigonometry"  (3d  ed.,  1871);  L.  Mack,  60- 
niometrieund  Trigonometric  (Stuttgart,  1860); 
and  C.  Briot  #nd  A.  Bouquet,  Lemons  nouvelles 
de  trigonometric  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  1862).  (For 
the  application  of  trigonometry  to  surveying, 
see  COAST  SURVEY,  and  SURVEYING.) 

TRILLIUM  (Lat.  trilix,  triple,  the  parts  being 
in  threes),  a  genus  of  North  American  plants, 


TRILLIUM 


TRILOBITE 


867 


now  placed  in  a  suborder  of  the  lily  family. 
They  are  perennial  herbs  with  a  short  tuber- 
like  rootstock,  from  which  rises  a  simple,  na 
ked  stem,  usually  less  than  a  foot  high,  bear 
ing  at  its  summit  a  whorl  of  three  ovate  or 
rhomboid,  netted-veined  leaves,  above  which 
is  a  terminal  flower,  usually  large,  succeeded 
by  an  ovate,  purple  or  red,  three-celled  berry. 
The  trilliums,  of  which  there  are  about  a 
dozen  species,  are  among  the  most  striking  of 
our  spring  flowers;  their  symmetrical  struc 
ture  and  the  beauty  of  the  flowers  in  most 
species  are  interesting  and  attractive ;  they 
grow  in  rich  moist  woods  or  bogs,  some  ex 
tending  from  Canada  to  Georgia,  one  being 
peculiar  to  the  far  southern  states,  and  two  or 
three  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  plants  have 
received  various  common  names,  among  which 
are  three-leaved  nightshade,  wakerobin,  birth- 
root,  bethroot,  and  Indian  balm.  The  great- 
flowered  trillium  (T.  grandiflorum)  is  the 


Large-flowered  Trillium  (Trillium  grandiflorurn). 

showiest  species  ;  its  pure  white  flowers,  often 
3  in.  across,  and  becoming  rose-colored  with 
age,  are  erect  and  raised  above  the  leaves  on  a 
peduncle  2  to  3  in.  long.  The  purple  trillium 
(T.  erectum)  has  rather  smaller,  dull  purple 
flowers.  The  red-fruited  species  (T.  erythro- 
carpum)  has  its  white  petals  marked  at  the 
base  with  pink  or  purple  stripes.  The  nodding 
trillium  hides  its  flowers  beneath  the  leaves  by 
the  recurving  of  its  stalk.  T.  sessile  often  has 
its  leaves  blotched  with  two  shades  of  green ; 
and  the  related  T.  discolor,  the  southern  spe 
cies,  has  very  ornamental  foliage  from  being 
variegated  with  green  and  brown  or  purple. 
All  flourish  well  in  the  garden,  T.  grandi- 
florum  being  especially  ornamental ;  large  num 
bers  of  its  tubers  are  sent  to  Europe,  to  be 
sold  by  the  bulb  dealers.  The  roots  of  tril 
lium  contain  an  acrid  principle  analogous  to 
senegine  and  saponine,  as  well  as  a  volatile  oil, 
resin,  and  tannic  acid.  They  are  astringent, 
and  are  said  to  be  tonic  and  expectorant. 


TRILOBITE  (Gr.  rpelg,  three,  and  Ao/3<5f,  lobe), 
the  name  of  a  group  of  fossil  crustaceans,  so 
called  from  the  three  lobes  into  which  the  body 
is  divided.  They  do  not  correspond  exactly  to 
any  living  group,  but,  according  to  Burmeister 
("Organization  of  Trilobites,"  Ray  society's 
publications,  4to,  London,  1846),  were  a  pecu 
liar  family  of  crustaceans,  nearly  allied  to  the 
existing  p Jiy llopoda,  (like  apus  and  lyranchipus), 
and  forming  a  connecting  link  between  these 
and  the  entomostracan  pwcilopoda  (like  ar- 
gulus,  caligus,  and  other  parasites  called  fish 
lice) ;  they  come  nearest  to  phyllopods,  espe 
cially  in  the  double  large  eyes,  undeveloped 
antennae,  and  soft  membranous  feet,  and  near 
est  of  all  to  Iranchipus ;  a  marked  resem 
blance  in  the  form  of  the  limulus  (king  crab, 
or  common  horseshoe  of  our  coasts),  especially 
the  larva,  is  also  observed  to  that  of  many 
species  of  trilobites.  (See  KING  CKAB.)  The 
general  form  of  the  animal  is  oval,  divided 
into  three  well  defined  regions,  the  head  or 
buckler,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen  or  py- 
gidium,  the  last  two  composed  of  semicircular 
plates  or  segments,  varying  in  number,  by 
whose  movements  the  animal  could  roll  itself 
into  a  ball  like  the  common  wood  louse  and 
pill  bug  (oniscus  and  armadillo).  Each  of 
these  three  divisions  presents  three  lobes  lim 
ited  by  two  longitudinal  depressions ;  the  head 
is  generally  the  largest  and  considerably  the 
widest,  varying  from  one  fourth  to  one  half 
the  total  length,  semicircular,  with  a  border 
often  ornamented  with  granulations,  depres 
sions,  and  spines;  the  middle  portion  is  the 
glcibella,  the  grooves  which  mark  its  lateral 
limit  corresponding,  according  to  Barrande,  to 
the  insertion  of  the  jaws  or  first  pair  of  feet ; 
the  different  pieces  are  united  by  distinct  su 
tures,  which  are  important  zoological  charac 
ters.  Eyes  have  been  denied  to  some  genera ; 
some  had  eyes  when  young,  but  lost  them  when 
old;  others  had  two  well  formed,  compound, 
facetted,  prominent  eyes,  which  are  often  per 
fectly  preserved  in  the  fossil  state ;  they  are 
sometimes  larger  than  half  the  length  of  the 
head,  the  greatest  diameter  being  almost  al 
ways  the  longitudinal ;  they  had  no  simple 
eyes.  Traces  of  a  mouth  have  been  distin 
guished  in  a  few ;  no  traces  of  antennaa  have 
been  found,  and  they  were  probably  short  and 
feebly  developed.  The  number  of  the  thoracic 
segments  varies  in  different  genera  and  at  dif 
ferent  stages  of  growth,  but  is  constant  in 
adults  of  the  same  species ;  the  terminal  por 
tions  on  the  sides  are  the  pleura,  and  are  curved 
backward  and  sometimes  very  long ;  traces  of 
nine  pairs  of  feet  have  been  discovered,  and 
they  were  doubtless  soft,  membranous,  and 
leaf-shaped,  as  in  pJiyllopoda.  The  pygidium 
was  made  up  of  segments  like  those  of  the 
thorax,  but  consolidated  to  form  a  posterior 
buckler ;  it  was  usually  semicircular,  less  long 
than  wide,  developed  inversely  to  the  thorax, 
and  largest  in  the  more  recent  genera.  The 
shell  had  a  thinner  horny  membrane  cover- 


868 


TRILOBITE 


TRINCOMALEE 


Calymene. 


ing  it,  becoming  more  delicate  toward  the 
median  line ;  between  the  two  is  found  in  the 
fossils  a  stony  layer  measuring  their  distance 
from  each  other ;  the  lower  surface  was  soft 
and  membranous;  the  skin  was  undoubtedly 
cast  as  in  other  articulates,  and  Wahlenberg 
has  suggested  that  some  supposed  new  species 
may  have  been  founded  on  their  cast  shells. 
They  have  been  divided  into  three  families, 
according  to  the  nature  of  their  covering :  1, 
eurypteridm,  without  shell,  including  the  single 
genus  eurypterus  (De  Kay)  ;  2,  cytherinidce, 
with  bivalve,  bean-shaped  shell,  including  the 
single  genus  cytherina  (Lam.) ;  and  3,  trilo- 
~bit(B,  with  a  shell  having  as  many  rings  as 
there  are  joints  to  the  body,  containing  many 
genera  and  species,  and  divided  into  two  large 
groups,  one  with  the  power  of 
rolling  into  a  ball,  like  calymene, 
and  the  other  with  no  such  power, 
as  in  ogygia.  According  to  Bur- 
meister,  the  trilobites  moved  on 
ly  by  swimming,  just  below  the 
surface  of  the  water,  with  the 
back  downward,  rolling  into  a 
ball  when  danger  threatened  from  above,  and 
did  not  creep  upon  the  bottom ;  they  lived  in 
shallow  water,  near  the  coast,  associating  in 
immense  numbers,  chiefly  of  the  same  species  ; 
while  only  six  or  eight  species  occur  in  a  given 
stratum,  the  number  of  individuals  was  very 
great ;  their  food  consisted  of  small  aquatic  an 
imals  and  their  spawn ;  they  underwent  pro 
gressive  metamorphoses,  and  varied  considera 
bly  according  to  age ;  their  metamorphoses  are 
given  at  length  by  Barrande,  who  makes  four 
distinct  types,  according  to  the  serial  develop 
ment  of  "the  different  parts. — Trilobites  are 
among  the  oldest  of  the  articulata;  though 
none  are  now  living,  during  the  palaeozoic  pe 
riod  they  were  very  abundant,  and  almost  the 
only  representatives  of  their  class.  They  have 
been  most  studied  in  Bohemia,  and  by  M.  Bar 
rande.  None  are  found  above  the  carbonif 
erous  rocks,  and  only  two  or  three  in  them. 
Barrande's  primordial  fauna,  or  the  lower  Si 
lurian,  has  one  genus  but  no  species  passing 
to  his  second  fauna  or  middle  Silurian,  and  this 
has  many  genera  but  no  species  common  to  it 
and  the  third  fauna  or  upper  Silurian,  which  in 
turn  has  several  genera  passing  to  the  Devo 
nian  fauna — the  whole  series  affording  remark 
able  proofs  of  the  limitations  of  fauna)  in 
time ;  the  distribution  of  particular  genera  and 
species  in  space  was  also  very  circumscribed, 
probably  on  account  of  their  feeble  locomotive 
powers.  In  America  several  trilobites,  espe 
cially  paradoxides  and  its  allied  genera,  have 
been  met  with  in  slates  formerly  classed  among 
the  metamorphic  rocks,  as  the  P.  Harlani 
(Green),  found  in  Braintree,  Mass.,  in  1856, 
by  Prof.  "W.  B.  Rogers,  and  this  and  other  tri 
lobites  found  in  Canada  and  Newfoundland. — 
The  trilobites  have  long  attracted  much  inter 
est^  as  well  on  account  of  the  great  numbers  in 
which  they  have  been  found  in  many  locali 


Paradoxides  Harkni. 


ties,  as  from  their  singular  conformation,  and 
the  perfect  state  in  which  their  forms  are  pre 
served.  The  eye  is  very  beautiful,  and  its  per 
fection  in  many  of  tli§  stony  fossils,  especially 
some  brought  from 
the  Hartz  moun 
tains,  and  from  the 
upper  Silurian  lime 
stone  of  Dudley, 
England,  is  very  re 
markable  ;  the  fa 
cets  or  lenses,  some 
times  nearly  400  in 
number,  are  like 
those  observed  in 
the  eye  of  the  dra 
gon  fly  and  butter 
fly,  and  as  in  these 
insects  are  arranged 
around  a  conical 
tube  through  which 
the  visual  rays  enter 
from  almost  every 
direction  ;  in  the 
asaplms  caudatus 
each  eye  thus  has 
a  range  of  nearly 

three  fourths  of  a  circle,  and  both  together 
command  a  panoramic  view.  The  structure  of 
the  eye  also  indicates  the  prevalence  in  those 
ancient  periods  of  the  same  conditions  of  the 
waters  and  the  atmosphere,  as  regards  their 
adaptation  to  the  organs  of  vision,  as  now 
obtain. — The  geographical  range  of  trilobites 
is  very  extensive;  these  fossils  are  met  with 
at  most  distant  points,  both  of  the  south 
ern  and  northern  hemispheres  ;  they  are  found 
all  over  northern  Europe,  and  in  numerous 
localities  in  North  America,  in  the  Andes  of 
Bolivia,  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Tren 
ton  Falls,  N.  Y.,  has  afforded,  in  the  limestone 
known  by  its  name,  fine  specimens  of  the  spe 
cies  calymene  BlumenbacJiii  (Brongn.).  Leba 
non,  Ohio,  is  another  interesting  locality.  In 
Adams  co.,  Ohio,  Dr.  Locke  procured  an  iso- 
telus,  to  which  he  gave  the  specific  name  me- 
gistos,  that  measured  more  than  20  in.  in  length 
and  12  in.  in  width ;  the  /.  gigas  and  paradox 
ides  Harlani  have  been  found  more  than  12 
in.  long.  (See  "  American  Journal  of  Science," 
1871,  p.  228,  and  1872,  p.  268.) 

TRIMBLE,  a  N.  county  of  Kentucky,  border 
ing  on  the  Ohio  river;  area,  150  sq.  m.;  pop. 
in  1870,  5,577,  of  whom  456  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  generally  hilly  and  the  soil  fer 
tile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  31,- 
848  bushels  of  wheat,  209,060  of  Indian  corn, 
38,216  of  oats,  12,647  of  potatoes,'  658,465 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  10,676  of  wool,  24,370  of  but 
ter,  and  1,268  tons  of  hay.  There  were  1,906 
horses,  1,064  milch  cows,  1,882  other  cattle, 
3,043  sheep,  and  6,512  swine.  Capital,  Bedford. 

TRINCOMALEE,  a  town  of  Ceylon,  in  the  N. 
E.  part  of  the  island,  in  lat.  8°  34'  N.,  Ion.  81° 
12'  E. ;  pop.  about  20,000.  It  stands  on  the 
N.  side  of  the  entrance  to  a  capacious  and  se- 


TRINIDAD 


TRINITY 


869 


cure  harbor  at  the  foot  of  well  wooded  hills 
and  two  heights  crowned  by  forts,  besides 
which  the  port  is  defended  by  numerous  forti 
fications  which  extend  for  about  a  mile  along 
the  shore.  The  inner  harbor  is  landlocked, 
and  has  the  advantage  over  all  other  harbors 
of  India  of  being  accessible  to  all  descriptions 
of  ships  during  both  monsoons.  The  inhabi 
tants  are  mostly  of  Tamil  origin,  from  the  S. 
E. 'coast  of  India.  The  trade  is  of  little  im 
portance,  but  precious  stones  are  found  in  the 
neighborhood  in  considerable  quantities. — The 
Portuguese  were  the  first  European  nation  to 
form  a  settlement  at  Trincomalee.  They  were 
expelled  by  the  Dutch,  who  were  in  turn  driven 
out  by  the  British  in  1782 ;  but  an  insufficient 
garrison  having  been  left  for  its  defence,  it 
was  captured  by  the  French,  who  restored  it 
to  the  Dutch.  In  1795  the  British  again  cap 
tured  it  after  a  siege  of  three  weeks,  and  it 
has  since  remained  in  their  possession. 

TRINIDAD,  one  of  the  British  West  India 
islands,  at  the  mouth  of  the  gulf  of  Paria,  off 
the  N.  E.  coast  of  Venezuela,  opposite  the  N. 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  between  lat.  10°  and 
11°  N.  and  Ion.  61°  and  62°  W. ;  length  N. 
and  S.  about  50  m.,  average  breadth  35  m. ; 
area,  1,755  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  109,638.  Its 
N.  W.  and  S.  W.  extremities  are  within  7  and 
13  m.  respectively  of  the  continent.  There  is 
excellent  anchorage  between  the  island  and  the 
mainland,  and  there  are  several  good  harbors. 
It  is  crossed  by  three  ranges  of  hills  from 
W.  to  E.,  extending  through  the  centre,  and 
bordering  the  S.  and  N.  coasts,  the  northern 
range  attaining  an  elevation  of  3,000  ft.  There 
are  level  and  undulating  tracts  in  the  valleys, 
but  in  some  places  the  surface  is  considerably 
broken,  and  it  is  drained  by  rivers  with  nu 
merous  tributaries.  Much  of  Trinidad  appears 
to  have  been  formed  by  the  mud  deposited  by 
the  Orinoco.  The  mountains  consist  of  clay 
and  mica  slate;  and  quartz,  pyrites,  arsenic, 
alum,  sulphate  of  copper,  graphite,  and  sulphur 
are  found.  In  a  volcanic  district  on  the  "NV. 
coast  there  is  a  celebrated  asphalt  lake.  (See 
ASPHALTUM,  and  BITTJMEX.)  At  Port  of  Spain, 
the  capital,  the  temperature  ranges  between 
74°  and  86°  in  summer,  and  70°  and  81°  in 
winter.  The  annual  fall  of  rain  is  65  inches ; 
the  island  is  beyond  the  range  of  hurricanes. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  elevated  parts  are 
covered  with  dense  forests.  The  chief  produc 
tions  are  sugar  cane,  coffee,  and  cacao;  and 
cotton,  indigo,  tobacco,  nutmegs,  cinnamon, 
and  cloves  are  raised.  The  indigenous  animals 
are  two  species  of  small  deer,  the  opossum, 
armadillo,  porcupine,  ant  bear,  sloth,  muskrat, 
tiger  cat,  two  species  of  lizards,  and  numer 
ous  monkeys.  Fish  are  abundant.  The  set 
tlements  are  chiefly  on  the  N.  W.  coast  and  in 
the  adjacent  valley.  A  considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  with  the  United  States  in  lumber 
and  provisions.  Trinidad  is  a  crown  colony, 
under  a  governor  with  executive  and  legisla 
tive  councils. — The  island  was  discovered  by 


Columbus  in  July,  1498,  occupied  by  the  Span 
iards  in  the  16th  century,  captured  by  the 
French  in  1676,  but  soon  restored,  and  taken 
by  the  British  in  1797. 

TRINITY  (Gr.  rpia^  Lat.  trinitas),  a  term  of 
Christian  theology  denoting  the  coexistence  in 
the  Godhead  of  three  persons,  distinguished 
from  each  other  as  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost  or  Holy  Spirit.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  is  held  by  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
and  by  most  of  the  Protestant  and  eastern 
churches.  The  doctrine,  it  is  contended,  is 
contained  in  all  its  constitutive  elements  in 
the  Scriptures,  and  was  gradually  drawn  up 
into  a  systematic  statement  as  the  necessity 
occurred  of  preserving  or  vindicating  it  in  its 
integrity  and  purity.  Supplementary  to  the 
ecclesiastical  form  of  the  dogma  itself  are  cer 
tain  theological  explanations,  throwing  on  it  a 
fuller  light,  derived  from  the  teachings  of  early 
councils,  the  writings  of  the  great  church 
fathers,  or  the  accepted  scientific  language  of 
the  schools.  These  regard  the  mode  of  ori 
gination  of  the  second  and  third  persons,  the 
relations  existing  between  the  persons  in  the 
Trinity,  and  their  distinctive  characteristics 
and  appellations.  While  the  word  Trinity  is 
not  to  be  found  in  the  Bible,  and  while  no 
passage  can  be  adduced  from  the  Old  Testa 
ment  in  which  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  or 
its  equivalent  is  distinctly  and  explicitly  for 
mulated,  many  texts  have  been  quoted  even  by 
the  earliest  Christian  writers  which  point  to 
the  existence  of  some  form  of  plurality  in  the 
Godhead.  These  texts,  however,  being  suscep 
tible  of  various  interpretations,  are  not  pro 
duced  as  proving  peremptorily  the  doctrine  of 
a  Trinity,  but  as  foreshadowing  the  clear  and 
distinct  revelation  believed  to  have  been  made 
in  the  New  Testament.  From  it  two  large 
classes  of  texts  are  quoted  as  arguments  for 
establishing  the  doctrine :  those  in  which  Fa 
ther,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  are  mentioned  in 
connection,  and  those  in  which  these  three  sub 
jects  are  mentioned  separately,  and  in  which 
their  nature  and  mutual  relation  are  more  par 
ticularly  described.  The  disputes  about  the  tri- 
personality  of  the  Godhead  date  from  the  apos 
tolic  age,  and  were  occasioned  chiefly  by  the 
prevalence  of  the  Hellenistic  and  Gnostic  the- 
osophies.  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch  in 
the  2d  century,  used  the  word  rpifa  and  its 
equivalent  trinitas  was  first  employed  by  Ter- 
tullian  in  the  3d  century.  During  the  ante- 
Nicene  period  there  was  uninterrupted  con 
troversy  about  this  doctrine,  principally  in 
the  East,  and  many  opinions  were  proscribed 
by  the  church  as  heretical.  Among  them  were 
those  of  the  Ebionites,  who  regarded  Jesus  as 
a  mere  man ;  of  the  Sabellians,  according  to 
whom  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost 
were  only  the  different  forms  in  which  the 
one  God  reveals  himself  to  men ;  of  the  Arians, 
who  taught  that  the  Son  was  not  coeternal 
with  the  Father,  but  created  by  him  before 
the  world,  and  therefore  subordinate  and  in- 


870 


TRINITY 


TRINITY   COLLEGE 


f  erior  to  the  Father ;  and  of  the  Macedonians, 
who  denied  the  personality  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  doctrine  of  the  church  was  fixed  by  the 
councils  of  Nice  (325)  and  Constantinople 
(381),  which  declared  that  the  Son  and  Spirit 
are  coequal  with  the  Father  in  the  divine  unity, 
the  Son'  eternally  begotten  by  the  Father,  and 
the  Spirit  proceeding  from  the  Father.  The 
synod  of  Toledo  (589)  declared  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  proceeded  also  from  the  Son  (jilioque), 
and  this  addition  was  finally  adopted  through 
out  the  Latin  church  ;  but  the  Greeks,  though 
at  first  acquiescent  and  silent,  at  length  pro 
tested  against  this  change  of  the  creed  as  an 
innovation,  and  the  phrase  filioque  still  re 
mains  one  of  the  chief  hindrances  of  a  reu 
nion  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
churches.  .  The  symbolic  books  of  the  Lu 
theran  and  Reformed  churches  retained  the 
Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  un 
changed;  but  it  has  been  attacked  ever  since 
the  16th  century,  as  contrary  to  both  the 
Bible  and  sound  reason,  by  a  large  number 
of  theologians  and  by  several  new  denomi 
nations,  as  the  Socinians,  the  German  theoso- 
phists  (Weigel,  Boehm,  &c.),  the  Unitarians, 
and  the  Universalists.  Swedenborg  referred 
the  Trinity  to  the  person  of  Christ,  teaching  a 
trinity,  not  of  persons,  but  of  the  person,  by 
which  he  understood  that  that  which  is  divine 
in  the  nature  of  Christ  is  the  Father,  that  the 
divine  which  is  united  to  the  human  is  the 
Son,  and  the  divine  which  proceeds  from  him 
is  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  spread  of  rationalism 
in  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches  under 
mined  for  some  time  the  belief  in  the  Trinity 
among  a  large  number  of  German  theologians. 
Kant  held  that  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  des 
ignate  only  three  fundamental  qualities  in 
the  Deity,  power,  wisdom,  and  love,  or  three 
agencies  of  God,  creation,  preservation,  and 
government.  Hegel  and  Schelling  attempted 
to  give  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  a  specu 
lative  basis  ;  and  after  their  example  the  mod 
ern  dogmatic  theology  of  Germany  has  in  gen 
eral  undertaken  a  defence  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  on  speculative  as  well  as  theologi 
cal  grounds.  Some  supranaturalist  theologians 
do  not  hold  the  strict  doctrine  of  ecclesiastical 
orthodoxy,  as  defined  by  the  councils  of  Nice 
and  Constantinople,  and  the  view  of  Sabellius 
especially  has  found  in  modern  times  many  ad 
vocates. — Exhaustive  works  on  the  history  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  have  been  pub 
lished  by  Baur  (Die  cliristticJie  Lehre  von  der 
Dreieinigkeit,  Tubingen,  3  vols.,  1841-'3)  and 
Meier  (Die  Lehre  von  der  Trinitat  in  his- 
toriscJier  Entwickelung,  Hamburg,  1844).  See 
also  Hodge,  "  Systematic  Theology  "  (3  vols., 
New  York,  1872-'3). 

TRINITY.  I.  An  E.  county  of  Texas,  bound 
ed  N.  E.  by  the  Neches  and  S.  W.  by  the  Trin 
ity  river,  and  drained  by  several  creeks;  area, 
945  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,141,  of  whom  1,084 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  nearly  level,  and 
the  soil  fertile.  The  Houston  and  Great  North 


ern  railroad  passes  through  the  W.  part.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  94,240  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  31,083  of  sweet  potatoes,  48,- 
260  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  2,205  bales  of  cotton. 
There  were  1,318  horses,  4,872  milch  cows, 
10,051  other  cattle,  1,694  sheep,  and  12,648 
swine.  Capital,  Sumter.  II.  A  N.  W.  county 
of  California,  bounded  E.  by  the  Coast  range, 
intersected  by  the  Trinity,  and  drained  by  trib 
utaries  of  Eel  river;  area,  1,800  sq.  m. ;  p*bp. 
in  1870,  3,213,  of  whom  1,099  were  Chinese. 
The  surface  is  generally  hilly  and  in  the  E. 
part  mountainous,  Mt.  Linn,  the  highest  peak 
of  the  range,  lying  in  the  S.  E.  corner.  There 
are  extensive  forests  of  fir,  pine,  and  oak.  Gold 
mining  is  prosecuted  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  other  valuable  minerals  are  found.  Tne 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  9,898  bushels 
of  wheat,  5,658  of  potatoes,  and  1,017  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  185  horses,  425  milch  cows, 
1,283  other  cattle,  371  swine,  and  5  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Weaverville. 

TRINITY.  I.  A  river  of  Texas,  formed  by 
the  West  fork  and  Elm  fork,  which  rise  near 
the  N.  boundary  of  the  state,  and,  after  a  course 
of  about  150  m.  each,  unite  in  Dallas  co., 
whence  the  main  stream  fiows  in  a  tortuous 
but  generally  S.  S.  E.  direction  to  the  N.  ex 
tremity  of  Galveston  bay,  about  35  m.  from 
Galveston  city.  Its  whole  course  lies  through 
a  valley  of  great  fertility,  occupied  in  part  by 
extensive  plantations  of  corn,  cotton,  rice,  and 
sugar.  The  length  of  the  main  stream  is  about 
550  m.,  of  which  about  250  m.  is  navigable. 
II.  A  river  of  California,  rising  in  Trinity  co., 
and  flowing  S.  S.  E.,  then  S.  W.,  and  finally  N. 
W.  into  the  Klamath  river,  in  lat.  41°  20'  N. 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  rich  gold  mines. 

TRINITY  COLLEGE,  an  institution  of  learning 
in  Hartford,  Conn.,  under  the  control  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  church,  chartered  in  1823 
and  opened  in  1824.  Until  1845  its  name  was 
Washington  college.  Its  presidents  have  been : 
1824-'31,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  C.  Brownell, 
D.  D.,  bishop  of  Connecticut;  1831-'7,  the 
Rev.  N.  S.  Wheaton,  D.  D. ;  1837-'48,  the 
Rev.  Silas  Totten,  D.  D. ;  1848-'53,  the  Rt. 
Rev.  John  Williams,  D.  D. ;  1853-'60,  the  Rev. 
Daniel  R.  Goodwin,  D.  D. ;  1861-'4,  Samuel 
Eliot;  1864-'6,  the  Rt.  Rev.  J.  B.  Kerfoot, 
D.  D. ;  1867-74,  the  Rev.  Abner  Jackson,  D. 
D.  Dr.  Jackson  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev. 
T.  R.  Pynchon,  D  .D.,  who  still  holds  the  office 
(1876).  In  1872  the  college  grounds  were  sold 
for  $600,000,  to  be  used  as  a  site  for  the  new 
state  capitol.  Soon  afterward  the  college 
purchased  78  acres  within  the  city  limits,  a 
mile  south  of  the  old  location.  There  is  now 
in  process  of  erection  here  an  imposing  col 
lege  structure,  in  the  form  of  a  quadrangle 
1,050  ft.  long  and  376  ft.  wide,  and  enclo 
sing  three  courts  containing  an  aggregate 
of  about  four  acres.  It  is  in  the  early  Eng 
lish  style  of  architecture,  with  gateways  and 
a  noble  tower  and  spire  240  ft.  high.  It  will 
comprise  dormitories  for  300  students,  recita- 


TPJPANG 


TRIPOLI 


871 


tion  rooms,  chapel,  library,  museum,  dining 
hall,  theatre,  astronomical  observatory,  and 
dwellings  for  the  faculty.  The  college  is  to  be 


removed  to  the  new  site  in  1877.  The  whole 
number  of  the  alumni  of  Trinity  college  is 
1,063,  of  whom  262  have  been  ordained  to  the 


New  Buildings  of  Trinity  College,  Hartford. 


ministry.  In  1875-'6  there  were,  besides  the 
president,  8  professors,  3  other  instructors,  and 
2  lecturers ;  the  total  number  of  students  was 
83.  The  course  of  instruction,  in  which  all 
the  studies  are  prescribed,  occupies  four  years. 
Students  may  take  special  courses  in  studies 
pertaining  to  science,  and  on  their  completion 
receive  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science.  Be 
sides  37  scholarships  entitling  the  holders  to 
free  tuition,  there  are  several  which  yield  to 
needy  students  annual  incomes  ranging  from 
$100  to  $300.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  designed 
to  aid  students  preparing  for  the  ministry  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  church.  The  college 
has  property  amounting  in  1875  to  $1,068,296, 
a  library  of  18,000  volumes,  exclusive  of  pam 
phlets  and  duplicates,  and  a  valuable  cabinet. 
Excepting  $16,000  received  from  the  state,  the 
funds  of  the  college  have  been  contributed  by 
individuals.  A  theological  school  was  organ 
ized  in  1851,  and  was  continued  for  about  three 
years,  when  the  Berkeley  divinity  school  at 
Middletown  was  established  to  take  its  place. 

TRIPMG.     See  SEA  CUCUMBEE. 

TRIPOLI,  an  earthy  substance,  originally  pro 
cured  from  Tripoli  in  Africa,  used  as  a  polish 
ing  material,  of  fine  sharp  grain,  yellowish 
gray  or  whitish,  burning  white.  It  consists 
almost  entirely  of  silica,  and  when  examined 
by  the  microscope  is  found  to  be  composed  of 
the  exuvipe  or  skeletons  of  infusoria,  the  fam 
ilies  of  which  are  readily  recognized.  Speci 
mens  of  it  from  Bilin  and  Franzensbad  in 
Bohemia,  Santafiora  in  Tuscany,  and  Mauritius 
have  been  examined  by  Ehrenberg.  The  sub 


stance  has  sometimes  been  confounded  with 
the  English  rotten  stone. 

TRIPOLI  (called  by  the  natives  Taralul).  I. 
A  country  of  N.  Africa,  forming  one  of  the 
Barbary  states,  and  a-  dependency  of  the  Turk 
ish  empire,  bounded  N.  by  the  Mediterranean, 
E.  by  Barca,  S.  by  Fezzan  and  the  desert  of 
Sahara,  and  W.  by  the  Sahara  and  Tunis,  be 
tween  lat.  28°  and  33°  15'  N.,  and  Ion.  10°  and 
20°  E. ;  extreme  length  about  650  in.,  breadth 
from  130  to  nearly  300  m. ;  area  estimated  at 
125,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  estimated  at  from  500,- 
000  to  750,000.  Including  Barca  and  Fezzan, 
which  are  dependent  states,  the  area  of  Tripoli 
is  more  than  double  that  above  given,  and  the 
population  probably  twice  as  large.  Though 
the  sea  coast  extends  upward  of  600  m.,  there 
is  only  one  good  harbor,  that  of  Tripoli,  in  its 
entire  length.  In  its  E.  part,  between  Cape 
Mesurata  and  the  town  of  Benghazi  in  Barca, 
there  is  a  vast  indentation  called  by  the  an 
cients  Syrtis  Major,  now  the  gulf  of  Sidra. 
(See  SYETIS.)  A  marshy  tract  100  m.  in  length 
and  varying  in  breadth  from  2  to  40  m.  ex 
tends  parallel  to  the  S.  W.  shore  of  the  gulf. 
The  western  portion  of  the  Tripolitan  coast 
is  low  and  sandy ;  but  in  the  east  it  becomes 
higher,  and  has  many  rocky  points  that  afford 
shelter  to  small  craft,  with  good  anchorage  in 
some  places.  The  soil  is  exceedingly  porous, 
and  most  of  the  streams  flow  only  during  the 
rainy  season.  The  interior  of  the  country  is 
imperfectly  known.  The  N".  E.  part  contains 
extensive  tracts  of  barren  sand,  and  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  the  desert ;  but  the  S.  part  is 


8T2 


TRIPOLI 


traversed  by  the  Black  mountains,  descending 
in  terraces  which  enclose  fertile  tracts.  In 
the  west  two  ranges  of  mountains,  offsets  of 
the  Atlas,  run  nearly  parallel  with  the  sea,  the 
N".  range  about  20  m.  from  the  coast,  and  the 
S.  30  m.  further  inland.  The  former  has  a 
general  height  of  about  2,000  ft.,  and  is  visi 
ble  from  the  sea.  These  mountains  are  of  vol 
canic  origin,  and  many  of  the  summits  termi 
nate  in  conical  peaks.  The  space  between  the 
ranges  contains  many  tracts  of  elevated  table 
land,  with  a  fertile  soil  produced  by  the  de 
composition  of  lava  and  basalt.  Salt  and  sul 
phur  are  the  only  minerals  obtained.  Some  of 
this  land  is  carefully  cultivated  and  irrigated. 
Abundant  crops  of  grain  are  raised,  and  on  the 
sides  of  the  hills  vines,  olives,  figs,  almonds, 
and  other  fruits  grow  luxuriantly.  There  are 
extensive  natural  pastures  upon  which  cattle 
are  roared  in  great  numbers.  But  the  most 
fertile  part  of  Tripoli  is  the  country  which 
surrounds  the  capital.  This  tract,  about  5  m. 
broad,  extends  about  15  m.  along  the  shore, 
and  produces  heavy  crops  of  wheat,  barley, 
millet,  and  maize.  Dates  and  olives  are  grown, 
together  with  all  the  fruits  of  a  temperate  cli 
mate.  The  country  S.  of  the  plateaus  con 
tains  very  little  productive  land,  and  consists 
mainly  of  sand  and  gravel  plains.  The  water, 
which  is  found  only  by 'digging  from  100  to 
200  ft.,  is  bittsr  and  brackish.  In  the  feu- 
spots  where  grain  can  be  raised  there  are 
villages,  the  inhabitants  of  which  live  in  con 
stant  dread  of  the  desert  tribes.  Rain  falls 
abundantly  in  the  1ST.  part  of  the  country  from 
November  to  March,  out  during  the  rest  of  the 
year  months  often  pass  without  a  single  shower, 
although  there  are  copious  dews  in  the  sum 
mer,  and  the  heat  becomes  very  great,  espe 
cially  when  the  sirocco  blows.  In  winter  the 
weather  is  exceedingly  variable,  and  frosts 
occur  at  night,  while  the  temperature  during 
the  day  often  exceeds  70°.  The  horses  of  Tri 
poli  are  of  a  superior  breed,  and  cattle  are 
numerous  on  the  table  lands.  Camels  are  ex 
tensively  used  as  beasts  of  burden,  and  sheep 
and  poultry  are  exported.  Of  wild  animals 
the  most  common  are  wolves,  foxes,  hyaenas, 
jackals,  gazelles,  antelopes,  rabbits,  hares, 
hedgehogs,  and  jerboas.  Ostriches  frequent 
the  borders  of  the  deserts,  and  most  of  the 
common  birds  of  southern  Europe  are  found. 
Bees  are  kept  in  large  numbers,  and  the  lo 
custs  which  frequently  visit  the  country  in 
enormous  swarms  are  utilized  for  food. — Tri 
poli  contains  numerous  remains  of  antiquity, 
including  ruins  of  Roman  temples,  theatres, 
and  aqueducts.  Many  of  these  ruins  have 
been  buried  deeply  in  the  sand,  but  they  can 
still  be  traced  in  the  city  of.  Tripoli  and  at 
other  places.  Coins,  gems,  and  intaglios  have 
been  found  in  considerable  numbers.  —  The 
population  comprises  Arabs,  Moors,  Turks, 
Mamelukes,  Jews,  and  negro  slaves.  The  Arabs 
form  the  greater  part  of  "the  population  in  the 
country  districts.  The  towns,  of  which  Tri 


poli,  Lebda,  and  Mesurata  or  Misratah  are 
situated  on  the  coast,  are  peopled  mostly  by 
Moors,  Jews,  and  negro  slaves.  Some  of  the 
Arabs  have  fixed  homes  and  reside  in  vil 
lages,  but  many  of  them  are  nomadic. — There 
are  some  manufactures  of  woollen  goods,  and 
cloth  for  tents  is  made  of  goats1  hair.  The 
trade  of  Tripoli  is  considerable.  The  exports 
by  sea  consist  chiefly  of  wool,  cattle,  hides, 
gold  dust,  ostrich  feathers,  ivory,  gum,  dried 
fruits,  saffron,  senna,  drugs,  barilla,  and  sheep's 
fat ;  and  the  chief  imports  are  clothes,  spices, 
sugar,  coffee,  spirits,  arms,  cutlery,  and  hard 
ware.  In  1874  the  exports  to  Great  Britain 
were  valued  at  £125,211,  and  the  imports  from 
that  country  at  £238,257.  Caravans  arrive 
from  the  interior  of  Africa  twice  a  year,  and 
bring  slaves,  gold  dust,  and  tropical  commodi 
ties,  which  are  exchanged  for  European  goods. 
—The  government  of  Tripoli  is  a  pure  despo 
tism.  The  country  in  the  wider  sense  is  de 
nominated  a  vilayet  or  province  of  Turkey, 
and  its  ruler  is  known  as  the  bey.  He  is  a 
pasha  generally  selected  by  the  sultan  from 
among  the  Turkish  officers  resident  at  the 
capital.  In  former  times  the  revenue  was 
chiefly  derived  from  the  prizes  taken  by  cor 
sairs,  and  the  sale  of  captured  Europeans  into 
slavery ;  but  since  these  sources  were  cut  off, 
a  system  of  monopolies  has  been  adopted. 
The  bey  of  Fezzan  and  the  sheikhs  of  Barca 
and  some  neighboring  tribes  pay  tribute,  and 
taxes  are  imposed  on  land,  on  Jews  and  mer 
chants,  and  on  exports  and  imports.  A  con 
siderable  number  of  Jews  and  Christians*  re 
side  in  Tripoli,  but  the  dominant  religion  is 
Mohammedan.  The  temperance  enjoined  by 
the  prophet  is  not  practised.  Wine  shops 
are  kept  openly,  and  receive  flie  sanction  of 
the  government  by  paying  a  heavy  license  fee. 
Education  is  neglected,  and  the  people  are 
ignorant  and  bigoted. — Tripoli  was  conquered 
by  the  Romans  from  the  Carthaginians,  and 
became  a  part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Afri 
ca  under  the  name  of  Regio  Syrtica.  Its  pres 
ent  appellation  appears  to  have  originated  in 
a  federation  of  three  cities,  Sabrata  or  Abro- 
tonum,  (Ea,  and  Leptis  Magna  (the  present 
Lebda),  whence  the  region  was  called  Tripoli- 
tana.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Vandals  in  the 
5th  century,  and  by  the  Mohammedans  short 
ly  after  the  death  of  Mohammed.  After  the 
division  of  the  eastern  caliphate  Tripoli  became 
an  independent  state.  The  capital  was  taken 
by  Roger  II.  of  Sicily  in  1146,  and  retaken  by 
Yakub  and  the  fortifications  destroyed  in  1184. 
It  was  afterward  subject  to  Tunis  till  about 
1510,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards; 
and  it  was  ceded  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  to 
the  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  in  1530. 
In  1551  the  knights  were  expelled  by  Sultan 
Solyman  II.,  and  the  tract  of  country  which 
at  present  constitutes  the  vilayet  was  annexed 
to  the  city  of  Tripoli.  The  celebrated  pirate 
Dragut,  who  had  assisted  at  its  capture,  was 
made  the  first  governor,  and  he  initiated  a 


TEIPOLI 


873 


system  of  piratical  plunder  which  was  con 
tinued  for  centuries.  The  Christian  nations 
and  their  commerce  were  the  objects  of  attack, 
and  all  prisoners  taken  were  sold  into  slavery. 
The  capital  was  bombarded  by  a  French  fleet 
in  1683,  when  the  pasha  professed  submission 
to  Louis  XIV.  A  controversy  with  the  United 
States  grew  out  of  the  practice  of  piracy,  and 
after  several  conflicts  in  1801-'5,  in  which 
Commodores  Preble  and  Decatur  chiefly  dis 
tinguished  themselves  (see  FEEBLE,  and  DECA- 
TUK),  the  latter  in  1815  enforced  reparation 
for  injuries  inflicted  by  the  Tripolitans  upon 
American  commerce.  In  1816  a  similar  mis 
sion  was  undertaken  by  a  British  force,  which 
compelled  the  bey  to  renounce  piracy  and 
agree  to  treat  all  future  prisoners  according 
to  the  usages  of  civilized  nations.  Though 
Tripoli  is  a  dependency  of  the  Ottoman  em 
pire,  the  bey  enters  into  treaties  with  foreign 
powers  without  consulting  any  superior.  In 


early  times  beys  were  appointed  from  Con 
stantinople  and  supported  by  a  Turkish  gar 
rison,  but  a  Moorish  chief,  Hamed  Karamauli, 
rebelled  successfully  in  1713  and  established 
himself  as  bey.  His  descendants  continued  to 
rule  the  country  till  1832,  when  the  last  bey  of 
the  line  was  compulsorily  removed  on  account 
of  his  excessive  oppressions,  and  the  Porte  has 
since  resumed  its  authority.  The  chiefs  of 
the  interior  acknowledge  but  slight  allegiance, 
arid  maintain  amicable  relations  with  the  bey 
chiefly  because  the  commerce  carried  on  through 
the  capital  is  advantageous  to  them  ;  and  the 
Arabs  sometimes  resort  to  open  hostilities.  II. 
A  city  (anc.  (Ea\  the  capital,  situated  upon  a 
rocky  promontory  on  the  Mediterranean,  about 
600  m.  S.  E.  of  Algiers,  and  300  m.  S.  of  the 
Sicilian  coast,  in  lat.  32°  54'  K,  Ion.  13°  11'  E. ; 
pop.  about  24,000.  The  land  defences  are  a 
castle  and  wall  flanked  by  bastions,  and  seaward 
there  are  strong  batteries.  The  harbor  no- 


Port  of  Tripoli 


where  exceeds  five  or  six  fathoms  in  depth,  but 
the  roadstead  affords  deep  anchorage.  The 
streets  are  narrow  and  uneven,  and  the  houses 
low  and  irregular.  They  are  nearly  all  one  story 
high,  without  exterior  windows,  built  of  stones 
and  mud,  and  whitewashed.  Tripoli  contains 
six  handsome  mosques  and  many  others.  The 
roof  of  the  great  mosque  is  formed  by  small 
cupolas,  supported  by  16  marble  columns. 
There  are  Christian  places  of  worship,  a  Fran 
ciscan  convent,  and  several  synagogues ;  and 
all  religions  are  tolerated  within  the  limits  of 
the  city.  The  pasha's  residence  is  an  immense 
building  of  very  irregular  appearance,  con 
structed  at  different  times.  There  are  numer 
ous  caravansaries,  two  bazaars,  and  many  fine 
public  baths.  Woollen  goods  (particularly  car 
pets),  leather,  and  potash  are  manufactured. 
A  great  part  of  the  trade  of  the  state,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  interior  of  Africa,  centres  at 
Tripoli.  The  merchants  are  principally  Jews, 
who  trade  under  monopolies  granted  by  the 
government.  There  is  frequent  steam  com 
munication  with  the  'ports  of  Europe.  The 
foreign  commerce  is  chiefly  with  Malta,  Mar 
seilles,  Leghorn,  Trieste,  and  the  Levant ;  and 


the  land  trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of  cara 
vans  with  all  the  surrounding  countries  and  as 
far  as  Morocco,  Timbuctoo,  and  Mecca.  The 
city  contains  several  remains  of  antiquity,  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  is  a  triumphal  arch 
of  marble,  erected  in  A.  D.  164  to  the  Roman 
emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  and  his  colleague 
Lucius  Verus;  the  inscription  is  perfect,  al 
though  the  sculptures  are  greatly  defaced. 

TRIPOLI,  Tarablns,  or  Tarabulus  (anc.  Tripolis),. 
a  seaport  town  of  Syria,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
in  lat.  34°  26'  K,  Ion.  35°  49'  E.,  40  m.  N.  N. 
E.  of  Beyrout,  and  70  m.  N".  "W.  of  Damascus ; 
pop.  about  16,000,  one  half  Greek  Catholics. 
It  stands  at  the  foot  of  an  offset  of  Mt.  Leba 
non,  on  a  small  triangular  plain,  with  the  sea 
at  a  little  distance  on  the  1ST.  and  S.  sides.  A 
hill  on  the  south  is  crowned  by  an  old  castle ; 
and  the  town  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the 
Nahr  Kadisha.  The  harbor',  at  El  Mina,  about 
1|-  m.  to  the  northwest,  is  small,  shallow,  and 
unsafe.  There  are  several  mosques,  which 
are  generally  fine  buildings,  most  of  them  for 
merly  Christian  churches.  It  is  one  of  the 
neatest  towns  in  Syria,  and  is  surrounded  by 
many  fine  gardens  and  groves  of  orange  and 


874 


TRIPOLITZA 


TEITON 


other  fruit  trees ;  but  the  ground  in  the  neigh 
borhood  is  marshy,  and  the  climate  is  unhealth- 
ful  at  certain  seasons.  It  exports  silk,  wool, 
cotton,  tobacco,  wax,  oil,  co'chineal,  galls,  soap, 
and  especially  sponges,  the  fishery  of  which 
occupies  a  large  number  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  direct  imports  into  Tripoli  in  1869  were 
valued  at  $01,050,  and  in  1872  at  $154,900; 
the  direct  exports,  $292,425  in  1869,  and  $62,- 
959  in  18T2.  The  commerce  is  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  Greeks.  French  steamers  touch  here 
four  times  a  month.  It  is  the  see  of  a  Greek 
bishop,  and  the  residence  of  several  consuls. 
— Tripolis  was  an  important  maritime  town 
of  Phoenicia,  and  derived  its  name  from  being 
the  colony  of  the  three  cities  of  Tyre,  Sidon, 
and  Aradus,  each  holding  a  separate  quarter 
of  it.  Having  been  taken  by  the  crusaders, 
it  was  in  1109  erected  into  a  county  for  Kay- 
mond  of  Toulouse. 

TRIPOLITZA,  or  Tripolis,  a  town  of  Greece,  in 
the  Morea,  capital  of  the  nomarchy  of  Arcadia, 
22  m.  S.  W.  of  Argos ;  pop.  of  the  demus  in 
1870,  11,477.  %  It  is  in  a  plain  about  2,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  owes  its  name  to  its  being 
the  modern  representative  of  the  three  cities  of 
Mantinea,  Tegea,  and  Pallantium,  which  occu 
pied  the  same  plain.  Before  the  revolution 
it  was  the  residence  of  a  Turkish  pasha  and 
capital  of  the  Morea,  and  had  20,000  inhabi 
tants.  The  Greeks  took  it  in  1821  and  put 
the  inhabitants  to  the  sword  ;  8,000  male  Turks 
perished,  besides  women  and  children.  In  re 
venge,  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1825  destroyed  every 
house  in  the  place.  It  has  been  partially  re 
built.  The  ruins  of  Mantinea  may  be  seen  at 
Paleopoli,  about  6  m.  N.,  and  of  Tegea  at  Piali, 
nearly  the  same  distance  S. 

TRIPP,  a  S.  county  of  Dakota,  bordering  on 
Nebraska,  recently  formed  and  not  included 
in  the  census  of  1870;  area,  about  1,500  sq. 
m.  It  is  intersected  in  the  south  by  the  Keya 
Paha,  and  watered  in  the  north  by  Dog's  Ears 
creek,  an  affluent  of  White  river.  In  the  S. 
part  is  Turtle  hill,  2,340  ft.  high.  It  consists 
mostly  of  undulating  prairies. 

TRIPTOLEMUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son 
of  Celeus,  king  of  Attica,  and  Nea^ra,  also 
called  Metanira  or  Polymnia  (according  to  an 
other  account,  of  Oceanus  and  Ge).  He  was 
born  at  Eleusis,  and  while  still  young  was 
cured  of  a  dangerous  illness  by  Ceres,  who 
had  been  hospitably  entertained  by  his  father, 
and  attempted  to  render  his  brother  Demo- 
phon  (according  to  others,  himself)  immortal 
by  burning  out  whatever  particles  of  mortal 
ity  he  had  derived  from  his  parents.  (See 
CERES.)  The  goddess  taught  him  agriculture, 
and  gave  him  her.  dragon  chariot,  in  which  he 
rode  over  the  earth,  spreading  knowledge  of 
the  art.  He  afterward  reigned  at  Eleusis,  and 
was  the  hero  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries. 

TRIOJJETI,  Henri  de,  baron,  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Conflans  in  1802,  died  in  Paris  in  May, 
1874.  His  earliest  works  consisted  of  genre 
and  historical  paintings,  but  in  1831  he  ex 


hibited  a  fine  group  of  "  The  Death  of  Charles 
the  Bold,"  and  henceforth  devoted  himself  to 
sculpture.  His  works  include  "  Petrarch  read 
ing  his  Poetry  to  Laura,"  "  Sir  Thomas  More 
preparing  to  die,"  "  Dante  in  the  Elysian 
Fields,"  and  many  busts  and  bass  reliefs. 

TRISMEGISTUS.     See  HEEMES  TKISMEGISTUS. 

TRISTAN  DA  CCNHA,  a  cluster  of  three  volca 
nic  islands  in  the  S.  Atlantic.  Tristan,  the  lar 
gest  island,  lies  in  lat.  37°  3'  S.,  Ion.  12°  19'  W., 
about  1,500  m.  S.  by  "W.  of  St.  Helena;  area, 
about  40  sq.  m.  It  is  nearly  circular,  and 
rises  abruptly  on  the  N.  side  to  an  elevation 
of  1,000  ft.  From  the  summit  of  the  cliffs 
the  land  rises  to  a  conical  peak  8,326  ft.  high. 
The  surface  consists  of  abrupt  ridges  covered 
with  bushes,  with  deep  ravines  and  chasms 
between.  The  summit  is  a  crater  about  500 
yards  in  diameter,  filled  with  water.  On  the 
N.  "W".  side  of  the  island  is  a  narrow  plain  100 
to  150  ft.  above  the  sea,  with  an  excellent  soil 
in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  Near  the  N. 
extremity  of  this  plain  is  a  settlement  which 
in  1870  contained  60  inhabitants,  35  of  whom 
were  children  under  10  years.  Nearly  all  are 
native  born,  the  descendants  of  Europeans  and 
Hottentots,  with  fine  physique  and  dark  skin, 
and  are  intelligent  and  hospitable.  They  have 
no  government,  disputes  being  settled  by  fisti 
cuffs,  with  by-standers  to  secure  fair  play. 
They  own  a  small  vessel,  which  runs  to  Cape 
Town  to  exchange  seal  skins  and  oil  for  cloth 
ing,  groceries,  &c.  Seals,  sea  lions,  sea  ele 
phants,  and  whales  frequent  the  group,  and  sea 
birds  and  edible  fish  abound.  Heavy  masses 
of  kelp  surround  the  shores.  There  are  no 
large  trees,  but  an  abundance  of  shrubbery, 
which  with  sea  weed  and  drift  wood  furnish 
es  ample  supplies  of  fuel.  There  is  an  abun 
dance  of  excellent  water.  The  climate  is  equa 
ble  and  healthy.  The  temperature  rarely  rises 
above  70°  F.  or  falls  below  the  freezing  point. 
The  only  anchorage  is  off  the  1ST.  W.  point, 
and  is  very  insecure. — Inacessible  island  lies 
17£  m.  S.  W.,  and  Nightingale  20  m.  S.  S.  W. 
of  Tristan.  The  former  is  elliptical,  4  m.  in 
length  and  2  m.  in  breadth,  and  rises  abrupt 
ly  about  500  ft.,  the  surface  being  flat  and  bar 
ren.  Nightingale  island  is  round,  about  1|-  m. 
in  diameter,  and  200  ft.  in  height.  Both  are 
uninhabited. — The  group  was  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  navigator  Tristan  da  Cunha  in 
1506,  and  explored  by  the  Dutch  in  1643,  and 
by  the  French  in  1767.  Tristan  was  inhabited 
by  John  Patten,  an  American  whaling  master, 
with  his  crew,  from  August,  1790,  to  April, 
1791,  to  collect  seal  skins.  During  the  captiv 
ity  of  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena  it  was  occupied 
by  British  troops  from  Cape  Town.  The  pres 
ent  inhabitants  are  chiefly  descendants  of  one 
of  these,  a  corporal  named  Glass. 

TRITON,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythology, 
a  marine  deity,  the  son  of  Poseidon  or  Nep 
tune  and  Amphitrite  or  Celamo.  He  had  the 
form  of  a  man  above  and  that  of  a  fish  below, 
and  bore  a  conch-shell  trumpet. 


TRITON 


TRIUMPH 


8Y5 


TRITON.  I.  The  proper  name  of  the  tailed 
batrachians  of  the  old  genus  triton  (Laur.), 
generally  called  newts  or  water  salamanders  ; 
they  all  belong  to  the  northern  hemisphere, 


Water  Newt  (Triton  palustris). 

and  their  species  are  most  numerous  in  North 
America.  The  tail  is  depressed  and  adapted 
for  swimming  in  most,  though  many  are  not 
strictly  aquatic,  hut  pass  much  of  their  life  on 
the  land,  some  visiting  the  water  only  during 
the  breeding  season ;  indeed,  the  distinction 
into  terrestrial  and  aquatic  species  is  very 
indefinite,  species  with  either  of  these  habits 
being  found  in  one  genus.  In  the  breeding 
season,  in  the  spring,  the  males  acquire  a  fin- 
like  fringe  along  the  back  and  tail  and  mem 
branous  appendages  to  the  toes;  the  species 
are  difficult  to  distinguish  on  account  of  the 
varieties  of  sex,  age,  and  season.  Reproduc 
tion  takes  place  by  means  of  eggs,  which  are 
fecundated  before  they  are  deposited,  and  the 
young  resemble  tadpoles  in  form  and  gills. 
The  most  carefully  studied  species  is  the  crested 
triton  or  water  newt  of  Great  Britain  (T.  pa 
lustris,  Flem.),  about  6  in.  long,  of  which  the 
tail  is  about  two  fifths  ;  this  species  will  suffice 
for  the  generic  description.  The  body  is  naked, 
but  covered  with  warty  tubercles,  and  with 
glandular  pores  behind  and  over  eyes  and  along 
sides;  toes  without  nails,  four  anterior  and 
five  posterior ;  the  dorsal  and  caudal  crests 
separate ;  tongue  slightly  free  on '  sides,  and 
more  free  and  pointed  behind ;  palate  with  a 
double  longitudinal  series  of  teeth  ;  no  parotids 
nor  glands  along  the  back.  The  smooth-skinned 
species,  without  lateral  pores  and  with  a  con 
tinuous  dorsal  and  caudal  crest,  have  been 
noticed  under  EFT.  The  head  is  flattened,  nose 
rounded,  gape  large,  teeth  numerous  and  small, 
and  the  neck  hardly  distinct  from  the  head 
and  body.  It  is  common  in  ponds  and  ditches, 
and  one  of  the  most  aquatic  of  the  family, 
swimming  by  means  of  the  tail,  the  legs  being 
turned  back  against  the  body;  the  legs  are 
used  as  balancers  in  the  water,  and  for  a  slow 
and  feeble  creeping  on  land ;  the  skin  comes 
off  in  shreds  in  the  water,  and  is  swallowed. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  leaves  of  aquatic 
plants,  which  are  folded  around  them,  one  egg 
to  each  leaf ;  the  parents  resume  a  terrestrial 


I  existence  in  a  few  weeks,  but  the  young,  born 
in  June  or  July,  remain,  according  to  Bell, 
without  much  change  till  the  following  spring, 
when  they  acquire'  legs  and  leave  the  water. 
In  the  water  they  are  voracious,  feeding  on 
aquatic  animals,  insects  and  larvae,  the  tadpoles 
of  the  frog,  and  even  those  of  their  own  spe 
cies.  They  are  noted  for  their  tenacity  of  life 
under  mutilation  and  exposure  to  severe  cold, 
and  for  the  power  of  reproducing  lost  parts. 
They  are  blackish  or  light  brown  above  with 
darker  round  spots,  and  bright  reddish  orange 
below  with  round  black  spots,  and  the  sides 
dotted  with  white. — The  many-spotted  triton 
of  the  Atlantic  states  (T.  dorsalis,  Ilarlan ; 
genus  notophthalmus,  Raf.)  is  about  4  in.  long, 
of  which  the  tail  is  half ;  it  is  olive  or  green 
ish  brown  above,  with  a  row  of  circular  ver 
milion  spots  on  each  side,  and  below  orange 
studded  with  small  black  dots ;  eyes  prominent, 
with  flame-colored  iris  ;  posterior  limbs  twice 
as  large  as  anterior;  it  is  eminently  aquatic, 
and  dies  soon  out 
of  water  from  the 
drying  of  the  skin ; 

j  it  is  torpid  only  in 

I  the  severest  wea 
ther  ;  it  is  found 
from  Maine  to  Geor 
gia,  forming  a  very 
lively  and  interest 
ing  animal  for  the 
fresh-water  aquari 
um,  and  easily  ob 
tained.  Several  oth 
er  species  occur  on 
the  Atlantic  coast. 
II.  A  genus  of  gas- 
teropod  mollusks  of 
the  murex  family, 
having  a  conical  and 
elongated  shell,  spi 
rally  convoluted. 
The  T.  tariegatum 
(Lam.),  12  to'lG  in. 
long,  from  the  In 
dian  seas,  is  the 

well  known  sea  conch  or  trumpet  of  the  god 
Triton  ;  this  species,  as  well  as  the  T.  aitstrale 
(Lam.),  is  used  by  the  Polynesians  as  a  horn. 

TRIOIPH  (Lat.  triumplius,  related  to  Gr. 
dpiajjipos,  a  hymn  sung  in  a  procession  in  honor 
of  Bacchus),  generally,  a  solemn  procession  to 
celebrate  a  victory.  The  ancient  Romans  made 
the  triumph  a  stimulus  to  martial  exploits,  and 
the  highest  military  honor  that  could  be  ob 
tained  by  a  general,  who  entered  the  city  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  four  horses,  preceded  by  his 
captives  and  spoils  and  followed  by  his  army, 
with  which  escort  he  passed  along  the  Via 
Sacra,  and  ascending  to  the  capitol  sacrificed 
a  bull  to  Jupiter.  A  triumph  was  granted  by 
the  senate  to  a  general  who  had  gained  im 
portant  successes,  if  he  had  already  held  one 
of  the  great  offices  of  state ;  if  the  victory  had 
been  gained  under  his  auspices  and  with  his 


Sea  Conch  (Triton  variegatum). 


8T6 


TRIUMVIRATE 


TROGLODYTES 


troops ;  if  the  advantage  had  been  positive 
and  the  number  of  enemies  slain  in  a  single 
battle  at  least  5,000;  if  it  had  been  gained 
over  a  foreign  enemy  and  not  in  a  civil  war ; 
if  the  national  dominion  had  been  extended, 
and  not  merely  recovered  or  relieved  from  the 
presence  of  the  enemy;  and  if  the  war  had 
been  actually  concluded  so  as  to  permit  of  the 
army's  withdrawal  from  the  conquered  coun 
try.  Sometimes  the  comitia  of  the  tribes  be 
stowed  triumphs,  and  generals  even  triumphed 
in  defiance  of  the  senate  and  the  people.  Na 
val  triumphs  were  also  granted  in  some  cases. 
After  the  overthrow  of  the  republic,  the  em 
perors,  in  virtue  of  their  authority  as  com- 
manders-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  state, 
claimed  the  exclusive  right  of  celebrating  tri 
umphs  ;  and  until  A.  D.  534,  when  Belisarius 
entered  Constantinople  in  triumph  after  the 
overthrow  of  the  Vandal  kingdom  in  Africa, 
no  subject  had  for  more  than  live  centuries 
enjoyed  that  distinction.  This  was  the  350th 
triumph  in  Roman  history,  and  the  last  ever 
celebrated.  A  lesser  kind  of  triumph,  called 
an  ovation  (ovatio)  from  the  practice  of  sac 
rificing  a  sheep  (ovis)  instead  of  a  bull,  was 
granted  to  a  general  whose  success  did  not 
entitle  him  to  a  full  triumph. 

TRIUMVIRATE,  an  office  filled  coordinately 
by  three  persons.  Several  magistracies  of  this 
description  were  recognized  in  the  Roman  gov 
ernment,  of  which  the  most  important  was 
that  for  the  regulation  of  public  affairs — tri 
umviri  reipiiblicce  constituendce.  Though  ma 
gistrates  with  this  title  are  thought  to  -have 
been  appointed  as  early  as  360  B.  0.,  there  is 
no  certain  mention  of  them  till  toward  the  close 
of  the  republic.  The  coalition  between  Julius 
Ccesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus,  in  00  B.  C.,  is 
often  called  the  first  triumvirate,  but  they  were 
never  invested  with  any  office  under  that  title. 
The  so-called  second  triumvirate  of  Octavius, 
Antony,  and  Lepidus  (43)  was  the  first  sanc 
tioned  by  the  people.  The  office  was  bestowed 
on  them  for  five  years,  and  after  the  expira 
tion  of  that  term  for  five  years  more.  Ad 
ministration  by  triumvirs  was  apparently  much 
favored  by  Roman  legislators.  The  triumviri 
capitales  had  charge  of  the  prisons  and  juris 
diction  in  minor  cases;  the  triumviri  nocturni 
had  charge  of  the  police  at  night.  Mazzini, 
Armellini,  and  Saffi  formed  in  February,  1849, 
a  triumvirate  at  Rome,  with  the  entire  execu 
tive  power  placed  in  their  hands. 

TROCHU,  Louis  Jules,  a  French  soldier,  born 
at  Palais,  Brittany,  in  1815.  He  studied  at 
the  academy  of  St.  Cyr  and  at  the  special  mili 
tary  school  for  the  staff  at  Paris,  and  gradua 
ted  in  1840  as  a  first  lieutenant.  After  serving 
under  Bugeaud  in  Algeria,  he  became  Saint- 
Arnaud's  aide-de-camp  in  the  Crimea  and  com 
manded  a  brigade  at  Sebastopol.  In  1859  he 
distinguished  himself  as  general  of  division 
at  the  battle  of  Solferino.  In  1867  appeared 
anonymously  his  L^armee  franpaise  en  1867 
(20th  ed.,  1870),  exposing  the  weakness  of  the 


military  resources,  which  gave  umbrage  to  the 
emperor.  It  was  only  after  his  selection  by 
Palikao  for  the  organization  of  troops  at  the 
camp  of  Chalons  that  Napoleon  reluctantly 
consented  (Aug.  17,  1870)  to  his  being  made 
governor  and  chief  commander  of  Paris.  As 
such  Trochu  ordered  the  expulsion  of  the  Ger 
man  residents,  numbering  about  80,000.  On 
the  establishment  of  the  republican  govern 
ment  (Sept.  4)  he  was  placed  at  its  head.  In 
repeated  proclamations  he  promised  the  rescue 
of  the  besieged  city ;  and  when  its  capitulation 
was  unavoidable,  he  resigned  the  command  in 
favor  of  Gen.  Vinoy  (Jan.  20,  1871),  though 
remaining  at  the  head  of  the  government.  He 
attempted  to  defend  his  administration  in  the 
assemblies  at  Bordeaux  and  Versailles,  of  the 
latter  of  which  he  was  a  member  till  the  spring 
of  1872,  when  he  retired  in  consequence  of  the 
unsatisfactory  issue  of  a  libel  suit  against  the 
Figaro  newspaper,  which  had  attacked  his 
course.  In  1873  he  left  the  army  with  a  pen 
sion,  and  he  has  since  been  engaged  at  Tours 
in  writing  a  military  work. 

TRffiZEtf,  or  Trrezene,  one  of  the  oldest  cities 
of  ancient  Greece,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  in  a 
territory  named  from  it  Troezenia,  forming  the 
S.  E.  corner  of  Argolis.  It  was  founded  prob 
ably  by  the  lonians,  and  according  to  Homer 
was  subject  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war  to 
Argos,  from  which  it  afterward  received  a 
Doric  colony.  Subsequently  it  became  a  pro 
minent  maritime  city,  founded  Ilalicarnassus 
and  Myndus  in  Caria,  and  probably  Pa3stum 
in  Magna  Grascia,  and  was  conspicuous  in  the 
wars  with  Persia,  its  harbor  being  the  rendez 
vous  of  the  Grecian  fleet  after  the  sea  fight  at 
Artemisium.  During  the  Peloponnesian,  Co 
rinthian,  and  other  wars,  it  adhered  to  the  side 
of  Sparta.  After  the  establishment  of  the 
Macedonian  rule  over  Greece  it  was  in  the 
hands  of  various  contending  parties,  and  con 
tinued  a  place  of  some  importance  until  the 
time  of  Pausanias,  who  describes  its  publiX) 
buildings  in  detail;  but  after  this  period  we 
have  no  account  of  its  history.  The  ruins  of 
the  ancient  city  lie  near  the  village  of  Damala, 
and  consist  principally  of  Hellenic  foundations 
with  Prankish  or  Byzantine  superstructures. 

TROGLODYTES  (Gr.  TpuyMv-^,  from  rpu- 
7/1^,  a  cave,  and  dveiv,  to  enter),  the  name 
given  by  the  ancients  to  tribes  of  men  who 
lived  in  caves.  Several  such  are  mentioned  by 
ancient  writers  as  inhabiting  parts  of  Ethi 
opia,  Upper  Egypt,  the  borders  of  the  Red  sea, 
Mcesia,  Mauritania,  and  the  northern  part  of 
the  Caucasus.  The  most  celebrated  were  those 
of  southern  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  where  a  large 
district  was  called  Regio  Troglodytica.  They 
are  represented  as  depending  upon  cattle  for 
their  livelihood,  and  living  in  the  most  de 
based  condition.  In  part  of  Arabia  the  moun 
tainous  regions  encompassing  the  wadys  are 
filled  with  caves,  which  are  occupied  as  per 
manent  habitations  by  half  savage  tribes  of 
Bedouins ;  and  it  is  probable  that  these  belong 


TEOGON 


TROLLOPE 


877 


to  the  same  race  as  the  troglodytic  population 
of  Ptolemy  and  other  Greek  geographers.  In 
the  early  history  of  the  Christian  church  the 
name  was  also  applied  to  certain  heretics,  who, 
rejected  by  all  parties,  held  their  meetings  in 
caves. — In  natural  history,  Linnaeus  placed  the 
chimpanzee  under  -the  genus  homo  with  the 
specific  name  of  troglodytes,  next  to  homo  sa 
piens ;  and  this  is  the  troglodytes  niger  of 
Geoffroy  and  the  simia  troglodytes  of  Blu- 
menbach.  The  term  is  now  applied  to  a  ge 
nus  which  includes  the  chimpanzee  and  the 
gorilla,  and  also  to  a  genus  of  the  troglodytinoj 
or  wren  family  of  birds. 

TROGOJV,  and  Couroncon,  names  given  to  the 
scansorial  birds  of  the  family  trogonidce,  the 


Eed-bellied   Trogon    (Tro- 
gou  curucui). 

second  name  being 
derived  from  their 
peculiar  melancholy 
cry.  The  bill  is  short, 
strong,  curved,  broad 
er  than  high,  triangu 
lar  seen  from  above, 
with  the  margins  and 
tip  usually  serrated, 
the  base  provided 
with  tufts  of  bristles, 
and  the  gape  wide; 
wings  moderate  and 
rounded;  tarsi  short 
and  weak,  more  or 
less  feathered ;  toes 
of  unequal  length, 
and  arranged  in  two 
pairs,  the  inner  be 
ing  turned  backward. 
There  are  about  40 
species  in  the  tropi 
cal  regions  of  both 
hemispheres,  but  es 
pecially  numerous  in 
South  America ;  they 
frequent  thick  and 
damp  forests,  feeding 
on  insects,  fruits,  and  berries ;  they  are  most 
active  in  morning  and  evening.  A  few  live 


in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  archipelago,  and 
one  genus  in  Africa.  The  American  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  old  world  species  by 
their  barred  tail.  Though  the  neck  and  feet 
seem  too  short  for  the  bulky  body,  the  plu 
mage  is  usually  beautiful,  often  with  metal 
lic  brilliancy.  The  eggs,  two  to  four,  are  laid 
in  the  holes  of  rotten  trees,  and  several 
broods  are  raised  in  a  year.  The  species  vary 
in  size  from  a  thrush  to  a  magpie ;  it  is  rare 
to  obtain  good  specimens,  as  they  frequent 
the  highest  trees  of  the  thickest  forests,  and 
when  shut  lose  many  of  the  soft  and  delicate 
feathers  by  the  fall  to  the  ground  ;  the  skin  is 
very  tender,  and  renders  the  operation  of  skin 
ning  so  difficult  that  the  natives  dry  the  body 
with  the  feathers  on. — In  the  genus  trogon 
(Mochr.)  the  first  quill  is  short  and  the  fourth 
the  longest.  The  red-bellied  trogon  (T.  curu 
cui,  Linn.)  is  about  a  foot  long,  green  above, 
red  below,  with  the  throat  black,  and  the  cov 
erts  and  tail  striped  with  the  same ;  it  is  a 
native  of  Mexico.  The  peacock  or  splendid 
trogon  (calurus  resplendens,  Swains;  T.  pavo- 
ninus,  Temm.)  has  the  edges  of  the  bill  smooth, 
the  wing  coverts  long  and  curved,  and  the  up 
per  tail  coverts  greatly  prolonged,  entirely 
concealing  the  tail ;  it  is  larger  than  the  last 
named,  and  the  middle  tail  coverts  are  3  to  3i 
ft.  in  length  ;  it  is  of  a  beautiful  bronzed  and 
golden  green  above  and  on  the  throat,  and 
scarlet  below  ;  it  is  found  in  Mexico  and  Cen 
tral  Am'erica.  The  feathers  of  this  and  the  pre 
ceding  species  are  much  prized  for  ornaments. 
— See  the  "Monograph  of  the  Trogonida?,"  by 
John  Gould  (fol.,  London,  1838). 

TROLLOPE,  Edward,  an  English  author,  born 
April  15,1817.  He  graduated  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  in  1839,  and  became  rector  of  Leash- 
ingham,  Lincolnshire,  in  1843,  prebend  of  Lin 
coln  in  1861,  and  archdeacon  of  Stow  in  1867. 
He  has  published  several  archaeological  and  ar 
chitectural  works,  the  principal  of  which  are: 
"  Illustrations  of  Ancient  Art "  (1853) ;  "  Laby 
rinths,  Ancient  and  Mediaeval,"  and  "Manual 
of  Sepulchral  Memorials"  (1858);  "Monastic 
Gate  Houses"  (1860);  "Life  of  Hereward" 
(1861)  ;  "  Norman  Sculptures  of  Lincoln  Ca 
thedral  "  (1866) ;  and  "  The  Norman  and  Early 
English  Styles  of  Gothic  Architecture  "  (1869). 

TROLLOPE.  I.  Frances  (Mii/rox),  an  English 
novelist,  born  at  Heckfield,  Hampshire,  about 
1780,  died  in  Florence,  Italy,  Oct.  6,  1863. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  William  Mil 
ton,  and  in  1809  married  Anthony  Trollope, 
barrister  at  law.  In  1829  she  visited  the  United 
States,  where  she  remained  three  years,  re 
siding  chiefly-  in  Cincinnati ;  and  on  her  re 
turn  she  published  "Domestic  Manners  of  the 
Americans"  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1832),  in 
which  the  indelicate  and  ridiculous  phases  of 
American  character  and  habits  were  depicted. 
She  afterward  produced  so  large  a  number  of 
novels  and  accounts  of  travels  as  to  render  her 
the  most  voluminous  English  authoress  of  the 
times.  Her  first  work  on  America  was  fol- 


878 


TROLLOPE 


lowed  by  a  novel  entitled  "  The  Refugee  in 
America"  (1832),  and  in  1836  by  "The  Ad 
ventures  of  Jonathan  Jefferson  Whitlaw. " 
About  1844  she  went  to  Florence,  where  she 
resided  till  her  death.  Among  her  books  of 
travel  are :  "  Belgium  and  Western  Germany 
in  1833  "  (2  vols.,  1834)  ;  "  Paris  and  the  Pari 
sians  in  1835  "(3  vols.,  1836);  "Vienna  and 
the  Austrians"(2  vols.,  1838);  "  A  Visit  to 
Italy"  (2  vols.,  1842) ;  and  "Travels  and  Travel 
lers'"  (2  vols.,  1846).  Some  of  her  best  novels 
are:  "The  Vicar  of  Wrexhill"  (1837);  "The 
Romance  of  Vienna"  (1838);  "The  Widow 
Barnaby"  (1839);  "Life  and  Adventures  of 
Michael  Armstrong,  a  Factory  Boy "  (1840) ; 
"The  Widow  Married,"  a  sequel  to  "  The  Wid 
ow  Barnaby"  (1840);  "One  Fault"  (1840); 
"Charles  Chesterfield,  or  the  Adventures  of  a 
Youth  of  Genius"  (1841);  "Town  and  Coun 
try"  (1847);  "Lottery  of  Marriage"  (1849); 
"  Petticoat  Government  "  (1850)  ;  "  Young 
Heiress"  (1853);  "Life  and  Adventures  of  a 
Clever  Woman"  (1854);  and  "Fashionable 
Life"  (1856).  II.  Thomas  Adolphns,  an  English 
author,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  April  29, 
1810.  He  has  resided  for  many  years  in  Flor 
ence  and  Rome,  and  has  published  "A  Sum 
mer  in  Brittany  "  (2  vols.  8vo,  1840) ;  "  A  Sum 
mer  in  Western  France"  (1841);  "Impres 
sions  of  a  Wanderer  in  Italy"  (1852);  "The 
Girlhood  of  Catharine  de'  Medici"  (1856); 
"  A  Decade  of  Italian  Women  "  (1859) ;  "  Tus 
cany  in  1849  and  1859"  (1859);  "Filippo 
Strozzi "  (1860) ;  "  Paul  V.  the  Pope  and  Paul 
the  Friar  "  (1860) ;  "  La  Beata"  (1861);  "  Mari 
etta  "  (1862);  "A  Lenten  Journey  in  Umbria 
and  the  Marches  of  Ancona"  (1862) ;  "  Giulio 
Malatesta"  (1863);  "  Beppo  the  Conscript" 
(1864)  ;  "  Lindisfarn  Chase  "  (1864) ;  "  A  His 
tory  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Florence,  from 
the  Earliest  Independence  of  the  Commune  to 
the  Fall  of  the  Republic  in  1531  "  (4  vols.  Svo, 
1865);  "Gemma"  (1866);  "Artingdale  Cas 


tle"  (1867)  ;  "Dream  Numbers"  (1868) ;  "Leo 
nora  Casaloni"  (1869);  "The  Garstangs  of 
Garstang  Grange  "  (1869)  ;  "  A  Siren  "  (1870)  ; 
and"Durnton  Abbey"  (1871).  III.  Anthony, 
an  English  novelist,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1815.  From  1834  to  November,  1867, 
he  was  connected  with  the  British  postal  ser 
vice,  and  he  has  been  frequently  sent  abroad  to 
establish  postal  conventions.  He  has  visited 
the  United  States  several  times,  the  West  In 
dies,  Australia  in  1871  and  again  in  1875,  and 
other  countries.  In  1869  he  was  an  unsuccess 
ful  liberal  candidate  for  parliament  for  Bev 
erly.  For  some  time  he  was  editor  of  the  "  St. 
Paul's"  magazine,  in  which  and  in  other  pe 
riodicals  several  of  his  stories  originally  ap 
peared  serially.  His  works  are:  "The  Mac- 
dermots  of  Ballydoran"  (1847);  "  The  Kelly s 
and  the  O'Kellys"  (1848);  "La  Vendee" 
(1850);  "The  Warden"  (1855);  "  Barchester 
Towers,"  "The  Three  Clerks"  (1857);  "Doc 
tor  Thome"  (1858);  "The  Bertrams,"  "The 
West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main"' (1859); 
"  Castle  Richmond  "  (1860) ;  "  Framley  Parson 
age"  (1861) ;  "  Tales  of  All  Countries  "  (1861 ; 
2d  series,  1863) ;  "  Orley  Farm,"  "  The  Strug 
gles  of  Brown,  Jones,  and  Robinson,"  "North 
America "(1862);  "Rachel  Ray"  (1863);  "The 
Small  House  at  Allington,"  "The  Belton  Es 
tate,"  "  Hunting  Sketches  "  (1864) ;  "  Can  You 
Forgive  Her?"  "Miss  Mackenzie"  (1865); 
"  Clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England," 
"Travelling  Sketches"  (1866);  "The  Claver- 
ings,"  "The  Last  Chronicle  of  Barset,"  "Lotta 
Schmidt,  and  other  Stories  "  (1867) ;  "  Phineas 
Finn,  the  Irish  Member,"  "He  Knew  he  was 
Right"  (1869);  "Sir  Harry  Hotspur  of  Hmn- 
blethwaite,"  "The  Vicar  of  Bullhampton " 
(1870) ;  "  Ralph  the  Heir  "  (1871) ;  "  The  Gold 
en  Lion  of  Granpere"  (1872);  "Phineas  Re 
dux,"  "Australia  and  New  Zealand"  (1873); 
"The  Way  we  Live  now,"  "Lady  Anna" 
(1874)  ;  and  "  The  Prime  Minister"  (1875). 


END    OF   VOLUME   FIFTEENTH, 


LIB  R  A  R  Y 


UN  IV  Kir;  ITY    OF 


LIBRARY 

UN  IV  'KifS  ITV   OP 


CONTENTS    OF  VOLUME  XV. 


PAGE 

Sbomer,  Jebel 5 

Shooting  Stars.    See  Meteor. 

Shore,  Jane 6 

Shoshone  co 6 

Shoshones 6 

Shot.    See  Lead,  vol.  x.,  p.  262. 
Shoveller.    See  Duck,  vol.  vi.,  p.  289. 

Shreveport 7 

Shrew 7 

Shrew  Mole.    See  Mole. 

Shrewsbury 8 

Shrike.    See  Butcher  Bird. 

Shrimp 8 

Shropshire 9 

Shrove  Tide 9 

Shubrick,  John  Templar 9 

Shubrick,  William  Bradford 9 

Shumla 9 

Shurtleff  College 10 

Siam !....  10 

Siam,  Language  and  Literature  of.. .  13 
Siamese  Twins.    See  Monster. 

Siberia 14 

Sibley  co 13 

Sibour,  Marie  Dominique  Auguste..  18 

Sibyl IS 

Sicard,    Eoch    Ambroise    Cucuron, 

Abbe 19 

Sicilies,  The  Two 19 

Sicily.. 21 

Sickingen,  Franz  von 22 

Sickle.    See  Scythe. 
Sickle-Bill.     See  Curlew. 

Sickles,  Daniel  Ephraim 22 

Sicyon 23 

Siddons.  Sarah 23 

Sidereal  Time.    See  Day. 

Sidi  Mohammed 23 

Sidmouth,  Lord.     See  Addington. 

Sidney,  Algernon 23 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip 24 

Sidney,    Mary,    Countess    of   Pem 
broke 25 

Sidon 25 

Sidonius    Apollinaris,   Caius  Sollius 

Modestus 26 

Sidra,  Gulf  of.    See  Syrtis. 

Siebold,  Philipp  Franz  von 26 

Siebold,  Karl  Theodor  Ernst  von...  26 

Siedlce 26 

Siege 26 

Siegen 30 

Siegert,  Karl  August 31 

Siemens,  Ernst  Werner 31 

Siemens,  Karl  Wilhelm 31 

Siena 31 

Sierra  co 31 

Sierra  Leone 32 

Sierra  Madre.     See  Mexico,  vol.  xi., 

p.  465. 

Sierra  Morena.     See  Spain. 
Sierra     Nevada.       See     California, 

Eocky  Mountains,  and  Spain. 
Sieves,  Emmanuel  Joseph,  Count... 
Sigismund,  Emperor  of  Germany. . .  33 
Sigismund  I.,  II.,  III.,  Kings.    See 
Poland,  vol.  xiii.,  pp.  645-'6. 

VOL.  xv. — 56 


32 


PAGE 

Sigmaringen.    See  Hohenzollern. 

Signal  Service 33 

Signals,  Fog.    See  Lighthouse,  vol. 
x.,  p.  457. 

Signals,  Naval 35 

Sigourney,  Lydia  Huntley 36 

Siguenza  y  Gongora,  Carlos  de 36 

Sihon.    See  Jaxartes. 

Sikhs 86 

Sikkim 37 

Silenus 37 


Silesia,  Austrian 33 

Silesia,  Prussian 38 

Silica.    See  Silicon. 
Silicates,  Soluble.    See  Glass,  Solu 
ble. 

Silicon 33 

Silistria . .  39 

Silk '.  40 

Silk  Spider 42 

Silkworm 43 

Silliman,  Benjamin  (two) 45 

Silloway,  Thomas  William 46 

Silphium 46 

Silurian 46 

Silver 47 

Silverside 57 

Simbirsk 57 

Simcoe,  Lake.    See  Ontario,  vol.  xii., 
p.  635. 

Simcoe  co 58 

Simeon , .  53 

Simeon,  Charles 53 

Simeon  Stylites.     See  Stylites. 

Simferopol 53 

Simla 58 

Simms,  William  Gilmore 58 

Simon,  Jules 59 

Simon,  Eichard 59 

Sirnone  di  Martino.    See  Memmi. 

Simonides 59 

Simonides  the  Younger 59 

Simonides  the  Elder 59 

Simonin,  Louis  Laurent 59 

Simon  Magus 60 

Sitnonoseki.    See  Shimonoseki. 

Simoom (30 

Simplon.    See  Alps,  vol.  i.,  p.  354. 

Simpson  co.,  Miss 60 

Simpson  co.,  Ky GO 

Simpson,  Sir  James  Young 60 

Simpson,  Mathew 61 

Simpson,  Thomas ...:...  61 

Simrock,  Karl 61 

Sims,  James  Marion 61 

Sinai ..  61 


PAGE 

Sinto.    Seo  Japan,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  537 

and  562. 

Sioot 66 

Sioux 66 

Sioux  co 68 

Sioux  City 68 

Sir  Darya.    See  Jaxartes. 
Siredon.    See  AxolotL 

Siren 63 

Siren,  in  acoustics.    See  Lighthouse, 

vol.  x.,  p.  458,  and  Sound. 

Sirenia 68 

Sirens ...  . .  68 


Sirhind 

Sirius.    See  Dog  Star.      . 

Sirmond,  Jacques 

Sirocco 

Siskin.     See  Aberdevine. 
Siskiwit.    See  Trout. 

Siskiyou  co 

Sismondi,  Jean  Charles  Leonard  Si- 

rnonde  de 

Sisterhoods,  Roman  Catholic 

Sisterhoods,  Protestant 

Sistova 

Sisyphus 

Sitka.    See  Alaska,  vol.  i.,  p.  239. 
Siva.    See  India,  Eeligions  of. 

Sivas,  a  vilayet 

Sivas,  a  city 

Sivori,  Ernesto  Camillo 

Siwah 

Six  Nations.    See  Iroquois. 

Six  Principle  Baptists 

Sixtus.  Popes 

Skagerrack 

Skamania  co 

Skate 

Skate,  a  fish,    See  Eay. 

Skeat,  Walter  William 

Skeleton 

Skelton.  John 

Skerryvore.      See    Lighthouse,  vol. 

x.,  p.  460. 

Skiddaw 

Skimmer 

Skin 

Skink 

Skinner,  Thomas  Harvey 

Skipjack.     See  Bluefish.  and  Bonito. 

Skrzs-necki,  Jan  Boncza 

Skua... 


69 


T2 


Sinaloa 63 

Sinclair,  Sir  John 63 

Sinclair,  Sir  George 63 

Sinclair,  John 63 

Sinclair,  Catharine. ., 63 

Sinde 63 

Sindia,  Family  of.    See  Gwalior. 

Singapore 65 

Sing  Sing 66 

Sinigaglia 66 

Sinope 66 


Skull.    See   Comparative  Anatomy, 
and  Skeleton. 

Skullcap 81 

Skunk 82 

Skunk  Cabbage 82 

Skye 83 

Skylark.    See  Lark. 

Slander $8 

\  Slang 85 

i  Slate 87 

Slate  Pencils 88 

!  Slater.  Samuel 88 

Slave  Coast 89 

Slavery 89 

Slavic  Eace  and  Languages 103 


11 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Slavonia 104 

Slavs.  See  Slavic  Kace  and  J^an- 
guages. 

Sleep 105 

Sleidan,  Johann 105 

Slidell,  John 105 

Sligo  co 106 

Sligo 10G 

Sloane,  Sir  Hans 106 

Sloe 100 

Sloth 107 

Slovaks 108 

Slovens.    See  Winds. 

Slug 108 

Slug  Worm 109 

Sraalcald 109 

Smallpox 109 

Smart,  Christopher Ill 

Smartweed.     See  Polygonum. 

Smeaton,  John Ill 

Smell Ill 

Smelt 112 

Smelting.  See  Copper  Smelting, 
Iron  Manufacture,  Lead,  and  Sil 
ver. 

Smet,  Peter  John  de 112 

Smew 112 

Smibert,  John 113 

Smilax 113 

Smiles,  Samuel * 114 

Smirke,  Sir  Robert 114 

Smirke,  Sydney 114 

Smith  co.,  Miss 114 

Smith  co.,  Texas 115 

Smith  co.,  Tenn 115 

Smith  co.,  Kansas 115 

Smith,  Adam 115 

Smith,  Albert 115 

Smith,  Alexander 116 

Smith,  Eli 116 

Smith,  George 116 

Smith,  Gerrit 116 

Smith,  Goldwin 117 

Smith,  Henry  Boynton 117 

Smith,James 117 

Smith,  James  and  Horace 118 

Smith,  Sir  James  Edward 118 

Smith,  John 118 


Smith,  John  Augustine 


L19 


Smith,  John  Lawrence 119 

Smith,  John  Pye 20 

Smith,  Joseph 20 

Smith,  Joseph  Mather 20 

Smith,  Robert  Payne 20 

Smith,  Samuel  Stanhope 21 

Smith,  Seba 21 

Smith,  Elizabeth  Oakes 21 

Smith,  Sydney 21 

Smith,  Thomas  Southwood 22 

Smith,  William  (two) 

Smith,  William  Andrew 

Smith.  Sir  William  Sidney 

Smithson,  James .' 

Smithsonian  Institution 

Smoke  Tree.    See  Sumach. 

Smolensk 125 

Smollett,  Tobias  George 126 

Smyrna 127 

Smyth  co 128 

Smyth,  Thomas 12S 

Smyth,  William  Henry 123 

Smvth,  Charles  Piazzi 128 

Snail 128 

Snake.     See  Serpent. 
Snake  Bird.     See  Darter. 

Snake  River 129 

Snakeroot 130 

Snakes.    See  Shoshones. 

Snapping  Turtle 131 

Sneezing 131 

Snell.  Willebrord 132 

Snelling,  Josiah 182 

Snethen,  Nicholas 132 

Sneyders.     See  Snyders. 

Snipe 132 

Snohomisk  co 183 

Snorri  Sturlason 133 

Snow 184 

Snowball.     See  Guelder  Rose. 

Snowberry 136 

Snow  Bird 136 

Snow  Bunting.    See  Bunting. 


PAGE 

Snowdrop 137 

Snowdrop  Tree 137 

Snowflake 137 

Snuff.    See  Tobacco. 

Snyder  co 133 

Snyders,  Francis 183 

Soap 138 

Soapstone.     See  Talc. 

Sobieski.    See  John  III.  Sobieski. 

Socialism 139 

Societies,  Literary  and  Scientific. . .  148 

Society  Islands 144 

Socinus,  Laalius 145 


Socinus,  Faustus 145 

Sociology 146 

Socorro  co 147 

Socotra 147 

Socrates 147 

Soda 149 

Soda  Powders.     See  Effervescence. 
Soda  Water.     See  Mineral  Waters. 

Sodermanland 151 

Sodium 151 

Sodom 153 

Soest 153 

Sofala 153 

Sogdiana 153 

Sohar 153 

Sohl.    See  Zolyom. 

Sohn,  Karl  Ferdinand 154 

Sohn,  Paul  Eduard  Richard 154 

Sohn,  Wilhelm 154 

Soil.    See  Agriculture. 

Soissons 154 

Sokoto.    See  Sackatoo. 

Solander,  Daniel  Charles 154 

Solan  Goose.     See  Gannet. 

Solano  co 1 54 

Solauum 154 

Solar  System.    See  Planet,  and  Sun. 
Solar  Time.     See  Day. 

Solder 156 

Sole 156 

Soleure.     See  Solothurn. 

Solferino 157 

Solger,  Karl  Wilhelm  Ferdinand. . .  157 
Soliman.     See  Solyman. 

Solingen 157 

Soils,  Antonio  de 157 

Soils,  Juan  Diaz  de 157 

Solly,  Samuel 1 57 

Solmization 157 

Solomon.     See  Hebrews,  vol.  via., 

p.  586. 

Solomon,  Song  of.    See  Canticles. 
Solomon,  Wisdom  of.  See  AVisdorn, 

Book  of. 

Solomon  ben  Gabirol 157 

Solomon  ben  Isaac,  Rabbi 157 

Solomon  Islands 15s 

Solomon's  Seal '.  158 

Solon 158 

Solothuru 159 

Solstice 159 

Soluble  Glass.     See  Glass,  Soluble. 

Solway  Frith 159 

Solyman  II.,  Sultan 15'.) 

Sornauli 160 

Somers.  John,  Lord 160 

Somers  Islands.     See  Bermudas. 

Somerset  co.,  Me 160 

Somerset  co.,  N.  J 160 

Somerset  co.,  Pa 161 

Somerset  co.,  Md 161 

Somerset,  Edward  Seymour,  Duke 

of.    See  Seymour. 
Somerset,  Robert  Carr,  Earl  of.  See 

Overbury.  Sir  Thomas. 

Somersetshire 1 61 

Somersworth 161 

Somerville  co 161 

Somerville 161 

Somerville,  Mary 162 

Somerville,  William 162 

Somme 162 

Summering,  Samuel  Thomas  von..  162 

Somnambulism 162 

Somnauth 163 

Somogy 163 

Sonata 163 

Sondershausen.    See  Schwarzburg- 

Sondershausen. 


PAGE 

Sondrio 163 

Sone IG3 

Sonneberg 1 64 

Sonnet 164 

Sounini    di    Manoncourt,    Charles 

Nicolas  Sigisbert 164 

Sonoma  co 164 

Sonora 165 

Sontag,  Henrietta 165 

Soochow 165 

Soodan 165 

Soofees.    See  Sufis. 

Sooloo 166 

Soongaria.     See  Turkistan. 
Soonna.    See  Sunna. 

Soosoo 167 

Soothsayer.    See  Mantis. 

Sophia 167 

Sophia  Alexeyevna.    See  Peter  I. 

Sophia  Dorothea 167 

Sophists.    See  Philosophy,  vol.  xiii., 

p.  437. 

Sophocles 167 

Sophocles,    Evangelinus    Apostoli- 


des 

Sophonisba.    See  Masinissa. 

Soracte 

Sorbonne 

Sorel 

Sorel,  Agues.    See  Agnes  Sorel. 

Sorghum 

Soria — 


Sorrel 

Sorrento  

Sothern,  Edward  Askew 

Soto.    See  De  Soto. 

Sotwell,  Nathaniel.    See  SouthAvell. 

Soubise,  Benjamin  de  Rohan,  Sei 
gneur  de 

Soubise,  Charles  de  Rohan,  Prince 
de 

Soulanges  co 

Soule,  Joshua 

Soulc,  Pierre 

Soulie,  Melchior  Frederic 


168 

163 
168 
169 

169 
171 

171 
172 
172 


Soulouque,  Faustin 

Soult,  Nicolas  Jean  de  Dieu 

Sound 

Sound,  The 

Sounding.  See  Atlantic  Ocean,  vol. 
ii..  p.  69,  and  Dredging,  Deep-Sea. 

Pour  Gum.    See  Tupelo. 

South,  Robert 

South  Adams.    See  Adams.  Mass. 

South  America.    See  America. 

Southampton  co 

Southampton 

Southampton,  Henry  Wriothesley, 
Earl  of 

Southamptonshirc.  See  Hampshire. 

]  South  Australia. . .  

i  South  Bend 

South  Carolina 

Southcott,  Joanna 

Southern.  Thomas 

Southernwood.    See  Artemisia. 

Southey,  Robert 

Southey,  Caroline  Anne  Bowles  — 

South  Sea  Scheme 

Southwell,  Nathaniel 

Southwell.  Robert 

Southworth,  Emma  D.  E.  N 

Souvestre,  Emile 

Sowerby,  James 

Sowerby,  George  Brettingham  (two) 

Soy 

Soyer,  Alexis 

Spa. 

Spada,  Lionello 

Spagnoletto 

Spain 

Spain,  Language  and  Literature  of. 

Spain,  Wines  of 

Spalato 

Spalding  co 

Spalding,  Lyman 

Spalding,  Martin  John 

Spalding,  Solomon.  See  Mormons, 
vol.  xi.,  p.  833. 

Spallanzani,  Lazaro 

Spandau 

Spaugenberg,  August  Gottlieb 


L72 

172 

IT:' 
IT2 
IT:: 
178 

IT:; 

IT:; 

IT  I 
L88 


188 
188 

189 

189 
191 
191 

200 
200 

200 
201 
201 
201 

202 
202 
202 
202 
202 
202 
208 
203 
208 
203 
203 
217 
223 
225 
225 
225 
226 


CONTENTS 


111 


PAGE 

Spangenberg,  Friedrich 227 

Spanheim,  Ezechiel 227 

Spaniel 228 

Spanish  Fly.     See  Cantharides. 

Spanish  Main 228 

Span  Worm.     See  Canker  Worm, 

and  Caterpillar. 

Spar.  See  Baryta,  Calcareous  Spar, 
Feldspar,  and  Fluor  Spar. 

Sparks,  Jared 228 

Sparrow 229 

Sparrow  Hawk 230 

Sparta 231 

Spartacus 233 

Spartanburg  co 233 

Spaulding,  Levi 233 

Speaker 233 

Species 233 

Specific  Gravity.  See  Gravity,  Spe 
cific. 

Spectacles 236 

Spectrum 238 

Spectrum  Analysis 250 

Speculum 254 

Speke,  John  Manning 257 

Spelman,  Sir  Henry 257 

Spence,  Joseph 257 

S pence,  William 257 

Spencer  co.,  Ky 257 

Spencer  co.,  Ind 257 

Spencer,  Ambrose 257 

Spencer,  John  Canfield 258 

Spencer,  George  John,  Earl 253 

Spencer,  George  (Father  Ignatius) .  258 

Spencer,  Herbert 258 

Spencer,  Ichabod  Smith 259 

Spencer,  Jesse  Ames 259 

Spener,'  Philipp  Jakob 260 

Spenser,  Edmund 260 

Speranski,  Mikhail ' 261 

Spermaceti 261 

Spermophile.    See  Prairie  Squirrel. 
Sperm  Whale.    See  Whale. 

Speusippus 261 

Speyer.    See  Spire. 

Spezia,  La 261 

Spezzia 262 

Sphagnum.    See  Mosses. 
Sphenograms.    See  Cuneiform  In 
scriptions. 

Sphere 262 

Sphinx 262 

Sphinx,  in  zoology 262 

Sphinx     Caterpillar.       See     Hawk 

Moth. 

Sphygmograph.    See  Pulse. 
Spice  Islands.     See  Moluccas. 
Spicewood.    See  Fever  Bush. 

Spider 263 

Spider  Crab 206 

Spider  Monkey.     See  Monkey. 

Spiegel,  Friedrich 267 

Spielhagen,  Friedrich 267 

Spiess,  Heinrich ..  267 

Spike.    See  Nail. 

Spikenard 267 

Spinach 2(17 

Spinal  Cord.     See  Nervous  System. 

Spinal  Diseases 263 

Spindler,  Karl 271 

Spine.  See  Skeleton,  and  Spinal 
Diseases. 

Spinel 271 

Spink  co 271 

Spinning.  See  Cotton  Manufac 
ture,  Linen,  Eope,  and  AVool, 
Manufactures  of. 

Spinola,  Ambrosio  de,  Marquis 272 

Spinoza,  Baruch 272 

Spiraea 274 

Spiral  Vessels.    See  Air  Vessels. 

Spire 275 

Spirit  of  Salt.  See  Hydrochloric 
Acid 

Spiritualism 275 

Spitzbergen 278 

Spitz  Dog 279 

Spleen 230 

Spofford,  Harriet  Elizabeth  (Pres- 

cott) 280 

Spohr,  Ludwig 280 

Spoleto 281 


PAGE 

Sponge 231 

Spontaneous  Combustion.  See  Com 
bustion,  Spontaneous. 

Spontaneous  Generation 2K2 

Spontini,  Gasparo  Luigi  Pacifico. . .  285 

Spoonbill 285 

Sporades 286 

Spotswood,  John 2s6 

Spotted  Fever.      See  Fevers,  vol. 
vii.,  p.  168. 

Spottsylvania  co 285 

Spottsylvania  Court  House,  Battles 
at.     See  Wilderness. 

S  prague,  Charles 286 

Sprague,  William  Buell 286 

Sprat". 287 

Sprat,  Thomas 287 

Sprengel,  Kurt 2o7 

Sprenger,  Aloys 287 

Spring.. 287 

Spring,  Samuel 287 

Spring,  Gardiner 237 

Springbok 288 

Springfield,  Mass 28S 

Springfield,  Ohio 289 

Springfield,  111 2*9 


PAGE 

Stanley,  Henry  M 307 

Stanley,  Thomas 3u8 

Stanstead  co 308 

Stanton  co.,  Neb 308 

Stanton  co.,  Kansas 308 

Stanton,  Edwin  McMasters 308 

Star 308 

Starch 317 

Star  Chamber,  Court  of  the 319 

Star  Fish 320 

Stargard 321 

Stargazer 321 

Stark  co.,  Ohio 321 

Stark  co..  Ill 322 

Stark,  John 322 

Starke  co 322 

Star 


rling. 


Springfield,  Mo 

Spruce 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Haddon 

Spurzheim,  Johann  Gaspar 

Spy 

Squash 

Squash  Bug 

Squid 

Squier,  Ephraim  George 

Squill,  in  botany 

Squill,  in  zoology 

Squinting 

Squirrel 

Squirrel,  Flying.  See  Flying  Squir 
rel. 

Squirrel  Corn.    See  Dicentra. 

Staal,  Marguerite  Jeanne  Cordicr 
de  Lauuay  de,  Baroness 

Stade  

Stadium... . 


Stadtholder 

Stael-Holstein,  Anne  Louise  Ger- 
maine  Necker  de,  Baroness 

Staempfli,  Jakob 

Staffa 

Stafford  co.,  Va 

Stafford  co.,  Kansas 

Stafford 

Stafford,  Henry,  Duke  of  Bucking 
ham.  See  Buckingham,  Earls  and 
Dukes  of. 

Stafford,  William  Howard,  Vis 
count  

Staffordshire 

Stag 

Stag  Beetle 

Stag  Hound.     See  Hound. 

Stagira 

Stahl,  Friedrich  Julius 

Stahl,  Georg  Ernst 

Stahr,  Adolf  Wilhelm  Theodor 

Stair,  Lord.    See  Dalrymple. 

Stamford 

Stammering 

Stamp  Acts 

Stanchio.     See  Cos. 

Standish,  Miles 

Stanfield,  Clarkson 

Stanford,  John 

Stanhope,  James,  Earl 

Stanhope,  Charles,  Earl 

Stanhope,  Philip  Henry 

Stanhope,  Lady  Hester  Lucy 

Stanhope,  Philip  Dormer.  See  Ches 
terfield. 

Stanislas  I.  Leszczynski 

Stanislas  Augustus.  King.  See  Po- 
niatowski,  and  Poland,  vol.  xiii., 
p.  647. 

Stanislaus  co 

Stanko.    See  Cos. 

Stanley  co.,  N.  C 

Stanley  co.,  Dak 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn 

Stanley,  Edward  Henry  Smith, 
Lord.  See  Derby,  Earl. 


290 
21  ,» 
292 
292 
292 
293 
294 
294 
295 
295 
296 
296 
297 


298 
298 
299 
299 


299 
g  10 
300 
301 
301 
801 


801 
801 
80] 
802 

302 
303 
803 
303 


803 
804 


804 
304 


305 


805 
305 


806 
806 
807 


Star  of  Bethlehem 

Starr  co 

Starvation.    See  Abstinence. 

Stassfurt 

Staten  Island 

States  General,  French 

States  General,  Dutch 

Statics.    See  Mechanics. 

Statistics 

Statius,  Ca3cilius.  See  Caecilius  Sta- 
tius. 

Statius,  Publius  Papinius 

Statuary.    See  Sculpture. 

Statute  of  Frauds.  See  Frauds, 
Statute  of. 

Statutes  of  Limitation.  See  Limi 
tation,  Statutes  of. 

Staudeumaier,  Franz  Anton 

Staiidlin,  Karl  Friedrich 

Staunton,  a  river 

Staunton,  a  city 

Staunton,  Sir  George  Thomas 

Staunton,  Howard 

Staupitz,  Johann  von 

Stavanger 

Stavropol 

Steam 

Steam  Boiler 

Steam  Carriage 

Steam  Engine 


Steam  Navigation 

Stearic  Acid 

Stearns  co 

Steatite.    See  Talc. 

Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence 

Steel 

Steele  co 

Steele.  Sir  Richard 

Steel  Engraving.     See  Engraving. 
Steelyard.    See  Balance. 

Steen,  Jan 

Steering  Apparatus 

Steevens,  George 

Steffens,  Heinrich 

Stein,  Karl,  Baron.    See  Altenstein. 
Stein,    Heiurich     Friedrich    Karl, 

Baron 

Stein,  Charlotte  Albertine  Ernestine 

von . . . 


Stein,  Lorenz 

Steinbock.     See  Ibex. 

Steinle,  Johann  Eduard 

Steinthal,  Heymann 

Stellio 

Stendhal.     See  Beyle. 

Steno,  Nicolas . . .  .* 

Stenography 

Stentor 

Stephen,  Saint 

Stephen,  Popes 

Stephen,  King  of  England 

Stephen  I.    See  Hungary,  vol.  ix., 

p.  55. 
Stephen,  King.      See  Bathori,  and 

Poland,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  646. 

Stephen,  Sir  James 

Stephen,  James  Fitzjames 

Stephens  co 

Stephens,  family  of 

Stephens,  Henry 

Stephens,  Francis 

Stephens,  Robert  I 

Stephens,  Charles 

Stephens,  Paul 

Stephens,  Anthony 


323 
323 
323 
324 

324 


825 


325 
825 
;i25 
325 
>if>2 
326 
:!2(i 
326 
326 
326 
329 
335 
339 
352 
354 
355 

355 
355 
368 
868 


368 
369 
369 


370 
370 


370 
371 
371 
371 
371 
371 


372 
872 
372 
372 
372 
373 
873 
373 
373 
373 


IV 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Stephens,  Alexander  Hamilton 373 

Stephens,  Ann  Sophia 374 

Stephens,  John  Lloyd 374 

Stephenson  co 374 

Stephenson,  George 374 

Stephenson,  Eobert 375 

Stereoscope 370 

Stereotype.     See  Printing,  vol.  xiii., 

p.  850. 
Sterling.    See  Pound  Sterling. 

Sterling 377 

Sterling,  John 377 

Stern,  Daniel.     See  Agoult,  Marie 
Catherine  Sophie  de  Flavigny. 

Sternberg 378 

Sterne,  Laurence 378 

Sternhold,  Thomas 378 

Stesichorus 378 

Stethoscope.    See  Auscultation. 

Stettin 379 

Steuart,  Sir  James  Denham 379 

Steuben  co.,  N.  Y 379 

Steuben  co.,  Mich 379 

Steuben,  Frederick  William  Augus 
tus,  Baron 379 

Steubenville 380 

Stevens  co.,  Minn 380 

Stevens  co.,  Kansas 380 

Stevens  co.,  Dakota 880 

Stevens  co.,  Washington  Ter 380 

Stevens,  Abel 380 

Stevens,  Alexander  Hodgdon 380 

Stevens,  George  Alexander 381 

Stevens,  John 8sl 

Stevens,  Eobert  Livingston 381 

Stevens,  Edwin  Augustas 881 

Stevens,  Joseph 8sl 

Stevens,  Alfred 381 

Stevens,  Thaddeus 381 

Stevinus,  Simon 3S2 

Steward,  Lord  High 882 

Stewart  co.,  Ga 882 

Stewart  co.,  Tenn 382 

Stewart,  Alexander  Turney 882 

Stewart,  Balfour 382 

Stewart,  Charles 883 

Stewart,  Dugald 3.83 

Stewart,  John 384 

Ste\vart,  Eobert  Henry,  Marquis  of 

Londonderry.     See  Castlereagh. 
Stewart  Island.     See  New  Zealand. 

Steyer -. . . .  384 

Stickleback 384 

Stickney,  Sarah.    See  Ellis,  William. 

Stieglitz,  Christian  Ludwig 384 

Stieglitz,  Heinrich 884 

Stieglitz,  Ludwig  von 385 

Stigmaria.     See  Coal  Plants. 

Stiles,  Ezra 885 

Stilicho,  Flavins 3*5 

Stillc,  Alfred 385 

Stille,  Moreton 386 

Stillingfleet,  Edward 886 

Stillwater.    N.   Y.      See    Saratoga, 
Battle  of. 

Stillwater 386 

Stilt 88(3 

Stimpson,  William ' 886 

Stirling '387 

Stirling,   Earl  of.    See  Alexander, 

William. 
Stirling.  Sir  William  (Maxwell). . . .  357 

Stirlingshire . 887 

Stoat.     See  Ermine. 

Stoba?us,  Joannes 387 

Stock.    See  Gilliflower. 

Stockbridge 387 

Stock  Exchange 387 

Stock  Fish.     See  Cod. 

Stockhardt,  Julius  Adolf 889 

Stockholm 389 

Stocking 390 

Stockmar,  Christian  Friedrich,  Ba 
ron  392 

Stockport 392 

Stockton 392 

Stockton,  Eichard 392 

Stockton,  Eobert  Field 392 

Stockton,  Thomas  Hewlings 393 

Stockton-upon-Tees 893 

Stoddard  co 393 

Stoddard,  Eichard  Henry 3'Jo 


PAGE 

Stoddard,  Elizabeth 393 

Stoddard,  Solomon 394 

Stoics 394 

Stokes  co 394 

Stokes,  George  Gabriel 394 

Stoke-upon-Trent 394 

Stolberer,  Friedrich  Leopold,  Count.  394 

Stolberg,  Christian,  Count 395 

Stolpe 395 

Stomach 395 

Stomach,  Diseases  of  the 396 

Stone.    See  Eocks. 

Stone 398 

Stone  co.,  Ark 399 

Stone  co.,  Mo 81)9 

Stone  co.,  Dak 399 

Stone,  Thomas 399 

Stone,  William  Leete  (two) 399 

Stone,  William  Oliver 400 

Stone  Borer 400 

Stone  Chat 400 

Stone  Crop.     See  Sedum. 

Stonehenge 401 

Stone  Elver,  Battle  of.     See  Mur- 
freesboro. 

Stonington 401 

Stony  Point 402 

Stoppage  in  Transitu 402 

Storax.     See  Balsams. 

Storey  co 403 

Stork 403 

Stormont  co 404 

Storms 4(14 

Storrs,  Eichard  Salter 406 

Story  co 406 

406 
'  7 

i  ; 


Story,  Joseph 

Story,  William  Wetmore 

Stothard,  Thomas 

Stove.    See  Warming  and  Ventila 
tion. 

Stow,  Baron 407 

Stow,  John 407 

Stowe,  Calvin  Ellis 407 

Stowe.  Harriet  Elizabeth  Beecher. 
See  Beecher. 

Stowell,  William  Scott,  Baron 403 

Strabismus.    See  Squinting. 

Strabo 408 

Stradella,  Alessandro 408 

Stradivari,  Antonio 408 

Stafford  co 408 

Stafford,  Thomas  Weutworth,  Earl 

of 409 

Straits  Settlements 409 

Stralsund 410 

Stramonium.     S<^e  Datura. 

Strange,  Sir  Eobert 410 

Strasburg 410 

Stratford 411 

Stratford  de  Eedcliffe,  Stafford  Can- 

*  ning,  Viscount 411 

Stratford-upon-Avon 411 

Straubing 412 

Strauss,  Johann  (two) 412 

Strauss,  Josef 412 

Strauss,  Eduard 412 

Strauss,  David  Friedrich 412 

Straw 413 

Strawberry 414 

Strays.     S'ee  E  strays. 

Street,  Alfred  Billings 415 

Strelitz.     See  Mecklenburg. 

Strength  of  Materials 415 

Strickland,  Agnes 424 

Strickland,  Jane  Margaret 424 

Strickland,    Catharine    Parr    (Mrs. 

Trail!) 424 

Strickland,  Susannah  (Mrs.  Moodie).  424 

Strickland,  William  Peter 424 

Strinsham,  Silas  Horton 425 

Strisores 425 

Strong,  Caleb 425 

Strong,  James 425 

Strontium 425 

Strossmayer,  Joseph  George 426 

Strother, 'David  Hunter 426 

Strousberg,  Bethel  Henry 426 

Struensee,  Johann  Friedrich.  Count.  427 

Strutt,  Joseph ' 427 

•Struve,  Friedrich    Georg  Wilhelm 

von 427 

Struve,  Otto  Wilhelm 427 


PACK 

Struve,  Georg  Adam 427 

Struve,  Burkhard  Gotthelf 428 

Strychnia , 428 

Strymon.    See  Macedonia. 

Strype,  John 429 

Stuart,  family  of 429 

Stuart,  Arabella 429 

Stuart,  Gilbert 480 

Stuart,  Gilbert  Charles 430 

Stuart,  Henry  Benedict  Maria  Cle 
ment  (Cardinal  York) 430 

Stuart,  James 430 

Stuart,  John.    See  Bute. 

Stuart,  Moses 480 

Stuhl-Weissenburg 431 

Sturgeon 431 

Sturleson.    See  Snorri  Sturlason. 

Sturt,  Sir  Charles 432 

Stutsman  co 432 

Stuttering.    See  Stammering. 

Stuttgart 432 

Stuyvesant,  Petrus 433 

Sty 433 

Style,  Old  and  New.    See  Calendar. 
Styrax.     See  Balsams. 

Stylites 434 

Styria 434 

Styx 434 

Suabia.    See  Swabia. 

Suakin 434 

Suarez,  Francisco 435 

Sublimation 435 

Sublime  Porte 435 

Subpoena 435 

Subrogation 485 

Subscription 435 

Succiuic  Acid 436 

Succory.     See  Chiccory. 

Suchet,  Louis  Gabriel 436 

Sucker 436 

Sucking  Fish 437 

Suckling,  Sir  John 437 

Sucre 487 

Sucre,  Antonio  Jose  de 437 

Sudermania.     See  Sodermnnland. 
Sudetic  Mountains.    See  Germany, 

vol.  vii.,  p.  744. 
Sudorifics.    See  Diaphoretics. 

Sue,  Marie  Joseph  Eugene 438 

Suetonius  Tranquillus,  Caius 438 

Suevi 438 

Suez,  an  isthmus 488 

Suez,  a  gulf. 439 

Suez,  a  town 439 

Suffocation.    See  Asphyxia. 

Suffolk  co.,  Mass 489 

Suffolk  co.,  N.  Y 440 

Suffolk,  Eng 440 

Sufis 440 

Sugar 440 

Sugar  of  Lead.    See  Lead,  vol.  x., 

p.  246. 

Sugar  of  Milk.     See  Milk,  Sugar  of. 
Suicide.     See  Felo  de  Se. 

Suidas 449 

Suliotes 449 

Sulla,  Lucius  Cornelius  (Felix) 449 

Sullivan  co.,  N.  H 450 

Sullivan  co.,  N.  Y 451 

Sullivan  co.,  Pa 451 

Sullivan  co.,  Tenn 451 

Sullivan  co.,  Ind 45 1 

Sullivan  co..  Mo 451 

Sullivan,  Arthur  S 451 

Sullivan,  John 451 

Sullivan,  James 452 

Sullivan,  William 452 

Sullivan,  John  Langdon 452 

Sullivan's    Island.      See    Moultrie, 
Fort. 

Sullivant,  William  Starling 452 

Sully  co 453 

Sully,  Maximilien  de  Bethune 458 

Sully,  Thomas 453 

Sulphates 453 

Sulphides 454 

Sulphites 455 

Sulphur 455 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen.     See  Hy- 
drosulphuric  Acid. 

Sulphuric  Acid 458 

Sulphuric  Ether.    See  Ether. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Sulphurous  Acid.    See  Sulphur. 

Sulpicians 460 

Sulpicius  Severus 461 

Sumach 461 

Sumarokotf,  Alexei  Petrovitch 464 

Sumatra 464 

Sumbawa 466 

Summer 466 

Summerfield.  John 466 

Summer  Red  Bird.    See  Tanager. 

Summers  co 467 

Summers,  Thomas  Osmond 467 

Summit  co.,  Ohio 467 

Summit  co.,  Col 467 

Summit  co.,  Utah 467 

Sumner  co.,  Miss 467 

Sumner  co.,  Tenn 467 

Sumner  co.,  Kansas 467 

Sumner,  Charles 463 

Sumner,  John  Bird 469 

Sumter  co..  S.  C 469 

Sumter  co.',  Ga 469 

Sumter  co.,  Fla 469 

Sumter  co.,  Ala 470 

Sumter,  Fort 470 

Sumter,  Thomas 470 

Sun 470 

Sun  Bird 476 

Sunbury 477 

Sunburv  co 477 

Sunda  Islands 477 

Sunda  Strait 477 

Sunday 477 

Sunday  Schools 477 

Sunderbuuds 473 

Suuderland 478 

Sunderland,  Robert  Spencer.  Earl  of.  479 
Sunderland,  Charles  Spencer,  Earl  of  479 

Sundew 479 

Sun  Fish 480 

Sunflower 431 

Sunflower  co 432 

Sungaria.     See  Turkistan. 

Sunna 452 

Sunstroke 432 

Supercargo 483 

Superior,  Lake 433 

Surajah  Dowlah.     See  Clive,   and 
India,  vol.  ix.,  p.  210. 

Surat 484 

Surety 484 

Surf  Bird 4S5 

Surgeon,  in  zoology.    See  Jacana. 

Surgery 485 

Suricate 488 

Surinam.    See  Guiana. 

Surinam,  a  river 483 

Surrey 488 

Surrey.  Henry  Howard.  Earl  of. ...  433 
Surrogate.     See  Probate. 

Surry  co.,  Va 489 

Surry  co.,  N.  C 489 

Surveying 489 

Surville.  Marguerite  Eleonore  Clo 
tilda  de  Vallon-Chalys  de 492 

Sus 492 

Susa 493 

Susiana 493 

Suso,  Heinrich 493 

Susquehauna,  a  river : . .  493 

Susquehanna  co 493 

Susquehannas.    See  Couestogas. 

Sussex  co.,  N.  J 

Sussex  co.,  Del 

Sussex  co.,  Ya 

Sussex,  Eng 

Sutherland  co 

Sutherland,  George  Granville  Leve- 

son  Gower,  Duke  of. 494 

Sutlej 495 

Suttee 495 

Sutter  co 495 

Sutter,  John  Augustus 495 

Sutton,  Amos 496 

Suvaroff,  Alexei  Yasilievitch 496 

Suwalki 496 

Suwannee  co 496 

Sveaborg 490 

Svertchkoff,  Nikolai 497 

S  wabia 497 

Swain  co 497 

Swain,  Charles '. '.  497 


494 
494 
494 
494 
494 


PAGE 

Swain  son,  William 4!)7 

Swallow 498 

Swammerdam,  Johannes 499 

Swan 499 

Swan  River.     See  Western  Austra 
lia. 

Swansea 501 

Sweating  Sickness 501 

Swedberg,  Jesper 501 

Sweden 501 

Sweden,  Language  and  Literature  of  510 

Swedenborg,  Emanuel 515 

Sweet  Brier.     See  Eglantine. 
Sweet  Gum.     See  Liquidambar. 
Sweet  Potato.    See  Potato,  Sweet. 

S weetwater  co 519 

Sweet  AVilliam.    See  Pink. 

Swetchine,  Anne  Sophie 519 

Swieten,  Gerard  van 519 

Swift 519 

Swift  co 520 

Swift,  Jonathan 520 

Swimming 522 

Swinburne,  Algernon  Charles 524 

Swine.    See  Hog. 

Switzerland 524 

Switzerland  co .•  533 

Sword 533 

534 
534 
534 
535 
535 
535 
535 
536 
536 


Sword  Fish 

Sybaris 

Sybel,  Heinrich  von 

Sycamore 

Sydenham,  Floyer 

Sydenham,  Thomas 

•Sydney,  Australia 

Sydney,  N.  S 


Sydow,  Karl  Leopold  Adolf 

Syene.    See  Asswan. 
Syenite.    See  Granite. 
Sylla.    See  Sulla. 

Syllabus 

Sylvester.  Popes 

Sylvius,  Jacobus 

Symbols,  Chemical 

Syme,  James 

Symmachus,  Ccelius,  Pope 

Symmacbus,  Quiutus  Aurelius 

Symmes,  John  Cleves 

Sympathetic  Ink.    See  Ink,  vol.  ix.. 

p.  284. 

Symphony 

Symplegades.     See  Argonauts. 

Synagogue  

Synesius 

Syphax 

Syphon 

Syra  (two) 

Syracuse,  Italy 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

Syria 

Syriac  Language  and  Literature  . . . 
Syringa.     Sec "  Lilac,  and  Plriladel- 

phus. 
Syros.    Sec  Syra. 

Syrtis  Major  and  Syrtis  Minor 

Szabadka '. 

Szabolcs  co 

Szala.     See  Zala. 

Szalay,  Laszlo 

Szatmar  co 

Szatmar 


536 
537 

538 
589 
539 
539 
539 


Szechenyi,  Istvan,  Count 

Szegedin 

Szeklers.     See  Transylvania. 

Szolnok,  Middle,  co 

Szolnok,  a  town 


54  > 
549 
549 

549 

549 
549 
549 

550 
550 


PAGE 

Taconic  System.    See  United  States 
(geological  part). 

Tadema,  Lourenz  Alma 552 

Tadmor.    See  Palmyra. 

Tadolini,  Adamo 552 

Tadpole.    See  Frog. 

Tael 553 

Ttenarum.     See  Cape  Matapan. 

Tafilet 553 

Taganrog 553 

Tagliacozzi.    See  Taliacotius. 

Taglioni,  Filippo 553 

Taglioni,  Maria  (two) 5-'i3 

Taglioni,  Paul 553 

Tagus 5,33 

Tahiti.     See  Society  Islands. 

Tahlequah 554 

Taine,  Hippolyte  Adolphe 554 

Taiping.     bee'  China,  vol.  iv.,  p.  403. 

Tait,  Archibald  Campbell 55 1 

Tait,  Peter  Guthrie 554 

Talavera  de  la  Reyna 554 

Talbot  co.,  Md 554 

Talbot  co..  Ga 554 

Talbot,  William  Henry  Fox 554 

Talc...  ..  555 


Talent 

Talfourd,  Sir  Thomas  Nowi 

Taliacotius,  Gasparo 

Taliaferro  co 

Talipot  Tree.    See  Palm,  vol.  xiii., 
p.  20. 

Talladega  co 

Talladega 

Tallahassee 

Tallahatchie,  a  river 


Tallahatchie  co 

Tallapoosa,  a  river 

Tallapoosa  co 

Talleyrand-Perigord,  Chark-s  Mau 
rice,  Prince  de 

Tallien,  Jean  Lambert 

Tallow 

Tallow  Tree 

Talma,  Francois  Joseph 

Talmage,  Thomas  De  Witt 

Talmud 

Tama  co 

Tamandua.     Sec  Ant-Eater. 

Tamaqua 

Tamarack.    See  Larch. 

Tamarind 

Tamarisk 

Tamatave 

Tamaulipas 

Tamberlik,  Enrico... 


T 

Tabasco . 


550 

550 

Tabernacle 550 

Tabernacles,  Feast  of 551 

Tabor.  Mount 551 

Taborites.    See  Hussites. 

Tabriz 551 

Tache.  Alexandre 551 

Tacitus.  Caius  Cornelius 552 

Tacitus.  Marcus  Claudius 552 

Tackmahack.    See  Poplar. 


Tambourine 

Tambov 

Tamburini,  Antonio 

Tamburiui,  Pietro 

Tamerlane.     See  Timour. 

Tamils.  See  India,  Races  and  Lan 
guages  of,  vol.  ix.,  p.  215. 

Tampico 

Tanatrer 

Tanais.     See  Don. 

Tananarive 

Tancred 

Taney  co 

Taney,  Roger  Brooke 

Tanganyika.  Lake 

Tangier 

Tangipahoa  parish 

Tanjore 

Tannahill,  Robert 

Tannic  Acid 

Tanning.  See  Leather,  vol.  x.,  p. 
275. 

Tansy 

Tantalum.     See  Columbium. 

Tantalus 

Taos  co 

Tape  Grass.    See  Yallisneria. 

Tapestry 

Tape  Worm.  See  Entozoa,  vol.  vi., 
p.  663. 

Tapioca.    See  Cassava. 

Tapir 

Tappan,  Henry  Philip 

Tar 

Tar  River 

Taranto 


555 
556 
556 


f>56 
556 
556 
556 
556 
556 
506 

557 
558 
559 
55!) 
559 
5GO 
560 
501 

501 

5G1 
561 

5(52 

562 
562 
5G2 
562 
562 
563 


503 
563 

564 
5C4 
564 

565 
565 
566 
5<'.6 
566 
567 
567 


567 
568 

568 


568 

569 
570 
5TO 


VI 


CONTENTS 


57(3 


577 


PAGE 

Taranto,  Duke  of.     See  Macdonald. 

Tarantula 570 

Tarare 

Tarascon 

Tarbes 

Tardigrades.    See  Sloth. 
Tare.    See  Vetch. 
Tarentum.    See  Taranto. 

Targums 571 

Tarifa 572 

Tarleton,  Bannastre 572 

Tarn 572 

Tarn-et-Garonue 572 

Tarpeia 572 

Tarquin,  Lucius  Tarquinius  Priscus.  572 
Tarquin,  Lucius  Tarquinius  Super- 
bus  573 

Tarragon 573 

Tarragona,  a  province 573 

Tarragona,  a  city 573 

Tarrant  co 573 

Tarrytown 574 

Tars'hish 574 

Tarsus 574 

Tartar 574 

Tartar,   Cream  of.     See  Cream  of 

Tartar. 
Tartar  Emetic.    See  Antimony. 

Tartaric  Acid " 574 

Tartars 575 

Tartarus 570 

Tartary 57b 

Tartini,  Giuseppe 

Tartrates 

Tarudant 

Taschereau,  Jules  Antoine 

Taschereau,  Elzear  Alexandre 

Tashkend  

Tasman,  Abel  Janssen 

Tasmania 577 

Tassaert,  Nicolas  Francois  Octave.  579 

Tasso,  Bernardo 5SO 

Tasso,  Torquato 580 

Taste 581 

Tate  co 583 

Tate,  Nalmm 582 

Tatian 582 

Tatius,  Achilles.    See  Achilles  Ta- 
tius. 

Tatnall  co 5?3 

Tatta 583 

Tattler 583 

Tauchnitz,  Karl  Christoph  Traugott.  5->4 
Tauchnitz,  Karl  Christian  Philipp..   584 
Tauchnitz,  Christian  Bernhard,  Ba 
ron 584 

Tauler,  Johann 584 

Tauntou,  Mass f>>4 

Taunton,  Eng 585- 

Taurida 585 

Tauroinenium 5>5 

Taurus 585 

Tausig,  Karl 586 

Tautog.     See  Blackfish. 

Tavastehuus 586 

Tavernier,  Jean  Baptiste 580 

Taxes 5^6 

Taxidermy 590 

Tay 591 

Taygetus.     See  Laconia. 

Taylor  co.,  West  Va 

Taylor  co.,  Ga. . .  .• 

Taylor  co.,  Fla 

Taylor  co.,  Texas 

Taylor  co.,  Ky 

Taylor  co.,  Iowa 

Taylor,  Bayard 

Taylor,  Brook 

Taylor,  Edward  T 

Taylor.  George 

Taylor.  Sir  Henry..'. 

Taylor.  Isaac  (two) ' 

Taylor,  Isidore  Severin  Justin.  Ba 
ron -.' 

Taylor,  Jeremy  . 

Taylor.  John  (two)   '. „.„ 

Taylor,  Nathaniel  William 594 

Taylor.  Richard 594 

Taylor.  Stephen  William 594 

Taylor,  Benjamin  Franklin 594 

Taylor,  Thomas 595 

Taylor,  Tom 595 


PAGE 

Taylor,  William  Cooke 595 

Taylor,  William  Mackergo 595 

Taylor,  Zachary 595 

Tazewell  co.,  Va 597 

Tazewell  co.,  Ill 597 

Tchad,  Lake 597 

Tchernigov 598 

Tchihatcheff,  Petr 598 

Tchuktchis  (two) 598 

Tea 598 

Teachers1  Institute 602 

Teak 602 

Teal 603 

..  604 
..  604 
..  605 
..  605 
..  006 


Tears 

Teasel 

Technology. 

Tecumseh 

Teeth 

Tegea 

Tegner,  Esaias 

Tehama  co 

Teheran 

Tehuantepec,  an  isthmus 

Tehuantepec,  a  town 

Tejada,  Sebastian  Lerdo  de 

Telegraph 

Teleky,  Laszlo,  Count 

Telemachus 

Teleosaurus 

Telescope 

Telfair  co 

Telford,  Thomas 

Teliosts 

Tell,  William 

Tell-Tale.     See  Tattler. 

Tellurium 

Tellus.    See  Terra. 

Temes  co 

Temesvar 

Teuiiscamingue,  Lake.  See  Otta 
wa,  vol.  xii.,  p.  734. 

Tcmiscouata  co 

Tempe 

Temperament 

Temperance  Societies.  Sec  Total 
Abstinence. 

Tempered  Glass 

Templars 

Temple,  Frederick 

Temple,  Eichard  GraimJJe,  Earl.. . 

Temple,  Sir  William 

Tenant.     See  Lease,  and  Tenure. 

Tenasserim 

Tench 

Tencin,  Claudine  Alexandrine  Gue- 


591 
591 
591 
591 
591 
501 
501 
592 
592 
592 
592 
593 

593 
593 

594 


Tender 

Tendon  

Tcnedos 

Tenerani,  Pietro 

Teneriffe 

Teniers,  David  (two) 

Tennant,  William 

Tennemann,  Wilhelm  Gottlieb 

Tennent,  Sir  James  Emerson 

Tennessee 

Tennessee  Eiver 

Tennis 

Tennylik  Alfred 

Tenor  ~. 

Tensas  parish 

Tent 

Tenure 

Teocalli.     See  Mexico,  vol.   xi.,  p. 
474. 

Teos 

Teplitz 

Tequendama,  Falls  of.    See  Bogota. 

Teramo 

Teratology 

Terbium 

Terburg,  Gerard 

Terceira 

Teredo.    See  Ship  Worm. 
Terence  (Publius  Terentius  Afer).. 
Terhune.  Mary  Virginia  (Hawes).. 

Termini-Imerese 

Termites . . . 


637 
638 
639 
6i  9 
6  19 
640 
640 
640 

!    10 

I  ii 
Ml 

650 
651 


Tern 

Ternate.     See  Moluccas. 
Ternaux,  Guillaume  Louis,  Baron. . 
Ternaux,  Henri 


656 
656 

656 
656 

i;;.<; 
657 
657 

657 
657 
657 
657 
659 

660 
660 


PAGE 

Terni G6o 

Terpander goo 

Terpsichore ' '     \[  COO 

Terra 6W) 

Terracina 660 

Terra  Cotta GOO 

Terra  del  Fuego.    See  Tierra  del 

Fuego. 

Terra  di  Bari.     See  Bari. 
Terra  di  Lavoro.     See  Caserta. 
Terra  d'Otranto.    See  Lecce. 

Terrapin 661 

Terre  Bonne  parish 662 

Terrebonne  co.,  Canada 602 

Terre  Haute 662 

Terrell  co 6o2 

Terrestrial   Magnetism.     See  Mag 
netism,  Terrestrial. 

Terrier 662 

Tertiarians ..  663 


Tertulliau,  Quintus  Septimius  Flo- 
rens 

Teruel,  a  province 

Teruel,  a  town 

Teschen 

Tessin.     See  Ticino. 

Testament.    See  Will. 

Testament,  Old  and  New.  See 
Bible. 

Testimony.     See  Evidence. 

Testudinata 

Tetanus 

Tetuan 

Tetzel,  Johann 

Teucer  (two) 

Teuffel,  Wilhelm  Sigismuml 

Teutoburg  Forest 

Teutonic  Knights 

Teutons 

Tewkesbury 

Texas 

Texas  co 

Texel 

Texier,  Charles  Felix  Marie 

Tezcuco 

Thacher,  James 

Thacher,  Peter 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace...  . 

Thackeray.  Anne  Isabella 

Thaer,  Allrecht 


663 
664 


66  ! 


Thais 

Thalberg,  Sigismond. 
Thalberg,  Zaire. 


Thaler  ........................... 

Thales  ........................... 

Thalia  ............................ 

Thallium  .................   ....... 

Thames,  two  rivers  .......  .  ...... 

Thames,  Ene  ..................... 

Than,  Moricz  ..................... 

Thanet,  Isle  of  .................... 

Thanksgiving  Day  ................ 

Thasos  ........................... 

Thatcher,  Benjamin  Bussey  ....... 

Thayer  co  ........................ 

Theatines  ........................ 

Theatre  ........................... 

Thebais  .......................... 

Thebes,  Egypt  .................... 

Thebes,  Greece  ................... 

Theft.     See  Larceny. 

Theine.     See  Caffeine,  and  Tea. 

Theiner,  Augustin  ................ 

Theiner,  Johann  Anton  ............ 

Theiss  ........................... 

Thelwall,  John  .................... 

Themis  ........................... 

Themistocles  ..................... 

Thenard,  Louis  Jacques,  Baron  ---- 

Theobald,  Lewis  .................. 

Theocritus  ...................... 

Theodolite  ........................ 

Theodora.    See  Justinian. 
Theodore,    King.      See    Abyssinia, 

vol.  i.,  p.  46. 
Theodoret  ........................ 

Theodoric  the  Great  ............. 

Theodosia.    See  Kaffa. 
Theodosius  ....................... 

Theodosius  I.,  Emperor  ........... 

Theo?nis  ......................... 

Theology  ......................... 


004 
006 
067 
667 
C68 
008 
608 
068 
669 
069 
069 
079 
679 
680 
680 
O&O 
680 
080 
681 
681 
681 
081 
682 
G>2 
662 
682 
082 
682 
683 
G&S 
083 
683 
084 
684 
084 
684 
6^5 
687 
GST 
Cs9 


6S9 
690 
090 
690 
691 
091 


693 
693 

693 
694 
694 
094 


CONTENTS 


vn 


PAGE 

Theophrastus 695 

Theophylact  (Simocatta) 696 

Theophylact,  Archbishop 696 

Thera 696 

Theramenes 696 

Theresa,  Saint 696 

Theresiopol.    See  Szabadka. 
Thermaic  Gulf.     See  Salouica. 

Thermo-Electricity 697 

Thermometer 698 

Thermopylae 700 

Theroigne  de  Mericourt,  Anne  Jo- 

sephe 701 

Theseus 701 

Thesiger,     Sir      Frederick.        See 
Chelmsford. 

Thespis 701 

Thessalonians,  Epistles  to  the 702 

Thessalonica.     See  Salouica. 

Thessaly 702 

Thetis 703 

Thevenot,  Melchisedech 703 

The  venot,  Jean  de 703 

Theza 703 

Thibaut  (Theobald)  IV.,  or  VI 703 

Thibaut,  Anton  Friedrich  Justus..  703 

Thibet 703 

Thierry,  Jacques  Nicolas  Augustin.  705 
Thierry,  Amedee  Simon  Dominique.  706 

Thierry,  Gilbert  Augustiu . 706 

Thiers 706 

Thiers,  Louis  Adolphe 706 

Thiersch,  Friedrich  Wilhelm 707 

Thiersch,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Josias.  70S 
Thionville.     See  Diedeuhofen, 
Third  Estate.    See  States  General. 

Thirlwall,  Connop 708 

Thirst 70S 

Thirty  Years'  War 70S 

Thisbe.    See  Pyramus  and  Thisbe. 

Thistle 712 

Thistle,  Order  of  the 713 

Tholuck,  Friedrich  August  Gottreu.  713 

Thomas  co.,  Ga 714 

Thomas  co.,  Kansas 714 

Thomas,  Charles  Louis  Ambroise. .   714 
Thomas,    Christians    of    St.      See 
Christians  of  St.  Thomas. 

Thomas,  George  Henry 714 

Thomas,  Isaiah 715 

Thomas,  Joseph 715 

Thomas,  Saint 715 

Thomas  a  Kempis.     See  Kempis. 
Thomas  Aquinas.     See  Aquinas. 

Thomasius,  Christian 

Thomasius,  Gottfried 

Thomassin,  Louis  de 

Thomaston 

Thompson  co 

Thompson,  Augustus  Charles 716 

Thompson,  Benjamin.     See  Rum- 
ford. 

Thompson,  Daniel  Pierce 716 

Thompson,  Elizabeth 716 

Thompson,  Sir  Henry 717 

Thompson,  Joseph  Parrish. 717 

Thompson,  Lauut 717 

Thompson,  Thomas  Perronet 717 

Thompson,  Waddy 7 !  7 

Thompsonville 713 

Thorns,  William  John 713 

Thomson,  Anthony  Todd 718 

Thomson,  Katheriue  Byerly 718 

Thomson,  Charles 718 

Thomson,  Edward 718 

Thomson,  James 713 

Thomson,  James 719 

Thomson,  Sir  William 719 

Thomson,  Thomas 719 

Thomson,  Thomas 720 

Thomson,  William 720 

Thor 720 

Thorax 720 

Thoreau,  Henry  David 721 

Thorium ..  721 


715 
716 
716 
716 
716 


Thorn, 

Thorn,  a  town 723 

Thornapple.    See  Datura. 

Thornbury,  George  Walter        723 

Thornhill,  Sir  James 723 

Thornton,  Bonnell 723 

Thornton,  Matthew 723 


PAGE 

Thornwell,  James  Henley 723 

Thornycroft,  Mary  (Francis) 724 

Thorough  Bass 7^4 

Thoroughwort.     See  Boneset. 

Thorpe,  Benjamin 724 

Thorwaldsen,  Bertel 724 

Thou,  Jacques  Auguste  de 725 

Thouars.      See  Du  Petit-Thouars. 

Thrace 725 

Thrale.     See  Piozzi. 
Thrasher.    See  Thrush. 

Thrasybulus 726 

Thrasymenus,  Lake.    See  Perugia, 

and  Hannibal. 

Thread  Worm.     See  Entozoa,  vol. 
vi.,  p.  670. 

Threatening  Letters 726 

Three  Kivers 726 

Thresher.  See  Shark,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  829. 

Threshing  Machine 726 

Throckmorton  co 727 

Throcmorton,  Sir  Nicholas 727 

Thrombosis.    See    Brain,  Diseases 
of  the,  vol.  iii.,  p.  198. 

Thrush 727 

Thuanus.     See  Thou,  Jacques  Au 
guste  de. 

Thucydides 729 

Thugs 729 

Thule 730 

Thun,  a  town 730 

Thun,alake 730 

Thunberg,  Carl  Peter 730 

Thunder.    See  Lightning. 

Thurgau 730 

Thuringia 730 

Thurloe,  John 731 

Thurlow,  Edward,  Lord 731 

Thurn  and  Taxis.    See  Post,  vol. 
xiii.,  p.  748. 

Thursday 731 

Thurston  co 73 1 

Thyestes.     See  Athens. 

Thylaciue 731 

Thyme 732 

Thyinus  Gland 

Thyroid  Gland 

Tia^uanaco.    See  Titicaca. 

Tiara 

Tibaldi,  Pellegrino 734 

Tibboos.    See  Tuariks. 

Tiber 734 

Tiberias.     See  Gennesaret. 

Tiberius,  Emperor 

Tibet.    See  Thibet. 

Tibullus,  Albius 

Tibur.    See  Tivoli. 

Tic  Douloureux.    See  Neuralgia. 

Tichborne  Trial 735 

Ticino 736 

Tick 737 

Tickell,  Thomas 787 

Ticknor,  George 737 

Ticonderoga 737 

Tides...  ..  73 S 


782 


733 


734 

735 


Tieck,  Ludwisr 

Tieck,  Christian  Friedrich 

Tic-demann.  Dietrich 

Tiedcmann,  Friedrich 

Tiedge,  Christoph  August 

Tientsin 

Tierra  del  Fuego 

Tiers  Etat.     See  States  General. 
Tiffin... 


Tiflis 

Tiger 

Tiger  Beetle.    See  Beetle. 

Tiger  Cat 

Tiger  Flower 

Tiger  Moth.     See  Moth. 

Tighe,  Mary  (Blackford) 

Tiglath-Pileser.     See  Assyria. 

Tigranes  the  Great 

Tigre 

Tim-is... 


Tilburg 

Tilden,  Samuel  Jones 

Tile 

Tillamook  co 

Tillandsia 

Tillemont,  Louis  Sebastien  le  Nain 
de  ... 


751 

751 

751 
752 
752 
752 
752 
753 
753 

754 


PAGE 

Tillodontia 754 

Tillotson,  John 754 

Tilly,  Johann  Tserclaes,  Count 755 

Tilsit 755 

Tilton,  Theodore 755 

Timber.    See  Wood. 

Timbs,  John 755 

Timbuctoo 755 

Tiuioleon 753 

Timon 756 

Timor 756 

Timotheus  757 

Timothy 757 

Timothy,  Epistles  to 757 

Timothy  Grass 757 

Timour 758 

Timrod,  Henry 759 

Timuquans 759 

Tin...  ..  759 


Tinamou 

Tincture 

Tindal,  Matthew 

Tindale,  William.     See  Tyndale. 
Tinghai.    See  Chusan. 

Tinnc 

Tinne,  Alexandrine  Petronella  Fran- 

cina 

Tinoceras  

Tintoretto,  II 


Tioga  co.,  N.  Y 

Tioga  co.,  Pa 

Tippah  co 

Tippecanoe,  a  river 

Tippecanoe  co 

Tipperary 

Tippoo  S'ultan 

Tipton  co.,  Tenn 

Tipton  co.,  Ind 

Tiraboschi,  Gholamo 

Tiresias 

Tiryns 

Tischbein,  Johann  Heinrich  Wil 
helm 

Tischendorf,  Lobegott  Friedrich 
Constantin  von 

Tishomingo  co 

Tissaphernes 

Tissot,  Simon  Andre 

Titanium 

Titans 

Tite,  Sir  William 

Tithes 

Titian 

Titicaca 

Titjens,  Therese 

Titlark. 

Titmouse 

Titus  co 

Titus,  Emperor 

Titus 

Titus,  Epistle  to 

Titusville 

Tivoli 

Tlaxcala 

Tlemceu 

Toad 

Toad  Fish 

Tobacco 

Tobacco  Pipe.     See  Pipe,  Tobacco . 

Tobago 

Tobit 

Tobolsk 

Tocantins 

Tocqueville,  Alexis  Charles  Henri 
Clerel  de 

Tod.  James 

Tod'd  co. ,  Ky 

Todd  ro.,  M'inu 

Todd  co..  Dak 

Todd,  Henry  John 

Todd,  James  Henthorne 

Todd,  John 

Todd,  Robert  Bontley 

Toddy  Tree.    See  Palm,  vol.  xiii.,  p. 

Todhunter,  Isaac 

Todleben,  Franz  Ednard 

Tofana.    See  Aqua  Tofana. 
Togrul  Beg.    See  Seljuks. 

Tokat 

Tokay 

Tokio... 


it;:, 

765 

765 


766 

766 
766 

766 
766 
767 

767 
76T 
767 

7(37 
767 
767 

7(33 
768 
768 
768 

763 

763 
770 
770 
770 
770 
771 
771 
771 
772 
773 
773 
773 
774 
775 
775 
776 


776 
776 

777 
777 
779 
779 


186 


786 
786 


7-7 
78T 

7-7 


787 
788 


788 
T88 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Tokolyi,  Imre.    See  Hungary,  vol. 

ix.,  p.  58. 

Toland,  John 788 

Toledo 789 

Toledo,  Ohio 790 

Tolland  co 790 

Tollens,  Hendrik  Corneliszoon 791 

Tolna  co 791 

Tolstoi,  family  of. 791 

Toltecs ' 791 

Tolu,  Balsam  of.    See  Balsams. 

Toluca 791 

Tomato 791 

Tombigbee 792 

Tom  Green  co 792 

Tomline,  George 793 

Tommaseo,  Nicolo 793 

Tomotui  Iwakura 793 

Tompkins  co 793 

Tompkins,  Daniel  D 793 

Tomsk 793 

Ton 794 

Tone,  Theobald  Wolfe 794 

Tongataboo.    See  Friendly  Islands. 

Tongue 794 

Tonqua  Bean 796 

Tonquin.    See  Anam. 

Tonquin,  Gulf  of 796 

Tonsils 796 

Tonstall.    See  Tunstall. 

Tontine 796 

Tonty,  Henry  de 797 

Tooele  co 797 

Tooke,  John  Home 797 

Tooke,  William 79S 

Tooke,  Thomas '. . .  798 

Toombs,  Eobert 79S 

Toorkistau.    See  Turkistan. 

Topaz 70S 

Topeka , 798 

Topffer,  Eudolphe 799 

Tophet 799 

Toplady,  Augustus  Montague 799 

Toplitz.    See  Toplitz. 

Toreno,  Jose  Maria  Queypo  de  Llano 

Euiz  de  Saravia,  Count  of 799 

Torfieus 799 

Torgau 800 

Torlonia,  Alessandro 800 

Torna  co «...  SOO 

Tornado.     See  Hurricane. 

Tornea,  a  river 800 

Tornea,  a  town 800 

Torontal  co 800 

Toronto 800 

Torpedo,  in  zoology 802 

Torpedo '. 802 

Torquatus,  Titus  Manlius  Imperio- 

sus 806 

Torquay 806 

Torquemada,  Juan  de.. 80(5 

Torquemada,  Tomas  de 806 

Torres  Vedras 807 

Torrey,  John 807 

Torreya 807 

Torricelli,  Evangclista 603 

Torsion  15alance.    See  Balance. 
Torsk.    See  Cusk. 

Torstenson,  Lennart SOS 

Tort 808 

Tortoise 809 

Tortoise  Plant 813 

Tortola 813 

Tortosa 814 

Tortugas.    See  Dry  Tortugas. 

Tortugas,  an  island 814 


PAGE 

Torture 814 

Tory.    See  Whig  and  Tory. 

Toschi,  Paolo , 815 

Total  Abstinence 815 

Totila 819 

Toucan 819 

Touch 820 

Toul 821 

Toulmin,  Camilla.    See  Crosland. 

Toulmin,  Joshua 821 

Toulon 821 

Toulouse 822 

Touraine 823 

Tom-coign 823 

Tourmaline 828 

Tournament 823 

Tom-nay 824 

Tournefort,  Joseph  Pitton  de 825 

Tours 825 

Tourville,  Anne  Hilarion  de  Coten- 

tin,  Count  de. 825 

Toussaint,  Francois  Dominique 825 

Townee.    See  Chewink. 

Town 827 

Townley,  Charles 828 

Towns  co 828 

Townshend,  Charles,  Viscount 828 

Townshend,  Charles 829 

Township.    See  Town,  and  Survey 
ing. 

Toxicodendron.    See  Sumach. 
Toxicology.    See  Poison. 

Toxodon 829 

Tracheotomy 829 

Trachyte 830 

Tract  and  Publication  Societies 830 

Tractarianism 832 

Tractors,   Metallic.      See    Perkins, 

Elisha. 
Tracy.    See  Destutt  de  Tracy. 

Trade  Mark &32 

Trades  Union 833 

Trade  Winds 837 

Trafalgar 838 

Tragacanth.    See  Gum,  vol.  viii.,  p. 
321. 

Tragopan 838 

Tragus,  Hieronymus 838 

Trailing  Arbutus.     See  Arbutus. 

Trajan,  Marcus  Ulpius 838 

Trail,  Eussell  Thacher 839 

Trani 840 

Trancyiebar.  .• 840 

Transcaucasia.     See  Caucasus. 

Transcendental 840 

Transfusion  of  Blood 840 

Transit 841 

Transit,  Engineer's.  See  Theodolite. 

Transit  Circle 842 

Transubstantiation.        See    Lord's 

Supper. 
Transvaal  Eepublic.    See  Boers. 

Transylvania 845 

Transylvania  co 847 

Transylvania  University.    See  Lex 
ington,  Ky. 

Trap 847 

Trapani 847 

Trapezus.    See  Trebizond. 

Trappists 847 

Tras  os  Montes 848 

Trass.    See  Pozzuolana. 

Travancore 848 

Traverse  co 849 

Travis  co 849 

Treadwell,  Daniel 849 


PAGE 

Treason 849 

•Treasure  Trove £52 

Trebbia 852 

Trebigne 852 

Trebizond 853 

Tredgold,  Thomas 854 

Tree  Frog 854 

Tree  Sorrel 855 

Trefoil.    See  Clover. 

Tregelles,  Samuel  Prideaux 855 

Trego  co 856 

Trempealeau  co 856 

Trench,  Eichard  Chenevix 856 

Trenck,  Franz  von  der,  Baron 856 

Trenck,  Friedrich  von  der,  Baron..  857 
Trendelenburg,  Friedrich  Adolf. ...  857 

Trent,  a  river 857 

Trent,  a  city 857 

Trent,  Council  of. 857 

Trente-un.     See  Eonge  et  Noir. 

Trenton 859 

Trenton  Falls 860 

Trentschin  co 860 

Trepan 860 

Trespass 860 

Treves 861 

Treviranus.  Gottfried  Eeinhold 862 

Treviranus,  Ludolf  Christian 862 

Treviso 862 

Triaditza.    See  Sophia. 
Trial.    See  Jury,  and  Process. 

Tribonianus 862 

Tribune 862 

Trichina  Spiralis.    See  Entozoa,  vol. 

vi.,  p.  669. 

Trichinopoly 863 

Tricolor.     See  Flag,  vol.  vii.,  p.  250. 

Tricoupis.  Spiridion 863 

Trier.    See  Treves. 

Trieste 863 

Trigg  co 8(i5 

Trigonometry 865 

Trillium .* 866 

Trilobite 867 

Trimble  co 868 

Trincomalee 868 

Trinidad 869 

Trinity 869 

Trinity  co.,  Texas 870 

Trinity  co..  Cal 870 

Trinity  (two  rivers) 870 

Trinity  College 870 

Tripaug.    See  Sea  Cucumber. 

Tripoli,  in  mineralogy 871 

Tripoli,  a  country  of  Africa 871 

Tripoli,  a  city  of  Africa 873 

Tripoli,  a  town  of  Syria 873 

Tripolitza 674 

Tripp  co • . . .  874 

Triptolemus 874 

Triqueti,  Henri  de.  Baron 874 

Trismegistus.      See  Hermes  Tris- 

megistus. 

Tristan  da  Cunha 874 

Triton,  in  mythology 674 

Triton,  in  zo'ology 675 

Triumph 675 

Triumvirate 876 

Trochu.  Louis  Jules '.  876 

Troezen 876 

Troglodytes 876 

Trogon 877 

Trollope,  Edward 877 

Trollope,  Frances 877 

Trollope,  Thomas  Adolphus 878 

Trollope,  Anthony 878 


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